GENBIO 11 - 4TH QUARTER

PITUITARY The Pituitary Gland is divided into 2 areas, which

L1: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM GLAND differ
● structurally and functionally
DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM) ● each area has separate types of hormone
production.

➔ ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - Our Body’s Messenger System The two segment/types are:
➔ Exerts control by releasing special chemical substances into the HORMONES
blood called HORMONES. A.Posterior/Dorsal Pituitary: (back)
- produces oxytocin and antidiuretic
★ Hormones do much more than influence our mood. Without hormone (ADH) / arginine
hormones our bodies simply would not function. vasopressin (AVP)

HORMONES: B.Anterior/Ventral Pituitary: (front)

● Affect other endocrine glands or body systems - produces thyroid-stimulating
● are chemicals that affect a lot of the bodily functions ranging hormone (TSH)
from hunger, reproduction and growth to much more - growth hormone (GH)
complicated functions like human emotions and behavior. - adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
● are chemical substances or messengers that are released - follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
by glands into the blood. - luteinizing hormone (LH)
● act on different parts of the body and affect many processes, - prolactin
such as growth, development, metabolism, and many more. ★ = 6 HORMONES
● are produced in trace amounts and act over a long period.
FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES
➔ The study of hormones and their glands is called A.Posterior/Dorsal Pituitary: (back)
endocrinology. ● Oxytocin (the natural form of pitocin)
○ stimulates gravid uterus
○ causes “let down” of milk from the
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
breast.
MOOD plays a significant role in mood regulation ★ Childbirth or breastfeeding
CONTROL through the release of certain hormones that ● ADH (vasopressin) causes the kidney to
influence neurotransmitter activity and brain retain water.
function; several hormones produced by the
endocrine system can impact mood in various
B.Anterior/Ventral Pituitary: (front)
ways
● Primarily regulates other endocrine
glands
INDIVIDUAL Growth hormone, thyroid hormones, and sex
GROWTH hormones are involved in the regulation of
● rarely a factor in endocrinological
growth, development, and maturation of tissues emergencies
and organs throughout the body. ● TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to
release its hormones, thus ↑ increases
METABOLISM hormones play crucial roles in regulating metabolic rate
metabolism, including the breakdown of
nutrients for energy production, storage of ● Growth hormone (GH)
energy, and maintaining blood glucose levels ○ ↓ glucose usage
○ ↑ consumption of fats as an energy
source
PARTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to
PITUITARY The master gland primary function is to release its hormones
control other glands. ● FSH & LH stimulates maturation &
release of eggs from ovary.
ADRENALS Release hormones in response to stress, injury, ● Prolactin stimulates lactation
or serious infection (breastfeeding)

PANCREAS produces digestive enzymes and regulates THYROID ● lies in the anterior neck just below the larynx
blood sugar levels. GLAND (along the windpipe).
● Two lobes, located on either side of the
THYROID Releasing and controlling thyroid hormones trachea, connected by a narrow band of
that control metabolism
tissue called the isthmus.
● Sacs inside the gland contain colloid
PARATHYROID Regulates calcium level in the body
Within the colloid are the thyroid hormones:
GONADS Associated with human reproduction ○ thyroxine (T4)
○ triiodothyronine (T3)

When stimulated (by TSH or by cold), these are

released into the circulatory system and
INCREASE the metabolic rate.

● “C” cells within the thyroid produce the

hormone calcitonin.
● Calcitonin, when released, lowers the amount
of calcium in the blood.

● Inadequate levels of thyroid hormones =

hypothyroidism, or Myxedema.

Myxedema symptoms:
○ Facial bloating
○ weakness
○ cold intolerance
○ lethargy
○ altered mental status
○ oily skin and hair
○ TX: replacement of thyroid hormone.
Increased thyroid hormone release causes
 hyperthyroidism, commonly called Graves’ - Estrogen and Progesterone have several
disease. functions, including sexual development
and preparation of the uterus for
Signs and symptoms: implantation of the egg.
○ insomnia, fatigue
○ Tachycardia - fast beating of the heart Testes:
○ hypertension - located in the scrotum
○ heat intolerance - produce sperm for reproduction
○ weight loss - manufacture testosterone -
- promotes male growth and
Long term hyperthyroidism: masculinization
● Exopthalmos - bulging of the eyeballs - Controlled by anterior pituitary
(picture Barbara Bush) hormones FSH and LH.
● In severe cases - a medical emergency
called thyrotoxicosis can result.

