9990 Psychology P2

Cambridge International Examinations
Cambridge International Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level

* 6 7 5 5 4 1 6 6 5 1 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
Paper 2 Research Methods February/March 2018
1 hour 30 minutes
Candidates answer on the Question Paper.
No Additional Materials are required.
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The number of marks is given in brackets [ ] at the end of each question or part question.
This document consists of 11 printed pages and 1 blank page.
DC (ST) 152387/5
© UCLES 2018 [Turn over
2
Section A
Answer all questions in this section.
1 One of the aims of the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion) was to find out
whether the mood of a stooge affected the way participants interpreted their arousal level.
(a) Write an operationalised directional (one-tailed) hypothesis using this aim.
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(b) Write a null hypothesis using this aim.
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2 (a) State the difference between a ‘population’ and a ‘sample’.
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(b) State one feature of the population in the study by Milgram (obedience).
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3 (a) Name one sampling technique.
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(b) Explain one advantage of using this sampling technique.
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4 Saavedra and Silverman studied a boy with a phobia of buttons and measured his distress using
a ‘feelings thermometer’.
(a) (i) Name the type of data produced by the feelings thermometer.
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(ii) How did the feelings thermometer measure distress?
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(b) Suggest one disadvantage of using the feelings thermometer to measure distress.
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5 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), there was more than one control condition.
(a) Identify one of the control conditions.
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(b) Explain one reason for having a control condition, using this study as an example.
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6 Describe the differences between a field experiment and a natural experiment, using any
examples.
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Question 7 appears on the following page.

6
Section B
7 Dipa is studying memory using a brain scanner. She is testing the hypothesis that ‘There will be
a positive correlation between level of brain activity and how much a person can recall’. Each
participant is asked to describe an event that happened more than one year ago.
(a) Name one brain scan that Dipa could use.
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(b) Suggest why data from brain scans is likely to be reliable.
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(c) Suggest how Dipa could convert each participant’s description into a memory score.
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(d) Explain whether Dipa will be able to conclude that greater recall causes more brain activity.
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(e) Dipa considered asking her participants to recall a specific event, such as their last birthday,
but decided that this could be unethical, so gave them a choice about which event to recall.
Explain one reason why this was a better procedure in terms of ethics.
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8 Hugo is using a questionnaire to find out about people’s helping behaviour in the daytime and at
night.
(a) What is meant by ‘open questions’ and ‘closed questions’?
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(b) Suggest one open question that Hugo could ask.
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(c) Suggest one advantage of using open questions in Hugo’s study.
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(d) Explain one problem that Hugo might have with the validity of the responses to his
questionnaire.
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9 Keelan has collected data about children’s aggression. He has several different types of data.
(a) In one experiment, Keelan recorded the total number of aggressive acts per hour in children
of each age between 3 and 18 years old.
Name the type of graph that would be most suitable to display this frequency data.
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(b) Label the axes for the graph that Keelan should use.
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(c) Name one measure of spread that Keelan could calculate from his data.
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(d) Keelan also counted the total number of aggressive acts in categories: bite, kick, slap and
pinch.
(i) Name the measure of central tendency that Keelan should use for this data.
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(ii) State how Keelan would calculate this measure of central tendency.
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Section C
10 Peter is studying psychology at university and has decided to conduct an experiment about positive
emotions and pulse rate because he believes that people’s pulse rate changes with mood.
(a) Describe how Peter could conduct a laboratory experiment to test whether pulse rate differs
when people experience positive and negative emotions.
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(b) Identify one weakness/limitation with the procedure you have described in your answer to
part (a) and suggest how your study might be done differently to overcome the problem.
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© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18

* 6 5 8 8 7 7 2 9 4 2 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
Paper 2 Research Methods May/June 2018
1 hour 30 minutes
This document consists of 10 printed pages and 2 blank pages.
DC (PB (PA)) 153126/2

2
Section A
1 In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), one variable was investigated by comparing
neutral and negative scenes.
(a) Is this an independent or a dependent variable? Include a reason for your answer.
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(b) Outline how Canli et al. operationalised this variable.
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2 The study by Saavedra and Silverman investigated a boy with a phobia of buttons.
(a) Identify the research method used in this study.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of the research method in this study.
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3 Many of the core studies were laboratory experiments.
(a) Explain two similarities between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment, using any
core studies as examples.
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(b) Explain one difference between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment, using any
core study as an example.
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4 What does standard deviation measure?
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5 From the study by Laney et al. (false memory):
(a) Identify one ethical guideline that was followed in this study.
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(b) Outline how this ethical guideline was followed in this study.
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(c) State why this ethical guideline was important in this study.
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6 Describe what is meant by ‘order effects’, using any examples.
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Section B
7 Kaleem is planning to investigate sleep and dreaming. He needs to find participants.
(a) Outline one sampling technique that Kaleem could use to find a representative sample.
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(b) Suggest two features of the participants that Kaleem should consider to make his sample
representative.
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(c) Explain why one of the features you suggested in part (b) would be important in Kaleem’s
study.
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8 Penny is using cats and parrots in her experiment. Penny houses each animal alone and only
gives them their daily food every evening. Her independent variable is the species. She thinks
that parrots will share food because they are social animals whereas cats live on their own. To test
this, two animals of the same species are put together with a small bowl of food every afternoon.
(a) Penny’s dependent variable is whether the animals share the food.
Suggest how she could operationalise this dependent variable.
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(b) Explain why the timing for the animals’ daily feed is a potential ethical issue.
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(c) Explain why the housing of the parrots was less ethical than the housing of the cats.
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(d) Penny has decided that she will be a covert observer.
Suggest why she chose to be a covert observer in her study.
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(e) Write an operationalised non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis for Penny’s experiment.
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9 Don and Pinja are planning to test whether older or younger people lose their way more often,
even when using a map. They will time how long it takes each participant to find their way between
two places in their university, using a map. They are talking about how to find participants and
how to start the study. They often see older people returning from the shops in the morning and
younger people after school in the evening.
(a) Don wants to tell every participant where they are on the map at the start of the test.
Explain why this would be important.
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(b) Pinja says they should test all the participants at midday rather than testing them whenever
they see them.
Explain why this would be important.
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(c) Identify two participant variables, other than age, and suggest how these could be controlled
in this experiment.
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Section C
10 Fajar has noticed that some of the younger children in her school believe their toys have feelings
but the older children generally do not. She wants to find out more about what children believe
and when beliefs change. She is planning to use a questionnaire.
(a) Describe how Fajar could conduct a study using a questionnaire to find out about the
children’s beliefs.
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CANDIDATE
NAME
CENTRE CANDIDATE
NUMBER NUMBER
* 2 0 2 4 4 0 6 9 2 6 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (PB (PA)) 153127/2

2
Section A
1 In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), the number of times ill and drunk victims were
helped was counted.
(a) State how the independent variable was operationalised in this part of the study.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of the way in which the independent variable was operationalised.
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2 Describe two of the controls from the study by Andrade (doodling).
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3 Milgram conducted many studies. One investigated whether the prestigious location (Yale
University) affected obedience. He used the experimental method to compare the obedience in
the original study at the university with the same study carried out in an old office block.
(a) Write an operationalised directional hypothesis for this experiment.
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(b) Write a null hypothesis for this experiment.
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4 The study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions) used only right-handed, female participants.
Suggest one way in which this sample may limit the generalisability of the findings.
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5 It has been suggested that for real childhood memories, highly emotional memories are
remembered better than neutral memories.
(a) Explain how one ethical guideline would be important when investigating this suggestion.
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(b) Describe one way to collect data about a participant’s childhood memories.
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6 Describe one similarity and one difference between observations and self-reports, using any
examples.
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Section B
7 Hanif is investigating helping behaviour in animals. As part of his experiment, two chimpanzees
are put together but it is possible that they might hurt each other, for example, by fighting rather
than helping.
(a) Explain how one ethical guideline, which relates to animals, is relevant to this study.
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(b) Hanif is the only observer and wants to find out whether his recording of fighting behaviour is
reliable over time.
Explain what Hanif should do to measure his reliability.
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(c) Explain why Hanif may be more objective if he collects quantitative data rather than qualitative
data.
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8 Elea is conducting an experiment to test whether people who sleep for more than eight hours per
night are happier than people who sleep less than this.
(a) (i) Elea’s dependent variable is ‘happiness’.
Suggest how this could be operationalised.
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(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of operationalising happiness in this way.
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(b) (i) Explain why randomly allocating participants to the sleep conditions would be unethical.
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(ii) Explain one methodological advantage of randomly allocating participants to the sleep
conditions.
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(c) Suggest one sampling technique that could be used in this study. Justify your answer.
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9 Ed and Jim are planning a field experiment about learning. They want to know whether young
children learn to use mobile (cell) phones from older brothers or sisters. They each offer their
phone to a younger brother or sister and also to a cousin who has no older brothers or sisters.
They time how long it takes each child to find a game to play with on the phone.
(a) Suggest why Ed and Jim chose a field experiment as their research method.
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(b) Explain the experimental design being used in this experiment.
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(c) Suggest one control that should be used in this experiment.
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Section C
10 Beth is looking at the treatment of people with phobias. She is investigating whether there is a
relationship between how long they have been in therapy and the severity of their symptoms.
(a) Describe how Beth could conduct a correlational study to investigate this relationship.
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CANDIDATE
NAME
CENTRE CANDIDATE
NUMBER NUMBER
* 4 3 9 5 1 8 6 7 6 1 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (PB (PA)) 153128/3

2
Section A
1 Explain what is meant by the ‘aim’ of a study, using an example.
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2 (a) Identify the sampling technique used in the study by Milgram (obedience).
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(b) Suggest one disadvantage of this sampling technique.
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3 In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams), the experimenter sometimes entered
the room after the participant had completed their dream report and asked them some questions.
(a) State one type of interview that could have been used in this part of the study. Justify your
choice.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of this type of interview.
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3
4 In the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion), participants were told that the study
was about vitamins and vision. This was not true, so the participants could not give informed
consent.
(a) Explain one other ethical guideline broken by telling the participants that the study was about
vitamins and vision.
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(b) Explain one advantage of telling the participants that the study was about vitamins and vision.
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5 Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping) used bar charts to display their results.
Draw a bar chart to show how the results of this study were displayed.
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6 Describe differences between subjectivity and objectivity, using any examples.
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Section B
7 Xanthe is investigating whether there is a relationship between how funny a person finds a joke
and how much activity there is in a particular brain region. She plans to measure brain activity
using a brain scan.
(a) Suggest one way that Xanthe could measure how funny a participant thinks each joke is.
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(b) Xanthe expects to find that the funnier a person finds a joke, the more brain activity there will
be.
Explain the type of relationship she is expecting in this study.
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(c) State which measure of central tendency Xanthe should use with the data from the brain
scans. Justify your choice.
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8 Albert is investigating autism. He plans to obtain a sample of people with autism and a control
group. He will compare how well these participants judge the feelings of dolls which are either
dancing, crying, waving or smiling.
(a) Identify the independent variable in this experiment.
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(b) Suggest how the dependent variable in this experiment could be measured.
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(c) Explain one advantage of using dolls rather than people in this procedure.
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(d) Explain one disadvantage of using dolls rather than people in this procedure.
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(e) Describe the experimental design used in this experiment.
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9 Laken is planning a case study of a child with a phobia of chairs. She is worried about how she
will collect data from the child as he will not sit on a chair, so she is planning to sit on the floor with
him.
(a) Explain the ethical guideline Laken is following by choosing to sit on the floor.
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(b) Suggest one way that Laken could collect data from the child’s parents, other than by
interview.
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(c) Suggest why Laken chose to use the case study method in this research.
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8
Section C
10 Taavi works in an office and has been asked to conduct an observation of employees’ doodling.
He is aiming to observe their doodling and what else they are doing while they doodle.
(a) Describe how Taavi could conduct an observation of employees’ doodling.
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CANDIDATE
NAME
CENTRE CANDIDATE
NUMBER NUMBER
* 1 0 8 3 9 4 2 4 0 7 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
Paper 2 Research Methods October/November 2018
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (PB/PA) 153157/3
2
Section A
1 (a) Explain what is meant by a ‘repeated measures design’.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of using a repeated measures design, using any core study as an
example.
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2 The study by Pepperberg (parrot learning) used an animal.
Explain what is meant by ‘deprivation’ and ‘aversive stimuli’ in animal research.
deprivation.........................................................................................................................................
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aversive stimuli..................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................[2]
© UCLES 2018 9990/21/O/N/18

3
3 (a) Explain what is meant by ‘reliability’, using one example from the study by Bandura et al.
(aggression).
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(b) Suggest one problem with reliability in any core study, other than the Bandura et al. study.
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...............................................................................................................................................[2]
4 In the study by Milgram (obedience), the results he recorded were the final voltage each participant
gave to the learner.
(a) State the range of these results.
...................................................................................................................................................
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(b) Milgram could have calculated the mean and range of the final voltages given.
(i) Explain what information the range provides about a set of data, using Milgram’s results
as an example.
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(ii) Explain why it would have been better for Milgram to calculate the standard deviation
rather than the range.
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© UCLES 2018 9990/21/O/N/18 [Turn over

4
5 Explain why low validity would be a problem in experiments.
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6 Describe the similarities and differences between naturalistic and controlled observations, using
any examples.
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© UCLES 2018 9990/21/O/N/18

5
Section B
7 Gavin is testing the hypothesis that ‘People are more likely to drop rubbish on the ground when
there is already rubbish on the ground’. He is conducting a field experiment in a quiet street. His
independent variable is whether the street already has rubbish on the ground or not. Gavin’s
dependent variable is whether people drop a leaflet given to them by a stooge onto the ground or
not.
(a) State the type of hypothesis Gavin is testing. Include a reason for your answer.
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...............................................................................................................................................[2]
(b) Outline one way in which the participants in Gavin’s study are being deceived.
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(c) Explain one reason why Gavin chose to conduct a field experiment rather than a laboratory
experiment.
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(d) Explain one disadvantage of using a field experiment in Gavin’s study.
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6
8 Lakha is planning to conduct a study to correlate helpfulness and intelligence. She is going to ask
her participants to use an online IQ test and is going to measure helpfulness in the laboratory.
(a) Suggest one way that Lakha could measure helpfulness for her correlation.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of the measure of helpfulness that you gave in part (a).
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(c) Name the type of graph Lakha should use to plot her results.
...............................................................................................................................................[1]
(d) Describe the pattern Lakha will see in her results if she finds a negative correlation between
the two variables. You may use a drawing in your answer.
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...............................................................................................................................................[1]
(e) A problem with the participants doing an online IQ test at home is that they may cheat.
Explain the effect this would have on the negative correlation if only the less helpful
participants cheated.
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© UCLES 2018 9990/21/O/N/18

7
9 Kyle conducted an investigation into doodling during lessons by boys and girls. He counted the
number of doodles and how much paper was used per hour when doodling. He had several
concerns about uncontrolled variables in his study.
(a) Define quantitative data, using Kyle’s data as an example.
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(b) Kyle observed doodling in different lessons and was concerned that the science lessons may
have been more interesting than other subjects.
Name this type of uncontrolled variable and explain why it could be a problem.
uncontrolled variable: ...............................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
why it could be a problem: ........................................................................................................
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(c) On one of the days Kyle collected data, the girls had been on a school trip the day before, so
may have been tired, but the boys had not.
Name this type of uncontrolled variable and explain why it could be a problem.
uncontrolled variable: ...............................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
why it could be a problem: ........................................................................................................
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8
Section C
10 Emma is planning to conduct an interview-based study about how well people think their pets/
domesticated animals learn, for example whether cats learn to respond to their names.
(a) Describe how Emma could conduct her interview-based study to discover what people think
about how well their pets/domesticated animals learn.
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9
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CANDIDATE
NAME
CENTRE CANDIDATE
NUMBER NUMBER
* 3 9 2 7 0 6 0 9 3 7 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (PB/PA) 153158/2
2
Section A
1 (a) Define what is meant by the ‘mean’.
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(b) Describe how a mean is calculated.
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2 In the study by Andrade, two groups were compared, a doodling condition and a control condition.
Each participant produced a memory score.
(a) Explain the purpose of a ‘control condition’, using an example from this study.
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(b) Name a suitable graph to display the mean memory scores for the doodling condition and the
control condition.
...............................................................................................................................................[1]
© UCLES 2018 9990/22/O/N/18

3
3 The study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) was a case study.
(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘case study’.
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(b) Suggest one disadvantage of using a case study.
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4 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), the data collected was the parrot’s speech.
Alternatively, the parrot’s actions in response to instructions, such as ‘peck yellow square’ could
have been observed.
(a) Suggest why observing the parrot’s actions might have been a better way to collect data than
using the parrot’s speech.
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...............................................................................................................................................[2]
(b) Suggest why observing the parrot’s actions might not have been a better way to collect data
than using the parrot’s speech.
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...................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................[2]

4
5 The procedure in the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions) was standardised as each
participant was treated in the same way.
Explain one advantage of standardisation, using this study as an example.
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6 Describe what researchers can and cannot learn from correlational studies, using any examples.
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© UCLES 2018 9990/22/O/N/18

5
Section B
7 Dr Kwan plans to investigate whether any species other than chimpanzees will offer help. During
testing, each animal will be with another animal but afterwards they will be kept in separate cages.
(a) Explain one ethical issue Dr Kwan should consider in choosing which species to test. You
may use an example in your answer.
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(b) Dr Kwan has considered testing whether the animals can help each other to avoid pain.
Explain why this might be an unethical procedure.
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(c) Dr Kwan should use as few animals as possible, for ethical reasons.
State why it would also be important that Dr Kwan uses a big enough sample.
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(d) Dr Kwan has developed behavioural categories for observing the animals. However, he thinks
that another researcher should conduct the observations rather than him.
Explain why this is a good idea.
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6
8 Kieran is planning a self-report study about dream content, to find out whether people feel happier
during the day if they have had pleasant dreams the night before. He is considering using either a
structured questionnaire or an unstructured interview.
(a) Suggest two closed questions that Kieran could ask in a structured questionnaire.
1 .................................................................................................................................................
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(b) Explain one advantage of using closed questions.
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(c) Outline what is meant by an ‘unstructured interview’.
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(d) Suggest one open question that Kieran could ask during an unstructured interview.
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(e) Explain one advantage of using open questions.
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© UCLES 2018 9990/22/O/N/18

