INSIGHT MDCAT

REPRODUCTION
The ability of an organism to produce new offspring of its own type is
called reproduction.
 It is a unique characteristic of life as it is not essential for the survival
of the individual unlike other characteristics of life; it is however,
required for the survival of the species.
 Without reproduction, the species will cease to exist if all of the
members of present generation have died.
 It guarantees the transmission of genetic material of one generation
to the other generation.
 Reproduction is a fundamental process and seen in all organisms.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Human reproduction needs internal fertilization. The reproductive
system is unique in two respects.
 Firstly, the fact that it does not become functional until it is 'turned
on' at puberty by the action of sex hormones. In contrast, all other
body systems are functional at birth or shortly thereafter. KPK
 Secondly, the other organ systems of the body exhibit slight
differences in male and female while the reproductive system is quite  The humans are
different in male and female. the most
advanced
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM mammals and
correspondingly
The male reproductive system includes gonads (testes), accessory show a
ducts, accessory gland (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral reproductive
glands) and copulatory organ (penis). pattern, which is
most efficient,
especially in the
male reproductive sense of
system protection of the
embryo within the
accessory accessory copulatory female body as
gonads
ducts gland organ well as its care
after its birth.

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GONADS KPK

 The testes are male gonads which are situated outside the abdomen  The process of
within a skin pouch called scrotum. spermatogenesis
 Each testis is divided into 250 to 300 lobules. takes place here
 Each lobule contains one to four tightly coiled seminiferous tubules. in the
seminiferous
ACCESORY DUCTS tubules.
 Leydig cells also
Accessory called as the
ducts interstitial cells are
present between
the seminiferous
vas ductus ejaculatory
epididymis urethra tubules which
effrentia deferens duct
produce male sex
hormone
 Once spermatozoa are produced, they move through the testosterone.
seminiferous tubules and enter a tubular network called the rete  About 10 to 20
testis for further maturation. vasa efferentia
 The spermatozoa are transported out of the testis by a series of collect sperms
efferent ductules. from inside the
 The epididymis is coiled on the outer surface of the testis. testes and transfer
 The epididymis functions in the transport and storage of the sperms. them to the
 Epididymis opens into another duct called ductus deferens (sperm epididymis.
duct or vas deferens) which joins with the duct of the seminal vesicle  The epididymis
to form the short ejaculatory duct. Each ejaculatory duct enters the rests on the
prostate gland, where it empties into the urethra. backside of each
 Urethra is also called urinogenital duct as it carries urine as well. testis.
 Most of the
epididymis
consists of the
highly coiled duct
of the epididymis
with an uncoiled
length of about 6
m (20 feet).
 Its functions are
the transport and
storage of the
sperms. Here the
sperms are stored
temporarily,
COPULATORY ORGAN (PENIS) nourished, and
they gain the
 The human penis consists mainly of tissues that can fill with blood to ability to swim.
cause an erection.  Vas deferens
starts from the
epididymis moves
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ACCESORY GLANDS deep into the
pelvic cavity.
 The urethra is the
Accessory terminal portion of
glands the male duct
system. It opens
to the outside at
seminal bulbourethral the external
prostate gland
vesicles glands urethral orifice and
conveys both
 A pair of seminal vesicles is located at the junction of sperm duct urine and semen.
and ejaculatory duct.  The Seminal
 The prostate gland encircles the urethra just below the bladder. Vesicles provide
an alkaline fluid
 A pair of bulbourethral glands (Cowper's gland) is situated at the
containing
junction of ejaculatory duct and urethra.
fructose sugar,
ascorbic acid, and
Why are the testes located outside the abdominal cavity? a coagulating
enzyme called
 The testes work best at temperatures slightly less than core body vesiculase, as well
temperature. as other
 The optimum temperature for sperm development is about 35°C. substances that
enhance sperm
SEMEN motility thus
improving their
 Semen is a white, sticky mixture of sperm and secretions of fertilizing power.
accessory glands.  The Prostate
 The liquid substance in the semen provides nutrients and protection encircles the
to sperms and acts as a transport medium for sperms. urethra just below
 Prostaglandins in semen decrease the viscosity of mucus guarding the bladder. Its
the entry (cervix) of the uterus and stimulate reverse peristalsis in secretion is a
the uterus, facilitating sperm movement through the female milky, slightly
reproductive. acidic fluid that
 The amount of semen propelled out of the male duct system during contains citrate as
ejaculation is about 2-5 ml and there are between 20 to 150 million a nutrient source
sperm per ml. and several
enzymes
Epididymis especially
hyaluronidase.
 It is a long-coiled tube that rests on the back side of each testis.  Cowpers' gland
secretes mucus
 It stores and transports sperms.
and an alkaline
 Here sperms also get mature.
fluid into the
urethra. The
Vas deferens: alkaline fluid
neutralizes the
 It is a long muscular tube that travels from epididymis into the pelvic acidity of urine in
cavity to just behind the bladder. the urethra.
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Ejaculatory duets  The Bulbourethral
Glands produce
 The two vas deferens and two seminal vesicles join to form thick and clear
ejaculatory duct. mucus.

Urethra BTB

 The urethra is the tube that carries urine from bladder to outside of  The male
the body. reproductive
 In male, it has the additional function of ejaculating semen during system performs
sexual excitement. following main
 Therefore, urethra is also called urinogenital duct. functions:
 To produce,
Copulatory Organ (Penis) maintain and
transport semen
(sperms + fluids).
 It is the male organ used in sexual intercourse (used to transfer the
sperms into the female reproductive tract).  To discharge
semen within the
 The skin of penis is loose and elastic to accommodate changes in
female
penis size during an erection.
reproductive tract
 The penis consists mainly of tissues that can fill with blood to cause
during sexual
an erection.
intercourse.
 To produce and
Human sperm secrete male sex
hormones,
 It has a head with a diameter of about 2.5um. responsible for
 It contains a large nucleus with little cytoplasm and acrosome. maintaining the
 The nucleus carries a haploid set of chromosomes. male reproductive
 The middle piece contains mitochondria which provide energy for system.
sperm activity.  Unlike the female
 The tail of sperm is a flagellum which enables the sperm to swim reproductive
towards the egg. system, most part
of male
Seminal Vesicle reproductive
system is located
 These are sac like pouches that attached to vas deferens near the outside of the
base of the bladder. body i.e., penis,
 It produces a sugar rich fluid that provides sperms with a source of scrotum, and
energy to help them move. testicles (testes)
while some parts
Prostate glands i.e., vas deferens
and associated
 These are walnut size structures that are located below the urinary glands like
bladder at both sides of urethra. seminal vesicles,
prostate gland and
Cowper's gland
are located inside

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the body.
Functions of prostate gland  The testes are
oval-shaped
organs about the
Additional Nourish Protect size of large olive
Ejaculation seeds.
fluid sperm sperms
 The scrotum is a
pouch like sac of
Bulbourethral glands (Cowper's gland) skin that hangs
behind and below
 These are pea sized structures located on the side of urethra, just the penis.
below the prostate glands.  The scrotum acts
as climate control
PTB system for the
testes, because
Functions of for normal sperm
Sertoli cells development, the
testes must be at
a temperature
nourishment slightly cooler than
liquid medium protection
to sperms the body
temperature.
The sperms are then transferred to the main duct of the male  The testes are

usually two in
reproductive tract, the vas deferens, which forms highly convoluted
number.
epididymis. The sperms then pass through the urinogenital duct and
‘are discharged out.  In the testes there
are coiled masses
of tubules called
Testosterone
seminiferous
tubules.
 This hormone is essential for the successful production of sperms
 The sperms are
and controls the development of male secondary sexual
produced in these
characteristics during puberty.
tubules.
 About 100 million
HORMONAL CONTROL sperms are
released into the
 Process of spermatogenesis is controlled by hormonal secretions vagina during
from hypothalamus and pituitary gland. intercourse, only
 The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin- releasing hormone one of these will
(GnRH), which controls the release of the anterior pituitary fertilize the egg.
gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH). KPK
FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE
 The sperm, or
spermatozoon
 FSH stimulates spermatogenesis by stimulating the sertoli cells (cell (animal seed), is a
of the testes that is part of a seminiferous tubule) to complete the very small haploid
development of sperms from spermatids.
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LUETINIZING HORMONE cell.
 It has a head, a
 LH stimulates Leydig cells (found adjacent to the seminiferous neck, a midpiece,
tubules in the testicle) to release testosterone. Testosterone causes and a tail. The
the growth and development of germinal epithelium to form sperms. head contains the
 Inhibin hormone is produced by the sertoli cells and serves to control nucleus having
the spermatogenesis at normal rate. haploid set of
 When the sperm count is high, inhibin release increases and it chromosomes.
inhibits anterior pituitary release of FSH and hypothalamic release of  Adhering to the
GnRH. top of the head is
 When sperm count falls, inhibin secretion declines steeply. acrosome.
 The lysosome-like
acrosome is
produced by the
Testosterone Golgi apparatus
and contains
male mass and fat hydrolytic enzyme
bone mass sex drive hyaluronidase
characters strength distribution
that enables the
sperm to
penetrate and
Spermatogenesis enter an egg.
 The neck of sperm
is very short and
contains a pair of
centrioles.
 The microtubules
of one of the
centrioles
elongate and run
the entire length of
the tail.
 It forms the axial
filament of the tail.
 The middle piece
contains many
mitochondria
arranged spirally
around the axial
filament.
 The process
begins around the
age of 14 years in
males and
continues
throughout life.
Every day, a
 Each testis consists of a highly complex duct system called
healthy adult male
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seminiferous tubules, in which repeated division by the cells of the makes about 400
germinal epithelium produce spermatogonia. million sperm.
 Spermatocytes which undergo meiotic division to form
secondary spermatocytes and spermatids. BTB
 Eventually, the spermatids differentiate into mature sperms.
 Fluid secreted by sertoli cells provides liquid medium, protection  FSH and LH are
and nourishment to sperms while they are in the tubules. produced by the
pituitary gland
FTB located at the
base of the brain.
 The process of spermatogenesis takes place in divide by mitosis  FSH is necessary
forming a primary spermatocyte. for sperm
production and LH
is necessary to
Spermatid continue the
process of
spermatogenesis.
immature
round non-motile haploid cell
sperm
KPK
 Every day, a healthy adult male makes about 400 million sperms.  This process
(24-48 hours life Span) takes place in
semniferous
tubules.
Spermiogenesis  Spermatogonia
are the outermost
cells which make
the epithelial wall
spermatid of the semniferous
sheds cytoplasm forms a tail
elongates tubules.
 These cells are
just beneath the
Spermiogenesis basal lamina.
 The
 Spermiogenesis is a process in which spermatids change into spermatogonia
motile and active sperms. During this process a spermatid divide
elongates, sheds its excess cytoplasm, and forms a tail. continuously by
mitosis and, each
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM mitotic division of
a spermatogonium
The reproductive role of the female is far more complex than that of a results in two
male. Not only must she produce gametes, but her body must prepare distinctive
to nurture a developing embryo for a period of approximately nine daughter cells-
months. types A and B.
 The type A
daughter cell
remains at the