PARATHYR ● small, pea-shaped glands, located in the neck

★ SIDE NOTES!
OID near the thyroid
● Endocrine - system of messages, produce hormones, it
GLAND ● usually 4 - number can vary
can stop hormones through BLOODSTREAM DIRECTLY
● Regulate (increase) the level of calcium in the
● Exocrine - sweat glands through DUCTS
body
● Mammary glands - female breasts
● produce parathyroid hormone - ↑ level of
calcium in blood
● Functioning of organs
● Hypocalcemia can result if parathyroids are
● Hormones - chemical messengers, affects endocrine
removed or destroyed.
and other bodily systems
● Kidney - filtering system
PANCREAS ● a key gland located in the folds of the ● What controls thyroid? Pituitary gland
duodenum ● Primary hormone of THYROID GLAND - T4 and T3 -
● has both endocrine and exocrine functions increase metabolic rate, then there's C Cells that
● secretes several key digestive enzymes produce the hormone calcitonin

Islets of Langerhans ● Calcitonin - lowers calcium

● specialized tissues in which the endocrine ● Parathyroid gland - dots in the thyroid & increases or
functions of the pancreas occurs regulates calcium
● include 3 types of cells that each secretes an ● Thyroid gland - 2 lobes
important hormone.
● alpha (α ) ● HYPO- LOW
● beta (β) ● HYPER - HIGH
● delta (∂) ● PANCREAS - can be Endocrine (because of hormones)
or Exocrine (because of enzymes) in nature

● 2 types of irregular level of thyroid gland

A. hypothyroidism, or Myxedema - too low
B. Hyperthyroidism or Graves’ disease - too
high

● Glucagon stimulates the liver which is called gluconeogenesis

(manufacturing/making of glucose from non carbohydrate
resources)
● Ex. if you diet and strict yourself from carbs, the body will
substitute/convert other materials (ex. Proteins and fats) into
glucose
● Delta cells of the pancreas will regulate/control insulin and
glucagon

● NOREPINEPHRINE - increases blood pressure

● EPINEPHRINE - Triggers FLIGHT OR FIGHT RESPONSE
(stress hormone), increases heart rate and blood
ADRENALS ● 2 small glands that sit atop both kidneys. sugar level
★ Most common: ADRENALINE AKA.
EPINEPHRINE ● Thymus Gland - part of lymphatic/immune system &
● secretes the hormones norepinephrine endocrine system, produce WBC (T CELLS)
(nor-adrenaline) and epinephrine
(adrenaline) ● Happy hormones - mood boost
● (closely related to the sympathetic component A. Dopamine (feel good hormone)
of the autonomic nervous system). B. Serotonin (slept well)
● accounts for 95% of adrenal cortex hormone C. Oxytocin (love hormone)
production D. Endorphins (Pain reliever)
● ↑ the level of glucose in the blood
● Released in response to stress, injury, or ● Derives its name from the fact that various glands release
serious infection hormones directly into the blood, which in turn transports the
hormones to target tissues via ducts.
GONADS ● the endocrine glands associated with human
reproduction.
● Female ovaries produce eggs Pituitary ● THE MASTER GLAND
gland ● A small gland located on a stalk hanging from the
● Male gonads produce sperm
base of the brain - AKA
● both have endocrine functions. ● Secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus in the
base of the brain
Ovaries: ● Pituitary gland is controlled by your
- located in the abdominal cavity adjacent HYPOTHALAMUS
to the uterus. ● HYPOTHALAMUS -dictates the feeling, certain
- Under the control of LH and FSH from glands “I’m so in love”
● Size of a pea
the anterior pituitary they manufacture
A. Estrogen
B. Progesterone
GENBIO 11 - 4TH QUARTER GENBIO 11 - 4TH QUARTER
L2: PATHOGENS L2: IMMUNE & LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM) DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM)

PATHOGEN LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

➔ disease causing microorganisms, molecules, and viruses. ➔ Attacks pathogens that threaten the body and plays a supporting
role in circulation by recycling fluid that leaks from the circulatory
system
➔ (PPT) LYMPHOID ORGANS: Tonsils & adenoids, lymph nodes,
appendix, bone marrow, thymus, spleen, Peye’s patch

VIRUS
➔ a small pathogen that can only replicate itself inside of the living
cells of other organisms.
○ Viruses have a protein capsid which holds their genetic
material (either DNA or RNA)
○ About 100x smaller than a bacterial cell
○ Not considered to be a living organism LYMPHOID ORGANS
➔ A virus can carry out the same functions as a living organism
TONSILS
only if it can get inside of a cell.
○ The virus will take over the host cell to produce more viral
genetic material and protein. These are assembled into
new virus particles and released from the cell.

LYMPH
VESSELS

BONE - The bone marrow is a spongy tissue found

MARROW inside some bones. Both red blood cells and
immune cells develop from blood stem cells
in the bone marrow. These stem cells
produce two types of progenitor cells
(lymphoid progenitors and myeloid
progenitors) that give rise to many other
types of cells. Lymphoid progenitors produce
lymphocytes, which include T cells, B cells,
and natural killer (NK) cells. Myeloid
progenitors produce red blood cells and all
other immune cells, including phagocytes. B
cells are the only immune cells that develop
and become fully functional in the bone
marrow. The other immune cells leave the
bone marrow and develop in other parts of
the body.