7
9 Marla is working in a centre for adults with autism. She is observing social behaviour and
communication, such as whether the residents seem to understand facial expressions.
(a) Identify and operationalise one behaviour that Marla could record to measure whether the
residents understand facial expressions.
behaviour: .................................................................................................................................
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operationalisation: ....................................................................................................................
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(b) Explain what Marla should do to be a participant observer.
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(c) Explain what Marla should do to be a non-participant observer.
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(d) Explain whether Marla should choose a participant observation or a non-participant

observation for her study.
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8
Section C
10 Dr Fox is planning a field experiment to investigate obedience in school children. Her aim is to test
whether they are more obedient to teachers who are dressed in informal or formal clothes.
(a) Describe how Dr Fox could conduct a field experiment to test her aim.
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9
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Cambridge Assessment International Education
* 6 2 9 3 0 2 9 0 9 3 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
Write your centre number, candidate number and name in the spaces at the top of this page.
DC (LK) 168559/1
2
Section A
1 Ethical guidelines should be followed in all psychological research.
(a) Explain why ‘informed consent’ is important in psychological research.
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(b) Explain why it is sometimes necessary to break the guideline of informed consent in
psychological research.
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2 There are different types of interview. Two types are structured interviews and semi-structured
interviews.
(a) Describe what is meant by a ‘semi-structured interview’.
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(b) Suggest why it could be better to conduct a structured interview than a semi-structured
interview.
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© UCLES 2019 9990/22/F/M/19

3
3 Laney et al. (false memory) used control groups.
(a) Identify how one control group in the study was different from an experimental group.
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(b) Explain why control groups are important in psychological research.
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4 From the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning):
Explain whether generalisations could be made from the results of the parrot in this study to other
parrots.
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5 In the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion), the ‘mean number of acts initiated’
was calculated for the euphoria group.
(a) Explain how a mean is calculated.
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(b) Explain one advantage of using the mean as a measure of central tendency in this study.
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4
6 Describe why psychologists operationally define the independent variable and the dependent
variable in experiments, using any examples.
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© UCLES 2019 9990/22/F/M/19

5
Section B
7 Robin is conducting a questionnaire study about children’s use of social media, which will collect
qualitative and quantitative data.
(a) Suggest one question that Robin could use to collect qualitative data.
...................................................................................................................................................
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(b) When the children answer the questions, they might tell lies.
(i) Explain why the children lying would affect the validity of the results.
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(ii) Suggest one way that Robin could change his study to reduce the problem of children
telling lies.
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6
(c) Robin wants to use a wide range of different children in his sample.
(i) Suggest how he could obtain a wide range of children in his sample.
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(ii) Explain why it is important to use a wide range of children in this study.
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8 Hua is conducting a correlational study about birds feeding in her garden. Hua finds that when it is
sunnier, the birds feed more. She also finds that fewer birds feed when it is more windy.
(a) Describe what is meant by a ‘positive correlation’, using an example from Hua’s study.
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(b) Suggest how Hua could measure feeding behaviour in her study.
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© UCLES 2019 9990/22/F/M/19

7
9 Bella is conducting a laboratory experiment to find out about people’s fear of animals. She asks
each participant if they have any phobias. If the participant says yes they are asked to leave. The
remaining participants are shown photographs while their pulse rate is measured. The independent
variable (IV) is whether the photographs are of animals with eight legs or animals with four legs.
(a) Explain why it was necessary to ask some of the participants to leave.
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(b) The photographs of different animals were shown in a random order.
State why this was important.
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(c) The experiment used a repeated measures design.
Explain one advantage of this design in this study.
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8
(d) Explain two extraneous variables that Bella should control.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
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(e) Explain one disadvantage of using pulse rate to measure fear.
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© UCLES 2019 9990/22/F/M/19

9
Section C
10 Jim is planning an observational study about the way people respond to facial expressions. He
intends to go to a train station and either smile or frown at people. He wants to see how people
respond to him.
(a) Describe how Jim could conduct an observational study at a train station to find out how
people respond to smiling and frowning.
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To avoid the issue of disclosure of answer-related information to candidates, all copyright acknowledgements are reproduced online in the Cambridge
Assessment International Education Copyright Acknowledgements Booklet. This is produced for each series of examinations and is freely available to download
at www.cambridgeinternational.org after the live examination series.
Cambridge Assessment International Education is part of the Cambridge Assessment Group. Cambridge Assessment is the brand name of the University of
Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES), which itself is a department of the University of Cambridge.
© UCLES 2019 9990/22/F/M/19

CANDIDATE
NAME
CENTRE CANDIDATE
NUMBER NUMBER
* 0 3 1 7 8 2 8 0 4 2 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (PB/PA) 153159/2
2
Section A
1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘population’.
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......................................................................................................................................................[1]
2 There were many controlled variables in the study by Bandura et al. (aggression).
(a) (i) Explain what is meant by ‘a controlled variable’.
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(ii) Identify an example of a controlled variable from the Bandura et al. study.
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(iii) Suggest one advantage of controlling the variable you have identified in part (a)(ii).
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(b) State one way in which Bandura et al. helped observers to be reliable.
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...............................................................................................................................................[1]
© UCLES 2018 9990/23/O/N/18

3
3 In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), medians were calculated for ‘time taken to
help’ in the Cane and Drunk conditions.
(a) State whether the median is a ‘measure of central tendency’ or a ‘measure of spread’. Include
a reason for your answer.
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...............................................................................................................................................[1]
(b) Describe how a median is calculated, using the Piliavin et al. study as an example.
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(c) Name the type of graph that would be best used to show a comparison between the medians
for ‘time taken to help’ in the Cane and Drunk conditions.
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4
4 From the study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia):
(a) Identify two ethical guidelines followed in this study.
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(b) For one of the ethical guidelines you identified in (a):
Suggest one disadvantage of following this ethical guideline in this study.
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5 Explain why low reliability would be a problem in experiments.
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6 Describe ways in which an interview can differ from a questionnaire, using any examples.
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6
Section B
7 Mikko is conducting an experiment to find out whether people are more easily persuaded by
advertisements that are in colour or in black and white. He has put advertisements up in one town
library that are all in colour and the same advertisements in black and white in a library in another
town.
(a) Explain the importance of one control in Mikko’s experiment.
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(b) Suggest how Mikko could operationalise the dependent variable in his experiment.
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(c) Explain whether Mikko’s study is a field experiment or a natural experiment.
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8 Dr Gopal is planning a study about learning and wants it to follow ethical guidelines for the use of
animals. He is testing rats in a maze.
(a) Describe how Dr Gopal should follow the ethical guideline of ‘housing’ in his study.
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(b) Dr Gopal is deciding how to train the rats to learn. He could reward them when they make a
correct turn in the maze or he could punish them when they make an incorrect turn.
Explain which one of these training methods is the most ethical choice for Dr Gopal to make.
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(c) Dr Gopal plans to count the number of correct or incorrect turns each rat makes.
Explain two advantages of collecting data in this way.
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8
9 Lotty and Nazeem are aiming to observe emotional responses to different films at the cinema. They
have different ideas for recording people’s emotions. Lotty wants to do a structured observation,
with fixed behaviours to record. However, Nazeem wants to do an unstructured observation, and
record whatever behaviours are shown.
(a) Suggest one way the aim of Lotty and Nazeem’s observation is ethical.
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(b) Suggest how behaviours could be recorded using Lotty’s idea to do a structured observation.
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(c) Explain one advantage of Lotty’s idea to do a structured observation.
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(d) Explain one advantage of Nazeem’s idea to do an unstructured observation.
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Section C
10 Cael and Elsie are working at a sleep laboratory and have read about external stimuli becoming
part of people’s dreams. Their aim is to test whether noises can more easily become part of a
dream than smells.
(a) Describe how Cael and Elsie could conduct a laboratory experiment to test their aim.
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* 1 4 3 9 8 0 8 5 3 0 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (RW/SW) 168557/3
2
Section A
1 From the study by Milgram (obedience):
(a) Outline the sampling technique used in this study.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of using this sampling technique in this study.
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2 (a) Explain what is meant by a ‘covert observation’.
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(b) Suggest one disadvantage of conducting a covert observation.
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3
3 An experiment is testing the aim that smiling affects helpfulness. The procedure is to investigate
whether people leaving a shop will hold a door open for people who are smiling.
(a) Write an operationalised directional (one-tailed) hypothesis for this experiment.
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(b) Write a null hypothesis for this experiment.
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4 The study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) raised ethical issues.
Explain two ethical guidelines that are relevant to this study.
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4
5 State one advantage of using the mean as a measure of central tendency.
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6 Define extraneous variables and uncontrolled variables, using any examples.
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5
Section B
7 Dan is looking for a correlation between the amount children play and how aggressive they are.
He is not sure whether children who play more will be more aggressive or will be less aggressive.
(a) (i) Suggest how ‘playing’ could be operationalised using a quantitative measure.
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(ii) Suggest one problem with measuring ‘playing’.
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(b) Suggest how ‘aggression’ could be operationalised using a quantitative measure.
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(c) Dan finds that children who play more are also more aggressive.
Explain why Dan cannot conclude that playing causes aggression.
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6
8 Zho is investigating how quickly fish learn to respond to different coloured lights. She trains fish in
two tanks to swim to the end of the tank for food in response to a light. She uses a red light with
one tank and a green light with the other tank. She times how quickly the fish swim to the end of
the tank.
(a) Identify the dependent variable in this experiment.
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(b) Identify the independent variable in this experiment.
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(c) Explain two ethical guidelines for working with animals.
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(d) Suggest how one ethical guideline for working with animals could be followed in Zho’s
experiment.
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7
(e) Zho is plotting a bar chart of her results.
Label the x-axis and y-axis on the graph below.
y-axis label
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x-axis label
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[3]

8
9 Ella is conducting a laboratory experiment to find out whether singing helps people to relax. She is
using a repeated measures design and will use pulse rate to measure relaxation.
(a) Identify a suitable control condition for Ella’s experiment.
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(b) Explain why a repeated measures design is the best experimental design for Ella’s study.
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(c) Explain one disadvantage of using a repeated measures design in Ella’s study.
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(d) Ella considered using a field experiment but decided to use a laboratory experiment.
Explain why it could have been better for Ella to conduct a field experiment.
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9
Section C
10 Dr Bell is interested in how aware people are of the two factors involved in emotion according to
the two-factor theory. He wants to know if people are aware of the influence of both physiological
changes and cognitive changes on their emotions. He intends to use a structured interview to
investigate this, based on people’s recall of emotional events.
(a) Describe how Dr Bell could conduct a structured interview to investigate whether people
were aware of the influence of both physiological changes and cognitive changes on their
emotions.
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(b) Identify one practical weakness/limitation with the procedure you have described in your
answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might be done differently to overcome the
problem.
Do not refer to ethics or sampling in your answer.
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* 4 2 6 2 3 3 7 2 5 0 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (RW) 168558/2
2
Section A
1 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) found a positive correlation between REM duration and
the number of words used to describe the dream.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘positive correlation’, using this study as an example.
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(b) Suggest why REM duration was a more valid measure of dream duration than the number of
words used to describe the dream.
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2 The study by Bandura et al. (aggression) used a sample of children.
(a) Identify two features of this sample of children.
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(b) Suggest one reason why generalisations can be made from the sample in this study.
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(c) Suggest one reason why generalisations cannot be made from the sample in this study.
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3
3 In the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping), the researchers needed a reliable
procedure for testing the tool choice made by the chimpanzees.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘reliability’, using this study as an example.
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(b) Suggest one problem with reliability in this study.
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4 In a study about sharing, pairs of friends were given questionnaires. The questionnaire had only
two questions: ‘rate your own willingness to share’ and ‘rate your friend’s willingness to share’.
(a) (i) State what is meant by the term ‘demand characteristics’.
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(ii) State why demand characteristics are a problem in research.
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(b) Describe one way in which demand characteristics could be avoided in this study.
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4
5 Sometimes it is more appropriate to use one measure of central tendency than another.
State one reason why it may be better to use the mean as a measure of central tendency than the
mode.
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6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘right to withdraw’ and ‘deception’ in research with human
participants, using any examples.
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5
Section B
7 Dr Bahl wants to know about the emotions of people who spend their leisure time in different
ways. He intends to use a questionnaire to collect information from these different types of people,
about their emotions.
(a) Explain one way that Dr Bahl could ensure that he obtains a varied sample of participants.
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(b) Suggest one open question that Dr Bahl could ask about emotions.
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(c) Explain one disadvantage of using open questions about emotion in this study.
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6
(d) Dr Bahl is considering using an fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scanner to
investigate emotions.
(i) Suggest one advantage of using an fMRI scanner to investigate emotions.
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(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of using an fMRI scanner to investigate emotions.
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© UCLES 2019 9990/22/M/J/19

7
8 Martha wants to conduct a study using a naturalistic observation of children playing. She is
planning to observe the children in her local school.
(a) State what is meant by a ‘naturalistic observation’.
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(b) Suggest one disadvantage of using a naturalistic observation in Martha’s study.
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(c) Suggest how Martha could follow the ethical guideline of informed consent in her study.
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(d) Suggest how Martha could operationalise one play behaviour that she could observe.
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(e) Suggest what Martha would do if she were a covert observer.
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8
9 Otto’s aim is to investigate which age groups of internet users are most likely to play internet-based
games.
(a) Suggest an operationalised directional (one-tailed) hypothesis that Otto could test.
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(b) Describe the population that Otto will need to use for his investigation.
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9
Section C
10 Cecile has ten parrots that can answer questions about shapes. She is interested in whether there
is a difference between the ability of parrots to learn to answer questions about sounds, such as
from bells or buzzers, compared to shapes.
(a) Describe how Cecile could conduct a laboratory experiment to test whether there is a
difference in the ability of parrots to learn to answer questions about sounds compared to
shapes.
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* 8 3 7 7 6 5 8 0 3 6 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
Additional Materials: Ruler
DC (NH/SW) 174898/4
2
Section A
1 (a) State what is meant by ‘participant variables’.
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(b) Suggest one participant variable that could have affected the level of obedience in the study
by Milgram.
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2 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), a correlation was found.
(a) Describe the correlation found between the Eyes Test score and the Autism Spectrum
Quotient (AQ).
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(b) Explain why a researcher in a correlational study could not conclude that there was a causal
relationship between variables.
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3
3 (a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘order effects’.
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(b) Explain one reason why there were no order effects in the study by Canli et al. (brain scans
and emotions).
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4 (a) State what the standard deviation measures.
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(b) State one advantage of using the standard deviation, rather than using the range.
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4
5 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), many variables were controlled.
(a) Explain why it is important to control extraneous variables in experimental studies.
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(b) Identify one uncontrolled variable in the study by Pepperberg and suggest how this could
have affected the results.
uncontrolled variable ................................................................................................................
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effect .........................................................................................................................................
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[2]
6 Describe the use of ‘open questions’ and ‘closed questions’ in research, using any examples.
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5
Section B
7 Carol is interested in theory of mind. She is comparing adults in ‘caring’ jobs such as nursing
with adults in ‘non-caring’ jobs that have less contact with the public. Carol believes that adults in
caring jobs will score higher on the Eyes Test than those in non-caring jobs.
(a) Write a null hypothesis for Carol’s study.
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(b) Carol obtains a sample from 2000 people who found a job through an employment website.
Each person has an equal chance of being in her sample.
(i) Name the sampling technique that Carol used.
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(ii) Explain why it is an advantage that each person had an equal chance of being in Carol’s
sample.
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(c) Explain the experimental design being used in Carol’s study.
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6
(d) Carol intends to draw a graph of the median Eyes Test score for each group of participants.
(i) Explain why the median was the most suitable measure of central tendency for Carol to
use.
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(ii) Carol found that the median Eyes Test score for the caring job participants was 30/36
and the median Eyes Test score for the non-caring job participants was 20/36.
Draw an appropriate graph of these results on the axes below. You must label both axes.
[4]
© UCLES 2019 9990/23/M/J/19

