STA 114 STA 114 - GENERAL STATISTICS

Module Two - Presentation of Data

DR A. A. OGUNDE AND VICTORIA E. LAOYE

Department of Statistics,
University of Ibadan

28th March, 2024

 An Overview of Lecture

⇒ Tabular presentation
⇒ Classification
⇒ Guidelines for the construction of tables
⇒ Definition of some terms under classification and tabulation
⇒ Steps for constructing a frequency distribution table from raw data
⇒ Diagram presentations (Bar Chart, Histogram, Frequency
Polygon, Stem & Leaf)
 Tabular Presentation
q This is an orderly and precise arrangement of numerical information in columns and
rows.

q Tabulation of data forms the basis for reducing and simplifying the details given in a
mass of data into such a form that the main features may be brought out to make the
assembled data easily understood.
Classification
This is a process of arranging observations into logical, meaningful, useful categories in
accordance with the nature of property under-study.

The idea is to group like things together to facilitate comparison of likes with like and also
to reduce a large number of data to a form suitable for statistical analysis and processing.
 Classification Cont’d

Ideally, a group or class must be homogenous, that is, it should include all items and only
those items with definite characteristic of data.

Each item must have a class to which it belongs (Exhaustive). Each item must belong to
only one class (Exclusive)
Example of Classisfication
 Guidelines For Consturuction of a Table
• We have seen from the Tables above most of the desirable features of a good
table.

• The construction of statistical tables does not require expert thoughts or a great
skill.

• All that is necessary is to pay attention to the more obvious and simple points.
• The following guidelines for the drawing of tables should be noted:

• The table should have a title which should be short and self explanatory.

• It should present the data clearly, highlighting important details.

 Guidelines For Consturuction of a Table Cont’d
• Table should be simple and unambiguous. It must be easily interpreted.

• It should save space but attractively designed

• Self - sufficiency of the table in the sense of not requiring supporting tables or evidence.
This is because, quite often, a text table could be used by some other person as a
reference material.

• Abbreviations and symbols should be avoided as much as possible. Approximation and

omission should be explained in footnote.

• Always indicate the source(s) of the data at the bottom of the table so as to know the
origin of the table.
 Frequency Distribution Table
• Frequency distribution is a tabular arrangement of data by classes together with the
corresponding class frequencies.

• A frequency table is also called a frequency distribution because such a table shows
how the values of the variable are distributed.

• However we need not use exact values as the classes. We could use intervals as we
shall see very soon.

• The frequency distribution tables are of fundamental importance in statistics.

• Apart from being a useful summary method of presenting data, they form a basis
 Example of Frequency Table
Table 2: Ungrouped Data - Frequency Table
Mark Tally Frequency

4 II 2

5’ II 2

6 IIII 4

7 IIII 5

8 IIII 4

9 II 2

10 I 1
 Example of Frequency Table Cont’d

Table 3: Grouped Data Frequency Table

Class Interval Tally Frequency

0 - 39 I 1

40 - 79 IIII 5

80 - 119 IIII IIII II 12

120 - 159 IIII III 8

160 - 199 IIII 4

200 - 239 I 1

TOTAL 31
 Frequency Table Classification Terms
• Class intervals - is the description of the class that has both the upper class limit
and lower class limit. A class that does not have either an upper and lower limit is
called an open- ended class.

• Class limits - A class is bounded by a lower limit and an upper limit. The class
limits can be defined in either of the following methods:

Ø Exclusive Method: In this method, the upper limit of a class is taken to be equal to
the lower limit of the following class. In order to keep various class intervals
mutually exclusive, the observations with magnitude greater than or equal to lower
limit but less than the upper limit of a class are included in it.
 Frequency Table Classification Terms Cont’d
• Inclusive Method:- In this method, all the observations with magnitude greater
than or equal to the lower limit but less than or equal to the upper limit of a class is
included in it.

• Class boundaries: - can be described as a point that represents the halfway, or

dividing point between successive classes. It is a point where the lower class ends
and the higher class begins.

• Class mark: - is defined as the midpoint of a class interval. It is sometimes

described as the arithmetic average of the two class limits (that is, the lower limit
and the upper limit). It is computed by adding the lower and upper class limits of a
class interval and then dividing by 2.
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 Frequency Table Classification Terms Cont’d
• Class size: - is the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries. It is
also called class magnitude or length or width of a class and is denoted by‘ ”c”.