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basement
Female reproductive system membrane to
maintain the germ
pair of cell line.
oviducts uterus cervix vagina  The type B cell
ovaries
gets pushed
toward the lumen,
where it becomes
a primary
spermatocyte
destined to
produce four
sperm.
 Each primary
spermatocyte
undergoes
meiosis I, forming
two smaller
haploid cells
called secondary
spermatocytes.
 The secondary
spermatocytes
OVARIES continue on
rapidly into
 Ovaries are female gonads which produce ova and release meiosis II, and
hormones. The paired ovaries flank the uterus on each side and their daughter
each ovary is held in place within the peritoneal cavity by several cells, called
ligaments. spermatids are
 The ovaries are almond-shaped, solid, ovoid structure measure formed. Each
spermatid is a
about 3-5 cm long and 2-3 cm wide.
round, nonmotile
 Within the ovary are many tiny saclike structures called ovarian
haploid cell.
follicles each of which consists of an immature egg, called an oocyte.
 Each month in adult women, one of the ripening follicles ejects its
oocyte from the ovary. This event is called ovulation. BTB
 After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is transformed into a glandular
structure called the corpus luteum.  There is a pair of
ovaries, which are
OVIDUCT oval- shaped and
attached to the
 Fallopian tubes or oviducts form the initial part of the female duct dorsal body wall
just below the
system. They are narrow muscular tubes.
kidneys. Eggs or
 They receive the ovulated oocyte and are the site where fertilization
ova develop inside
generally occurs.
the ovaries of
 Each oviduct is about 10 cm long and extends near the region of an
mature female.
ovary to empty into the uterus.
 There are
 The oocyte is carried toward the uterus by a combination of
approximately
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muscular peristalsis and the beating of the Cilia. 4,000,00 potential
(follicles) cells are
PTB already present at
birth, only about
 The uterine tube opens into the uterus. 500 will ever
 The fertilization of the ovum takes place in the proximal part of the become mature
oviduct. within two they
ovaries and they
UTERUS are released from
puberty to
menopause.
 The uterus or womb is a hollow, muscular organ, shaped somewhat
 Usually, only one
like an inverted pear.
egg is released
 The uterus has three portions: the fundus, the body and the cervix.
every month. The
 The oviducts join the uterus just below the fundus and the opening of
ovaries take turns
the cervix leads to the vaginal canal. alternate to
 The wall of the uterus is composed of three layers. release an egg.
 The perimetrium is the outermost thin covering layer of uterus.  The egg is
 The myometrium is the middle thick muscular layer composed of spherical in shape
bundles of smooth muscle, which contracts rhythmically during and about 120µm
childbirth to expel the baby from the mother's body. in diameter,
 The endometrium is the inner spongy lining of the uterine cavity. containing a large
 If fertilization occurs, the young embryo is implanted into the nucleus with
endometrium and resides there for the rest of its development. haploid number of
 The main functions of uterus are to receive, retain, and nourish a chromosomes.
fertilized ovum.  The female
reproductive
PTB system is also
under the
 A placenta is established between the uterine and foetal tissues for influence of
the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste, nutrients and other menstrual cycle.
materials.
KPK
CERVIX
 The uterine tube
 It is a narrow entrance from uterus to vagina. contains sheets of
 It is normally blocked by a plug of mucous. smooth muscle
 At the lower narrow end of the uterus is a circular ring of muscle and contains both
known as cervix. ciliated and non-
 Urethra and vagina have independent openings to the exterior. ciliated cells.
 Non-ciliated cells
VAGINA produce a
secretion that
 The vagina is a thin walled 8-10 cm long tube and extends from the keeps the oocyte
cervix to the body exterior. (and sperm, if
 It is often called the birth canal as it provides a passageway for present) moist and
delivery of an infant and for menstrual flow. The urethra is embedded nourished.

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in its anterior wall. KPK
 It is the external genitalia.
 The uterus is
DO YOU KNOW? located in the
pelvis, anterior to
 The reproductive system contains 1 the largest cell of the body: the the rectum and
egg, which is about 120mu in diameter and smallest human cell: the posterior to the
sperm, about 5mu in diameter. bladder.
 A female uterus is normally about 3 inches long and 2 inches wide  It is about the size
which can expend up to 20 times during pregnancy. Uterus contains and shape of an
one of the strongest muscles in the female body. inverted pear.
 It is a hollow,
OOGENESIS thick-walled,
muscular organ.

BTB

 It is a elastic sac
of about 7.5 cm
long.
 It is the site for the
development of
the fetus.

BTB

 The opening of
the vagina is
called vulva.
 Semen is
deposited in the
vagina during
intercourse.

KPK
 The process of egg formation in females is called oogenesis.
 The process of oogenesis takes years to complete. First, in the fetal
period the oogonia, the diploid stem cells of the ovaries, multiply  The reproductive
rapidly by mitosis and then enter a growth phase and lay in nutrient cycle in human
reserves. and other
 Gradually the oogonia are transformed into primary oocytes and primates is called
menstrual cycle.
become surrounded by a single layer of follicle cells.
The first
 The primary oocytes begin the first meiotic division but become
menstruation
"stalled" late in prophase I and do not complete it.
begins at puberty.
 They remain in their state of suspended animation all through
 The uterine or
childhood, the wait is a long one-10 to 14 years at the very least!
menstrual cycle is
 At puberty, a small number of primary oocytes are recruited each
a series of cyclic
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month, however, only one is selected each time to continue meiosis changes that the
I, ultimately producing two haploid cells (that are quite dissimilar in uterine
size. The larger cell, which contains nearly all the cytoplasm of the endometrium goes
primary oocyte, is the secondary oocyte. The smaller cell is called through each
the first polar body. month as it
 In humans, the secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase II and it is responds to the
this cell that is ovulated. waxing and
 If an ovulated secondary oocyte is not penetrated by a sperm, it waning of ovarian
simply deteriorates. hormones in the
 But, if sperm penetration does occur, it quickly completes meiosis II, blood.
yielding one large ovum and a tiny second polar body.  These endometrial
 The unequal cytoplasmic divisions that occur during oogenesis changes are
ensure that a fertilized egg has ample nutrients for its six- to seven- coordinated with
day journey to the uterus. the phases of the
 Without nutrient-containing cytoplasm the polar bodies degenerate ovarian cycle.
and die.  It has been
assumed that a
female's total
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE supply of eggs is
already
 In females the production of egg is a cyclic activity as compared to determined by the
males, where gamete production and release is a continuous time she is born,
process beginning at puberty and lasting throughout life. and the time span
 In human females, the periodic reproductive cycle is completed in during which she
approximately 28 days and involves changes in the structure and releases them
function of the whole reproductive system. It is called the menstrual extends only from
cycle. puberty to
 The events of the menstrual cycle involve the ovaries (ovarian cycle) menopause, about
and the uterus (uterine cycle). the age of 50.
 These are regulated by pituitary gonadotropins. Under the influence of
 Based upon changes and hormonal regulation the cycle can be rising blood levels of
divided into three phases. estrogens, the basal
layer of the
endometrium
Menstrual generates a new
cycle functional layer during
proliferative phase.
menstrual proliferative secretory
phase phase phase BTB

Menstrual phase (1-5 days) Estrogen, which

helps in the
 In this menstruation phase, the uterus sheds all but the deepest part maturation of egg
of its endometrium the thick, hormone-dependent functional layer of while LH
the endometrium detaches from the uterine wall, a process that is stimulates the
accompanied by bleeding for 3-5 days. production of
progesterone in
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 The detached tissue and blood pass out through the vagina as the ovaries.
menstrual flow. At the beginning of this stage, ovarian hormones are  The estrogen
at their lowest normal levels and gonadotropins are beginning to rise. triggers the
 Then FSH levels begin to rise. development of
secondary sexual
Proliferative/pre-ovulatory phase (6-14 days) characteristics in
female.
 Through the influence of a rise in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)  The pituitary gland
during the first days of the cycle, a few ovarian follicles (primary) are also produces
stimulated. prolactin, which
 These follicles compete with each other for dominance. stimulates milk
 As a result, all but one of these follicles stop to grow and finally production.
disintegrate (follicle atresia), while one dominant follicle in the ovary  Oxytocin, which
continue to mature and becomes mature follicle (Graafian or stimulates uterine
vesicular follicle), in which oogenesis occurs. contraction during
 FSH also stimulates the graffian follicle to secrete estrogen which in childbirth and milk
turn governs the vascularization of endometrial lining (internal lining) let down during
of uterine wall. sucking.
 Consequently, the endometrium once again becomes velvety, thick  The start of
and well vascularized. monthly discharge
 Normally, cervical muscles is thick and sticky but rising estrogen of blood or
levels cause it to thin and become crystalline, forming channels that menses from
facilitate the passage of sperm into the uterus. uterus via vagina
is the first sign of
 Estrogen has negative feedback upon FSH, therefore, as the
puberty in female.
concentration of estrogen rises the level of FSH falls. This is a signal
This condition is
for anterior pituitary to release LH, at the end of the proliferative
called
stage (day 14) in response to the sudden release of LH from the
menstruation.
anterior pituitary causes the release of developing egg from the
mature follicle into the oviduct, the event is known as ovulation,  However, the
which takes less than five minutes. length of the
menstrual period
 LH also converts the ruptured follicle to a yellowish glandular mass
and amount of
called corpus luteum.
blood lost vary
considerably with
Secretory/post ovulatory phase (days15-28) the individual.
 Every month, a
 During the secretory phase, the endometrium prepares for cycle of events
implantation of an embryo. It is a 14 days phase. takes place in the
 Rising levels of progesterone from the corpus luteum act on the female
estrogen-primed endometrium causing the arteries to elaborate and reproductive
converting the functional layer to a glandular secretory layer (uterine organs. This is
glands). called menstrual
 This hormone develops the endometrium and make it receptive for cycle.
the implantation of the zygote (placenta formation).  The average
 The uterine glands enlarge, coil and begin secreting nutritious menstrual cycle
glycogen into the uterine cavity. for an adult female
 These nutrients sustain the embryo until it has implanted in the is 28 days.
blood-rich endometrial lining. However, the
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 If fertilization has not occurred, the corpus luteum begins to menstrual cycle
degenerate toward the end of the secretory phase as LH blood level ranging from 21-
declines. 33 days, are not
 Progesterone levels fall, depriving the endometrium of hormonal abnormal.
support and endometrial cells die, setting the stage for menstruation  The effects of
to begin on day 28. emotional
 This causes the discharge of blood and cell debris known as disturbances,
menstruation. This stage usually lasts for 3 - 7 days. stress, mental
 In human beings, menstrual cycle ceases around 50 year of age, fatigue and illness
and it is termed as menopause. Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of may alter or stop
normal reproductive life of females and extends between menarche the menstrual
(first menstruation) and menopause. cycle. An
unbalanced diet or
PTB malnutrition may
cause the periods
to be very
irregular or to stop
completely.
 A young girl may
take about three
years before her
periods become
regular.