7
8 Misha and Dalman are conducting interviews with elderly people to find out how their dreams
have changed with age. Misha thinks it is essential to gain information from each participant using
the same questions. Dalman thinks it would be better to be able to vary the questions used with
each participant.
(a) Identify the type of interview that Misha wants to use and explain one advantage of this type
of interview.
type of interview: .......................................................................................................................
advantage: ................................................................................................................................
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[2]
(b) Identify the type of interview that Dalman wants to use and explain one advantage of this
type of interview.
type of interview: .......................................................................................................................
advantage: ................................................................................................................................
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8
9 Aram plans to use a controlled observation to record the behaviour of children in the play area of
a classroom.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘controlled observation’, using Aram’s study as an example.
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(b) Suggest how Aram could operationalise one behaviour that he could observe in the play
area.
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(c) Suggest two controls that Aram could use to keep the play area the same for all his
observations.
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(d) Suggest one reason why it would be better for Aram to be an overt, participant observer,
rather than a covert, non-participant observer.
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9
Section C
10 Elio is planning a field experiment to investigate whether office layout affects laziness. The two
types of office he is comparing are big open-plan shared offices and individual offices with walls
and doors that make them more private.
(a) Describe how Elio could conduct a field experiment to test whether the type of office layout
affects laziness.
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* 6 9 9 6 6 1 3 7 1 9 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (ST) 172675/3
2
Section A
1 A hypothesis in a study about ways to reduce phobias states ‘Positive reinforcement will reduce
phobic reactions more than imagery exposure’.
(a) Is this a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis or a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis?
Include a reason for your answer.
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(b) Write a null hypothesis for this study.
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(c) Suggest one quantitative measure of phobic reactions.
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(d) Suggest one problem with the measure of phobic reactions you suggested in part (c).
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3
2 Standardisation was important in the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams):
(a) State what is meant by ‘standardisation’.
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(b) Identify three ways in which the laboratory environment was standardised in this study.
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[3]
3 State one advantage of using the standard deviation compared to the range as a measure of
spread.
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4 In the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping), the chimpanzees were housed socially.
Explain why this housing was important in terms of the ethical treatment of animals.
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4
5 The study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) used several samples of participants, selected in
different ways. One of these was a volunteer sample.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘volunteer sample’, using this study as an example.
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(b) State one advantage and one disadvantage of volunteer sampling.
advantage .................................................................................................................................
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disadvantage ............................................................................................................................
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[2]
6 Describe inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability, using any examples.
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5
Section B
7 Freya is planning a semi-structured interview to find out whether people sleep better in the winter
or the summer.
(a) State what is meant by a ‘semi-structured interview’.
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(b) Suggest one open question that Freya could ask.
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(c) Explain one advantage of using a semi-structured interview in Freya’s study.
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6
8 Claude is looking for a link between time spent eating and hunger. He thinks that students who
eat faster will be more hungry two hours later. He observes how much time some students spend
eating their lunch. They are unaware that they are being observed. Two hours later, he asks them
to rate their hunger on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 = not hungry, 10 = very hungry). He correlates how
hungry they are with how much time they spent eating lunch. He finds there is a strong negative
correlation between time spent eating and hunger.
(a) Claude wants to present the data from his study on the graph, shown in Fig. 8.1.
(i) Label the x-axis and y-axis on the graph in Fig. 8.1. [2]
(ii) Draw a line to show Claude’s correlation on the graph in Fig. 8.1. [1]
y-axis label
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x-axis label
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Fig. 8.1
(b) Explain whether Claude can conclude that eating faster makes people feel hungry.
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7
(c) (i) Suggest one ethical strength of Claude’s study.
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(ii) Suggest one ethical weakness of Claude’s study.
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(d) Claude’s friend says that asking students to rate their hunger two hours after lunch may not
be valid because some people may be in more interesting lessons than others.
Explain why Claude’s friend could be correct.
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8
9 Jia has conducted an experiment on memory. Each participant played a memory game twice, first
with a distracting noise and then without the noise.
(a) State the control condition in Jia’s study.
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(b) The participants had never played the game before.
Explain why this was important.
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(c) The experimental design of Jia’s study was repeated measures.
(i) Suggest one advantage of using this experimental design in Jia’s study.
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(ii) Suggest why order effects could have been a problem in Jia’s study.
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(iii) Suggest one way that Jia could have overcome the order effects in his study.
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Section C
10 Pihu, a teacher, has been watching the young children at her school playing at lunchtime. She
has noticed that there are several different games and activities that they do. She is planning a
structured observation to find out which activities are most common.
(a) Describe how Pihu could conduct a structured observation to investigate the children’s play.
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* 8 2 8 8 8 4 1 7 2 2 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (ST) 172676/2
2
Section A
1 From the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans):
(a) Identify the main research method used in this study.
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(b) Explain one advantage of using this research method in this study.
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2 A hypothesis in a study states ‘Recall will be better after a short delay than after a long delay’.
(a) Is this a directional (one-tailed) or a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis?
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(b) (i) Suggest one way to operationalise ‘recall’ in this study.
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(ii) Suggest one way to operationalise ‘short delay and long delay’ in this study.
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3
3 Explain what is meant by a ‘sample’, using an example from a core study from the biological
approach.
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4 In the study by Milgram (obedience), the ‘primary dependent variable’ was voltage.
(a) Explain two ways in which this measure was valid.
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(b) Explain one way in which this measure was not valid.
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4
5 (a) State what is meant by ‘participant variables’.
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(b) Suggest one participant variable that could have been important in the study by Schachter
and Singer (two factors in emotion).
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6 Describe one similarity and one difference between an independent measures design and a
repeated measures design, using any examples.
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5
Section B
7 Dr Shah is conducting a naturalistic observation in a children’s play area.
(a) Suggest two ways that Dr Shah could make her study ethical.
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[4]
(b) State why this study is a ‘naturalistic observation’.
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(c) Suggest how Dr Shah could conduct her study if she were a covert, non-participant observer.
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6
8 Sonia is conducting a study using drivers queueing in traffic. Her hypothesis is ‘There will be a
positive correlation between frustration and anger in drivers’. Sonia measures anger by asking
each driver to rate how angry they feel on a rating scale from 0 (calm) to 5 (very angry).
(a) Suggest one way that Sonia could measure frustration in this study, other than using a rating
scale.
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(b) Explain one strength of using the measure of frustration you have suggested in part (a).
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(c) Write a null hypothesis for Sonia’s study.
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(d) Identify a measure of central tendency that Sonia could use on her ‘anger’ data.
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9 Zach is planning a study using laboratory rats to investigate whether they will copy a rat which
acts as a model by eating unusual foods. He is aware of the ethical guidelines for using animals in
experiments.
(a) Suggest one reason why it is more ethical for Zach to test the copying of eating behaviour
rather than the copying of aggression.
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(b) Suggest one practical reason why the rat is a good species to choose for this study.
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(c) Zach decides to measure the effect of the model by observing the similarities in eating
behaviour between the learner rat and the model rat.
Explain whether this measure is valid.
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(d) Explain one strength of observations.
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8
Section C
10 Fahim is planning an interview study to investigate the types of dreams people have. He wants to
collect a range of data using different types of questions.
(a) Describe how Fahim could conduct a semi-structured interview about the types of dreams
that people have.
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* 2 5 4 6 4 1 2 0 7 0 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
DC (ST) 172677/3
2
Section A
1 One ethical guideline is to avoid deception in research.
Explain what is meant by ‘deception’, using an example from a core study from the social approach.
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2 A study aims to find out whether boys and girls differ in the amount of time that they talk.
(a) Write an operationalised directional (one-tailed) hypothesis for this study.
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3 Explain one advantage of using animals in research in psychology.
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4 From the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion):
(a) Describe one way in which ‘anger’ was measured.
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(b) Suggest one reason why it is important to operationalise variables, using the example of
anger in this study.
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5 (a) Explain what is meant by ‘covert observation’, using the study by Bandura et al. (aggression)
as an example.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of covert observations.
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4
6 Describe how the case study method differs from other research methods, using any examples.
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5
Section B
7 Liam is investigating whether children can be given false memories of a game they had played,
such as winning a game that they actually lost. He plans to play and win the game with each child
and tell them he is writing about it in his diary. Later he will pretend to read from his diary, telling
each child a false story in which they won the game. He will then ask each child to write about the
game they played.
(a) Outline one way that Liam could measure the children’s false memories.
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(b) (i) Suggest what the control condition should be in Liam’s experiment.
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(ii) Explain why it is important to have a control condition in Liam’s experiment.
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(c) Suggest one way that Liam could standardise his procedure.
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6
8 Olivia is conducting an experiment to investigate whether students concentrate better in class

before or after eating. Her experimental design is a repeated measures design.
(a) Identify the independent variable (IV) in this experiment.
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(b) Identify the dependent variable (DV) in this experiment.
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(c) Explain what is meant by a ‘repeated measures design’, using this experiment as an example.
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(d) (i) Suggest how Olivia could counterbalance the conditions in her experiment.
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(ii) Explain one advantage of counterbalancing in this experiment.
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9 Huan is planning an interview about attitudes to mental illness.
(a) (i) Suggest one question that Huan could use to collect quantitative data.
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(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of collecting quantitative data in Huan’s study.
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(b) Suggest one question that Huan could use to collect qualitative data.
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(c) Explain two advantages of using an interview rather than a questionnaire in Huan’s study.
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(d) Huan is going to use opportunity sampling.
Explain one disadvantage of using an opportunity sample in this study.
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8
Section C
10 Fazli wants to study the relationship between kindness and obedience. He is not sure whether
people who are more obedient will be more or less kind to others.
(a) Describe how Fazli could conduct a correlational study to investigate this relationship. Your
study must be ethical.
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Cambridge International AS & A Level
* 9 9 8 2 3 2 0 0 1 0 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
You must answer on the question paper.
No additional materials are needed.
INSTRUCTIONS
● Answer all questions.
● Use a black or dark blue pen. You may use an HB pencil for any diagrams or graphs.
● Write your name, centre number and candidate number in the boxes at the top of the page.
● Write your answer to each question in the space provided.
● Do not use an erasable pen or correction fluid.
● Do not write on any bar codes.
INFORMATION
● The total mark for this paper is 60.
● The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].
This document has 12 pages. Blank pages are indicated.
DC (DH/CGW) 189967/1
2
Section A
1 From the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans):
(a) Describe how the quantitative data was collected in this study.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of using quantitative data in this study.
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2 From the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions):
Explain what is meant by ‘generalisability’, using two examples from this study.
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3 In an experiment with a repeated measures design, there may be a problem with order effects.
Explain one type of order effect.
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4 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory), a comparison was made between a ‘love asparagus’
group and a control group.
(a) (i) Name the experimental design used in this comparison.
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(ii) Explain one disadvantage of this design.
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(b) Describe one ethical problem in this study.
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4
5 In the study by Bandura et al., the children’s aggression levels were rated at the start of the study
and used to allocate children to groups.
Explain why this information was needed to allocate the children to groups.
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6 Describe two different ways that dependent variables can be measured, using any examples.
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5
Section B
7 Jenny is studying Sven, a man who has problems with his memory. He is unable to remember new
people or facts, even if they are repeated many times. Jenny is collecting data using techniques
including interviews, questionnaires and observations.
(a) (i) Name the research method Jenny is using.
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(ii) Explain one advantage of this research method in this study.
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(b) (i) Suggest one open question that Jenny could ask Sven to investigate his memory
problems.
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(ii) Suggest one closed question that Jenny could ask Sven to investigate his memory
problems.
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(iii) Suggest one advantage of asking closed questions.
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6
(c) One problem for Jenny is that whenever she talks to Sven, he does not recognise her.
Suggest one reason why this is a problem for Jenny’s study.
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8 Janet is investigating attitudes to healthy eating. She is considering using a questionnaire or an

interview.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘questionnaire’.
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(b) Explain what is meant by an ‘interview’.
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(c) Explain one advantage of using questionnaires to investigate healthy eating.
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(d) Explain one disadvantage of using questionnaires to investigate healthy eating.
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Question 9 appears on the following page

8
9 Silas conducted an observational study about discrimination and counted examples of different
kinds of discrimination. His data is shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Type of discrimination observed

Being ignored Being stared at Verbal aggression Physical aggression
Number of
16 12 6 8
instances
(a) Draw a bar chart of Silas’s results. [4]
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(b) Silas was observing in a large playground in a school with the permission of the school
principal and the parents of the children.
(i) Explain whether there could be an issue with privacy in this study.
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(ii) Explain whether there could be an issue with informed consent in this study.
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(c) Explain the feature of Silas’s observation that means it is a structured observation.
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10
Section C
10 Clarice is studying repetitive behaviours in lessons, such as playing with a pen or doodling. These
behaviours could be beneficial to concentration or be a distraction. Clarice wants to know whether
there is a correlation between repetitive behaviours and the understanding of a lesson.
(a) Describe how Clarice could conduct a correlational study to test whether there is a relationship
between repetitive behaviours and the understanding of a lesson.
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problem.
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* 1 9 8 7 8 6 4 3 3 7 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
You will need: Ruler
INSTRUCTIONS
bestexamhelp.com
INFORMATION
DC (TC) 189971/2
2
Section A
1 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al., one variable was the score on the Eyes Test.
(a) State whether this was an independent variable or a dependent variable.

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(b) One problem with the original version of the Eyes Test was that the results produced a ‘ceiling
effect’. This is where most participants obtain high scores on the test.
Explain why a ceiling effect is a problem.
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2 A psychologist is investigating whether a person’s happiness depends on whether people around

them are happy.
(a) Suggest how you could operationalise ‘happiness’ when using observations.
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(b) Suggest how you could measure ‘happiness’ when using a self-report.
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(c) Write a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis for this investigation. You do not have to
operationalise your hypothesis.
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3 One part of the investigation by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) involved a correlational
study measuring a range of times spent in REM sleep and the number of words in the participant’s
dream narrative.
(a) Explain why this part of the investigation was a correlational study rather than an experiment.
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(b) Explain one disadvantage of using a correlation in this study.
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4 In a study about helping, participants were told the study was about visual tracking. They played
a computer game in which they could help other players. They were given fake eye-movement
tracking spectacles to wear.
(a) Describe the ethical issue of deception, using this study as an example.
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(b) Some participants were upset at debriefing because they had not helped other players.
Describe the ethical guideline of protection, using this study as an example.
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4
5 Before the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), most research on animal learning had been
conducted on primates, such as chimpanzees.
(a) Explain one ethical reason why a parrot is a better choice of animal than a chimpanzee for a
study in a laboratory.
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(b) Explain one practical or methodological reason why the parrot was a better choice of animal
than a chimpanzee for this study.
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6 Describe what is meant by ‘experimental conditions’ and ‘control conditions’ in research, using any
examples.
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6
Section B
7 Maria is conducting a self-report study into obedience using school children as participants. Her
questions are:
Question 1 How many times this week have you disobeyed a teacher?
Never / once / 2–3 times / 4 times or more
Question 2 Describe why you last disobeyed a teacher.
(a) (i) State which question collects quantitative data. Include a reason for your answer.
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(ii) State why this type of data is useful.
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(b) Suggest one other question which could be used in Maria’s study that would collect
quantitative data.
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(c) Identify the most appropriate measure of central tendency for Maria to use with the responses
to her first question. Include a reason for your answer.
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8 Richard is conducting an experiment to investigate whether daydreams are affected by the type of
background noise. He has two groups who are both given a boring task in a room. For one group
there are children laughing outside the open window. For the other group there are adults talking
loudly in the corridor. Different participants are used in each group.
(a) (i) Identify Richard’s experimental design. Include a reason for your answer.
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(ii) Suggest one advantage of this experimental design in this study.
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(b) Suggest one reason for using a boring task in this study.
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(c) Suggest one practical or methodological problem with studying daydreams.
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(d) Suggest one ethical problem with studying daydreams.
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8
9 Jasper conducted an observational study of children’s behaviours in their school common room.
Jasper’s data is shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1
Behaviours observed
Sitting alone Drinking tea Dancing Verbal aggression
Number of
10 15 5 1
instances
(a) Draw a bar chart of Jasper’s results. [4]
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9
(b) Jasper observed the children with the permission of the school principal and the children’s
parents.
(i) Explain why it was necessary to obtain permission in this study.
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(ii) Explain whether there could have been an issue with privacy in this study.
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(c) Jasper was a non-participant observer.
Explain what is meant by a ‘non-participant observer’, using this study as an example.
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10
Section C
10 Jason is a university lecturer and is interested in doodling behaviour. One day, Jason sees one
of his students, Karen, doodling. Jason is especially interested because Karen has a visual
impairment that means she cannot see. Jason decides to conduct a case study on her.
(a) Describe how Jason could conduct a case study on Karen to investigate her doodling
behaviour.
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* 6 7 2 5 0 8 3 4 7 4 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (TC) 189972/1
2
Section A
1 (a) State what is meant by the ethical guideline of ‘replacement’ in relation to animals.
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............................................................................................................................................. [1]
(b) Suggest one practical problem with following the ethical guideline of replacement in relation
to animals.
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2 In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), participants watched scenes presented to
them on a screen. They responded to these scenes by pressing buttons. Their response was one
dependent variable.
(a) Describe how this dependent variable was operationalised in this study.
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(b) Explain one reason why the results of this study may not generalise to everyday life.
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© UCLES 2020 9990/22/M/J/20

3
3 Andrade conducted an experiment on doodling. Alternatively, she could have conducted a case
study.
(a) Identify two ways that data could be collected in this case study.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
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2 ................................................................................................................................................
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(b) For one of your answers in 3(a):
Explain one advantage of this way of collecting data in this case study.
Way of collecting data:...............................................................................................................
Advantage: ................................................................................................................................
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4 (a) Name two types of observations.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
2 .......................................................................................................................................... [2]
(b) For one of your answers in 4(a):
Explain why this type of observation is a valid way of observing participants.
Type of observation: ..................................................................................................................
Explanation: ...............................................................................................................................
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4
5 At the start of the study by Bandura et al. (aggression), the children were scored numerically on
their behaviour in the nursery school.
Explain one advantage of scoring behavioural data in this way.
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6 Describe what is meant by ‘participant variables’ and ‘situational variables’ in research, using any
examples.
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© UCLES 2020 9990/22/M/J/20

5
Section B
7 Mark is planning a natural experiment to investigate the short-term effect of noise on classroom
performance of school children. He has found a school next to a noisy railway. He is going to
compare the children before and during a temporary closure of the railway which will stop all trains
for two weeks.
(a) Explain what makes this study a natural experiment.
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(b) Suggest one way that Mark could measure the effect of noise on the children.
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(c) Identify two extraneous variables that Mark could control.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
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(d) Write an operationalised directional (one-tailed) hypothesis for Mark’s experiment.
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6
8 Rachel is correlating two variables: helping behaviour and communication skills.
(a) (i) Suggest one way that Rachel could measure helping behaviour for this study.
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(ii) For the way you have suggested in (a)(i):
Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of this way of measuring helping
behaviour.
Advantage: .........................................................................................................................
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Disadvantage: ....................................................................................................................
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(b) Outline the relationship that Rachel will find if her results indicate a positive correlation.
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© UCLES 2020 9990/22/M/J/20

7
9 Perry has collected data about intelligence. He has measured the IQ (Intelligence Quotient) of a
large sample of participants.
(a) Describe one way that Perry could obtain a large sample of participants.
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(b) (i) When Perry plots the IQ results, they show a normal distribution.
Draw a graph of the likely results of the IQ scores using the axes below.
You must label the axes of your graph. [3]
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(ii) Name the most appropriate measure of central tendency for Perry to use with the
IQ data. Include a reason for your answer.
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(iii) Label your graph to show the position of the measure of central tendency that you have
named in (b)(ii). [1]