• Class frequency: - is the number of observations that fall in a class.

• Relative frequency: - the relative frequency of a class is the frequency of the class
divided by the total frequency (the sum of all the frequencies of a given table).

• Cumulative frequency: - is the total frequency of all values less than or equal to
the upper class boundary of a given class interval.

• Cumulative relative frequency: - The cumulative relative frequency, or

percentage cumulative frequency is the cumulative frequency divided by the total
 Example of Frequency Table Cont’d
Table 4: Frequency Table with Some Terms

Score Frequency Cummulative

Frequency

5 2 2

6 3 5

7 2 7

8 2 9

9 1 10

10 1 11
 Example of Frequency Table Cont’d
Table 5: Frequency Table with Some Terms
Class Upper Class Lower Class Class Class Lower Upper Class
Interval Limits Limits Size Mark Class Boundaries
Boundaries
41 - 50 41 50 10 45.5 40.5 50.5

51 - 60 51 60 10 55.5 50.5 60.5

61 - 70 61 70 10 65.5 60.5 70.5

71 - 80 71 80 10 75.5 70.5 80.5

 Example of Frequency Table Cont’d
Table 6: Frequency Table with some terms
Degree Frequency Relative Frequency Percentage
High School 2 0.050 5.0
Bachelor’s 7 0.175 17.5
MBA 20 0.500 50.0
Master’s 3 0.075 7.5
Law 4 0.100 10
PhD 4 0.100 10
TOTAL 40
Steps for constructing a frequency distribution table from raw data
• Find the range of the data, that is, the difference between highest and smallest
observations.

• Determine the number of classes by dividing the range into a convenient number of
class intervals having the same size. The number of class intervals is usually taken
between 5 and 20 depending on the size of the data.

• The length of a class or class interval is determined by the number of classes and the
range of the data, that is, we divide the range by the number of classes chosen in (2).
But ideally we should have the number that is easy to work with e.g. 1, 2, 5, 20, etc.
Steps for constructing a frequency distribution table from raw data

• Class intervals are also chosen so that the classmarks or midpoints coincide with actual
observed data. This tends to lessen the so called grouping error involved in further
statistical analysis.

• Determine the number of observations falling into each class interval, that is, find the
class frequencies. This is best done by using tally or score sheet.

• Classes should not overlap and there should be no gap.

• Although tabulation is a very good technique to present the data, diagram presents a
clear picture of the data/table at a glance.
 Diagram Presentation
• Diagrams prove nothing, but bring outstanding features readily to the
eye; they are therefore no substitute for such critical tests as may be
applied to the data, but are valuable in suggesting such tests, and in
explaining the conclusions founded upon them. - Sir Roynald Fisher
 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
• Some Types of Diagrams
• Line Diagrams
• Bar Diagrams
• We have:
• ⇒ Simple Bar Chart
• ⇒ Component Bar Chart
• ⇒ Multiple Bar Charts
• Picture Diagrams
• Circle Diagram (Pie Diagram)
• Statistical Maps
 Diagram Presentation Cont’d

• Some Types of Diagrams Cont’d

• Frequency diagrams (graphs)
• we have:
• ⇒ Histograms
• ⇒ Frequency polygon
• ⇒ Cumulative frequency curve (Ogive)
• ⇒ Stem-and-Leaf Plot
• ⇒ Box plots
Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Line Diagram

Figure 1: Line Diagram

 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Bar Diagram - Simple BarChart

Figure 2: Simple Bar Chart

 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Bar Diagram - Multiple BarChart

Figure 3: Multiple Bar Chart

 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Bar Diagram - Component BarChart

Figure 4: Component Bar Chart

 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Picture Diagram - Circle/Pie Chart

Figure 5: Pie Chart/Diagram

 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Picture Diagram - Statistical Map
 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Frequency Diagram - Histogram

Figure 7: Histogram Plot

 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Frequency Diagram - O-give

Figure 8: Cummulative Frequency Plot (O-give)

 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Frequency Diagram - Frequency Polygon

Figure 9: Frequency Polygon

 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Frequency Diagram - Stem & Leaf

Figure 9: Stem and Leaf

 Diagram Presentation Cont’d
Example of Frequency Diagram - Box Plot

Figure 11: Box Plot

Q&A

Q&A