Menstrual Phase

 Menstruation is
the elimination of
the thickened
lining of the uterus
(endometrium)
and blood from
the body through
the vagina.
 Menstrual fluid
contains blood,
 The cycle is thus completed, and the uterus is ready to enter into the cells from the
next cycle. lining of the uterus
 The human menstrual cycle generally repeats every 28 days and mucus.
although there is considerable variation in different individuals or  The average
even within the same individual at different times of her age. length of this
 The end or complete stop of the menstrual cycle is called phase is 5 days.
menopause, after which the female stops producing the ova.
 Malnourishment and emotional stresses effect the female Follicular Phase
reproductive cycle, which may be disturbed. The cycle is not
completed in its normal 28 days.  The follicular
phase starts at the
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FOR YOUR INFORMATION stoppage of

menstruation and
 In 1-2% of all ovulations, more than one oocyte is ovulated. ends with
ovulation.
 This phenomenon, which increases with age, can result in multiple
births.  The pituitary gland
releases follicle
 Since, in such cases, different oocytes are fertilized by different
stimulating
sperm, the siblings are fraternal, or nonidentical, twins.
hormone (FSH),
 Identical twins result from the fertilization of a single oocyte by a
which stimulates
single sperm, followed by separation of the fertilized egg's daughter
the ovary to
cells in early development
produce about 5-
20 follicles.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES  Each follicle
houses an
 These are contagious diseases that are caused by pathogens that immature egg.
are passed from one human to another by sexual contact. STDs are Usually only one
caused by bacteria and viruses. follicle will mature
 Gonorrhoea and syphilis are caused by bacteria. into an egg while
the others die.
Examples The growth of the
follicles stimulates
 Some examples of sexually transmitted diseases are chlamydia, the lining of the
gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, etc. uterus to thicken
in preparation for
Gonorrhea possible
pregnancy.
 It is caused by a gram-positive bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae,
mainly affecting the mucous membrane of urinogenital tract. Ovulation Stage
 Newborn infants may acquire serious eye infections if they pass
through the infected birth canal.  Ovulation is the
 It is highly contagious through sexual contacts. release of a
mature egg from
Syphilis the surface of the
ovary. This usually
 It is caused by a spirochaete, Treponema pallidum. occurs mid of the
cycle, about the
 It damages the reproductive organs, eyes bones joints, central
14th day of the
nervous system, heart, and skin.
cycle.
 Sexual contact is the major source of its dissimination.
 During the
follicular phase,
Genital Herpes the development
of follicles causes
 It is caused by a herpes simplex type 2 virus, most frequently a rise in the level
transmitted by sexual contact causing infection of the genitalia. of estrogen.
 In infected pregnant woman, virus can be transmitted to infant during  The hypothalamus
birth, causing damage to eyes and CNS of the infant. in the brain
recognizes these
rising levels and
425 | P a g e
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Effects of releases a
herpes chemical called
gonadotropin
releasing hormone
(GnRH).
Individuals Infants
 This hormone
stimulates the
pituitary gland to
Eye CNS produce raised
Soreness Ulcers
infection damage levels of
luteinizing
hormone (LH) and
AIDS FSH within two
days, ovulation is
 AIDS is one of the most serious, deadly diseases in human history. triggered by the
More than 20 years ago, doctors in the United States identified the high level of LH.
first cases of AIDS in San Francisco and New York.  The egg is
 Now there are an estimated 42 million people living with HIV or AIDS funneled into the
worldwide, and more than 3 million die every year from AIDS-related fallopian tube and
illnesses. AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus toward the uterus
(HIV). by waves of small
 HIV destroys a type of defense cell in the body called a CD4 helper hair like
lymphocyte. projections.
 These lymphocytes are part of the body's immune system, the  The life span of
defence system that fights infectious diseases. But as HIV destroys the typical egg is
these lymphocytes, people with the virus begin to get serious only around 24
infections that they normally wouldn't- that is, they become immune hours.
deficient. The name for this condition is acquired immunodeficiency Fallopian tubes are
syndrome (AIDS). about 12cm long and
 As the medical community learns more about how HIV works, wide as a sewing
they've been able to develop drugs to inhibit it (meaning they needle.
interfere with its growth). These drugs have been successful in
slowing the progress of the disease, and people with the disease Luteal phase
now live much longer. But there is still no cure for HIV and AIDS.
 HIV can be transmitted from an infected person to another person  During ovulation,
through blood, semen vaginal fluids, and breast milk. the egg bursts out
 The virus is spread through high-risk behaviors including immoral from its follicle, but
sexual behaviour, sharing needles, such as needles used to inject the ruptured
drugs, needles used for injecting steroids and those used for follicle stays on
tattooing. the surface of the
 People who have another sexually transmitted disease, such as ovary for the next
syphilis, genital herpes, gonorrhea, or bacterial vaginosis are at two weeks or so.
greater risk for getting HIV. The follicle
 If a woman with HIV is pregnant, her newborn baby can catch the transforms into the
virus from her before birth, during the birth process, or from breast structure called
feeding. corpus luteum.
 This structure
starts releasing
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FTB progesterone
along with small
amounts of
 The main cause of HIV transmission is that it is a worldwide sexually estrogen.
transmitted sease. As per HIV fact sheet November 2016 released  The combination
by www.unaids.org/en/resources, there are 36.7 million people living of hormones
with HIV or AIDS worldwide in 2015. maintains the
thickened lining of
 About 35 million people have died from AIDS-related illness since the uterus of
the start of the epidemic till 2015. Every year since 2010, around 1.9 fertilized egg
million adults have become newly infected with HIV. implants in the
lining of the
KPK uterus.
 It produces the
hormones that are
 it can be contracted congenitally from an infected mother. Fetuses necessary to
infected with syphilis are usually stillborn or die shortly after birth. maintain the
 The bacterium easily penetrates intact mucosae and abraded skin. corpus luteum.
 Within a few hours of exposure, an asymptomatic body wide  It induces human
infection is in progress. chorionic
gonadotropin
 After an incubation period of two to three weeks, a red, painless (hCG), the
primary lesion called a chancre (shang'ker) appears at the site of hormone that is
bacterial invasion. In males, this is typically the penis, but in females detected in urine
the lesion often goes undetected within the vagina or on the cervix. test for pregnancy.
 The chancre ulcerates and becomes crusty; then it heals  If pregnancy does
spontaneously and disappears within a few weeks. not occur, the
corpus luteum
 If syphilis is untreated, its secondary signs appear several weeks degenerates
later. usually during day
 A pink skin rash all over the body is one of the first symptoms. 22 after
 Fever and joint pain are common. menstrtryuation.
 These signs and symptoms disappear spontaneously in three to The drop in
progesterone level
twelve weeks. causes the lining
 Then the disease enters the latent period and is detectable only by a of the uterus to fall
blood test. away.
 The latent stage may last a person's lifetime (or the bacteria may be  This is known as
killed by the immune system), or it may be followed by the signs of menstruation. The
cycle repeats.
tertiary syphilis.
 Tertiary syphilis is characterized by gummas, destructive lesions of
the CNS, blood vessels, bones, and skin. Penicillin is still the
treatment of choice for all stages of syphilis. KPK
 Bacterium invades
BTB the mucosae of
the reproductive
 It has three stages, which are typically separated by latent periods. and urinary tracts.
In the primary stage, a hard chancre (ulcerated sore with hard  The most common
symptom of
edges) appears. In the secondary stage, rash appears all over the gonorrhea in
body. males is urethritis,
 During the tertiary stage, syphilis may affect the cardiovascular and accompanied by
nervous system. Syphilis is a very devastating disease. Control painful urination
and discharge of
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depends on prompt and adequate treatment of all cases being pus from the
treated with antibiotic therapy. penis.
 Symptoms vary in
women, ranging
BTB from none (about
20% of cases) to
 AIDS is a major global public health issue. There are approximately abdominal
38 million people living with HIV at the end of 2019. Over two thirds discomfort,
of all people with HIV infection live in African region (26 million). HIV vaginal discharge,
abnormal uterine
can be diagnosed through rapid diagnostic tests. However, there is bleeding, and
still no cure for AIDS. occasionally,
 If you require acupuncture, ear, piercing, nose piercing, etc. You urethral symptoms
should go to reliable operators and make sure that needles used are similar to those
sterilized or insist on using disposable instruments. Blood of donor seen in males.
must be screened before transfusion.  Untreated
gonorrhea can
Use disposable syringes and sterilized operation tools for surgery. cause urethral
constriction and
inflammation of
the entire male
duct system.
 In women, it
causes pelvic
inflammatory
disease and
sterility. It can be
treated by
penicillin,
tetracycline, and
certain other
antibiotics.

BTB

 There is no blood
test to diagnose
gonorrhoea. In
male, typical
symptoms are
pain upon
urination and a
thick greenish
yellow urethral
discharge.
Gonorrhoea can
spread to internal
parts of the body,
causing heart
damage or arthritis.

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NOTES

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power in the form of NADPH (NADPH + H+) and ATP, are formed,
both temporarily storing energy to be carried along with H to the light
independent reactions.

 Light reaction takes place in the grana of chloroplast.

Dark reactions
 The products of light reactions, NADPH provides energized electron
(and H+), while ATP provides chemical energy for the synthesis of
sugar by reducing CO2, using reducing power and chemical energy
of NADPH and ATP respectively, produced by light reactions.
 The energy is thus stored in the molecules of sugar. This phase of
photosynthesis is also called dark reactions because these reactions
do not use light directly and can take place equally well both in light
and dark provided NADPH2 and ATP of light reactions are available.
 Dark reaction takes place in the stroma of chloroplast.

Arrangement of pigments (photosystem)

 Photosynthetic pigments are organized into clusters, called
photosystems, for efficient absorption and utilization of solar energy
in thylakoid membranes

Components of photosystems
 Each photosystem consists of a light gathering antenna complex and
a reaction centre.

Antenna complex

 The antenna complex has many molecules of chlorophyll a,

chlorophyll b and carotenoids, most of them channelling the energy
to reaction centre.
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FTB

 It is the peripheral part of photosystem.

Reaction centre

 Reaction centre has one or more molecules of chlorophyll a along

with a primary electron acceptor, and associated electron carriers of
‘electron transport system’.