8
Section C
10 Cecil is studying a family. The mother, father and both of their sons all have a phobia of trees.
(a) Describe how Cecil could conduct unstructured interviews to investigate the phobia in this
family.
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* 6 7 4 1 0 5 6 9 1 3 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (TC) 189973/2
2
Section A
1 Describe the difference between qualitative and quantitative data.
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2 The study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) was conducted in a subway train.
(a) Suggest one advantage of conducting a study in this location.
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(b) Suggest one disadvantage of conducting a study in this location.
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3
3 The study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) was a case study.
Explain the two reasons that the case study method was chosen, using examples from this study.
Do not refer to ‘longitudinal’ in your answer.
1 ........................................................................................................................................................
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4 Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) collected data from several standardised tests.
(a) State what is meant by ‘standardisation’.
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(b) State two ways that the Eyes Test was standardised.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
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4
5 Descriptive statistics used in studies can include the range and the standard deviation.
(a) State what these descriptive statistics measure.
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(b) Explain one advantage of the standard deviation compared to the range.
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6 Describe the use of the ethical guidelines of ‘numbers’ and ‘housing’ in relation to animals in
research, using any examples.
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© UCLES 2020 9990/23/M/J/20

5
Section B
7 Jodie is investigating attitudes to doodling in class. She wants to obtain a sample that includes
students and teachers.
(a) Name one sampling technique Jodie could use to obtain her sample.
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(b) Suggest how Jodie could use this sampling technique to obtain her sample.
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(c) Suggest one advantage of using this sampling technique in Jodie’s study.
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(d) Explain one problem with using this sampling technique in Jodie’s study, compared to one
other sampling technique.
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6
8 Todd is using a questionnaire to investigate personality, such as being a calm or anxious person.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘questionnaire’.
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(b) (i) Suggest one open and one closed question about personality that Todd could use in his
questionnaire.
Open question: ...................................................................................................................
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Closed question: ................................................................................................................
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(ii) Explain whether the open or the closed question that you suggested in part (b)(i) would
provide more information about personality.
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(c) Describe how Todd could obtain informed consent from the participants in his study.
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7
9 Arjun and Mary have collected data about aggression in adults using an observation.
(a) They want to know if they have good inter-rater reliability.
Suggest how they would test this for their study.
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(b) Explain why it is important that Arjun and Mary have good inter-rater reliability in their study.
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(c) Suggest one advantage of using participant observation in Arjun and Mary’s study.
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(d) Suggest one disadvantage of using participant observation in Arjun and Mary’s study.
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8
Section C
10 Kenley is studying whether manipulating participants’ mood (to ‘good’ or ‘bad’) will make them
better at identifying positive facial expressions such as ‘friendly’ and ‘happy’.
(a) Describe how Kenley could conduct a laboratory experiment to test whether manipulating a
participant’s mood will make them better at identifying positive facial expressions.
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* 7 3 0 2 6 4 7 0 3 7 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (ST) 191033/2
2
Section A
1 In the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping), one variable being measured was the
object offered by a chimpanzee.
(a) Describe two ways in which an ‘object offer’ was operationalised in this study.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
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2 ................................................................................................................................................
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(b) Explain whether this study was ecologically valid.
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2 In the study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia), data was collected in the form of
statements. During therapy the boy stated that:
• buttons ‘emitted unpleasant odours’
• ‘buttons are gross’.
(a) Identify this type of data. Include a reason for your answer that refers to the boy’s statements.
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(b) Explain one disadvantage of collecting this type of data in this study.
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3 Explain the difference between a ‘measure of central tendency’ and a ‘measure of spread’.
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4 The study by Laney et al. (false memory) used an independent measures design. However, there
was still a risk of order effects.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘order effects’, using this study as an example.
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(b) Explain why order effects reduce validity in experiments.
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5 Explain why following ethical guidelines can cause demand characteristics.
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4
6 Describe the difference between ‘samples’ and ‘populations’ in research, using any examples.
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Section B
7 Aileen is planning an interview-based study to investigate what old people often forget. She is
concerned that this could break the ethical guideline of ‘privacy’.
(a) (i) Explain what is meant by the ethical guideline of privacy, using Aileen’s study as an
example.
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(ii) Suggest how Aileen could ensure that she follows the ethical guideline of privacy in her
study.
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(b) Aileen wants to be certain that the forgetting is due to her participants’ age. She could do this
by making her study into an experiment, using two groups of participants.
(i) State how Aileen could operationalise her two groups of participants.
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(ii) Aileen believes that a possible extraneous variable is whether any participant has a job.
Explain the effect that this extraneous variable could have on the results.
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6
8 Elaf used a natural experiment to investigate the effect of noise on sleep. His participants
completed identical questionnaires before the opening of a new motorway behind their houses
and after the motorway had been open for one month.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘natural experiment’, using this study as an example.
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(b) Suggest one problem with natural experiments, using this study as an example.
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(c) (i) Identify the experimental design used in Elaf’s experiment. Include a reason for your
answer.
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(ii) Explain one advantage of using this experimental design in Elaf’s experiment.
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9 Jasmin conducted an overt observation of friendship behaviours on customers in a café for many
weeks. She observed the same customers every day, who initially asked her what she was doing.
She explained that she was taking notes on their behaviour.
(a) Explain what made Jasmin’s study an overt observation.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of overt observations, using Jasmin’s study as an example.
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(c) Suggest one disadvantage of overt observations, using Jasmin’s study as an example.
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(d) (i) Suggest two behavioural categories that Jasmin could have used to record ‘friendship
behaviours’.
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(ii) For one of the behavioural categories you suggested in (d)(i):
Explain one disadvantage of using this behavioural category.
Behavioural category: .......................................................................................................
Disadvantage: ...................................................................................................................
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8
Section C
10 Valerie is a teacher. She notices that students who are expecting a test in another lesson are more
likely to feel angry in her lesson. She thinks this is because they are misinterpreting their high
level of arousal as anger rather than anxiety about the test. She decides to use a questionnaire to
investigate whether her students are misinterpreting their arousal.
(a) Describe how Valerie could conduct a study using a questionnaire to investigate whether
students who are expecting a test in another lesson are misinterpreting their arousal.
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problem.
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* 1 8 3 2 3 6 5 8 7 1 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (ST/JG) 191034/2
2
Section A
1 In the study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia), the results were the effect of the therapy
sessions on button manipulation and on severity rating of distress. These are shown in Fig. 1.1
and Fig. 1.2.
number of buttons manipulated
40 8
35 7
30 6
severity rating
25 5
20 4
15 3
10 2
5 1
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
exposure session exposure session
Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2
Explain one conclusion from the results on each graph. You must refer to the results in each
conclusion.
Fig. 1.1 .............................................................................................................................................
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2 From the study by Laney et al. (false memory):
(a) State why a false memory about liking asparagus would be more ethical than a false memory
created using filmed events like car crashes and thefts.
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(b) Explain one way in which the study by Laney et al. was not ethical.
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3 Libby is planning a case study of a boy with autism to investigate his social interactions.
(a) Explain how Libby could use two different techniques to collect data in her case study.
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(b) For one of the techniques you explained in 3(a):
Suggest one problem with using this technique in this study. Do not refer to generalisability in
your answer.
Technique: ................................................................................................................................
Problem: ...................................................................................................................................
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4
4 In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), the dependent variable of emotional
arousal was measured by the participants pressing buttons 0, 1, 2 or 3.
Suggest why it was necessary for the participants to press buttons rather than speaking or writing.
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5 In a study about phobias, researchers have identified two problems.
(a) One problem is that they cannot be sure that they are studying phobias rather than just
dislikes. For example, people may refuse to eat a food they claimed to have a phobia of
simply because they don’t like it.
Explain whether this is a problem of validity or reliability.
Validity or reliability: ..................................................................................................................
Explanation: ..............................................................................................................................
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(b) Another problem is that they cannot be sure that they are measuring phobias consistently.
For example, the researchers may interpret the participants’ written comments differently.
Explain whether this is a problem of validity or reliability.
Validity or reliability: ..................................................................................................................
Explanation: ..............................................................................................................................
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6 Describe different types of hypothesis in research, using any examples.
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6
Section B
7 Claus is investigating whether there is a correlation between happiness and exercise.
(a) (i) Outline what the results would show if Claus found a negative correlation.
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(ii) Sketch a graph, using the axes below, to show what the pattern of results would look like
if Claus found a negative correlation. You must label the axes.
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[3]
(b) Explain why Claus cannot conclude that exercise causes unhappiness.
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(c) Explain why it was useful for Claus to conduct a correlational study before using another
method to investigate factors affecting happiness.
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8 Duncan is conducting an experiment to test whether watching videos of natural scenes or city
scenes is better at helping stressed people to relax. Half of the participants watch the natural
scenes first and the city scenes one week later. The other half of the participants watch the city
scenes first and the natural scenes one week later.
(a) Identify Duncan’s experimental design. Include a reason for your answer.
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(b) Explain why it is an advantage that the participants watch the scenes in different orders.
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(c) Duncan obtains his sample from the student population at his university, who all live in the
local city.
Suggest one disadvantage of taking a sample from this location for this study.
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(d) In order to ensure that his participants are stressed before watching the videos, Duncan could
scare them but this would be unethical. He must stress them in an ethical way. He decides to
do this by raising their arousal level.
Describe one ethical way that Duncan could stress his participants by raising their arousal
level.
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8
9 Lydia is planning to interview students about how they learn a new language.
(a) Suggest one open question that Lydia could ask during her interviews.
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(b) Suggest one disadvantage of using open questions in this study.
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(c) Lydia’s first language is English. Her participants speak a variety of different first languages,
although all can understand English.
Explain why the variety of first languages spoken by the participants could still be a problem
in Lydia’s study.
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(d) Suggest what type of interview Lydia should conduct in this study. Include a reason for your
answer.
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Section C
10 Anisha and Megane are supervisors who walk around the school during lunchtime to watch the
children in the building, playground and lunch hall. They have been asked by Sue, who is head of
the psychology department, to be observers in a study on helpful behaviour in the school.
(a) Describe how Sue could conduct a participant observation of helping behaviour in school,
using Anisha and Megane to assist her.
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* 5 1 9 4 5 4 8 6 7 5 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (ST) 191035/2
2
Section A
1 From the study by Bandura et al. (aggression):
(a) Identify one example of quantitative data collected in this study.
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(b) Explain one advantage of collecting quantitative data in this study.
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2 In the study by Andrade (doodling), the participants were people from the general public who were
members of an Applied Psychology Unit participant panel.
Explain one advantage and one disadvantage of using participants from a participant panel in this
study.
Advantage: .......................................................................................................................................
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Disadvantage: ..................................................................................................................................
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3 Carrie is studying when people decide to eat meals and the quality of their sleep. She is worried
about variables that could affect when people decide to eat meals, and the effect these could have
on validity.
(a) (i) Suggest one participant variable that could affect when people decide to eat meals.
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(ii) Explain how this participant variable could affect the validity of Carrie’s study.
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(b) (i) Suggest one situational variable that could affect when people decide to eat meals.
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(ii) Explain how this situational variable could affect the validity of Carrie’s study.
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4 Dement and Kleitman studied participants who were asleep.
Explain one limitation in research with participants who are asleep that does not apply to
participants who are awake. You must refer to the study by Dement and Kleitman in your answer.
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4
5 (a) Explain what is meant by the ethical guideline of ‘reward’ in relation to animals in psychological
research.
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(b) Describe how the ethical guideline of ‘species and strain’ affects what psychologists should,
or should not, do with animals.
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6 Describe the similarities and differences between a structured and an unstructured interview,
using any examples.
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Section B
7 A company is having a new kitchen built that will produce better quality food for its workers so will
improve work output. Cedric measures work output three weeks before the new kitchen opens,
as a baseline. He finds work output is low. When Cedric measures work output again three weeks
after the new kitchen opens, he finds that work output is higher.
(a) State how Cedric could operationalise the independent variable in his study.
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(b) State how Cedric could operationalise the dependent variable in his study.
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(c) (i) Suggest one extraneous variable that could affect Cedric’s results.
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(ii) Explain why it is necessary to control this variable in this study.
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(iii) Suggest one way that Cedric could control this variable.
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6
(d) Cedric’s study was a natural experiment.
Give one reason why Cedric had to choose this method for his study.
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8 Jeni implanted false memories about feeling ill in two different contexts:
• relating to food
• relating to location.
Her laboratory experiment tested participants’ confidence that these ‘memories’ were true. She
used a ten-point rating scale to measure this confidence.
(a) (i) Suggest why Jeni used a ten-point rating scale for confidence rather than asking
participants if they were confident in the ‘memory’ or not.
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(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of using a ten-point rating scale in this study.
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(b) Jeni knew that many factors could affect memory and she wanted to obtain results that could
be generalised beyond her sample.
(i) Identify one sampling technique that Jeni could have used to obtain a representative
sample.
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(ii) Suggest how Jeni could have obtained a sample using the sampling technique you have
suggested in (b)(i).
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9 Daniel is planning a correlational study. He is investigating the relationship between how happy a
person is and how many friends they have.
(a) Suggest how Daniel could operationalise each variable.
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(b) Explain why Daniel should be concerned about the subjectivity of his data about happiness.
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(c) Explain why Daniel should be concerned about one extraneous variable that could affect his
data about friendships.
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Question 10 appears on page 10