THYMUS - T cells develop in the thymus. They develop

from lymphoid progenitor cells that travel to
BACTERIA the thymus from the bone marrow. As a T cell
➔ unicellular organisms that have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, develops, it produces proteins called T cell
ribosomes, and DNA. Most also have a cell wall. receptors (TCRs) on its surface. A TCR binds
○ Prokaryotes to antigens from a pathogen to trigger an
immune response against that pathogen.
○ Reproduce asexually by binary fission
- Antigens are found not only on pathogens
★ Classified into 5 types:
but also on most cells. This means that some
a. Spherical - cocci T cells could bind to the body’s own antigens
b. Rod - bacilli (called self-antigens) and trigger an immune
c. Spiral - spirilla response against the body’s cells. To keep
d. Comma - vibrios this from happening, T cells that bind to
e. Corkscrew - spirochaetes self-antigens are destroyed. A similar
selection process also occurs for B cells in the
bone marrow, reducing the number of B
cells that recognize self-antigens.

SPLEEN ★ “Graveyard of Cells” - taken to spleen if there

are damaged cells
- The spleen’s main function is to remove old
or /disabled/ damaged cells from the blood.
The spleen contains many phagocytes, such
as dendritic cells and macrophages. These
phagocytes engulf and destroy abnormal,
infected, or old red blood cells and recycle
their components, like amino acids and iron.
The spleen also contains B cells and T cells
that help fight pathogens.
-
 IMMUNE SYSTEM
A person may need to have their spleen ● an organ system that works together to attack pathogens
surgically removed for a variety of reasons, that threaten the body.
including damage, enlargement, or cancer. If - Needs to be able to recognize things that don’t
the spleen is removed, other lymphoid organs belong in the body.
can take over most of the spleen’s functions - 3 TYPES: The immune system uses physical
barriers, non-specific immunity, and specific
LYMPH Lymph nodes are found throughout the body immunity to protect the organism.
NODES and are connected by lymphatic vessels: thin
“tubes” that are similar to blood vessels, but A. PHYSICAL BARRIERS
they don’t contain any red blood cells. ★ Outside mechanism
Lymphatic vessels absorb fluid that leaks out ● Stop pathogens from entering the body
of blood vessels into tissues. Once inside ● Includes skin and mucous membranes
lymphatic vessels, this fluid is called lymph.
Lymph travels throughout the body via the
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes and
eventually returns to the blood.

Pathogens can enter lymphatic vessels from a

site of infection and travel to the lymph nodes.
Inside the lymph nodes, they are targeted by a
variety of immune cells, including B cells, T
cells, and phagocyte
Source of WBC (?)

4 BARRIERS TO INFECTION

SKIN

B. NON-SPECIFIC IMMUNITY (GENERAL IMMUNITY)

● recognizes and fights any pathogen/invadors while signaling
MUCOUS for additional defenses.
MEMBRAN ● Non-specific immune cells recognize molecules found only
ES on the surface of pathogens and binds to them. This marks
the pathogens as invaders.

● The immune system cells secrete protein signals that recruit

more immune cells to the site of the infection or warn them
DIGESTIVE to protect themselves.
SYSTEM
● Specialized immune system cells (white blood cells) destroy,
RESPIRAT break down, and ingest both the pathogens and any cells
ORY that they have infected.
SYSTEM ● White Blood Cells: specialized cells that patrol the body's
tissues and look for invaders.

SIDE NOTES:
➔ Mechanism - defends day-to-day invaders
➔ Purpose - carries nutrients, deliver nutrients to all parts of the
body, at the same time, gather invaders and take them to the
node filled with WBC

➔ COMMON PATHOGENS: (a) VIRUS (parasitic proteins), (b)

BACTERIA (parasitic works), (c) FUNGI, (d) MUTATED CELLS

➔ Lymphatic - lymph, lymph nodes, lymph vessels

➔ BONE MARROW AND THYMUS - main production site of T
cells
➔ Spleen - damaged/disabled cells
➔ MAST CELL - macrophage
➔ BACTERIA BIGGER THAN VIRUS (VERY SMALL)

➔ LYMPH NODES - where invaders are taken to be destroyed

➔ 2 TYPES OF CIRCULATION:
A. Circulatory System (BLOOD)
B. Lymphatic System (LYMPH - fluid)
5 CARDINAL SIGNS: (IN NON-SPECIFIC IMMUNITY)
A. PAIN - DOLOR ● Inflammation: redness, swelling, and pain caused by specific white
B. HEAT - CALOR blood cells releasing histamine.
C. REDNESS - RUBOR ○ Histamine increases blood flow to an injured area.
D. SWELLING - TUMOR
E. LOSS OF FUNCTION - FUNCTIO LAESA ● Another non-specific immune response is increasing the
temperature of the body to stop pathogen growth.
○ This is called a fever.
★ Chemicals released by immune system cells can trigger a
fever, which can inhibit pathogen growth

● Super high fevers are deadly, because they denature (take away or
alter the natural qualities) our protein enzymes!
C. SPECIFIC IMMUNITY
● While non-specific immunity works on any pathogen, specific
immunity will focus on attacking only certain pathogens.
○ Specific defenses must first recognize a particular
pathogen and then it will respond to attack and destroy
that particular pathogen.