PTB

 Chlorophyll a molecules of reaction centre and associated proteins

are closely linked to the nearby electron transport system.
 Primary electron acceptor traps the high energy electrons from the
reaction centre and then passes them on to the series of electron
carriers. During this energy is used to generate ATP.

FTB
 It is the central part of photosystem.
 It also contains associated proteins which are responsible for
deviation of spectrum of PS-1 and PS-2.
 See how the light is absorbed by the pigment molecules and then
transferred from one molecule to other and finallyreaches the
reaction centre where this light energy is converted into the chemical
energy.

Electron transport system

 Electron transport system plays role in generation of ATP by
chemiosmosis.
 Light energy absorbed by the pigment molecules of antenna
complex is transferred ultimately to the reaction centre.
 There the light energy is converted into chemical energy.

TYPES OF PHOTOSYSTEMS
 Since chlorophyll a generally has an optimal absorption wavelength
of 660nm, it associates with different proteins in each type of
photosystems to slightly shift its optimal wavelength producing two
distinct photosystem types i.e., photosystem-I (PS-I), photosystem-II
(PS-II)
 These photosystems are named according to their order of
discovery.
 The stomata covers over only 1-2% leaf surface.
 Air contains about 0.03-0.04% of CO2.
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 This CO2 is used by terrestrial plants while aquatic plants use CO2
dissolved in water as carbonates.

Light Reactions
 Light dependent phase of photosynthesis involves the absorption of
light by the photosystems, excitation and flow of electrons through
an electron transport chain chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP, and
reduction of NADP to NADPH.
 The flow of excited electrons through an electron transport chain
during light reaction is of two different types
 Non-cyclic phosphorylation
 Cyclic phosphorylation
 This production of ATP during light reaction is called
photophosphorylation and the mechanism is called chemiosmosis.
 Photosystem-I can absorb maximum wavelength of 700nm while
photosystem-II can absorb 680 nm.

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
 In non-cyclic electron flow, the excited electrons after leaving a
particular photosystem do not comeback, these electrons after losing
their energy are incorporated into another molecule.
 The events of non-cyclic photophosphorylation are continuous but
here they are discussed in steps for convenience:

 Absorption of light by PS-II and excitation of its

electrons
 When just two photons strike the antenna complex of PS-II, the two
electrons become excited and begin to move along the atoms of
different pigments within photosystem.
 Each photon excites one electron.
 Ultimately, the absorbed energy reaches the reaction centre of PS-II
(P680) and causes its two electrons to be excited.
 These excited electrons are captured by the primary electron
acceptor of PS-II and leave two "electron holes in the photosystem
behind making chlorophyll a strong oxidizing agent.

 Photolysis of water BTB

 The electron holes of photosystem must be filled so that in the Primary electron
presence of water splitting enzyme reactions can proceed. acceptor in PS-II is
 When water reacts with oxidized state of chlorophyll in photosystem, called pheophytin.
it breaks up into 2H+ ions, 2e‐ and ½O2.
 Since this breakdown occurs in the presence of sunlight therefore, it
is termed as photolysis of water.
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 The electrons released from water are used to fill the "electron
holes".
H2O→ 2H+ + 2e- + ½O2

PTB

 The oxygen produce during photolysis is the main source of

replenishment of atmospheric oxygen

 Electron flow from PS-II To PS-I

 Each photo excited electron passes from the primary electron

acceptor of photosystem II to photosystem I via an electron transport
chain.
 This chain consists of an electron carrier called plastoquinone (Pq),
a complex of two cytochromes.

FTB

 The two cytochromes are cyt-b6 and cyt-f

 Photophosphorylation

 As electrons move down the chain, their energy goes on decreasing

and is used by thylakoid membrane to produce ATP.
 This ATP synthesis is called photophosphorylation because it is
driven by light energy.
 Specially, ATP synthesis during non-cyclic electron low is called non-
cyclic photophosphorylation.
 This ATP generated by the light reactions will provide chemical
energy for the synthesis of sugar during the Calvin cycle, the second
major stage of photosynthesis.

Absorption of light by PS-I and excitation of its electrons

 On the other hand, when P700 in the reaction centre of PS-I

molecule absorbs two photon of light, electrons are boosted to a
higher energy level.
 P700 molecule passes these excited electrons to a primary electron
acceptor of PS-1, creating "electron holes":
 The electron holes of P700 are filled by the pair of electrons received
from the P680 (photosystem II) via electron transport chain.

Electron flow from PS-I to NADP+

 The primary electron acceptor of photosystem- I passes the photo

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excited electrons to a second electron transport chain.
 The electrons are accepted by ferredoxin (Fd). It is an iron
containing protein.
 An enzyme called NADP reductase Transfers the electrons from Fd
to NADP+.
 NADP+ combines with electrons and hydrogen ions to form NADPH
(reduced).
 The NADPH will provide reducing power for the synthesis of sugar in
the Calvin cycle.

PTB

 This is a redox reaction that stores the high energy electrons in

NADPH

FTB

 NADP reductase is a flavoprotein enzyme.

NADP++ 2e- + 2H+→ NADPH + H+

Z-Scheme

 The path of electron transport through the two photosystems during

non-cyclic photophosphorylation is known as Z-Scheme due to its
conceptual zig-zag shape

Cyclic photophosphorylation
 In the cyclic photophosphorylation the excited electrons after leaving
a particular photosystem finally come back to their photosystem
again.

Explanation

 Under certain conditions, photo excited electrons take an alternative

path called cyclic electron flow.
 This path uses photosystem I but not photosystem II.
 Possibly, it appears when the chloroplast runs low on ATP for the
Calvin cycle, the cycle slows down and NADPH accumulates in the
chloroplast.
 This rise in NADPH may temporary shift from non-cyclic to cyclic
electron flow until ATP supply meets the demand.
 The cyclic flow is short circuit: The electrons cycle back from primary
electron acceptor to ferredoxin (Fd) to the cytochrome complex and
from there continue on to the P700 chlorophyll.
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 ATP is generated by the coupling of ETC by chemiosmosis.
 There is no production of NADPH and no release of oxygen and no
photolysis of water.
 Cyclic flow does, however, generate ATP. This is called cyclic
photophosphorylation.

FTB

 It absorbs energy in the form of photons.

Non-cyclic Cyclic phosphorylation

phosphorylation
1. Electrons do not come back to 1. Electrons come back to the
the same molecule. same molecule.
2. First electron donor is water 2. First electron donor is P700
(PS-I)
3. Involves both PS-I and PS-II 3. Involves PS-1 only
4. Last electron acceptor is 4. Last electron acceptor is
NADP. P700.
5. The net products are ATP, 5. The product is ATP only.
NADP, O2
6. More common 6. Less common

Conditions for cyclic pathway

 When Calvin cycle slows down due to short supply of ATP and
NADP.
 Limited supply of CO2 also affects carbohydrate synthesis.

Summary of light reactions

Light

Enzymes

Requirements H2O

NADP

Light reactions ADP + Pi

Oxygen

Products ATP

NADPH2

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 These products are transported from grana to stroma for use in dark
reactions.

Light independent reactions (Dark reactions)

Stroma of
Occurrence
chloroplast
Dark reaction
ATP
Requirement
NADPH

 The reaction that do not require light directly and can occur in the
presence and absence of light.
 Energy of ATP and NADPH of light reactionsis used in the formation
of carbohydrate from CO2and thus stored there in.

Reaction

3CO2 + 6NADPH + 9ATP →(CH2O3) + 6NADP + 9ADP + 9Pi + 3H2O

FTB

 In this phase of photosynthesis, NADPH is used to reduce carbon

dioxide while ATP is used to incorporate energy.
 Finally, CO2 is converted into a phosphorylated triose carbohydrate
i.e., glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate (G3P) which are later on used to
make glucose.
 Dark reaction generally involves a complicated metabolic pathway,
the Calvin cycle or C3 pathway.

 However, in some plants, in addition to Calvin cycle another

metabolic pathway is also involved, called C4 pathway.
 The plants in which only Calvin cycle occurs during dark reaction are
called C3 plants.

Calvin Cycle
 The cyclic series of reactions, catalysed by respective enzymes, by
which the carbon is fixed and reduced resulting in the synthesis of
sugar during the dark reactions of photosynthesis is called Calvin
Cycle.

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Discovery

 The details of path of carbon in these reactions were discovered by

Melvin Calvin and his colleagues at the University of California.
 Calvin was awarded Nobel Prize in 1961.

BTB

 They used
radioactive
isotope of C14 in
CO2.

Phases of Calvin cycle

Phases of Calvin
cycle

Regeneration of
Carbon fixation Reduction CO2 acceptor
(RuBP)

1.Carbon Fixation

 Carbon fixation refers to the initial incorporation of CO 2 into organic

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material. Keep in mind that we are following three molecules of
CO2through the reaction (because
 3 molecules of CO2 are required to produce one molecule of
carbohydrate, a triose). The Calvin cycle begins when a molecule of
CO2 reacts with a highly reactive phosphorylated five - carbon sugar
named ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).
 This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase, also known as Rubisco
 The product of this reaction is a highly unstable, six - carbon
intermediate that immediately breaks into two molecules of three -
carbon compound called 3 - phosphoglycerate (phosphoglyceric
acid-PGA).
 The carbon that was originally part of CO 2 molecule is now a part of
an organic molecule; the carbon has been “fixed”.

PGA + RuBP (C5)  C6 (intermediate)  2PGAL(C3)

Why called C3 pathway? BTB

 Because the product of initial carbon fixation is a three - carbon  The six carbon
compound, the Calvin cycle is also known as C3 pathway. intermediate
molecule is called
PTB intermediate
compound
because it exists
 It is the most abundant protein in chloroplasts, and probably the
for such a brief
most abundant protein on Earth.
time.
 Chloroplast contains 16% rubisco.

FTB

 Rubisco acts as carboxylase as well as oxygenase.

 When rubisco acts as carboxylase it adds carbon dioxide to RuBP,
which is an acceptor molecule.
 On the other hand when rubisco is oxygenase it adds oxygen to
RuBP.

2.Reduction

 In this phase 6 molecules of 3-PGA react with six ATP molecules, a

phosphate from each ATP is transferred to each 3-PGA to form 1, 3-
Bisphosphoglycerate.
 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
(G3P) by receiving a pair of electrons (hydrogens) donated from
NADPH of light reactions.
 In this way fixed carbon is reduced to energy rich G3P with the
energy and reducing power of ATP and NADPH (both the products
of light-dependent reactions), having the energy stored in it.
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 For every three molecules of CO2 entering the cycle and combining
with 3 molecules of five-carbon RuBP, six molecules of G3P
(containing 18 carbon in all) are produced.
 But only one molecule of G3P can be counted as a net gain of
carbohydrate.
 Out of every six moleculesof G3P formed, only one molecule leaves
the cycle.
 The other five molecules are recycled to regenerate the three
molecules of five-carbon RuBP, the CO2 acceptor.