10
Section C
10 Jayce owns a shop and is concerned that people are disobeying his signs which say ‘Do not
touch’ or ‘No food allowed’. Jayce has asked his daughter Kimberley, who is studying psychology,
for some help to understand this disobedience.
(a) Describe how Kimberley could conduct a non-participant observation of people in her father’s
shop to investigate obedience to his signs.
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problem.
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* 1 7 5 5 4 0 8 2 7 1 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
This document has 12 pages. Any blank pages are indicated.
DC (DH) 201265/1
2
Section A
1 (a) Outline what is meant by a ‘questionnaire’.
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(b) Explain one advantage of using a questionnaire rather than an interview in research.
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2 Outline what is meant by an ‘aim’. Include an example from one core study from the cognitive
approach in your answer.
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3 The study by Milgram (obedience) used volunteer sampling.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘volunteer sampling’, using this study as an example.
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(b) Suggest two ways that Milgram could have obtained a volunteer sample with a wider variety
of participants.
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4 In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), participant variables may have affected the
results.
Explain what is meant by ‘participant variables’, using this study as an example.
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4
5 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) used a sample of volunteers.
Suggest why this sample may not have been representative of sleep and dreams in the general
population.
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6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘numbers’ and ‘replacement’ in relation to animals, using any
examples.
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Section B
7 Uma has a bird feeder in her garden. When she moved the bird feeder, some species of bird
were faster to find it than others. Uma has moved the feeder a second time and is conducting an
observational study to investigate which bird species are faster to learn the new location of the
bird feeder.
(a) Uma is going to use a structured observation.
Suggest how she could record her data.
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(b) Uma cannot decide how many different bird species to observe.
(i) Suggest one reason why it would be better to record a small number of different species.
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(ii) Suggest one reason why it would be better to record a large number of different species.
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6
8 Dr Malt is testing whether a new drug to improve attention in mental health patients is better than
an old drug. In her experiment, she is measuring the patients’ attention to a stimulus.
(a) Explain what is meant by an ‘independent variable’, using Dr Malt’s study as an example.
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(b) (i) Suggest how Dr Malt could operationalise her dependent variable.
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(ii) Explain one advantage of operationalising the dependent variable in this way.
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(c) Dr Malt decides she must use deception. She tells the participants in both the ‘new drug
group’ and the ‘old drug group’ that they are receiving the new drug.
(i) Suggest one reason why it is important for Dr Malt to deceive her participants.
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(ii) Suggest one reason why it is an ethical problem that Dr Malt is deceiving her participants.
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(iii) Suggest how Dr Malt could reduce the problem you have identified in part (c)(ii).
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8
9 Zhu is conducting a correlational study in a factory to investigate the relationship between two
variables:
• the number of hours an employee works
• how happy that employee is.
(a) Suggest one way that Zhu could record the number of hours an employee works.
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(b) Suggest one way that Zhu could record how happy each employee is.
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(c) For her sample, Zhu is looking for a factory where there is a variety of jobs for the employees.
Suggest two reasons why this is important.
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Section C
10 Cari thinks that adults wearing brightly coloured clothing are more helpful to children than adults
wearing clothing that is not brightly coloured. She is planning a field experiment to investigate
which adults are more likely to return a ball to children who have kicked it out of reach.
(a) Describe how Cari could conduct a field experiment to investigate whether adults who wear
brightly coloured clothing are more helpful than those who do not.
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* 4 3 8 6 2 2 4 4 5 1 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (LK) 203514/2
2
Section A
1 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), several features of the procedure helped to improve
reliability.
(a) State what is meant by ‘reliability’.
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(b) Suggest how one feature of the procedure helped to make this study reliable.
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2 In the study by Andrade (doodling), one possible uncontrolled variable was whether the participants
had friends with the same names as the people in the mock telephone call.
(a) Suggest one problem this uncontrolled variable might have caused.
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(b) Suggest how the problem you referred to in (a) could be solved.
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3 (a) State what is meant by a ‘case study’.
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(b) One type of colour blindness is when people cannot tell the difference between the colours
red and green.
Describe how a case study to investigate colour blindness could be conducted.
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4 In the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping), quantitative data was collected.
Suggest one strength of collecting quantitative data in this study.
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5 Explain one weakness of random sampling.
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4
6 Describe structured observations and unstructured observations, using any examples.
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Section B
7 Kira is conducting a correlational study looking for a relationship between level of creativity and
the amount of time spent playing sport. Kira could find a positive or a negative correlation.
(a) State whether Kira should use a directional or a non-directional hypothesis. Include a reason
for your answer.
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(b) State what Kira would find if there was a negative correlation.
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(c) Write a null hypothesis for Kira’s study.
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(d) Kira finds a strong correlation.
Explain whether Kira will know if one variable is causing the change in the other variable.
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6
8 Ruth is planning an interview to investigate the emotional effect of being a wedding guest.
(a) Suggest one open question that Ruth could ask about the emotional effect of being a wedding
guest.
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(b) Suggest one closed question that Ruth could ask about the emotional effect of being a
wedding guest.
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(c) Explain how Ruth could ensure her procedure is ethical.
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9 Jabir is investigating the social lives of old people and is using a questionnaire to measure their
friendships.
(a) Jabir will use volunteer sampling but also wants to make his sample representative of old
people.
(i) Jabir has identified three features of old people that are relevant to his study:
• whether they live alone or not
• whether they belong to any group or club
• their exact age.
Suggest why each of these features is relevant to Jabir’s study.
whether they live alone or not ...........................................................................................
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whether they belong to any group or club .........................................................................
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their exact age ...................................................................................................................
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[3]
(ii) Describe how Jabir could use volunteer sampling to obtain a sample.
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(iii) Outline one reason why Jabir may exclude some old people from his sample.
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8
(b) Suggest how Jabir could define the variable of ‘friendship’ in his study.
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(c) Jabir intends to collect all of his data in two days.
Suggest one reason why this may reduce the validity of his findings.
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(d) Explain one weakness of using a questionnaire for Jabir’s study.
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Section C
10 Nuan wants to test the idea that the way words are presented affects recall. She predicts that
people will recall more words from a list they hear than from a list they see.
(a) Describe how Nuan could conduct a laboratory experiment to test the idea that the way words
are presented affects recall.
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* 9 9 2 6 4 1 2 5 3 5 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (LK/CB) 203513/1
2
Section A
1 (a) State what is meant by an ‘open question’.
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(b) Outline one open question from the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams).
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2 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), two of the groups of participants used were:
• Group 1 – AS/HFA participants
• Group 4 – participants from the general population.
(a) State two similarities between the participants in Group 1 and Group 4.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
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[2]
(b) State one difference between how Group 1 and Group 4 were selected, other than being
diagnosed with AS/HFA.
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3 The study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) raised ethical issues of ‘right to withdraw’ and
‘deception’.
Explain why the study by Piliavin et al. raised these ethical issues.
right to withdraw ...............................................................................................................................
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deception ..........................................................................................................................................
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[4]
4 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning) the sample was only one parrot, Alex. This parrot
could have differed from other parrots of the same species.
Explain how two possible differences could have affected Pepperberg’s study.
1 .......................................................................................................................................................
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4
5 The mean and the mode are measures of central tendency.
(a) Explain why the mean could be a better measure of central tendency than the mode.
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(b) Explain why a researcher may have to use the mode instead of the mean.
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6 Describe participant observation and non-participant observation, using any examples.
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Section B
7 Two friends, Zvi and Bill, are conducting a natural experiment. They are collecting data by
observing whether young or old people are more likely to become frustrated when trying to get on
a busy train.
(a) (i) Suggest how the friends could operationalise their independent variable.
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(ii) For the way you suggested in (a)(i):
Explain one strength of operationalising the independent variable in this way.
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(b) Explain what is meant by a ‘dependent variable’, using Zvi and Bill’s study as an example.
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6
(c) The friends agree that they should collect data over several days but have different plans for
when they should do this.
(i) Zvi plans to collect data at the same time each day.
Explain one strength of Zvi’s plan.
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(ii) Bill plans to collect data over a range of different times each day.
Explain one strength of Bill’s plan.
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8 Jacy is conducting a laboratory experiment to investigate the effect of eating chocolate on mood.
She predicts that eating chocolate will make people happier than not eating chocolate. She has 20
participants.
(a) Explain why Jacy is able to make a causal prediction.
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(b) Jacy gave each participant a number from 1 to 20. She has a hat which contains cards that are
numbered from 1 to 20. She takes 10 cards from the hat and uses the 10 people with those
numbers as her control group. She uses the remaining 10 participants as her experimental
group.
(i) Name the process Jacy is using in this part of her study.
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(ii) Explain one strength of this part of Jacy’s procedure.
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(c) Explain the experimental design that Jacy is using.
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8
9 Dr Lee is measuring two variables, tiredness and generosity, on scales of 0 to 10. He finds a
strong positive correlation between the two variables.
(a) Sketch a graph on the axes below using crosses to show the pattern of Dr Lee’s results.
You must label the axes. [4]
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(b) Write a null hypothesis for Dr Lee’s study.
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(c) Suggest one advantage of using correlations compared to experiments.
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Section C
10 Seth is planning a case study to investigate the communication and emotion in a family. The
family consists of a mother, father, grandmother and one son. They live in a remote house and do
not interact with other people often.
(a) Describe how Seth could conduct a case study to investigate the communication and emotion
in this family.
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* 7 5 6 1 0 4 3 9 4 6 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (LK) 203512/1
2
Section A
1 (a) State what is meant by the ‘aim’ of a study.
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(b) Outline one aim of the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans).
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2 The study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions) raised ethical issues of ‘right to withdraw’ and
‘protection from harm’.
Explain why the study by Canli et al. raised these ethical issues.
right to withdraw ...............................................................................................................................
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3 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory), random allocation was used.
(a) Explain what is meant by ‘random allocation’, using this study as an example.
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(b) Explain one strength of using random allocation in this study.
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4 In the study by Bandura et al. (aggression), children were shown a room full of attractive toys to
play with but were told they were for other children.
Explain one of the two reasons Bandura et al. gave for doing this.
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5 Two studies are using different methods to investigate the topic of dreaming in deaf people:
• Dr Kahlil is studying Joseph, who is deaf and has dreams about people using sign language.
• Dr Hart is studying six deaf people and six hearing people to compare the length of their REM
periods.
(a) Explain which one of these investigations is a case study.
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(b) Explain one strength of using a case study to investigate this topic.
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6 Describe positive correlations and negative correlations, using any examples.
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Section B
7 Jane is planning a laboratory experiment with two groups of participants. One group speaks one
language fluently and the other group speaks two or more languages fluently. Jane thinks this
may affect her dependent variable of how well they learn ‘nonsense’ words. These are words that
read like real words but have no meaning.
(a) Jane has two possible ways to measure her dependent variable:
• by timing how quickly the participant can recall 10 nonsense words correctly
• by counting the number of spelling errors made when recalling 10 nonsense words.
(i) Explain one strength of one of Jane’s measures of her dependent variable.
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(ii) Explain one weakness of the measure of the dependent variable that you have referred
to in (a)(i).
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(b) Suggest one way that Jane can operationalise ‘speaking a language fluently’.
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(c) Jane used an independent measures design in her experiment.
Explain one reason why it would have been better for Jane to use a matched pairs design
than an independent measures design.
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8 Kofi is planning an observation of aggression in sport. He will attend a range of different sporting
events to record aggressive behaviour. At first, Kofi is not certain what kinds of behaviours he will
see.
(a) (i) Explain why, at first, Kofi uses an unstructured observation.
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(ii) After watching different sports, Kofi can now use a structured observation.
Explain one strength of using a structured observation in Kofi’s study.
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(b) Kofi has decided to be a covert observer.
(i) Suggest one strength of being a covert observer in this study.
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(ii) Suggest one weakness of being a covert observer in this study.
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9 Naia wants to interview young people about how environmental issues make them feel. She
wants to collect data about emotional responses to issues such as recycling. She has decided to
conduct a structured interview.
(a) Suggest one open question Naia could ask about emotions.
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(b) Suggest one closed question Naia could ask about emotions.
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(c) Suggest one weakness of using a structured interview in Naia’s study.
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(d) One participant says that Naia’s questions are too personal.
Explain two ethical guidelines that are important to overcome this problem.
Do not refer to protection from harm or right to withdraw in your answer.
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Section C
10 Riley notices that children at his school appear to be nicer to each other at morning play time than
at afternoon play time.
(a) Describe how Riley could conduct a natural experiment to investigate when the children are
nicer.
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* 4 6 5 2 3 5 7 0 6 7 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (PQ/CGW) 206079/2
2
Section A
1 (a) Explain why a questionnaire is a self-report method, including an example from a core study
in your answer.
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(b) Explain one strength of using questionnaires in research.
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2 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) compared dream duration estimates for 5-minute and
15-minute REM periods.
Write a null hypothesis for this part of the study.
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3 In the study by Bandura et al. (aggression), inter-rater reliability was measured.
(a) Outline what is meant by ‘inter-rater reliability’.
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(b) Describe one part of the procedure that improved inter-rater reliability in this study.
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4
4 In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), observers counted the total number of victims
helped. The results were that 62 ‘cane’ victims and 19 ‘drunk’ victims were helped.
Draw a bar chart of these results. You must label the axes.
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5 In a study on memory, participants had to recall a story. The researchers measured memory by
rating the accuracy of each participant’s recall of the story on a 10-point scale.
Suggest one weakness of using this scale to measure memory.
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6 Describe laboratory experiments and field experiments, using any examples.
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Section B
7 Bruce is planning a case study of a famous woman known worldwide for her helpfulness.
(a) Explain one strength of the case study research method.
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(b) Explain two weaknesses of the case study research method, using Bruce’s study as an
example.
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8 Nola is investigating whether there is a correlation between hours of sleep and how much a
person argues. She thinks that people who sleep less may argue more. Her friend Tim is making
suggestions about her procedure.
(a) Nola and Tim have different ideas for recording participants’ hours of sleep per night:
• Nola plans to ask participants to record this at home.
• Tim says it would be better to record this in a laboratory.
(i) Suggest one ethical reason why Nola’s idea is better than Tim’s idea.
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(ii) Suggest one practical reason why Nola’s idea is better than Tim’s idea, other than
avoiding the need to use a laboratory.
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(iii) Suggest one practical reason why Tim’s idea is better than Nola’s idea.
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(b) Nola finds the correlation she expected, that people who sleep less argue more.
Explain why Nola cannot know whether sleeping less causes people to argue more.
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8
9 Naomi is designing an observation of helping behaviour at an entrance to a library that has a door
which is difficult to open. She intends to observe people carrying many books and will record the
gender of each person who helps to open the door.
(a) Naomi could either be a participant observer or a non-participant observer.
(i) Suggest one advantage of her being a participant observer.
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(ii) Suggest one advantage of her being a non-participant observer.
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(b) Explain the type of data Naomi is collecting.
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(c) Situational variables could affect Naomi’s results.
(i) State what is meant by a ‘situational variable’.
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(ii) Suggest how one situational variable could affect Naomi’s results.
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10
Section C
10 Brendan is planning to use a semi-structured interview in a study about road users. He intends to
use a sample of people who are walking (pedestrians). Brendan will investigate the pedestrians’
feelings, thoughts and actions towards other road users, e.g. other pedestrians, cyclists and drivers.
(a) Describe how Brendan could conduct a study using a semi-structured interview to investigate
participants’ feelings, thoughts and actions towards other road users.
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* 0 1 2 3 6 3 5 9 9 0 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (PQ/CGW) 206078/1
2
Section A
1 From the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion):
(a) Identify the sampling technique used in this study.
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(b) Explain how this sampling technique was used in this study.
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(c) One ethical strength of this study was that health checks were done.
Explain why this is an ethical strength.
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(a) Identify the sample and the population in this study, using the following information:
The findings of this study on 72 children were generalised to suggest that all children learn
aggression through observation.
sample: .....................................................................................................................................
population: .......................................................................................................................... [1]
(b) Explain one reason why generalisations should not be made from the 72 participants in this
study, other than because of their age.
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3 In a study investigating the emotions associated with birthdays, qualitative and quantitative data
are being collected. A possible problem with some of this data is subjectivity.
(a) State what is meant by ‘subjectivity’.
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(b) Suggest one way that qualitative data could be collected for this study.
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4 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), standard deviations were calculated on the Autism
Spectrum Quotient (AQ) scores and are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
AS/HFA group IQ-matched group
standard deviation of AQ scores 6.0 2.9
Explain what the information in Table 4.1 indicates about the results of these two groups.
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5 Explain what is meant by ‘operationalisation’ in relation to the dependent variable and independent
variable, using the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans).
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4
6 Describe reliability and validity, using any examples.
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Section B
7 Zayn is conducting a laboratory experiment to investigate the effects of lighting on attention. The
participants’ attention will be tested using a listening task in either bright light or dim light.
(a) Identify the independent variable in Zayn’s study.
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(b) Identify the dependent variable in Zayn’s study.
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(c) (i) State one relevant variable that Zayn should control in his study.
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(ii) Suggest how Zayn could control the variable you suggested in (c)(i).
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(iii) Explain why Zayn should control the variable you suggested in (c)(i).
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(d) Explain one practical reason why it is better for Zayn to test attention using a listening task
rather than a visual task.
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(e) Suggest one weakness of Zayn using a laboratory experiment to study attention.
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6
8 Gwyn is conducting a study about obedience to traffic rules. She believes that hot weather
makes people angry so they disobey rules. Each day she has recorded the daily temperature and
counted the number of speeding offences in her town. Gwyn has categorised the data in Table 8.1
according to temperature.
Table 8.1
Temperature (°C) 19–20 21–22 23–24 25–26 27–28
Number of speeding offences 6 10 9 13 17
(a) Draw a histogram of Gwyn’s data. You must label the axes.
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[3]
(b) Outline what Gwyn can conclude from her data.
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(c) A colleague says that several situational variables may be important in Gwyn’s study and that
she should have controlled them.
(i) Explain how one situational variable could have affected Gwyn’s results.
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(ii) Suggest how Gwyn could have reduced the effect of the situational variable that you
referred to in (c)(i).
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8
9 Hazel is conducting an overt, participant observation to identify factors that affect the emotions
of residents in a home for elderly people. She is a volunteer at the home, so the residents know
her.
(a) Explain one practical reason why it is useful that the residents know Hazel.
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(b) (i) Explain one ethical problem caused by the residents knowing Hazel.
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(ii) Suggest two ways that Hazel could overcome the ethical problem that you explained
in (b)(i).
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Question 10 appears on Page 10.

10
Section C
10 Jilpa plans to explore how personalities vary. She thinks that people’s personalities can have
several characteristics, for example, how serious/playful, talkative/quiet or optimistic/pessimistic
they are.
(a) Describe how Jilpa could conduct a study using a structured interview to investigate a range
of characteristics in people’s personalities.
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* 5 5 6 7 2 9 7 6 1 0 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (PQ/CGW) 206077/1
2
Section A
1 (a) Outline what is meant by ‘fatigue effects’.
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(b) In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), fatigue effects could have occurred.
State two examples of the parrot’s behaviour that suggest fatigue effects did occur.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
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2 Explain why opportunity sampling may not produce a representative sample.
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3 Studies using animals should follow the ethical guideline of ‘deprivation and aversive stimuli’. The
study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping) followed this ethical guideline.
Explain one feature of this study that ensured the chimpanzees were not exposed to deprivation/
aversive stimuli.
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4 In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), several types of quantitative data were
collected, including data from fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging).
(a) Describe two quantitative measures in this study, other than the data from fMRI.
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(b) For one of the quantitative measures you described in (a):
(i) Explain one reason why it may be a valid measure.
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(ii) Explain one reason why it may not be a valid measure.
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5 In the cognitive approach, studies often need to deceive participants.
Explain why deception was necessary in the study by Andrade (doodling).
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4
6 Describe covert observations and overt observations, using any examples.
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6
Section B
7 Dhia is investigating when children learn to understand differences between shapes. She is
comparing children aged 4 years and 8 years. Dhia will test their ability by asking them to sort
wooden shapes into triangles, squares or circles.
(a) Suggest two ways that Dhia could measure a child’s performance on this test.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
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(b) Ethical guidelines suggest that even when consent has been given by a parent, a child should
still be asked if they want to participate in a way that they will understand.
Suggest how Dhia could attempt to obtain informed consent from the children in a way that
they will understand.
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(c) Children may express their right to withdraw in different ways from adults.
Suggest how Dhia might know that a child wants to withdraw from her experiment.
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(d) The 4-year-old children had been learning about shapes at school the week before Dhia’s
study.
Explain the possible effect of this on Dhia’s findings.
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8 Bai is conducting a correlational study about pain and hours of daylight. He thinks that people
experience more pain on days when there is less sunlight. He has asked for volunteers from a
specialist centre for back pain.
(a) Bai plans to collect his data about pain using a questionnaire.
Explain one reason why it may be better for him to use an interview to collect this data.
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(b) (i) Suggest one disadvantage of using participants from a specialist centre for back pain.
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(ii) Suggest one alternative source of participants. Justify your answer.
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(c) Sketch a graph of the results Bai expects to find on the axes below. You must label the axes.
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9 Mitesh is investigating the effect of doodling on recall of animal noises. He provides pencils
and doodling paper for all participants and tells them that they will hear a recording of animal
noises that they will have to recall. Mitesh notes which participants doodle while they listen to the
recording.
(a) Suggest how Mitesh could encourage participants to doodle, other than by telling them to
doodle.
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(b) The participants who doodled recalled more animal noises than the participants who did not
doodle. However, Mitesh cannot conclude that doodling causes better recall.
Suggest one reason why Mitesh cannot conclude that doodling causes better recall.
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(c) Mitesh did not deceive his participants.
Explain why it was necessary for him to debrief his participants.
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10
Section C
10 Mandy wants to investigate the effects of phobias on the way people socialise, such as how
friendly they are and the social groups or clubs they belong to.
(a) Describe how Mandy could conduct a study using a questionnaire to investigate the effects of
phobias on the way people socialise.
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* 0 6 4 7 2 1 8 8 7 5 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (CE/SG) 303152/2
2
Section A
1 The study by Andrade (doodling) was a laboratory experiment. One feature of a laboratory
experiment is that it has controls to limit the effect of extraneous variables.
(a) State two other features of a laboratory experiment.
1 ................................................................................................................................................
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(b) (i) Suggest two controls that were important in this study.
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(ii) For one of the controls you suggested in (i):
Explain how the results could have been affected if this control had not been used.
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2 A study has the experimental hypothesis ‘There will be a gender difference in aggression’. This is
a non-directional hypothesis rather than a directional hypothesis.
(a) Explain what makes this a ‘non-directional hypothesis’.
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3 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), Alex the parrot was the only participant.
(a) Explain one advantage of using one participant in this study.
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(b) Explain one disadvantage of using one participant in this study.
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4 State two features of a normal distribution.
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5 In the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping), the results included how often the helper’s
first tool offer was a stick. The percentage of stick offers when a stick was needed and when a
straw was needed could be displayed on a bar chart.
Explain why a bar chart would be the most appropriate way to display these results.
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4
6 Describe ‘opportunity sampling’ and ‘random sampling’, using any examples.
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5
Section B
7 Clark is a psychologist investigating whether the behaviours people dream about can be done in
everyday life or not. He is monitoring participants’ sleep in his laboratory and then interviewing
them.
(a) (i) Suggest one behaviour in dreams that Clark could ask about which can be done in
everyday life. Your suggestion must be ethical.
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(ii) Suggest one behaviour in dreams that Clark could ask about which cannot be done in
everyday life. Your suggestion must be ethical.
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(b) Clark believes that some participants may lie. For example, they may falsely report dream
behaviours to impress Clark.
Suggest one way that Clark could minimise this type of lying in his study.
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(c) Clark is concerned that some participants may also lie about their dreams because the events
in them are too personal to report to Clark.
Explain which ethical guideline Clark is concerned about.
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6
(d) Clark thinks that participants’ eye movements during dream sleep are related to the content
of their dreams.
Suggest how Clark could use participants’ eye movements during dream sleep to investigate
whether they are lying about their dream content.
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8 Liang is planning to observe behaviour in a park. He is going to sit on a bench and pretend to be
using his phone. His aim is to investigate factors which could cause one person to say hello to
another person. Two possible factors are age and gender.
(a) Explain whether Liang is conducting a participant observation or a non-participant observation.
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(b) Liang expects that if a person has an animal with them, other people will be more likely to say
hello.
Explain one other factor for Liang to observe that could affect whether a person says hello.
Do not refer to age or gender in your answer.
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(c) Liang collects data about the number of males and females who say hello when another
person has an animal with them. He plots his data on the graph in Fig. 1.
80
70
60
percentage of 50
participants 40
saying hello 30
20
10
0
male says hello female says hello male says hello female says hello
animal present animal present no animal present no animal present
Fig. 1
Suggest two conclusions Liang can draw from his data in Fig. 1.
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(d) Participants could realise that Liang is conducting an observation.
Suggest two problems this could cause.
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9 Tara can measure physical reaction time using a machine that records the time between a light
flashing and the participant pressing a button. Tara will use this measurement to investigate
whether there is a relationship between participants’ physical reaction time and how quickly they
can recall numbers.
(a) Explain the research method that Tara is using.
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(b) Suggest a procedure Tara could use to measure how quickly participants can recall numbers.
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(c) Suggest one practical problem with the procedure you have suggested in (b).
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Section C
10 Justin wants to investigate whether adults are happier when they play particular sports. Many
different sports could affect happiness in different ways.
(a) Describe how Justin could conduct a study using a questionnaire to investigate how different
sports affect adults’ happiness.
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Cambridge Assessment International Education is part of Cambridge Assessment. Cambridge Assessment is the brand name of the University of Cambridge
Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES), which is a department of the University of Cambridge.
© UCLES 2022 9990/22/F/M/22