● The immune system will recognize specific pathogens based

on the molecules called antigens.
○ Antigen: any molecule that causes a specific immune
response.

● The body responds to antigens by making antibodies.

○ Antibodies: circulating proteins that recognize specific
antigens.
○ Antibodies will attach to antigens and will
○ increase the non-specific system’s ability to recognize
and destroy those antigens.

ANTIBIOTICS
● Medicine used to treat or prevent bacterial infection
- They either kill or stop the growth of bacteria
- Antibiotics cannot kill every type of bacteria

● Immunity - Antibodies are produced whenever the body is invaded ● When prescribed antibiotics, it is important to take all of the
by pathogens. This greatly reduces the risk of being infected by the given medicine (the “full course”).
same pathogen again. - Antibiotics kill the weak bacteria first. This often
results in the person feeling better quickly.
● While becoming infected with a pathogen will produce immunity, a - However, the strongest bacteria are still alive. I
vaccine can also produce immunity without causing the full illness. treatment is stopped, those bacteria multiply and
○ Vaccine: a preventative measure that introduces antigens have increasing resistance to the antibiotics.
into the body so that the immune system can produce
antibodies against them.
SIDE NOTES:

● Some Viruses, like influenza, are constantly evolving. This is

why you need to get new flu shot every year

★ Vaccines will not work with ALL VIRUSES

GENBIO 11 - 4TH QUARTER GREGOR MENDEL
● Austrian Monk
L3: GENETICS ● Born 1822 in Czech Republic
● Worked at monastery and taught high school
DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM)
● Tended the monastery garden
● Grew peas and became interested in the traits that were
expressed in different generations of peas
VOCABULARY

Heredity passing of traits from parent to offspring ● Gregor Mendel (1863) - The Father of Genetics
● While studying pea plants, a monk named Gregor Mendel
Genetics the study of traits passed from parents to
discovered that traits are passed from parent to offspring,
offspring that traits can be hidden for a generation, and that hidden
traits can reappear in later generations.
Trait genetically determined variant of a characteristic
● He theorized that the plant received an allele from each
parent. The allele was the form of a gene and produced the
trait.
Characteristic general term/disposition that has inherited from their
● He created the Punnett Square, a mathematical square to
parents
predict the possible traits of offspring from certain parents.

Characteristic if a characteristic is “eye color”, blue eyes would be a

Genes and Dominance
vs. Trait possible trait
○ Mendel studied seven different pea plant traits
○ Each trait he studied had a contrasting form
Alleles different forms of a trait

PEA PLANT TRAITS

WHAT ARE CHROMOSOMES
● A packet of coiled up DNA
● Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
● There are 23 pairs of chromosomes found in the nucleus of any one
of your cells
● DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid

GENE
● Biological unit of heredity.
● Gene hold the information to build and maintain their cells and
pass genetic traits to offsprings
● In cells, a gene is portion of DNA

ALLELE
● Is one member of a pair or series of different forms of a gene
● Homozygous - an organism in which 2 copies of genes are identical ○ The offspring of crosses between parents with different traits
i.e. have same alleles are called Hybrids
● Heterozygous - an organism which has different alleles of the gene ○ When Mendel crossed plants with different traits he expected
them to blend, but that’s not what happened at all.
★ All of the offspring had the character of only one of the
parents

MENDEL DREW 2 CONCLUSIONS

1. Inheritance is determined by factors that are passed from
generation to generation – today we call these factors
genes
2. The Principal of Dominance - Some alleles are dominant
Examples of heterozygous and some are recessive

Chromosomes: ALLELES
● Chromatin: DNA, RNA & proteins that make up chromosome ● Dominant - covers up the recessive form
● Chromatids: one of the two identical parts of the chromosome. Ex.) T = tall
● Centromere: the point where two chromatids attach ● Recessive -Gets covered up in the presence of a dominant allele
Ex.) t = short
● 46 chromosomes Ex.) TT = Tall; tt = short; Tt = Tall, because Dominant is presen
● 22 pairs Autosomes
● 1 pair Sex chromosomes. ● Is one member of a pair or series of different forms of a gene.
● An organism with two alleles that are the same is called
homozygous. Ex. TT
● An organism that has two different alleles for a trait is called
heterozygous. Example Tt

How are Traits Passed?