PTB

 G3P is the same three-carbon sugar which is formed in glycolysis

(first phase of cellular respiration) by the splitting of glucose.
 Actually G3P, and not glucose, is the carbohydrate produced directly
from the Calvin cycle.
 G3P is used by the plant for making glucose, sucrose starch or other
carbohydrates, and other organic compounds.

PGA + ATP +NADPH2PGAL+ADP+ Pi+ NADP+H2O

3.Regeneration of CO2 acceptor BTB

 Five molecules of G3P from the previous phase are used to  In this step, a
regenerate the RuBP (CO2 acceptor) in this phase. water molecule is
 These five molecules each containing three carbon atoms undergo a also formed.
series of reactions in which three molecules of ribulose phosphate
(RuP) each containing five carbon atoms are produced.
 When three molecules of RuP react with three molecules of ATP, a
phosphate group from each ATP is transferred to each RuP.
 Ultimately RuP are converted into RuBP which again participate in
the next cycle.

5PGAL +ATPADP +Pi+ 3 RuBP

Input and output of Calvin cycle

 The whole process of Calvin cycle indicates that there are three
molecules of CO2, six molecules of NADPH (reducing power) and
nine molecules of ATP (assimilating power) are used to release just
one molecule of G3P form the cycle
 However, in order to produce a glucose molecule, two molecules of
G3P are required. The overall process of Calvin cycle can be
represented as:

3CO2 + 6NADPH + 9ATP  G3P + 6NADP+ + 9ADP + 9Pi + 3H2O

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Steps of Calvin cycle Number of ATP and NADPH
1. Carboxylation Zero
2. Reduction 2+2 = 4
3. Regeneration 1 ATP+ zero NADPH

 Every CO2 molecule entering the Calvin cycle, 3 molecules of ATP

and 2 of NADPH are required.

6 CO2

Inputs 18 ATP

12 NADPH
Calvin cycle
Glucose

Outputs 18 ADP

12 NADPH+

Cellular respiration BTB

 Respiration is the universal process by which organism breakdown  Two PGAL
complex compounds containing carbon (organic matter) in a way molecules are
that allows the cells to harvest a maximum of usable energy. converted into
 It is a series of complex oxidation reduction reactions. glucose
 There are two types of respiration depending upon availability of phosphate within
oxygen. chloroplast.
 Glucose
Aerobic phosphate is then
respiration converted into
Alcoholic
Respiration starch.
fermentation
Anaerobic  Fixed carbons
respiration leave the
Lactic acid
fermentation chloroplast in the
form of
 Aerobic takes place in the presence of oxygen and anaerobic takes dihydroxyacetone
place in the absence of oxygen. phosphate (DAP).
It is formed from
 The organic molecule that generally undergoes breakdown in cellular
PGAL.
respiration in order to release energy is glucose, therefore, glucose
 In the cytoplasm,
is supposed to be respiratory fuel.
DAP is used to
 The initial breakdown of glucose in both aerobic and anaerobic
produce the six
respirations is quite same, in which it is broken down into two
carbon sugars,
molecules of pyruvates.
glucose and
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 This common step of aerobic and anaerobic respirations is called fructose, which
glycolysis. are then joined to
 The pyruvates undergo in different respiratory pathways depending form sucrose.
upon the availability of oxygen and the kind of organism.  Glucose is also
used to form
PTB cellulose.
 Glucose is readily
 Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of cell converted to
amino acids. (with
Reaction the addition of
nitrogen)
2NAD+2NADH2  Other compounds
C6H12O6 2C3H4O3 + energy like organic acids
 This reaction occurs in all the cells and biologists believe that an that is fatty acid
identical reaction may have occurred in the first cell that was and glycerol
organized on earth. appear quite
rapidly in the cell
during
FTB photosynthesis.
Glucose accumulates
 If oxygen is available, the further breakdown of pyruvates takes commonly therefore
place aerobically and the final products are carbon dioxide and water other compounds can
with the release of large amount of energy i.e., 36 ATPs (in be seen by more
eukaryotes) or 38 ATPs (in prokaryotes). sensitive methods.
 If oxygen is absent, then the pyruvates are broken down
anaerobically and the final products are either lactic acid or ethanol
and carbon dioxide with release of very small amount of energy i.e.,
just 2 ATPs.

Anaerobic respiration
 Anaerobic respiration takes place in many microorganisms (bacteria,
yeast), muscle cells of vertebrates and in the cells of higher plants.
 Anaerobic respiration is incomplete breakdown of glucose in the
absence of oxygen. It is also known as fermentation.
 There are two pathways of anaerobic respiration depending upon the
nature of final products i.e.
 Lactic acid fermentation
 Alcoholic fermentation

Lactic acid fermentation

 In lactic acid fermentation, each pyruvic acid molecule is converted
into lactic acid C3H6O3 in the absence of oxygen gas.
 This form of anaerobic respiration occurs in muscle cells of humans
and other animals during extreme physical activities, such as
sprinting, when oxygen cannot be transported to the cells as rapidly

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as it is needed.
 The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscles fatigue i.e., muscles
become unable to contract and begin to ache.
C6H12O6+ 2NAD+2C3H4O3 +2NADH + 2H+
2C3H4O3+2NADH+ 2H+2C3H4O3+2NAD+

FTB

 It consists of glycolysis followed by the reduction of pyruvate by

NADH to lactic acid.
 The pathway operates anaerobically because after NADH transfers
its electron to the pyruvate, it is "free" to return and pick up more
electrons during the earlier reaction of glycolysis.

Alcoholic fermentation
 In primitive cells and in some eukaryotic cells such as yeast, pyruvic
acid is further broken down by alcoholic fermentation into alcohol
(C2H5OH) and CO2.

FTB

 It consists of glycolysis followed by the decarboxylation of pyruvate

to acetaldehyde then reduction of acetaldehyde by NADH to ethyl
alcohol or ethanol.
 This pathway also operates anaerobically because after NADH
transfers its electron to the acetaldehyde, it is "free" to return and
pick up more electrons during the earlier reaction of glycolysis.
C6H12O6+ 2NAD 2C3H4O3 +2NADH + 2H+
2C3H4O3+2NADH+ 2H+2C2H5OH + 2CO2 +2NAD+

PTB

 Both alcoholic and lactic acid fermentations yield relatively small

amounts of energy from glucose molecule.
 Only about 2% of the energy present within the chemical bonds of
glucose is converted into adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Role of mitochondria in respiration

 Mitochondria are large granular or filamentous organelles that are
distributed throughout the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells.
 Each mitochondrion is constructed of an outer enclosing membrane
and an inner membrane with elaborate folds or cristae that extend
into the interior of the organelle.
 Mitochondria play a part in cellular respiration by transferring the

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INSIGHT MDCAT
energy of the organic molecules to the chemical bonds of ATP.
 A large “battery” of enzymes and coenzymes slowly release energy
from the glucose molecules.
 Thus mitochondria are the “power houses” that produce energy
necessary for many cellular functions.

Adenosine triphosphate and its importance

 Adenosine triphosphate, generally abbreviated ‘ATP’ is a compound
found in every living cell and is one of the essential chemicals of life.
 It plays the key role in most biological energy transformations.
 It is also known as energy currency of cell.
 Conventionally, ‘P’ stands for the entire phosphate group.
 The second and the third phosphate represent the so called “high
energy” bonds. If these are broken by hydrolysis, far more free
energy is released as compared to the other bond in the ATP
molecule.
 The breaking of the terminal phosphate of ATP releases about 7.3 K
cal. of energy.
 The high energy ‘P’ bond enables the cell to accumulate a great
quantity of energy in a very small space and keeps it ready for use
as soon as it is needed.

Functions of ATP

energy anabolic active muscular nerve

source reactions transport contraction conduction

Biological oxidation
 The maintenance of living system requires a continual supply of free
energy which is ultimately derived from various oxidation reduction
reactions.
 Except for photosynthetic and some bacterial chemosynthetic
processes, which are themselves oxidation reduction reactions, all
other cells depend ultimately for their supply of free energy on
oxidation reactions in respiratory processes.
 In some cases biological oxidation involves the removal of hydrogen,
a reaction catalysed by the dehydrogenases linked to specific
coenzymes.
 Cellular respiration is essentially an oxidation process.

Glycolysis
 Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose up to the formation of pyruvic
190 | P a g e
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acid.
 Glycolysis can take place both in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic
condition) or in the presence of oxygen (aerobic condition).
 In both, the end product of glucose breakdown is pyruvic acid.
 The breakdown of glucose takes place in a series of steps, each
catalysed by a specific enzyme.
 All these enzymes are found dissolved in the cytosol. In addition to
the enzymes, ATP and coenzyme NAD (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide) are also essential.

FTB

It is also called EMP pathway because it was discovered by three

German scientists Embden, Meyerhof and Parnas.

Phases of glycolysis
 It can be divided into two phases.

Preparatory phase

 In this phase energy is expended. Two ATPs are consumed and its
final products are two molecules of G3P.

Oxidative Pay-off phas

 It is an energy yielding phase in which not only ATPs are produced

through substrate level phosphorylation, but it also produces NADH
which upon further oxidation in respiratory electron transport chain
yields more ATPs.

Steps of glycolysis KPK

 Glycolysis is completed in following steps:  It does not need
free oxygen thus
Preparatory Phase probably first life
was anaerobic
 The first step in glycolysis is the transfer of a phosphate group from bacteria.
ATP To glucose. As a result a molecule of glucose-6 -phosphate is
formed.
 An enzyme catalyses the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to its
isomer, fructose-6-phosphate.
 At this stage another ATP molecule transfers a second phosphate
group. The product is fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
 The Next step in glycolysis is the enzymatic splitting of fructose 1 ,6 -
bisphosphate into two fragments. Each of these molecules contains
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three carbon atoms. One is called 3 – phospo- glyceraldehyde, 3-
PGAL or Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) while the other is
dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
 These two molecules are isomers and in fact, are readily
interconverted by yet another enzyme of glycolysis.
 Next phase of glycolysis is proceeded by two molecules of G3P,
therefore, the remaining reactions occur twice.

Oxidative Phase

 The next step in glycolysis is crucial to this process. Two electrons or

two hydrogen atoms are removed from the molecule of 3-
Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) and Transferred to a molecule of
NAD. This is of course, an oxidation-reduction reaction, with the
PGAL Being oxidized and the NAD being reduced. During this
reaction, a second phosphate group is donated to the molecule from
inorganic phosphate present in the cell. The resulting molecule is
called 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate(BPG).
 The oxidation of PGAL is an energy yielding process. Thus a “high
energy” phosphate bond is created in this molecule. At the very next
step in glycolysis this phosphate group is transferred to a Molecule
of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) converting it into ATP. The end
product of this reaction is 3-phospho glycerate (3-PG).
 In the next step 3-PG is converted to 2-Phosphoglycerate (2PG).
 From 2PG a molecule of water is removed and the product is
phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP).
 PEP then gives up its ‘high energy’ phosphate to convert a second
molecule of ADP to ATP. The product is pyruvate, pyruvic acid
(C3H4O3). It is equivalent to half glucose molecule that has been
oxidized to the extent of losing two electrons (as hydrogen atoms).