* 5 2 4 7 6 6 2 5 2 9 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (RW) 303173/1
2
Section A
(a) Describe how the quantitative data was collected in this study.
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(b) Suggest one advantage of using quantitative data in this study.
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2 A study has the experimental hypothesis ‘Older people will forget more often than younger people’.
This is a ‘directional hypothesis’ rather than a ‘non-directional hypothesis’.
Explain what makes this a ‘directional hypothesis’.
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3
3 A problem in experimental studies is the presence of uncontrolled variables. One uncontrolled

variable in the study by Andrade (doodling) was how likely each participant was to daydream.
(a) Describe what is meant by an ‘uncontrolled variable’.
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(b) Explain why the uncontrolled variable of daydreaming was a problem in this study.
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4 A correlational study tested the idea that the amount of time spent using a phone is linked to
quality of sleep.
(a) (i) State the relationship between the variables measured in this study, if a positive
correlation was found.
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(ii) State the relationship between the variables measured in this study, if a negative
correlation was found.
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(b) Suggest one reason why it was more appropriate to conduct a correlational study rather than
an experiment to test this idea.
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4
5 In the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), one way that data was collected was by
listening to the comments made by subway passengers. Differences were reported in relation to
the type of victim the comments referred to.
(a) Describe one of these differences.
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(b) Suggest one problem the observers could have had when listening to the comments made
by subway passengers.
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6 Describe what is meant by a ‘semi-structured interview’ and an ‘unstructured interview’, using any
examples.
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Section B
7 Rhiain is investigating how much time babies spend in REM sleep. She thinks that bigger babies
will spend more time in REM sleep than smaller babies.
(a) State the aim of Rhiain’s study.
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(b) One technique that Rhiain could use to measure REM sleep duration is an EEG
(electroencephalograph).
(i) Suggest one disadvantage of using this technique in Rhiain’s study.
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(ii) Suggest why using one other technique to measure REM sleep duration would be more
appropriate in this study.
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6
(c) Rhiain also wants to know whether babies who are in REM sleep are having dreams but the
babies cannot answer questions about the content of their dreams.
Suggest how Rhiain could observe the babies during REM sleep to investigate the content of
their dreams.
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8 Kylo is planning a case study to investigate the importance of a pet/domesticated animal in the life
of an elderly person.
(a) When choosing his sample of one elderly person he has several decisions to make.
Suggest who Kylo should look for as a participant, including:

• the pet/domesticated animal they have and why the elderly person has this animal
• one other decision he must make when choosing his participant.
Do not refer to sampling techniques in your answer.
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(b) (i) Suggest one technique Kylo could use to collect data from his participant in his case
study.
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(ii) Explain one advantage of the technique you suggested in (b)(i).
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(iii) Explain one disadvantage of the technique you suggested in (b)(i).
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8
9 Rory is investigating factors that affect feeding behaviour in animals.
(a) Rory has chosen to observe the feeding behaviour of some fish.
Suggest one problem Rory could have when observing these fish.
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(b) Rory will keep these fish in a container filled with water.
Suggest one other feature related to ‘housing’ that Rory should consider.
Do not refer to feeding in your answer.
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(c) Explain why using fish will limit the generalisability of Rory’s findings.
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Section C
10 Gareth wants to investigate whether people are more friendly to each other after a positive public
event, for example, a festival or a celebrity wedding.
(a) Design a natural experiment to test whether a positive public event makes people more
friendly to each other. You may use any positive public event.
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© UCLES 2022 9990/21/M/J/22

* 6 0 2 4 6 6 2 1 4 7 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (RW/CT) 303149/2
2
Section A
1 State what is meant by ‘reliability’.
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2 Explain the difference between ‘qualitative data’ and ‘quantitative data’.
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3 Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion) was a laboratory experiment.
(a) The participants in this study were all male. A new experiment could explore gender differences
in the effect of epinephrine. However, the stooge may influence emotions differently in males
and females.
Suggest how a difference between the influence of the stooge on males and females could
affect the results about gender differences in the effect of epinephrine.
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3
(b) A second new experiment could include a stooge who claims to feel ill because of the
injection.
(i) Suggest how one participant variable could affect the results of this second new
experiment.
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(ii) Explain one ethical problem with this second new experiment.
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4
4 In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), eight problems of validity were identified with the
original version of the eyes test. Two of these problems were that:
• the task involved a forced choice between only two response options (the two words
presented)
• the test included basic mental states.
(a) Explain why each of these problems affected the validity of this study.
the task involved a forced choice between only two response options ....................................
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(b) Explain how solving one of these problems improved the validity of the eyes test.
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5
5 In the study by Milgram (obedience), the sample included a range of occupations.
Name two of these occupations.
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[1]
6 Describe the use of ‘open questions’ and ‘closed questions’ in research, using any examples.
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6
Section B
7 Geoffrey is conducting structured interviews about people’s use of social media. He is investigating
how much time people spend on social media and how positive they feel about it.
(a) Geoffrey finds that the time participants spend on social media is normally distributed.
Sketch the shape of this normal distribution using the axes below. You must label the axes.
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[3]
(b) Geoffrey finds that some participants give interesting responses, but he does not explore
their use of social media further.
(i) Explain one practical reason why using a structured interview means that Geoffrey
cannot explore these participants’ use of social media further.
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(ii) Explain one ethical reason why Geoffrey may choose not to explore these participants’
use of social media further.
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7
Question 8 appears on the next page.

8
8 Faolan is investigating teachers’ attitudes and behaviours towards students doodling. She has
conducted a semi-structured interview and has observed the teachers in the classroom.
(a) (i) Faolan asks each teacher to rate how annoyed they feel when a student in their class
doodles.
Suggest a scale that Faolan could use to measure how annoyed the teachers are.
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(ii) Explain one problem with the scale that you have suggested in (a)(i), including how this
would affect the results.
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(b) Faolan is interested to know whether teachers show the same behaviours in the classroom
when students doodle as they reported during the interview.
(i) Suggest two reasons why the teachers’ interview responses may differ from their
behaviour in the classroom. Your answers should not relate to the scale you suggested
in (a)(i).
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(ii) If Faolan finds that teachers do not show the same behaviours in the classroom as they
report during the interview, this raises an ethical issue.
Suggest why it could be difficult for Faolan to follow the ethical guideline of ‘protection
from harm’ when she explains her results to the participants.
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10
9 Tulip is conducting a study on social behaviour in animals. She is investigating whether animals
are more sociable when they are in a large laboratory cage or a small laboratory cage.
(a) Tulip has to decide which species to use.
Explain how one ethical guideline relating to animals would affect her decision.
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(b) Tulip is finding a median. She puts her scores in order.
State what a researcher should do to find the median if there are two middle numbers.
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(c) Explain how Tulip would find the range of the number of sociable behaviours of the animals in
the small cage.
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(d) Explain why it would be appropriate for Tulip to use counterbalancing if she chose a repeated
measures experimental design.
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Section C
10 Enfys wants to investigate whether different types of shopper are more relaxed than others. For
example, whether shoppers with trolleys/carts are more relaxed than shoppers with baskets.
(a) Describe how Enfys could conduct a natural experiment to investigate whether some types
of shopper are more relaxed than other types of shoppers. You may choose to compare
shoppers with trolleys/carts and baskets or any other different types of shopper.
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© UCLES 2022 9990/22/M/J/22

* 5 4 5 3 1 5 0 9 6 2 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
This document has 12 pages.
DC (LK/CT) 303178/1
2
Section A
1 In the study by Andrade (doodling), parts of the procedure helped to reduce demand characteristics.
Describe two parts of the procedure that helped to reduce demand characteristics in this study.
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2 (a) State the difference between an ‘aim’ and a ‘hypothesis’.
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(b) A non-directional hypothesis for a study states that ‘Boys and girls differ in how aggressive
they are’ but the researcher has decided to use a directional hypothesis instead.
Suggest a directional hypothesis for this study.
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3 The study by Milgram (obedience) was not an experiment because there was no independent
variable. Milgram later compared the results of this study to the findings of the same procedure
carried out in an old office block. This comparison was an experiment.
(a) State the independent variable in this experiment.
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(b) State the dependent variable in this experiment.
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4 (a) Explain what is meant by the ethical guideline of ‘species and strain’ in relation to animals in
psychological research.
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(b) Describe how the ethical guideline of ‘housing’ affects what psychologists should and should
not do when studying animals.
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4
5 In the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion), the placebo condition was a control
condition.
(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘control condition’.
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(b) Explain the purpose of this control condition in this study.
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6 Describe ‘random sampling’ and ‘volunteer sampling’, using any examples.
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5
Question 7 appears on the next page.

6
Section B
7 Mrs Colling is a headteacher/principal of a school and is planning an experiment to investigate

whether rewards or punishments are best for improving students’ learning. The independent
variable is whether students receive rewards or punishments.
(a) (i) Suggest two ways that Mrs Colling could ask teachers to reward students in their
classes.
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(ii) Explain which of the ways you suggested in (a)(i) would be a more valid manipulation of
the independent variable in this experiment.
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(b) Mrs Colling is talking to teachers about what punishment to use. Two suggested punishments
are:
• missing breaktime every day for a week while standing outside the staffroom
• making the student write a public letter of apology to the school.
Both suggested punishments are rejected by the teachers for ethical and practical reasons.
(i) Suggest one ethical problem with one of these punishments.
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(ii) Suggest one practical problem with one of these punishments.
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8
8 Ruby has conducted an experiment about language learning in animals using an animal called
Delphine. Delphine has learned to make noises with different meanings. Ruby has tested
Delphine’s understanding of word types, including:
• shapes
• colours
• food types
(a) Ruby’s results for the three word types are given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1
Word type shapes colours foods

Number of words understood 5 8 15
(i) Draw a bar chart of these results. You must label the axes.
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(ii) State which measure of central tendency would be most appropriate for Ruby to use
with this data.
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(b) Ruby plans to include two more word categories.
Explain why this would improve Ruby’s results.
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(c) Ruby is concerned that sometimes she will not hear Delphine’s noises so wants to use a
second observer to help her.
Outline two disadvantages of having a second observer.
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9 Dr Felix is conducting a natural experiment to test whether seeing television advertisements for a
charity for older people makes participants behave more positively towards them. He measures
this by giving a questionnaire about behaviour towards older people to a group of students. He
gives the students the questionnaire one week before the advertisements appear on television
and again the week after.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘natural experiment’, using this study as an example.
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(b) Suggest one problem with natural experiments, using this study as an example.
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10
(c) Dr Felix thinks it could be better to use covert observations rather than questionnaires to
measure positive behaviour towards older people. He could have several older people as
stooges, pretending to struggle with their shopping, and he could observe how the students
behave.
(i) Suggest one advantage of using covert observation rather than questionnaires in this
study.
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(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of using covert observation rather than questionnaires in this
study.
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Section C
10 Jimmy wants to investigate individual differences in dreams. He is interested in many differences

between participants, such as whether each individual:
• has consistent dream content
• has meaningful dreams
• dreams in colour.
(a) Describe how Jimmy could conduct a study using an interview to investigate at least two
individual differences in dreams.
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* 7 0 2 6 4 5 6 8 0 2 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (LK/JG) 302216/2
2
Section A
1 The study by Milgram (obedience) used a shock generator, which looked real.
Explain why it was necessary that the shock generator looked real.
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2 Bill has two groups of children in his study and writes a directional hypothesis. It states that ‘Older
children are more obedient than younger children’. He then decides that this might not be correct
and uses a non-directional hypothesis instead.
(a) Suggest a non-directional hypothesis for Bill’s study.
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(b) State how Bill will find the mode for the age of the group of younger children.
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(c) Suggest two reasons why it could be ethically more difficult to measure obedience in children
than in adults.
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3 Describe two features of a laboratory experiment. Use a different example from the study by
Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion) for each feature.
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4 Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) presented the eyes test results on a graph showing the percentage
of participants who gained each score. The graph is shown in Fig. 1.
(a) Label the axes on Fig. 1, using the answer spaces below.
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Fig. 1
[2]
(b) Name the type of distribution shown in Fig. 1.
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5 Participants in a study are learning to throw a ball through a hoop.
Suggest how the variable of ‘learning’ could be operationalised in this study.
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6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘species and strain’ and ‘numbers’ in relation to animals, using
any examples.
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6
Section B
7 Kate is using a questionnaire to investigate how participants could feel about people who are
older than them. The emotions she is investigating are:
• boredom
• empathy
• fear
• happiness.
(a) (i) Kate needs to define each of these emotions.
Suggest how Kate could operationalise two of the emotions that she is investigating.
1 ........................................................................................................................................
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2 ........................................................................................................................................
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(ii) For one of your suggestions in (a)(i):
Explain why Kate could misinterpret this emotion when gathering data in her study.
Emotion: ....................................
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(b) Kate measures how strongly the participants feel each emotion about people who are older
than them, using a score from 0–10.
(i) Kate wants to find the median ‘happiness’ score.
Outline how to find a median score.
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(ii) Kate wants to use a graph to plot the median results for each of the four emotions.
Name the most appropriate type of graph for Kate to use.
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(iii) Kate calculated the standard deviation of scores for each emotion. The standard
deviations are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Emotion boredom empathy fear happiness

Standard deviation 1.4 3.2 2.2 2.6
Explain which emotion had the widest spread of scores.
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8 Gill is planning a structured interview about disruptions to sleep patterns. She is investigating the
effects of work, sport and family. She begins by writing four questions:
A Describe how your sleep pattern changes when extra family members stay for the night.
B How long do you sleep after you have participated in sport compared to when you have not
participated in sport? More time / less time.
C Is your sleep quality in the week compared to the weekend better, worse or about the same?
D Explain how any other factors affect your sleep patterns.
(a) Identify one closed question from A to D.
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(b) Identify one open question from A to D.
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(c) Gill plans two more questions to use in her structured interview:
E Is your sleep better or worse if you eat a meal close to bedtime? Better / worse.
F Explain how your sleep pattern is affected if you work at night.
Suggest one problem that Gill could have when using one of the new questions.
Question E or F: .........................
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8
(d) Gill’s friend reads the six questions and says it would be better if she conducted a semi-
structured interview instead of her structured interview.
(i) Explain what makes Gill’s interview a structured interview.
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(ii) Suggest how Gill could change her structured interview into a semi-structured interview.
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(e) Gill notices that people who look like they have not slept well often refuse to take part in the
study.
Explain how this problem could affect the results of Gill’s study.
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9 Manas is a researcher at a drug company and is conducting an experiment to test a new drug for
patients who have phobias. The drug is a clear, tasteless liquid that should help the patients to
relax during therapy. Manas selects 10 patients who will take the new drug and 10 other patients
who will be given water, which is also clear and tasteless. The patients in both groups believe they
are taking the new drug.
(a) Identify the experimental condition and the control condition in this experiment.
experimental condition: .............................................................................................................
control condition: ................................................................................................................ [1]
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(b) Manas has controlled two variables. The drug is:

• a clear liquid
• tasteless.
(i) Suggest two other controls that could be used in this experiment to keep the experimental
condition and the control condition as similar as possible.
1 ........................................................................................................................................
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(ii) Explain why it is important to keep the experimental condition and the control condition
as similar as possible.
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(c) Suggest two ethical problems with this experiment.
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10
Section C
10 Dr Angelo wants to investigate how young children respond when their teachers are helpful. She
has seen teachers being helpful to children in the classroom and in the playground.
(a) Describe how Dr Angelo can conduct an observational study to investigate the behaviour of
children when their teachers are helpful.
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* 0 6 7 3 3 4 2 8 7 3 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (LK/CGW) 302217/2
2
Section A
1 The hypothesis for a study is ‘Adults with children worry more than adults without children’.
(a) State whether this is a directional hypothesis or a non-directional hypothesis. Include a reason
for your answer.
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2 From the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping):
(a) Outline what is meant by ‘reliability’, using this study as an example.
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(b) Suggest one way to improve reliability in this study.
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3 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), quantitative data was collected from the questions
about ‘same’ and ‘different’.
(a) Outline what was observed to produce the quantitative data in this study.
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(b) Qualitative data can also be useful in studies. Pepperberg could have collected qualitative
data by observing the parrot.
(i) Describe what is meant by ‘qualitative data’.
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(ii) Describe one behaviour that could have been observed to produce qualitative data in
this study.
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(iii) Explain why qualitative data for the behaviour you identified in (b)(ii) would have been
useful in this study.
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4
4 In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams), brain activity during sleep was recorded
using an EEG (electroencephalograph). Another way to record brain activity is with fMRI (functional
magnetic resonance imaging).
Suggest two reasons why using an EEG to record brain activity during sleep is a more appropriate
choice than using an fMRI.
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5 In the study by Andrade (doodling), a median could have been calculated for the results of the
doodling group and the control group.
Outline how a median could have been calculated for the number of names recalled by each
group in this study.
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6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘deception’ and ‘confidentiality’, using any examples.
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6
Section B
7 Shula is investigating whether there are differences in the way that younger and older people
behave when they see each other. She is using observations to record the following behaviours:
• smiling
• waving
• shouting.
(a) Explain whether Shula is conducting a structured observation or an unstructured observation.
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(b) (i) Explain why it would be better for Shula to conduct a covert observation than an overt
observation.
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(ii) Suggest one problem with Shula conducting a covert observation.
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8 Mahi is observing the effect of music on emotions. In part of her study she is collecting data from
20 participants about their emotional responses to songs. She is using the following categories to
observe emotional responses:
• angry
• bored
• happy
• relaxed.
(a) (i) Suggest how Mahi could operationalise two of these categories of observed emotional
responses.
1 ........................................................................................................................................
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2 ........................................................................................................................................
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[2]
(ii) For one of your suggestions for the operationalisation of a category in part 8(a)(i):
Explain why Mahi could misinterpret or incorrectly categorise an observed emotional

response of a participant in her study.
category: .........................................
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(b) Mahi is collecting data in the table below. This is the number of participants who showed each
of the four emotional responses. She wants to display this data on a bar chart.
Observed emotional responses

angry bored happy relaxed
Number of participants showing
each emotional response
Label the axes for the bar chart that Mahi will use to display her results.
[3]

8
(c) In a second study, Mahi’s participants will listen to different types of music. She expects that
fast music will make the participants feel happy and slow music will make them feel unhappy.
(i) Explain one ethical problem with the design of this study.
Do not refer to deception or confidentiality in your answer.
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(ii) Suggest one way that Mahi could solve the ethical problem you explained in part 8(c)(i).
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9 Syd is using an experiment to test whether epinephrine affects sleep. He has two groups of
participants, one group receives an epinephrine injection and the other group receives a saline
injection. The participants do not know what their injection contains. Each participant is tested at a
town centre laboratory on a different night over a 20-night period. The town centre is very busy at
the weekend but quiet during the week.
(a) Explain why it is important that participants do not know which condition they are in during an
experiment.
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(b) Identify Syd’s experimental design. Include a reason for your answer.
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(c) Suggest one participant variable that could affect Syd’s experiment.
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(d) Suggest one situational variable that could affect Syd’s experiment.
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10
Section C
10 Dr Mitchell wants to investigate how physically active people are, and he believes that this may be
related to how much they use social media.
(a) Describe how Dr Mitchell could conduct a correlational study to investigate the relationship
between how physically active people are and how much they use social media.
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* 0 9 5 4 1 4 7 5 2 6 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (CJ) 302218/2
2
Section A
1 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) investigated a correlation between the length of the
dream narrative and the duration of the REM period.
Describe the correlation that was found.
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2 A researcher is planning to investigate forgetting in very old people. However, measuring forgetting
in very old people can be more ethically and practically difficult than measuring forgetting in
younger people.
(a) Suggest one ethical reason why measuring forgetting in very old people can be difficult.
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(b) Suggest one practical reason why measuring forgetting in very old people can be difficult.
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3 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory) two of the questionnaires used were the Food History
Inventory (FHI) and the Restaurant Questionnaire (RQ).
(a) (i) Each of these questionnaires included a ‘critical item’.
Explain what is meant by a ‘critical item’.
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(ii) Describe how the critical item in either the FHI or the RQ was measured.
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(b) Explain the purpose of the items that are not critical items in the FHI and the RQ.
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4 A teacher records each student’s test results once a week. At the end of the year he calculates the
mean of the test results for each student.
Describe how the mean would be calculated in this study.
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4
5 In the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping), a small sample of chimpanzees was tested.
(a) Explain one practical weakness of using this small sample.
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(b) Explain one ethical strength of using this small sample.
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6 Describe laboratory experiments and natural experiments, using any examples.
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6
Section B
7 Pranit uses a questionnaire to investigate whether psychology students know more about operant
conditioning than the general public. His questions are:
A Describe what you think a ‘reward’ is and does.
B Tell me what ‘punishment’ is and does.
C “Rewards are more effective than punishment”. Do you agree? yes / no.
D How sure are you that you could accurately explain ‘operant conditioning’?
1 = certainly could, 5 = certainly could not.
(a) (i) Identify one closed question from A to D.
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(ii) Identify one open question from A to D.
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(b) (i) Pranit adds two new questions to his questionnaire:

E Do rewards increase or decrease the frequency of a behaviour?
increase / decrease.
F Explain the effect of punishment on the frequency of a behaviour.
Suggest one problem that Pranit could have when using one of the new questions.
Question E or F: ..........................
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(ii) Explain what the responses to Question E and Question F would tell Pranit about the
participants’ understanding of operant conditioning.
E ........................................................................................................................................
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8 Candy is investigating sleepiness in a student population. She is recording the number of hours’
sleep the students have at the beginning and at the end of the year. She has identified two
extraneous variables. One is a participant variable and one is a situational variable:
• Highly motivated students often work harder at the beginning of the year
• Late-night parties are more common at the end of the year.
(a) Explain which one of these is a participant variable.
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(b) Explain which one of these is a situational variable.
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(c) (i) Suggest how Candy could limit the effect of either the participant variable or the
situational variable.
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(ii) Attempting to limit the effects of one extraneous variable in a study can create other
problem effects.
Suggest one problem that your answer to (c)(i) could create in Candy’s study.
Do not refer to demand characteristics in your answer.
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(d) Candy is also concerned about the effect of demand characteristics on her results.
(i) Suggest one way that demand characteristics could affect Candy’s results.
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8
(ii) Candy does not want to deceive her participants by giving them a false aim.
Suggest one way that Candy might reduce the effect of demand characteristics on her
results, other than by giving her participants a false aim.
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9 Vernon is conducting an observational study about the helping behaviour of students in a school.
(a) Vernon wants to use an opportunity sample but his teacher tells him that his sample will not
be representative.
Explain what Vernon’s teacher means, using an example relating to Vernon’s study.
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(b) Vernon decides to use a random sample instead.
Suggest how Vernon could obtain a random sample of 50 participants.
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(c) Vernon is planning how to observe and record helpful behaviour in the school.
(i) Suggest how two helping behaviours could be operationalised for Vernon’s observation.
1 .........................................................................................................................................
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2 .........................................................................................................................................
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(ii) Suggest how Vernon could be a non-participant observer to collect data about helpful
behaviour.
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10
Section C
10 Meena wants to investigate one child in a class who is very resistant to authority and is sometimes
very disobedient. Meena wants to study the child in detail to explore the child’s behaviour.
(a) Describe how Meena could conduct a case study to investigate the behaviour of this child.
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* 9 0 9 3 8 1 8 8 9 6 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (CJ/SW) 318183/3
2
Section A
1 A hypothesis is ‘There will be no difference between how quickly men and women blink in response
to a flash of light’.
Name this type of hypothesis.
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2 Table 2.1 shows some results from the experiment by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions).
Table 2.1
Emotional intensity rating

(0 = ‘not intense at all’ to 3 = ‘extremely intense’)
0 1 2 3
Percentage of images forgotten 44 41 42 22
(a) Draw a graph of the data in Table 2.1 using the axes below. You must label the axes.
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(b) Outline one finding about emotional intensity rating and level of forgetting, using the data in
Table 2.1.
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3 Explain the importance of the ethical guideline of ‘housing’ in relation to animals.
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4 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory), questionnaires were used to collect data.
(a) Outline one difference between a questionnaire and an interview.
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(b) Explain one advantage of collecting data using questionnaires compared to interviews.
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(c) Explain one weakness of using questionnaires in this study.
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5 The research by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) was a case study. It used a variety of
techniques including interviews and a scale (the feelings thermometer).
Suggest one strength of using a variety of techniques in a case study.
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6 Describe what is meant by the research methods of correlations and experiments, using any
examples.
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Section B
7 Gregor is planning an experiment to compare the feelings of adults who work indoors with the
feelings of adults who work outdoors. He thinks that where a person works may influence how
relaxed they feel at work.
(a) Suggest a quantitative measure of ‘feeling relaxed’ that could be used in this study.
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(b) Gregor thinks that variables other than where a person works could influence their feelings
and he is therefore using a matched pairs design.
(i) Suggest two variables that would be relevant for matching participants in this study.
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(ii) Explain why each of the two variables that you suggested in (b)(i) would be relevant in
this study.
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8 Elise is investigating whether children learn food preferences from their parents. She is conducting
a self-report study to compare the food preferences of children and their parents.
(a) Elise has some ethical concerns.
(i) Some parents could feel that questions about what they eat every day are too personal.
Explain which ethical guideline Elise is concerned about here.
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(ii) When children answer questions about food they do not like, it could make them feel
upset about their food preferences.
Explain which ethical guideline Elise is concerned about here.
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(b) Elise has decided to use volunteer sampling.
(i) Explain how Elise could use volunteer sampling in her study.
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(ii) A friend suggests that Elise should use random sampling instead of volunteer sampling.
Suggest one advantage of using random sampling instead of volunteer sampling in

Elise’s study.
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(c) Elise believes that learning is the only factor affecting the children’s food preferences.
Suggest why Elise’s belief could lower the validity of her study.
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8
9 Samir is comparing a parrot’s learning of colour words and action words. His parrot is learning
four colour words (red, blue, yellow, green) and must choose a box of the same colour to receive
a food reward. The parrot is also learning four action words (hop, peck, jump, squawk) and must
perform the correct action to receive a food reward.
(a) Outline how Samir could operationalise the action ‘jump’ in his study.
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(b) Samir’s friend Daniel says the action of ‘jump’ is too similar to ‘hop’. His advice is that Samir
should use the action of ‘nod’ (moving the head up and down) instead of ‘hop’.
Explain why the study would be better if Samir follows Daniel’s advice.
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(c) Samir decides that he needs to video the parrot’s responses so that he can score each
response twice.
Suggest why Samir made this decision.
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Section C
10 When a person pays more attention to their mobile phone than the person they are with, this is
called ‘phone snubbing’. Wyatt wants to investigate phone snubbing in men and women using an
overt observation.
(a) Describe how Wyatt could conduct a study using an overt observation to investigate phone
snubbing in men and women.
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* 7 2 9 1 1 0 7 1 9 8 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (RW) 318179/2
2
Section A
1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘ecological validity’. You may use an example in your answer.
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2 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory), different types of items were used in the various
questionnaires. Two of the items included:
• rating items on a scale of 1–8 (from ‘definitely did happen’ to ‘definitely did not happen’)
• multiple choice items where participants circled a price they would pay for different foods, e.g.
$1.90, $2.50, or ‘would never buy’.
(a) Explain whether these items are both open questions, both closed questions, or one of each.
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(b) Laney et al. used a ‘critical item’ in the profile and in a questionnaire given to the experimental
group.
Explain what is meant by a ‘critical item’, using the example from Laney et al.
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3 In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), a repeated measures design was used.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘repeated measures design’. Include an example from Canli et al.
in your answer.
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(b) Explain one strength of using a repeated measures design.
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4 Explain two ways in which the procedure was standardised in the study by Yamamoto et al.
(chimpanzee helping).
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[4]

4
5 Reliability refers to the consistency of tests, tasks or measures in research.
Explain why reliability is important in experiments.
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6 Describe the sampling techniques of ‘opportunity sampling’ and ‘volunteer sampling’, using any
examples.
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5
Section B
7 Steve is planning an experiment, using the technique of observation, to compare the level of
frustration shown by shoppers in different types of shops. He has set up cameras to help measure
the behaviour of shoppers in shops selling basic goods (things that are essential) and shops
selling luxury goods (things that are not essential).
(a) Steve is concerned that situational variables could be a problem in his study.
(i) Suggest two situational variables that could affect Steve’s study.
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[2]
(ii) Explain how each of the situational variables that you suggested in (a)(i) could be a
problem in Steve’s study.
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6
(b) Steve is also concerned about the ethics of his study.
(i) Suggest why the ethical guideline of right to withdraw would be difficult for Steve to follow
in his study.
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(ii) Suggest why the ethical guideline of privacy would be difficult for Steve to follow in his
study.
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7
8 Leila is conducting a correlational study. She predicts that there will be a correlation between:
• ‘success at learning a language’
• ‘enjoyment of word puzzles’, e.g. crosswords.
(a) Suggest an objective measure of ‘success at learning a language’ that Leila could use. Justify
your answer. Do not use a self-report rating scale.
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(b) Leila is measuring ‘enjoyment of word puzzles’ by asking participants to rate how much they
enjoy word puzzles on a scale of 0 (not at all) to 5 (very much).
Explain how Leila would calculate the median for ‘enjoyment of word puzzles’.
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(c) Leila conducts her study. Her results show a positive correlation.
Sketch a graph, using the axes below, to show the pattern of Leila’s results.
You must label the axes.
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[4]

8
9 Inma is conducting an experiment about learning. She predicts that animals will learn to find food
in a maze faster in the light than in the dark. If an animal does not find the food after 10 minutes,
they are given the food by the experimenter.
(a) Inma is using a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis.
Explain why Inma is using a directional hypothesis in her experiment.
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(b) Write a null hypothesis for Inma’s experiment.
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(c) Inma will use an independent measures design for her experiment.
Explain one advantage of using an independent measures design compared to a repeated

measures design.
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(d) Explain how Inma followed one ethical guideline in relation to animals.
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9
Section C
10 Dr Clare is planning an observational study of student behaviour in a library at a university. She

will be the only observer. She is interested in student behaviours such as:
• how they study
• how they find books
• what they do in the library other than studying
• how long they spend in the library.
(a) Describe how Dr Clare could conduct an observational study to investigate the behaviour of
students in a library at a university.
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* 9 1 0 9 8 9 9 0 7 4 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (EF/SG) 318180/2
2
Section A
1 From the study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping):
Suggest why it was necessary for the chimpanzees to examine and manipulate the tools before
the experiment.
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2 Chloë is conducting a study to investigate classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Her aim
is to test which type of conditioning produces the fastest learning.
(a) Write a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis for Chloë’s study.
You do not need to operationalise the variables in your hypothesis.
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(b) Chloë’s results in the two conditions were the same.
Explain why Chloë must reject her non-directional hypothesis, referring to her variables in
your answer.
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3
3 The study by Schachter and Singer investigated two factors in emotion.
(a) The participants in this study were deceived.
(i) Outline one way that the participants were deceived in this study.
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(ii) Explain why the deception that you outlined in (a)(i) was necessary.
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(b) Schachter and Singer reported that in one condition, the observer could not hear the spoken
reactions for one participant.
State one practical reason why this was a problem.
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4
4 The data from Experiment 1 in the study by Laney et al. (false memory) is given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Mean rating for the critical item