- When organisms reproduce, traits are passed from parent to
offspring.
- These traits are carried in DNA, the genetic material found in
a cell’s Nucleus
- DNA acts like a blueprint.

11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel

- Every living thing – plant or animal, microbe or human being
– has a set of characteristics inherited from its parents
- Since the beginning of recorded history, people have wanted
to understand how that inheritance is passed from
generation to generation
Which ones do you have? DOMINANCE
● If you have a dominant trait, that means you inherited the - An allele’s effect is Dominant or recessive.
trait from at least one of your parents - More common traits tend to be dominant and less common
. are recessive.
● For instance Ff or FF for freckles. Ex. T – Tall, t – short
- F + f = freckles TT would be Tall
- F + F = freckles Tt would still be Tall (because big T is dominant)
● Alleles for dominant traits are usually represented with a tt would be short
capital letter.
How are genes passed from parent to child?
● If you have a recessive trait, that means you had to inherit - Through reproduction.
the trait from both of your parents. - The child receives a set of chromosomes from the mom and a
● For instance ff for no freckles. set of chromosomes from the dad.
- f + f = no freckles - Humans have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs of chromosomes.
● Alleles for recessive traits are usually represented with a lower - Other organisms have different numbers of chromosomes.
case letter.

PUNNETT SQUARE SIDE NOTES:

➔ Diagram used to determine genetic crosses ● Heredity is only a part of Genetics
➔ A tool used to predict results in genetics is the Punnett ● Genetics - study of Heredity
square.
➔ It helps you predict what offspring would look like. ● Trait - ‘specific’ variant of a characteristic
➔ In a Punnett square, letters represent dominant and ● Characteristic - general term/disposition that has inherited
recessive alleles. from their parents
● Ex. Characteristic - height, hair color, eye color; Trait - short,
brown hair, blue eyes

● If Cell - basic unit of life/biology; Then

● Gene - basic/biological unit of Genetics
● If 2 chromatids are joined together, they are known as “sister
chromatids”
● Allele will form different characteristics for the offspring

● The Dominant allele will always show if it’s present

- Punnett squares show the genotype or the genetic makeup

of an organism inherited from its parents
- It also shows the phenotype, which is the appearance of an
organism (ex. Tall or short)

Phenotype - Physical characteristics – (words)

Ex.) tall

Genotype - Genetic make-up - (letters)

Ex.) Tt, TT, tt

● WHEN YOU ZOOM INTO THE CHROMOSOME:

1. Histones - proteins found in the coiled DNA
2. Supercoil - over- or under-winding of a DNA strand
3. Nucleosome - coiled histones

Homozygous vs. Heterozygous

1. Homozygous means the alleles for the trait are the same:
- FF –homozygous dominant
- ff – homozygous recessive
2. Heterozygous means the alleles for the trait are different:
- Ff – heterozygous dominant

- Most cells in your body have two alleles for every trait. The
alleles are located on chromosomes within the nucleus.
- Ex. Trait - Height
- T allele would be for Tall
- t allele would be for short
GENBIO 11 - 4TH QUARTER
flask containing CH4, NH3, H2 and water
L4: EVOLUTION vapour 800 °C
● As a result, some amino acids are formed.
DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM) ★ They believed the basic unit of protein (amino
acids) started life
● In similar experiments, others observed
EVOLUTION formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment
and fats.
a. Is an orderly change from one form to another
★ Orderly consequent change, a scientific process took place
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE
Evolutionary Biology is the study of the history of life forms on earth. ● The first non-cellular forms of life originated 3 billion years
ago
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE ● They were self replicating metabolic capsules containing
macromolecules like RNA, proteins, Polysaccharides etc.
THEORY OF ● Theory of Spontaneous Generation
ABIOGENESIS ● It states that life came out of decaying and
rotting matter like straw, mud etc.
★ Louis Pasteur & RUDOLF VIRCHOW EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
disproved Abiogenesis theory and they 1. Paleontological evidences
demonstrated/stated that life comes only from 2. Morphological and anatomical evidences
pre-existing life 3. Biogeographical evidences (Adaptive radiation)
● He showed that life did not come from killed
4. Biochemical evidences
yeast in a closed pre-sterilized flask. But in an
opened flask, life (microbes) appeared. 5. Embryological evidences
6. Evidences for evolution by natural selection

1. Palaeontological - Palaeontology is the study of fossils

evidences - Fossils are remnants of life forms found
in rocks (earth crust).
- Fossils are written documents of
evolution.
THEORY OF ● It is proposed by Francesco Redi, Spallanzani,
BIOGENESIS and Louis Pasteur - To study phylogeny (evolutionary history
● It states that, life originates from pre-existing or race history). E.g. Horse evolution
life NOT DECAYING/NON-LIVING ORGANISM - To study the connecting link between
● But it does not explain origin of first life two groups of organisms. E.g.
Archaeopteryx
- To study about extinct animals. E.g.
Dinosaurs
- To study about geological period by
analysing fossils in sedimentary rock
layers. The study showed that life forms
varied over time and certain life forms
are restricted to certain geological time
spans
THEORY OF ● Cosmic Theory
PANSPERMIA ● It states that, the units of life (spores) were
transferred to different planets including earth.
★ In the universe, these spores were propagated
and transferred from one planet to another
(that includes earth)
★ We’re not the only planet that has life forms

THEORY OF ● Theory of Special Creation

CREATIONISM ● It states that living and non-living was created
by some supernatural power (God).