FTB

 Phosphoenol pyruvate is converted into pyruvate with the help of

enzyme called Pyruvate kinase.

Pyruvic acid oxidation BTB

 Pyruvic acid (pyruvate), the end product of glycolysis, does not enter  1,3-
the Krebs cycle directly but they undergo an intermediate phase Bisphosphoglycer
called oxidation of pyruvate or link reaction as it links the glycolysis ate (BPG) is also
with Krebs cycle. called as
 It is also called transition reaction. diphosphoglycerat
 The pyruvate (3- carbon molecule) is first changed into 2-carbon e (DPG).
molecule.

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Steps KPK

 It takes the following three steps. 2 ATP are used in

preparatory phase
Decarboxylation and 4 produced in
oxidative phase so
 First, it undergoes decarboxylation in which a molecule of CO 2 is the net gain of ATP is
removed from pyruvate to form 2 carbon molecule. 2ATPs.

Oxidation/Dehydrogenation

 Then NAD+ removes hydrogen from the acetaldehyde. As a result of

this oxidation/dehydrogenation a 2-C fragment acetyl and NADH are
produced.

Acetyl CoA formation

 Finally, the acetyl group is combined with coenzyme-A to form Acetyl

CoA.

PTB

 The pyruvate after removal of CO2 is converted into acetic acid.

 Acetyl CoA is called active acetate.

FTB

 The pyruvate after the removal of CO 2 is converted into

acetaldehyde.
 Pyruvates are produced in cytosol.
 Pyruvates are charged molecules it must enter mitochondria via
active transport with the help of transport proteins.
 It links the pathway of aerobic respiration that occurs outside the
mitochondria with that occurs inside the mitochondria.
2Pyruvate + 2CoA → 2 Acetyl CoA + 2CO2
 Pyruvic acid → Acetyl group + CO2 +2H+
 Acetyl group + CoA → Acetyl CoA
 NAD +2H+→ NADH2

Kreb’s cycle
 This cycle was discovered by British Scientist Sir Hans Krebs,
therefore called as Krebs cycle.

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FTB BTB

 It is also called the Citric Acid Cycle or Tri Carboxylic Acid (TCA)  It takes place in 2
cycle because the first compound which is formed in the cycle is stages.
citrate (Citric acid) that contains three carboxylic acid groups. 1. Oxidation of
pyruvic acid to
form Acetyl
Coenzyme A
 It is an oxidation
reaction in which
electrons are
removed from
pyruvate by
dehydrogenase
that uses NAD as
a coenzyme.
 This reaction
occurs twice for
each original
glucose molecule.
2. Oxidation of
Acetyl Coenzyme
A
 It takes place
through Krebs
cycle.

KPK

Coenzyme A consists
of a nucleotide and a
portion of one of the
PTB vitamins B.

 Acetyl CoA now enters a cyclic series of chemical reactions during

which oxidation process is completed. BTB
 This series of reactions is called the Krebs cycle (after the name of
the biochemist who discovered it), or the citric acid cycle.  This is a cyclic
 The first step in the cycle is the union of acetyl CoA with metabolic pathway
oxaloacetate to form citrate. In this process, a molecule of CoA is located in the
regenerated, and one molecule of water is used. Oxaloacetate is a matrix of
4-carbon acid. Citrate thus has 6 carbon atoms. mitochondria.
Sir Hans Krebs
discovered it in 1930.
Steps of Kreb’s cycle
 The Krebs cycle involves following nine steps:

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INSIGHT MDCAT
 Synthesis

 Acetyl CoA (2-C compound) and a water molecule combines with

oxaloacetate (4C compound) to form 6 C compound called citrate
(citric acid).
 It is the first product of Krebs cycle. CoA is liberated.
 2C acetyl group is formed by transition reaction. (Linked reaction.)

 Dehydration

 Citrate undergoes reorganization by the removal of water molecule.

The resulting compound is cis-aconitate.

 Hydration

 Cis-aconitate is converted into isocitrate with the addition of water.

 Citrate and iso citrate are isomers to each other.

 Oxidative decarboxylation

 This is a two-step process, which involves

oxidation/dehydrogenation of isocitrate, followed by the
decarboxylation to form Alpha ketoglutarate.
 The hydrogen and electrons which are released fromisocitrate are
taken up by NAD+ to form NADH while the carboxyl group is
released in the form of CO2.

PTB

 This is NAD+ mediated oxidation.

 Oxidative Decarboxylation and Addition of Co-A

 Alpha ketoglutarate again undergoes oxidative decarboxylation. The

hydrogen and electrons which are released from Alpha ketoglutarate
are taken up by NAD to form NADH While the carboxyl group is
released in the form of CO2. Then it combines with coenzyme A to
form succinyl CoA.

PTB

 The product then has one carbon atom and one oxygen atom less. It
is succinate.
 The conversion of a-ketoglutarate into succinate is accompanied by
a free energy change which is utilized in the synthesis of an ATP

195 | P a g e
INSIGHT MDCAT
molecule.

FTB

 Formation of ATP

 Coenzyme A is removed from Succinyl CoA to form Succinate.

 The reaction releases sufficient energy which is used to combine
GDP and Pi forming GTP.
 GTP reacts with ADP to form ATP while GTP is again converted into
GDP.
 In this way a molecule of ATP is generated in this reaction.

 Dehydrogenation / Oxidation
 Succinate undergoes dehydrogenation/oxidation to form fumarate.
The hydrogen and electrons which are released from succinate are
taken up by FAD to form FADH2.

PTB
 The next step in the Krebs cycle is the oxidation of succinate to
fumarate.
 Once again, two hydrogen atoms are removed, but this time the
oxidizing agent is a coenzyme called flavin adenine dinucleotide
(FAD), which is reduced to FADH2.

2 Acetyl groups

2ADP and 2Pi

Input
6NAD

2FAD
KPK
Krebs cycle
4CO2  The energy of
substrate used in
the generation of
4ATP ATP is called as
Output substrate level
phosphorylation.
6NADH2

2FADH2

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Cell Wall BTB

 The outermost boundary in most of plant cells, prokaryotes and  The outer part of
fungi. primary wall of
 Cell wall is absent in animal cells due to their locomotor mode of plant is
life. impregnated with
 Call walls of prokaryotes and plants differ due to their chemical cutin and waxes,
composition and structure. forming a
permeability
# Organism Chemical composition barrier known as
1. Prokaryotes  Peptidoglycan or murein plant cuticle.
 As a whole sacculus  The
 (Proteins + carbohydrates) cellulose
2. Fungi  Chitin (polysaccharide) microfibrils are
 Found in exoskeleton of insects held together by hy
(arthropods)  Plants
3. Plants  Cellulose (polysaccharide) communicate
with each other
 Cell wall is secreted by protoplasm of cell. through
microscopic
channels known
Layers of cell wall as plasmo-
desmata.

KPK
1. Middle lamella 2. Primary wall 3. Secondary wall  Cell wall was
Discovered by
Robert Hook in
Middle lamella 1665
 Middle lamella is present between adjacent primary walls of two
cells. Uses of cellulose in
industry
Primary wall 1) Nitrocellulose:
 Primary wall is a true wall and develops only in a newly growing Used as
cell. explosives.
 It is composed of cellulose, pectin and hemi-cellulose. 2) Rayon:
 Cellulose fibrils are arranged in a criss cross manner (right angle Used in textile
to each other) fibers.
3) Cellophane:
Secondary wall Partially
 Secondary wall is formed between primary wall and plasma permeable
membrane (on inner surface of primary wall) membrane.
4) Paper making:
 It is rigid and thick
5) Celluloids and
 It is composed of inorganic salts (Ca+2, Mg+2, K+ etc) silica, waxes,
cinematography:
cutin and lignin.
As plastic.
Functions
 Cell wall provides definite shape and it is rigid.
 Cell wall contains pores through which substances pass through

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freely and is called as freely permeable membrane. (Don't act as Thickness of
barrier) primary wall,
 Cell wall maintains cell shape provides protection and mechanical secondary wall and
support. middle lamella
 Middle lamella:
PTB 1 µm
 Middle lamella is the first layer to be formed between the primary  Primary cell
walls of neighbouring cells. wall:
1 – 3 µm
FTB  Secondary wall:
 The primary cell wall is present inner to middle lamella. 5 – 10 µm
 Primary wall is thin and flexible.
 Primary wall stretches plastically i.e., irreversibly.
 Secondary wall is dead and is found in sclerenchyma cells.
 Secondary wall develops only when cell reached its maximum
size. (growth is complete)
 Lignin in secondary wall is responsible for rigidness and anchors
cellulose microfibrils.
 Middle lamella is composed of calcium and magnesium salts of
pectic acid and pectin (protein)
 Middle lamella is cementing material or substance.
 Both primary and secondary walls are crystalline and optically
active.
 Cell wall prevents over- expansion.