‘loved asparagus the first time you tried it’
Condition Week 1 Week 2
Control 1.5 2.5
Love 1.7 4.2
(a) Draw a bar chart of the ‘Week 2’ data only. You must label the axes.
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[4]
(b) State one conclusion about this study using the data in Table 4.1.
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5 Explain the importance of inter-observer reliability in the study by Bandura et al. (aggression).
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5
6 Describe the use of controls in laboratory experiments and field experiments, using any examples.
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6
Section B
7 Deryn is planning an experimental study to compare how, and how often, men and women look at
themselves in a shop window. She plans to collect quantitative data using observations and will
calculate a median.
(a) (i) Identify the independent variable in Deryn’s study.
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(ii) Identify one dependent variable in Deryn’s study.
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(iii) Identify the experimental design used in Deryn’s study.
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(b) (i) Suggest how Deryn could use a structured observation in her study.
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(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of using a structured observation compared to an unstructured

observation in Deryn’s study.
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7
(c) A ‘measure of central tendency’ is a method of data analysis.
(i) Explain why the median is a measure of central tendency.
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(ii) Suggest one strength of using one method of data analysis, other than the median, with
Deryn’s results.
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8
8 Phyllis is planning a correlational study to investigate the relationship between vocabulary size
and level of education.
(a) (i) Suggest two ways that Phyllis could measure ‘vocabulary size’.
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(ii) For one of the ways you have suggested in (a)(i):
Suggest one strength of measuring vocabulary size in this way.
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(b) Suggest one way that Phyllis could measure ‘level of education’.
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(c) Phyllis expects to find a positive correlation.
(i) Outline what Phyllis would conclude if she found the results in Fig. 8.1.
vocabulary size
level of education
Fig. 8.1
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(ii) Outline what Phyllis would conclude if she found the results in Fig. 8.2.
vocabulary size
level of education
Fig. 8.2
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9 James is planning a study and has chosen to use opportunity sampling to find participants. A
friend says he should use random sampling instead. Another friend says that sample size is just
as important as sampling technique.
(a) Explain one strength of using opportunity sampling.
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(b) Explain one advantage of using random sampling instead of opportunity sampling.
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(c) Explain why a larger sample may be better than a smaller sample.
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10
Section C
10 Perrin is going to interview participants about their dreams. He wants to collect information about
the duration and content of dreams in children and adults.
(a) Describe how Perrin could conduct a study using an interview to investigate the duration and
content of dreams in children and adults.
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* 3 9 6 8 9 7 4 8 9 8 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (KN) 318182/3
2
Section A
1 (a) Describe what is meant by the term ‘random sampling’.
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(b) Explain one weakness of random sampling.
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2 The study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping) followed ethical guidelines relating to the use
of animals.
Describe how two ethical guidelines relating to the use of animals in research were followed in
this study.
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3
3 In the study by Laney et al. (false memory), standard deviations were calculated.
(a) State what is meant by a ‘measure of spread’.
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(b) State one advantage of using the standard deviation compared to one other measure of
spread.
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4 In the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning), Alex the parrot was tested using the categories of:
• shape
• material
• colour.
(a) Suggest why Pepperberg chose to test the parrot using the categories of ‘shape’ and
‘material’.
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(b) Suggest one other category that Pepperberg could have used to test the parrot’s
understanding of categories.
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4
5 The study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) investigated two kinds of sleep: REM
sleep and non-REM sleep.
State three differences between REM sleep and non-REM sleep.
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[3]
6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘informed consent’ and ‘protection from harm’, using any
examples.
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5
Section B
7 Nigel has conducted a laboratory experiment to compare children’s choice of sweets (candy) in
different packets. The children were shown sweets in:
• brightly coloured packets with simple patterns
• black and white packets with complex patterns.
His results showed that more children chose the sweets from the ‘brightly coloured packets with
simple patterns’ condition.
(a) (i) Suggest one other condition that Nigel could have included in his study.
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(ii) Explain why the condition you suggested in (a)(i) would have been useful.
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(b) Nigel used a repeated measures design.
Explain what is meant by a ‘repeated measures design’, using an example from this study.
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(c) Name one experimental design Nigel could have used, other than a repeated measures
design.
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6
8 Mila is planning a case study to investigate how a 21-year-old person feels about being the only
young person in a community of 20 older people on a small island.
(a) Suggest two techniques Mila could use to collect data from her participant in this study.
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(b) For one of the techniques you suggested in (a):
(i) Explain one advantage of this technique.
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(ii) Explain one disadvantage of this technique.
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(c) Mila wants to generalise her findings to all adults who live away from other people of their
own age.
Explain why Mila should not make this generalisation from the findings of her case study.
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9 Alan and Jocelyn are writing a questionnaire to ask about the level of euphoria created by listening
to music at a concert, compared with listening to music at home.
(a) (i) Suggest one closed question that they could use on the questionnaire to ask about
euphoria.
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(ii) Suggest one open question that they could use on the questionnaire to ask about
euphoria.
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(b) For the questions you suggested in (a)(i) and (a)(ii):
(i) Explain one reason why the data from the open question could be more valid than data
from the closed question.
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(ii) Explain one reason why the data from the open question could be less valid than data
from the closed question.
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(c) Explain how Alan and Jocelyn could check their inter-rater reliability when they analyse their
data.
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8
Section C
10 Dr Caesar is interested in animal phobias in his patients. He wants to investigate whether there is
a correlation between the size of the animal causing the phobia and the severity of each patient’s
animal phobia.
(a) Describe how Dr Caesar could conduct a correlational study to investigate the relationship
between animal size and the severity of the patients’ phobias.
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www.dynamicpapers.com

* 4 3 0 5 5 7 9 9 2 6 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/21
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (LK/SG) 318174/2
2
Section A
1 (a) Explain what is meant by ‘covert’ observation.
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(b) Explain one strength of a covert observation.
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(c) Explain one weakness of a covert observation.
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2 A hypothesis is ‘There will be a difference in helpfulness between obedient and disobedient

people’.
(a) State whether this is a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis or a non-directional (two-tailed)

hypothesis. Include a reason for your answer.
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© UCLES 2023 9990/21/O/N/23

3
3 The study by Pepperberg (parrot learning) tested a parrot’s understanding of the concepts
of ‘same’ and ‘different’. Table 3.1 shows the total results for correct responses and incorrect
responses for two categories of objects.
Table 3.1
Total responses to ‘same?’ and ‘different?’ questions

Category of objects
correct incorrect
objects used in training 99 30
objects not used in training 96 17
(a) (i) Describe the results in Table 3.1 for correct responses.
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(ii) Describe the results in Table 3.1 for incorrect responses.
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(b) Whether or not the objects had been used in training affected the accuracy of the parrot’s
responses.
Describe how Pepperberg explained this effect.
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4 In the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions), all the participants were female.
State the two reasons that Canli et al. gave for using only female participants in this study.
1 .......................................................................................................................................................
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[2]

4
5 In Experiment 1 of the study by Laney et al. (false memory), participants were randomly allocated
to one of two conditions (levels of the independent variable).
(a) State what is meant by ‘random allocation’.
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(b) State why one of the two groups was called a ‘control condition’.
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6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘right to withdraw’ and ‘confidentiality’, using any examples.
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Section B
7 Two female researchers, Meilin and Nina, are preparing a structured interview about dreams.
Each researcher will interview 10 participants.
(a) Suggest three ways that Meilin and Nina could standardise their structured interview, other
than using the same questions.
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[3]
(b) Explain one reason why a structured interview should be standardised.
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(c) Explain one reason why it may be better for Meilin and Nina to use an unstructured interview.
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(d) Outline one ethical problem with interviewing participants about their dreams.
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6
8 Alf conducted an experiment comparing the range of television programmes that old and young
people watch. He collected his data by questionnaire and found that young people watch a wider
range of television programmes than old people.
(a) (i) Suggest one extraneous variable that could affect the range of television programmes
that old people watch, other than their age.
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(ii) Explain how Alf could investigate whether the extraneous variable that you suggested in
(a)(i) was the cause of the difference he found.
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(b) Alf used opportunity sampling to obtain participants but would have preferred to use volunteer
sampling.
(i) Outline what is meant by ‘volunteer sampling’.
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(ii) Suggest one way that Alf could have used volunteer sampling to obtain both old and
young participants.
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(c) Explain the experimental design that Alf used.
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9 Calle is planning a correlational study. He is measuring two variables: happiness and confidence.
Calle’s friend Violet is helping him to plan his questions.

Calle has written two questions:
• For happiness: Are you happy? Answer 1 for yes and 0 for no
• For confidence: How certain do you feel that you will succeed when you begin a new task?
0 = not at all, 5 = very.
(a) Violet says that the data Calle would get from his question on happiness would not be suitable
to use in a correlation.
Explain why Violet is correct.
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(b) Suggest one problem with the validity of Calle’s question on confidence.
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(c) (i) Calle changes his question for happiness and uses his original question for confidence.
He finds a positive correlation.
Draw a line to show the pattern of Calle’s data, using the axes below.
confidence
happiness
[1]

8
(ii) Explain why Calle cannot conclude that greater happiness leads to higher confidence.
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Section C
10 Sophie is planning a natural experiment to investigate the effects of closing a road on anger in
drivers. One road into a town will be closed for three weeks and the traffic will have to take a
longer route. Sophie wants to investigate whether having to take the longer route makes drivers
angry.
(a) Describe how Sophie can conduct a natural experiment to investigate whether having to take
the longer route makes drivers angry.
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* 8 5 7 3 5 0 7 7 8 4 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/22
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (EF/JG) 318181/1
2
Section A
1 From the study by Pepperberg (parrot learning):
(a) State the aim of this study.
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(b) Explain why it was necessary to present the parrot with questions in a random order.
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2 Explain the importance of the ethical guidelines of anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia in
relation to the use of animals in research.
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3
3 Participants in the study by Laney et al. (false memory) completed a ‘Restaurant Questionnaire’,
which was formatted to look like a menu.
(a) Describe the Restaurant Questionnaire.
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(b) Explain why it was important that the Restaurant Questionnaire looked like a menu.
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4
4 The study by Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping) used a repeated measures experimental
design.
(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘repeated measures design’. Include an example from the study
by Yamamoto et al. in your answer.
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(b) Explain one advantage of using a repeated measures design for this study, compared to
using an independent measures design.
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5 In a study that measured two variables, a relationship between the variables was found. As one
variable increased, the other decreased.
(a) Name this relationship.
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(b) Suggest two variables, from any core study, that show this relationship.
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5
6 Describe natural experiments and naturalistic observations, using any examples.
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6
Section B
7 James is conducting an interview to investigate topics that could influence anger and euphoria. He
has already written his questions about anger. James needs to write questions which cover three
topics that could increase euphoria. These topics are:
• sports or games
• films or music
• the natural world (e.g. animals and plants, being outside or good weather).
(a) Suggest one closed question and one open question that James could use to investigate
one of his three topics about euphoria. Do not use a rating scale in your answer.
Closed question ........................................................................................................................
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Open question ..........................................................................................................................
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[3]
(b) James has chosen to conduct a semi-structured interview.
Explain two strengths of a semi-structured interview.
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(c) James was planning to use opportunity sampling to obtain participants from his university but
has decided random sampling would be better.
(i) Explain how James could use random sampling to obtain participants from his university.
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(ii) Explain one advantage for James of using random sampling compared to using
opportunity sampling.
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8
8 Olive and Durnaz are planning a questionnaire to use in their study, which aims to investigate
forgetting in old people.
(a) Olive thinks that they should include some irrelevant questions so that the participants are
less likely to guess the aim of the study. Durnaz thinks this is unethical.
(i) Explain why Olive’s plan to include irrelevant questions would be useful.
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(ii) Explain why Durnaz thinks that Olive’s plan would be unethical.
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(b) Olive and Durnaz want to be able to generalise their findings to all old people.
(i) Suggest one variable that could affect memory in old people, other than age.
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(ii) Explain why the variable you suggested in (b)(i) could affect memory in old people.
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9 Gagan has collected data about personality characteristics. Two of the questions he asked were:
• Personality question:
Which word best describes your personality? Angry / Confident / Kind / Worried.
• Shyness question:
How shy do you feel in new situations on a scale of 0–5? (0 = not at all, 5 = very).
(a) Name the most appropriate measure of central tendency to use with the data from each
question.
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Shyness question .....................................................................................................................
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[2]
(b) Name the most appropriate type of graph for Gagan to use to display the results from the
‘personality question’.
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(c) When Gagan analyses the data for the ‘shyness question’, he finds that the scores are
normally distributed.
Sketch a graph using the axes below to show the pattern of Gagan’s data from the ‘shyness
question’. You must label the axes.
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[3]

10
Section C
10 Sara wants to test whether people with a higher intelligence quotient (IQ) are better at
concentrating. She will conduct a laboratory experiment and already has a test for measuring the
IQ of the participants.
(a) Describe how Sara can conduct a laboratory experiment to test whether people with a higher
IQ are better at concentrating than people with a lower IQ.
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* 3 9 7 7 0 4 9 9 6 8 *
PSYCHOLOGY 9990/23
1 hour 30 minutes
INSTRUCTIONS
INFORMATION
DC (DE) 318173/2
2
Section A
1 A matched pairs design is an experimental design that can be used in studies comparing two
conditions, or levels, of an independent variable.
(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘matched pairs design’.
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(b) Explain one advantage of using a matched pairs design compared to using a repeated
measures design.
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2 A range can be calculated when numerical scores are collected from participants in a study.
(a) Define the term ‘range’.
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(b) Describe how the range of ‘hours spent asleep’ could have been calculated in the study by
Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams).
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3
3 The reliability of a study is affected by the measures (scales or tasks) chosen by the researcher
and the way that these are used when conducting the study.
(a) One way to check reliability is the test-retest technique.
Describe how this technique checks reliability.
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(b) Another type of reliability is inter-rater reliability.
Explain how the inter-rater reliability of studies can be improved.
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4 In each of the core studies, the researchers report their conclusions.
(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘conclusions’, using an example from a core study from the
social approach.
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(b) In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), two main conclusions were drawn.
Outline one of these conclusions.
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4
5 In the study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia), a boy was repeatedly asked to use
the Feelings Thermometer. Other questions investigated his phobia further and showed that he
disliked buttons touching his body.
Explain the type of interview used in this study.
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6 Describe the ethical guidelines of ‘housing’ and ‘rewards’ in relation to animals, using any
examples.
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6
Section B
7 Dr Casson conducted a field experiment to compare the emotions that people show when they
respond to shop assistants who are either wearing a uniform or casual clothes. She asked the
assistants at her local shop to wear a uniform on Saturdays and wear casual clothes on Sundays.
(a) Explain why Dr Casson’s study was a field experiment.
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(b) (i) Suggest how Dr Casson could have measured the dependent variable in her study.
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(ii) Suggest one reason why it may be more difficult to measure the dependent variable in a
field experiment than in a laboratory experiment.
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8 Keung and Jovita are planning a correlational study to investigate the relationship between a
person’s physical activity level and their attention level. They each make a different prediction
about their results.
(a) Suggest how Keung and Jovita could measure the physical activity level of their participants.
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(b) Write a null hypothesis for Keung and Jovita’s correlational study.
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(c) Keung predicted that there would be a positive correlation and Jovita predicted that there
would be a negative correlation.
Their results show that a higher physical activity level is related to a lower attention level.
Explain whether Keung or Jovita’s prediction was correct.
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(d) Keung and Jovita plot a scatter diagram of their results.
Explain how they can see the strength of the correlation from their scatter diagram.
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(e) Keung and Jovita’s friend says that their results show that the difference in physical activity
level is affecting attention level.
Explain why they cannot draw this conclusion from their research.
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8
9 Dr Wilson is conducting an experiment on memory for complex, coloured shapes. He is using

students for his sample. Dr Wilson intends to generalise his results widely, to understand how well
internet users remember visual stimuli.
(a) Suggest how one extraneous variable could affect Dr Wilson’s study.
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(b) (i) Dr Wilson is using a volunteer sample of students from his university.
Suggest how he could recruit his sample.
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(ii) Suggest one advantage of using a volunteer sample compared to an opportunity sample.
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(iii) Suggest one disadvantage of using a volunteer sample compared to an opportunity

sample.
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(c) One reason why Dr Wilson cannot generalise the results from his study is his sampling
technique.
State one reason why he should not generalise the results from his students to all internet
users, other than his sampling technique.
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10
Section C
10 Dr Birkin is planning an observational study of children’s imaginary play behaviour (for example, a
child might use a leaf as a plate, or a big cardboard box as a boat or a house).
(a) Describe how Dr Birkin could conduct an observational study of children to investigate their
imaginary play behaviour.
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Cambridge International Examinations

Cambridge International Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level

READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST

Answer all questions.

This document consists of 11 printed pages and 1 blank page.

Answer all questions in this section.

(a) Write an operationalised directional (one-tailed) hypothesis using this aim.

(b) Write a null hypothesis using this aim.

2 (a) State the difference between a ‘population’ and a ‘sample’.

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18

3 (a) Name one sampling technique.

(b) Explain one advantage of using this sampling technique.

(ii) How did the feelings thermometer measure distress?

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18 [Turn over

(a) Identify one of the control conditions.

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18

Question 7 appears on the following page.

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18 [Turn over

Answer all questions in this section.

(a) Name one brain scan that Dipa could use.

(b) Suggest why data from brain scans is likely to be reliable.

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18 [Turn over

(a) What is meant by ‘open questions’ and ‘closed questions’?

(b) Suggest one open question that Hugo could ask.

(c) Suggest one advantage of using open questions in Hugo’s study.

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18

y-axis label ................................

x-axis label ................................

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18 [Turn over

Answer all questions in this section.

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18

© UCLES 2018 9990/22/F/M/18

READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST

Answer all questions.

This document consists of 10 printed pages and 2 blank pages.

DC (PB (PA)) 153126/2

Answer all questions in this section.

(b) Outline how Canli et al. operationalised this variable.

(a) Identify the research method used in this study.

(b) Suggest one advantage of the research method in this study.

© UCLES 2018 9990/21/M/J/18

3 Many of the core studies were laboratory experiments.

4 What does standard deviation measure?

© UCLES 2018 9990/21/M/J/18 [Turn over

5 From the study by Laney et al. (false memory):

6 Describe what is meant by ‘order effects’, using any examples.

© UCLES 2018 9990/21/M/J/18

Answer all questions in this section.

7 Kaleem is planning to investigate sleep and dreaming. He needs to find participants.

© UCLES 2018 9990/21/M/J/18 [Turn over

Suggest how she could operationalise this dependent variable.

(d) Penny has decided that she will be a covert observer.

Suggest why she chose to be a covert observer in her study.

© UCLES 2018 9990/21/M/J/18

(e) Write an operationalised non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis for Penny’s experiment.

Explain why this would be important.

Explain why this would be important.

© UCLES 2018 9990/21/M/J/18 [Turn over