THEORY OF ● Proposed by Oparin & Haldane

CHEMICAL ● It states that, the first form of life originated
EVOLUTION from non-living inorganic and organic
molecules such as CH4, NH3, H2O, sugars,
proteins, nucleic acids etc.
★ We came from chemical substances (atom -> 2. Morphological & - Comparative anatomy and morphology
molecules -> cells) Anatomical shows that different forms of animals
● i.e. “Abiogenesis first, but biogenesis ever evidences have some common structural features.
since.” - This can be explained as follows:

a. Homologous organs & Homology

- The organs have fundamental
similarity in structure and origin but
different functions. This phenomenon
is called Homology.
- Examples: Human hand, Whale’s
flippers, Bat’s wing & Cheetah’s foot.
These forelimbs have different
functions but similar anatomical
UREY-MILLER EXPERIMENT
structures such as bones (e.g.
● Harold Urey and Stanley Miller experimentally
humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
proved theory of chemical evolution
metacarpals & phalanges)
● They created a condition like that of primitive
- Homology is also seen in the heart,
earth (i.e. high temperature, volcanic storms,
brain etc.
reducing atmosphere with CH4, NH3, H2O, H2
etc.).

-
● They made electric discharge in a closed
 (1850s)L There were more white winged
moths (Biston betularia) on trees than
dark winged or melanised moths
(Biston carbonaria).
- After industrialization (1920): More dark
winged moths and less white winged
moths.
b. Analogous organs & Analogy - Industrial melanism
- The organs have similar functions but
different structure and origin. This
phenomenon is called Analogy
- Examples: Wings of insects (formed
of a thin flap of chitin) and wings of
birds (modified forelimbs)
REASONS:

3. Biochemical - Organisms show similarities in proteins,

evidences genes, other biomolecules &
metabolism
★ 4 biomolecules - Proteins, Nucleic
acids, Carbohydrates & Lipids
- It indicates common ancestry.

4. Biogeographical - Adaptive radiation (evolution by THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

evidences adaptation) is the evolution of different
(adaptive species in a geographical area starting THEORY OF - It is proposed by Lamarck
radiation) from a point LAMARCK - It states that evolution of life forms occurred by
★ They diversify rapidly according to the (Lamarckism the inheritance of acquired characters.
needs/change in the environment or Theory of - Acquired characters are developed by use and
- Examples: E.g. Darwin’s finches in inheritance disuse of organs
Galapagos islands. of Acquired A. Evolution by use of organs: E.g. the long
characters) neck of giraffes is due to continuous
elongation to forage leaves on trees. This
acquired character was inherited to
succeeding generations
B. Evolution by disuse: E.g. Disappearance
of limbs in snakes.
★ Evolution by use of organs: The more we use
the organs, the more it will become permanent
(ex. neck of giraffes - since they always need to
reach the leaves of the tall trees; prolong use of
their necks caused the elongation)

- This theory was eliminated because it is proved

that the characters are inherited only through
genes.
5. Embryological - Proposed by Ernst Haeckel
evidences - He observed that all vertebrate embryos
DARWINIAN - Proposed by Charles Darwin
have some common features that are
THEORY - It was based on observation during a sea voyage
absent in adults.
(Darwinism in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagles.
- E.g. all vertebrate embryos (including
or Theory of - Alfred Wallace (a naturalist worked in Malay
human) develop vestigial gill slits just
Natural Archepelago) had also come to similar
behind the head. But it is functional
selection) conclusions
only in fish and not found in other adult
- Work of Thomas Malthus on population
vertebrates.
influenced Darwin

- Darwinism is based on 2 key concepts:

6. Evidences for - Natural selection is the process by
1. Branching descent
evolution by which the organism that best suited for
- It explains that all organism are modified
natural selection their environment survive and
descendants of previous life forms
reproduce
2. Natural selection
- Some examples are given below:
- Consider a bacterial colony A growing on
a given medium. If the medium
composition is changed, only a part of the
population can survive under new
conditions. This variant population (B)
outgrows the others and appears as new
species, i.e. B is better than A under new
- In England, before industrialization conditions. Thus, nature selects for fitness
 1. Heritable minor variations:
- It is either beneficial or harmful to the
organisms
2. Overproduction:
- Population size grows exponentially due to
maximum reproduction (E.g. bacterial
population).
3. Limited natural resources:
- Resources are not increased in accordance
with the population size.
4. Struggle for existence:
- It is the competition among organisms for
resources so that population size is limited.
5. Survival of the fittest:
- In struggle for existence, organisms with
beneficial variations can utilize resources
better. Hence, they survive and reproduce.
This is called Survival of the fittest. It leads
to change in population characteristics and
new forms appear.