Pectin Pectic Acid

1. Polymer of around 200 1. Polymer of around 100
galacturonic acid molecules galacturonic acid molecules
2. Less hydrophilic 2. Very hydrophilic
3. More methylated 3. Less methylated
4. Soluble in hot H2O 4. Insoluble gel

Cell Membrane BTB

 Cell membrane or plasma membrane is the  Plasma
 Outermost boundary of protoplasm in animal cell. membrane is
living boundary.
 In plants, it is covered by cell wall. (outside)
 Phospholipid is
most abundant
Fluid mosaic model (most acceptable model)
lipid in plasma
 According to this model, cell membrane is composed of a lipid
membrane and
bilayer.
give basic
 Proteins are not continuous and not confined to cell surface. structure.
 Membrane proteins are embedded in lipid bilayer in a mosaic  Fluid mosaic
manner like ice barges float in sea randomly. model is given by
 Proteins are embedded wholly or partially. J. Singer and G.
Nicolson in 1972.
 There are two

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kinds of
membrane
Chemical composition of cell membrane
protein:
2. Intrinsic or
embedded
Protein (e.g.,
Proteins 60 – 80 Lipids 20 – 40% Carbohydrates permease)
(small amount) 3. Extrinsic or
surface
protein (e.g.,
receptors)
Functions of cell membrane
 One of the most important function of cell- membrane is to control
KPK
transport of material across it.
 Lipid bilayer
 Cell membrane allows only selective substances to pass through it;
makes the layer
therefore, it is known as selectively or differentially permeable
differentially
membrane.
permeable.
 Non-polar or neutral substances can easily across the membrane
 It allows only
e.g. gas molecule, water, glucose etc.
selective material
to pass through it.
 Two layers of lipid
Transport molecule
Suggested by
Garter and
Passive Active
Grendel in 1925.
 Unit membrane
No use of
Use of ATP Bulk transport model was given
ATP.
From lower to by Robertson in
Downhill
movement.
higher concentration 1959.
Uphill movement Endocytosis Exocytosis
 Plasma
Transport through
Facilitated Na+ - K+ pump membrane is
Osmosis
transport
Taking in Taking out
dynamic structure.
substances in substances in  Membrane
the form of the form of
Movement from vesicles vesicles. carbohydrate
higher to lower responsible for
concentration Membrane
through a semi- surface area is pinocytosis
permeable decreased
membrane.
Phagocytosis Pinocytosis phagocytosis are
(cell surface
marker)
Taking in solid Taking in liquid
substances substances

PTB
Unit membrane model:
 According to this model, lipid bilayer is sandwiched in between
inner and outer layers of proteins.
 This basic earlier model is present in all cellular organelles.
 Modern technology rejected this model.
 Cell membrane also contains charge pores through which
movement of material takes place both by active and passive

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transport.
 It regulates the flow of material and ions to maintain definite
gradient.
 Small molecules can easily cross the membrane.
 Ions being charged particle have difficulty in crossing.
 Many substances which are not needed constantly enters the cell
by passive transport while others are taken up by active transport
 Cell membrane helps to take material by enfolding in the form of
vacuoles.
 In nerve cell (neuron), the cell membrane transmits nerve impulses
from one part of body to other to keep co-ordination.

FTB
 Carbohydrates are in the form of conjugated glycolipids,
glycoproteins in cell membrane.
 Glycoproteins and glycolipids are cell surface markers which help
to recognize, stick and connect two cell together.

Other names for cell

membrane

Cell Cell
Plasma Biological Cell surface
Plasmalemma membrane of membrane of
membrane membrane membrane
muscle neuron

Sarcolemma Neurolemma

 Cell membrane is found in all living prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

 It gives shape & mechanical support to cell.
 The pattern of distribution of protein can vary from membrane to
membrane and also vary both surfaces of membrane.
 The membrane is about 7nm thick (wide)
 Hydrophobic ends of phospholipids are inward and face to each
other.
 Hydrophobic ends are appeared outside the surface.
 Cholesterol molecules are embedded in phospholipid bilayer at
some intervals.
 Cholesterol molecules helps to stabilize the phospholipid at body
temperature but it helps to keep the membrane fluid at low
temperature.
 Fluidity of membrane is due to lipid component of membrane
including:
(i) Phospholipid (ii) Glycolipid
(iii) Cholesterol (iv) Sphingolipid
 When the concentration of unsaturated fatty acid in phospholipid
becomes greater, the bilayer becomes more fluid that makes cell-
membrane more pliable. i.e., flexible
 Proteins of cell membrane may act as:
1. Channel protein: It allows particular molecules or ion to

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cross the plasma membrane freely

2. Carrier protein: It selectively interacts the specific molecule
or ion, so that it can cross the plasma membrane.
3. Enzyme: For example, the membrane protein
4. Cyclase: Catalyses the transformation of ATP to cyclic AMP
(2nd messenger)
5. Receptor: For example, hormone circulates in blood but
bind to specific target cell called receptor.
6. Antigen: Foreign antigen can be recognize and attacked by
immune system. Use in body defence system.

Transport across membrane

occurs to

Maintain suitable pH Generate ionic

Excrete waste Secrete useful and ionic gradient essential for
Obtain nutrient concentration for nervous and
substances substances
enzymatic activity muscular activity

Cytoplasm
 The living contents of the eukaryotic cell are divided into nucleus and
cytoplasm, the two collectively called protoplasm.
 Cytoplasm is the region between nuclear membrane and plasma
membrane.

Functions BTB
1. Store house of vital chemicals:  The word
 Useful substances used in various cellular activities. e.g. cytoplasm literally
means living gel

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glycogen of cell
 Waste compounds are removed out of the cell time to time.  Cytoplasm
2. Metabolic activities: contains both
 Many important metabolic reactions take place in cytoplasm organic and
e.g., glycolysis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis etc. inorganic
substances.
 Cytoplasm of
Nucleus
Cellular eukaryotes
Eukaryotic cell organelles maintains shape
Cytoplasm Insoluble of cell by
wastes organelle like
Cellular
inclusions cytoskeleton
Storage present inside it.
products
 Soluble part of cytoplasm cytosol forms the ground of cytoplasm and
is 90% water.
 Cytosol contains all the fundamental molecules of life.
Sugar, amino Non-viscous
True solution
acids, vitamins
Sol
Cytosol
Central
Colloidal
Proteins
solution
Viscous
Gel
Peripheral

 Cytoplasmic streaming movement, active mass movement,

amoeboid movement or cyclosis is due contractile activity of
microfilaments
 For example, free-floating organelles like mitochondria move about
in the cytoplasm due to cytoplasmic streaming movement.

FTB
 Cytoplasm is the common component of both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
 The major difference between cytoplasm of these two types of cells
is presence of cytoskeleton or absence of cytoskeleton and
membrane bound organelles.
 These structures are absent in prokaryotic cells.
 Metabolic reactions take place in cytosol.
 Storage of compounds take place in cytogel part of cytoplasm.
 Cyclosis is responsible for distribution of cell contents in cytoplasm.

Ribosome
 Tiny granular structures in the cell called ribosomes.
 Ribosomes were first studied by Palade in 1955.
 Ribosomes are made up of equal amount of RNA and Protein known
as ribonucleoprotein. BTB
 Ribosomes in exist in two forms:  Engine of cell or

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a) Attached to RER. factory for protein

b) Freely dispersed in cytoplasm. synthesis.
 Ribosome consists of two ribosomal subunits called Svedberg units  Ribosomes are
 Svedberg is used in ultra-centrifugation technique. absent in
 One is larger other is smaller subunit. mammalian
 Prokaryotes ribosome is 70 S, in which larger subunit is 50 S and RBCs.
smaller is 30 S.  Smallest organelle
 Eukaryote's ribosome is 80S, in which larger subunit is 60 S and also called
smaller is 40 S. organelle within
 The attachment of both subunits is controlled by the presence of an organelle.
Mg+2 ions: a) Prokaryotic
 Ribosomes are attached to mRNA through smaller ribosomal ribosome:
Subunit. rRNA 60%,
Single mRNA + Many ribosomes = Polysome (polyribosome) protein 40%
 Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis (polypeptide) this b) Eukaryotic
process called translation starts from 5'end of mRNA and ends at ribosome:
3'end. . rRNA 40%,
 Ribosomes are synthesized from nucleolus (factory of ribosome) protein: 60%
where they are they are transported outside in cytoplasm through  Ribosomes are
nuclear pores. also attached to
outer surface of
nuclear
PTB
membrane.
 Ribosome contains RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
 About half a
million ribosomes
are found in
eukaryotic cells.
 Svedberg unit is a
unit of time equal
to 10-13 seconds.
 Mitochondrial
ribosomes are
produced from
mitochondrial
genes.
 Translation in
ribosomes is
facilitated by all
FTB three Kinds of
 Ribosome is dense, spherical, non-membranous organelle. RNA and under
 Common organelle present both in eukaryotic prokaryotic cells the instructions of
 Diameter of ribosome is 20 – 24 nm. DNA.
 Ribosomes are also found in matrix of mitochondria and stroma of
chloroplast but these ribosomes are of prokaryotic nature (70 S). KPK
 Attachment of ribosomal subunits is also controlled by forming salt  Due to small size
bonds between phosphate group of RNA and amino group of amino (20nm diameter),
acid. ribosomes are the
 In polysome, several copies of same polypeptide chain are produced last organelle to
in very less time. be sedimented

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requiring a force
Endoplasmic Reticulum of 150,000 times
 Interconnected channel of cisternae channel that extended from gravity for 3
nuclear membrane to plasma membrane. hours.
Extra point:
 Materials in these channels separated fem cytoplasmic content
through cisternae membranes.  Attached
ribosomes:
 Two forms of ER:
Synthesize protein
that is transported
SER RER outside the cell.
1. Ribosomes are not attached on 1. Ribosomes are attached on  Free ribosomes:
outer surface outer surface Synthesize protein
2. Also known sarcoplasmic 2. Involved in protein synthesis that is utilized.
reticulum in muscle cells.

 SER is involved in:

i) Detoxification of drugs.
ii) Elimination of harmful chemicals and substances. BTB
iii) Metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids.  Cisternae: These
iv) Transmission of impulse. are long flattened
 Both SER and RER provides mechanical support. and unbranched
units arranged in
PTB stacks.
 SER helps in transport of materials.  Vesicles: These
are oval
membrane
bounded
structures.
 Tubules: These
are irregular often
branched tubes
bounded by
membrane. They
may be free or
connected with
cisternae.
 If many ribosomes
are attached on
the small parallel
cisternae of RER
SER RER then it is called
1. Less stable structure. 1. Most stable structure. ergastoplasm
2. Mainly composed of tubules. 2. Mainly composed of cisternae In nerve cell,
and vesicles. ergastoplasm
known as Nissl's
3. Abundantly occurs in cells, 3. Abundantly occurs in cells which
body.
concerned with glycogen and are actively engaged in protein
lipid metabolism such as synthesis and secretion such as Cholesterol and
adipose tissue, muscles, liver in liver, pancreas and goblet phospholipid
cells and also remove toxins. cells. metabolism is

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done by SER
FTB  Cellular
 RER faces the cytoplasm. metabolism: The
 SER stores the Ca+2 ions for the transmission of impulse. membrane of ER
 Products formed are on RER are passed through SER. increases surface
area for metabolic
activities, also
Lysosome contains some
 Lyso means splitting and soma means "body". enzymes like
 Lysosome is some membranous sac (vesicles) sucrase, glucose-
 Lysosomes contain digestive or hydrolytic enzymes like acid 6-phosphatase,
phosphatase. NAD- Bi-
 These enzymes are synthesized by ribosomes on RER, and are phosphatase etc.
further processed in Golgi apparatus.  Formation of
 After modification, these enzymes are released in the form of nuclear
vesicles and are known as primary lysosomes. membrane:
 Vesicles before performing their functions are called primary Fragmented
lysosomes elements of
 Lysosomal enzymes work in acidic medium. disintegrated
nuclear
membrane and
ER arranged
around
chromosome to
form nuclear
membrane during
cell division.
 All membranous
organelles except
chloroplast and
mitochondria are
formed by ER.