MUTATION - “MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION”

THEORY OF - Hugo de Vries proposed Mutation Theory of
DE VRIES Evolution
- He conducted some experiments on evening
primrose (Oenothera lamarckiana) and
believed that evolution takes place through
mutation and not by minor variation.

- Dawinian variation is minor, slow & directional.

It results in gradual evolution
- Mutational variation is sudden, random and
directionless. Here, speciation is by saltation
(single step, large mutation)
- Mutation is the origin of variation for evolution

SIDE NOTES:

ORIGINS OF LIFE

BIG BANG States that universe originated about 20 billion years

THEORY ago by a singular huge explosion

● The earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago

● There was no atmosphere on early earth
● Water vapour, CH4, CO2, and NH3 released from molten mass
covered the surface
● The UV rays from the sun broke up water into H2 and O2
● Oxygen combines with NH3 & CH4 to form water CO2 etc.
● The ozone layer was formed
● As it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain to form oceans
● Life appeared almost 4 billion years ago
● Before industrialization there were a lot of white winged
months and after, dark-winged surived.
 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION

The geological time scale includes 4 eras:

a. Proterozoic
b. Palaeozoic
c. Mesozoic
d. Cenozoic

PROTEROZOIC ERA (2500 - 541 mya)

➔ First cellular forms of life appeared (2000 mya) ORIGIN AND SEQUENCE EVOLUTION OF MAN
➔ Some of the cells had the ability to release O2 as the light
reaction in photosynthesis
➔ Single celled organism become multicellular organisms
DRYOPITHECUS - 15 MYA
& - Hairy
PALAEOZOIC ERA (540 - 252 mya) RAMAPITHECUS - Walked like gorillas and chimpanzee
➔ It has 6 periods: - Dryopithecus: more ape-lik
a. Cambrian (540 - 490 mya) - ramapithecus : more man-like
b. Ordovician (490 - 443 mya)
c. Silurian (425 mya) - 3-4 mya, there were man-like primates in
Eastern Africa
d. Devonian (405 mya)
- They had height up to 4 feet and walked up
e. Carboniferous (360 mya) right
f. Permia (285 mya) - This belief is based on fossils of man-like
bones found in Ethiopia & Tanzania

AUSTRALOPITHE - 2 MYA
CUS - Lived in East African grass lands
- Hunted with stone weapons
- Ate fruits

HOMO HABILIS - 2 MYA

- First human-like being (hominid)
- Brain capacity: 650-800 cc
- Did no eat meat

HOMO ERECTUS - 1.5 MYA

- Brain capacity: 900 cc
- Ate meat

HOMO - 1 lakh - 40,000 years ago

NEANDERTHALE - Brain capacity: 1400 cc
NSIS - Lived in East and Central Asia
(NEANDERTHAL - Used hides to protect their body
MAN) - Buried their dead

HOMO SAPIENS - 75,000 to 10,000 years ago (ice age)

- Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000
years ago
- Agriculture and human settlements: 10,000
years ago.

MESOZOIC ERA (252 - 66 mya)

➔ Age of reptiles/amphibians & gymnosperms
➔ It has 3 periods:
a. Triassic (230)
b. Jurassic (208 mya)
c. Cretaceous (144 mya)

A comparison of the skulls of:

A. Adult modern human

being
B. Baby chimpanzee
C. Adult chimpanzee

COENOZOIC ERA (66 - 0 mya)

➔ Age of Mammals & Angiosperms
➔ It has 2 periods ➢ The skull of a baby chimpanzee is more like adult human skull
a. Tertiary (66 mya) then adult chimpanzee skull
b. Quaternary (2 mya - age of man)
GENBIO 11 - 4TH QUARTER Family For
L5: TAXONOMY - Group of genera that share many
characteristics
DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM)
Genus Great/Green
- Is a group of closely related species

WHY CLASSIFY?
Species Spaghetti/Salad
➔ To study the diversity of life, biologists use a classification
- Group of similar organisms that can
system to name organisms & group them in a logical manner breed and produce fertile offspring

TAXONOMY
➔ Discipline of classifying organisms and assigning each HERE WE GO… POLAR BEAR (no need to write the parenthesis part)
organism a universally accepted name
Kingdom Animalia (there are 6 kingdoms)
➔ In other words, naming things

Phylum Chordata (vertebrates)

WHY COMMON NAMES DON’T WORK
➔ Common names vary among languages and regions
➔ Examples: Class Mammalia (warm-blooded,hair, * milk)
a. United Kingdom - Buzzard refers to a hawk
b. United States - Buzzard refers to a vulture Order Carnivora (meat-eating animals)

Family Ursidae (larger category of bears)

Genus Ursus (kind of bear)

Species Maritimus (lives in marine environment)

ARISTOTLE 384 BC
➔ Classified organisms as either plants or animals
HOW TO REMEMBER
CAROLUS LINNAEUS King Phillip Came Over For Green Salad
➔ (1707-1778) Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
➔ Created the system of naming we use today
➔ In taxonomy, a group or level of organization is called a
taxonomic category or taxon.

RULES OF THE GAME

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE Uniqueness: Every name has to be unique
➔ “Bi” means 2; “Nomial” means number Universality: Zoologists have adopted by international agreement, a
➔ “Nomen” means name; “Clature” means the system of single language to be used on a worldwide basis, All animals are given a
generic (common name) and specific name in Latin (scientific name).
Carolus Linnaeus
➔ In binomial nomenclature, each species is assigned a These names are in italics or are underlined (i.e. Homo sapiens).
two-part scientific name

RULING FOR BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

➔ The scientific name is always written in italics or underlined
➔ The first word (the genus) is capitalized
➔ The second word (the species) is lowercase
○ EX - Genus species or Genus species
Humans - Homo sapiens
EXAMPLE OF BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

★ Ursus (Bear) maritimus (polar / sea) = Polar bear

LINNAEUS’S SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

➔ A group or level of organization is called a taxonomic
category, or taxon.
➔ Linnaeus had 7 (MEMORIZE THIS)
MODERN THREE-DOMAIN SYSTEM
Kingdom King - As scientists further analyzed cell structure and DNA, a
★ Highest & Widest group broader category was added
- Largest taxonomic group, consisting of - The domain is the most inclusive taxonomic category; larger
closely related phyla
than a kingdom (highest in modern time)
- The three domains are: (BAE)
Phylum Phillip
A. Bacteria: Kingdom Eubacteria
- Group of closely related classes
B. Archaea: Kingdom Archaebacteria
C. Eukarya: Kingdom portists, fungi, plants, and
Class Came
- Group of similar orders animals (us, humans)

Order Over
- Group of similar families
CLADOGRAM OF 6 KINGDOMS AND 3 DOMAINS ● Species that are endemic in the Philippines - roughly 60,000+
species of flora and fauna
● Linnaean classification

Taxonomy
● is the science of arranging and classifying organisms into the
so-called “taxa” or in a particular lineage
● Group them in a logical manner, distinct name of a particular
species (i.e. Humans - Homo sapiens)

What is the ruling of the binomial nomenclature?

● Always written in italics since it is in LATIN or if not, underlined
● Consists of 2 taxonomic levels: (a) Genus, (b) species
● Last 2 in the, first letter of Genus capital and all lowercase species
6 KINGDOMS (i.e. Humans - Homo sapiens)
● Singular Specie is wrong; it is always Species whether singular or
plural

Additional info: Governing bodies

● ICN - International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi and
Plants
● ICZN - International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

★ We are part of hominidae

★ Domain - eukarya
★ Kingdom - animalia
★ Phylum - Chordata
★ Class - Mammalia
Archaebacteria in harsh/hot places; protists heterotroph ★ Order - primates
CLASSIFICATIONS ★ Family - hominidae
★ Genus - Homo
★ Species - sapiens

PHYLUM

Chordata - backbone
Plural - taxa, taxon
1 kingdom/class - taxa

● Mammalia - fur
● Reptilia - scale skin
● Aves - birds
CLASS ● Insecta - insects/jointed
legs/segmented body wings
● Amphibia
● Actinoptery gii - fishes
● Arachnida - 4 pairs of
legs/segmented
(spider/scorpions)

● Primates - grasping
hands/forward facing
eyes/large brains (us and
gorillas)
● Carnivora - ingest meat
ORDER ● Rodentia - rats
● Lepidoptera - butterfly/moth
(capable of metamorphosis)
● Coleoptera - bugs with wings
(beetles or ladybugs)
● Squamata (scaly skin)
● Passeriformes
● Diptera - mosquito or flied
(small insects)

FAMILY

SIDE NOTES:
● Biodiversity - “Bio” - life; “diversity” - variety/different fors
● Planet rich in life forms and part of biodiversity; we’re part of the
flora and fauna
● A perplexing question: “How many species?” Wild guess - Half a
million species or as high as a billion
● There is no specific question here since many organisms haven’t
been found yet
● Flora
● Fauna
● Endemic - species that are distinctive in a particular area