KPK
 SER makes lipids
from fatty acids
and glycerol and
absorbed in gut
Functions
and passes them
 Major functions of lysosomes are: to Golgi
1. Intracellular Digestion: The ingested food of stored in apparatus.
vesicles cell is called food vacuole Food vacuole combines
 Corticosteroids
with lysosome and called secondary lysosome. The
made in adrenal
digested food absorbed in cytoplasm. Remaining wastes
cortex,
containing vesicles are called contractile vacuoles.
testosterone,
2. Exocytosis: Then these vacuoles are excreted out through
estrogenic
exocytosis.
initiated in SER.
3. Autophagy: Unwanted worn out structures within the all are
engulfed by the cell itself is called autophagy and these
lysosomes are known as autophagosomes. They are also BTB

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known as secondary lysosomes. It is self-eaten process.  Lysosomes break

During exercise, larger number of mitochondria are produced macromolecules
to obtain energy. These mitochondria are again decreased by in cell.
autophagy after exercise.  They are absent
4. Autolysis: During developmental processes, when a cell is in mammalian
required to be disintegrated, a type of cell death occurs called RBCS.
"autolysis". (programmed cell death)  Lysosomes are
less in number in
Storage Diseases plants.
 Several lysosomal diseases are caused by accumulation of lipids  Fungi also contain
due to absence of enzyme that is involved in catabolism of certain many Lysosomes.
substance. Periplasmic space
 As a result, these substances accumulate in cell. in bacteria may
 There are about 20 such diseases. function as
 These can be hereditary and congenital. lysosome
 Glycogenesis type II disease: This disease is due to accumulation  Lysosomes also
of glycogen in cell because enzyme involved in the breakdown of contain
glycogen to glucose absent. hydrolytic
 Tay Sach's disease: This disease is due to accumulation of lipids enzymes like
in brain- because enzyme involved in catabolism of lipid of absent. carboxyhydrases,
 This disease causes mental retardation and even can be fatal. lipases, nucleases
and proteases
PTB  Lysosomes vary
in size from 0.1 -
 Digested vacuoles and auto- phagosomes are secondary lysosome
0.8 µm in
 Lysosomes were isolated for the first time by De-Duve. In 1949.
diameter.
 Lysosomes are most abundant in those animal cells which exhibit
 In phagocytic
phagocytic activity e.g., neutrophils etc.
WBC, it is largest
 During starvation, process of autophagy happens in size (0.8 – 2
 Lysosomes also release enzymes for extra cellular digestion µm).
 Storage diseases are produced by mutation that effect one of the  They are also
lysosomal enzymes. known as
polymorphic
FTB cellular organelle
 Lysosomes contain about 40 different digestive enzymes. because they
 In plants, large central vacuole may act as lysosome exist in different
 Lysosome is also called suicidal bag. morphological and
physiological
Golgi apparatus States during their
 Found in all eukaryotic call. function.
 Found by Camilo Golgi in 1898. Primary
lysosome + Food
 Set of stack, membrane bound sacs Called cisternae,
vacuole =
 Together with the vesicles it is called Golgi complex
Digestive
 Formed by the fusion of vesicles, breaking up from SER. vacuole or
 Outer surface is convex, cis, forming face. phagosome
 Inner face is concave, trans, maturing face.  Lysosome
 Cisternae break at maturing face containing
 It is the complex system around central canal. undigested matter
 Main function is secretion, found abundantly in secretary calls.

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is called residual
lysosome.
 In unicellular
organisms, they
are removed
outside by
exocytosis.
 In multicellular,
they are retained
in the cell in the
form of lipofuscin
granules.
 Autophagosomes
are also called
cytolysosomes.
 Human liver cells
recycle half of its
macromolecules
 Products are passed from: each week.
 In intracellular
Ribosomes RER SER Golgi Vesicles
Lyso- Exo - digestion, the
some cytosis
phagocytosis
process is also
 Modification (glycylation) of carbohydrates into glycoprotein and called
glycolipid also its main function. heterophagy.
 Extracellular
digestion: when
osteoclast cells of
bone dissolve
unwanted parts of
bone.
 Extracellular
digestion also
takes place in
fungi.
 Tail of human
embryo and tail of
tadpole is
removed by
autolysis.
PTB  Crinophagy :
 The whole stack consists of a number of cisternae thought to be Excess of
moving from outer to the inner face. hormones of
Endocrine gland
 Finishing and packing of products is the function of Golgi.
are digested by
 In mammals, pancreases secretes granules having digestive
lysosomes
enzymes.
 Glycogenesis
 These granules are transported out of cell through Golgi.
type - II diseases
are caused due to
FTB
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 Lysosomes, peroxisome, and glyoxysomes are derived from Golgi absence of D-

complex. glycosidase.
 During cell division in plants, during cytokinesis, phragmoplast is  GSD (Glycogen
formed from which cell wall is formed. storage Disease)
 It helps in formations of cell wall. may be treated by
 Most of its secretions are protein nature. taking meals of
Carbohydrates
Vacuole  In USA, one child
per 25000 births
 Single membranous organelle found in both plant and animal cells.
have GSD.
 In animal cells many small peripheral vacuoles are present use
 Tay Sach's
 In mature Plant cells, large central vacuole is present that is formed disease is due to
by coalescence of smaller vacuoles during plant's growth and absence of beta-
development. hexosaminidase.
 Membrane of vacuole that separates vacuole content from is called
tonoplast.
 Vacuole plays important role in maintaining turgor pressure provides
mechanical support.
BTB
 Vacuole is store house of water, chemical products or metabolic
 In plants, Golgi
intermediates.
bodies are known
as dictyosome.
 Number of
cisternae are 3 –
7 in most of
animals but up to
30 in lower
organisms.
 Forming face is
closer to nuclear
membrane.
 Maturing face is
farthest face
closer to plasma
PTB
membrane.
 In mature plants, vacuole is central and pushes remaining organelles
 Formation of
in peripheral position.
acrosome during
 Vacuoles serve the plant by expanding its cytoplasm without diluting
spermatogenesis
the cytoplasm.
 Formation of egg
 It also plays role in providing the rigidity to the leaves and younger
vitelline
parts of the plants.
membrane is also
done by Golgi
FTB apparatus.
 Vacuoles are actually the vesicles originate from ER, Golgi complex
and plasma membrane. KPK
 In animals, during intracellular digestion, food vacuoles are formed  Sometimes,
by phagocytosis. polysaccharides
 Many freshwater protists, have contractile vacuoles that pump may be
excess water out of cell and maintain suitable concentration of ions synthesized from
and molecules inside it simple sugar in

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 They also help in the protection of plants against herbivores by Golgi bodies.
storing compounds that are poisonous and unpleasant for animals.  Golgi apparatus
 The solution inside the central vacuole is called cell sap. add surface area
 Cell sap also contains reservoir of inorganic ions like potassium and to cell membrane.
chloride.

Centriole BTB
 Non-membranous organelle  Diameter of
 Nine triplets of microtubules are found in cylindrical arrangement at centriole is 10 nm.
right angle to each other exterior to nucleus  Centrioles were
 Found in animals and lower microorganisms slime such as protists, discovered by
slime molds. Benden in 1883
 Absent in higher plants. and Boveri in
1895.
 They become double just before cell division
 Centrioles are
 Involved in cell division and formation of cilia and flagella
self-replicating
 Whole structure of spindle fiber is known as mitotic apparatus.
units.
 Basal bodies of
cilia and flagella
are types of
centrioles.

BTB
 Microfilaments are
involved in
1. Muscle
contraction.
2. Change in cell
shape
3. Division of
cytoplasm during cell
PTB
division
 Centrioles also play role in location of furrowing.
KPK
FTB  Koltzoff in 1928
 Centrioles are about 0.15 – 0.25 µm in diameter. suggested the
 0.3 – 2 µm in length existence of
 Centrioles lie in a distinctly staining region of cytoplasm Known as Fibrous network,
centro-sphere. later on, Cohen
 Centrioles and centrosphere are together called centrosome. (1977) confirmed
 Centrioles also give rise to basal bodies or kinetosome of cilia and his views.
flagella.
BTB
Cytoskeleton  Microtubules
 Cytosol contains fiber network culled cytoskeleton. perhaps are
 It contains three types of fibers: involved in the
transport of cell
wall materials
from Golgi bodies

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to outside of cell.
Cytoskeleton
BTB
 Intermediate
Intermediate filaments also
Microfilament Microtubule plays role in
filament
attachment of
muscle cell.
Microfilament
 Made of actin protein.

PTB
 More slender, linked to the inner surface of plasma membrane.
 Involves in internal cell motion.
 Amoeboid or cyclosis movement is also due to microfilament.

FTB
 Microfilament is of 7 nm diameter.
 Four twisted chains.
 Two chains of F - actin and two chains of tropomyosin and triplets of
troponin at regular intervals.

Microtubule
 Long, unbranched, slender, tubulin protein structure.
 Plays role in assembly and disassembly of spindle structures during
cell division.
 Involved in formation of mitotic apparatus.
 Involved in formation of cilia, flagella, centriole and basal body.

FTB
 0.2 – 0.25 µm in length.
 25 nm in diameter.
 Tubulin is a dimer.

Intermediate filament
 Role in support and maintenance of cell shape.

PTB

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 Size in between microtubule and microfilament.

FTB
 8 – 10 nm in diameter.
 Contains vimentin protein.
 Vimentin contains three chains of intermediate filaments with no
hollow space and twisted around each other.

BTB
Mitochondria  Mitos means
 It is found in all eukaryotic cells. thread; chondrion
 Powerhouse of cell. means granules.
 Role in production of ATP from ADP.  Altman (1890)
 Self-replicating organelle. established
 Varies in number from cell to cell. mitochondria, and
called them
bioblast.
 The term
mitochondria is
given by C.
Benda. (1898)
 All the
mitochondria
present in a cell
called
chondriome.
 Animal cells have
greater
mitochondria than
plant cell.
 If outer membrane
of mitochondria is
removed, it is
called mitoplast.
 Cristae increase
 Two membranes: surface area for
i) Outer smooth layer. chemical reaction.
ii) Inner contain foldings called cristae.  1% of total DNA is
 Cristae consists of F₁-Fo particles. present in
mitochondria.
Other names of F1 particles
 This DNA is small,
circular and can
code the
Stalked Elementen
Fernandas - synthesis of some
Oxysome ATP synthase Moran
particle particles
particles type of proteins.
 Mitochondria also
help in
 Matrix of mitochondria consists of many coenzymes, ions and
vitellogenesis
important chemicals like DNA, RNA, and ribosome (70 S).
(yolk formation)
 Kreb's cycle and oxidation (fatty acid oxidation) of pyruvate occurs in

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mitochondria. in oocyte.
 Extracting energy from food.  It is believed that
 Site of cellular respiration. mitochondria have
 Endo-symbiont origin organelle. endosymbiotic
origin from purple
PTB sulphur bacteria.
 Membrane enfolding or cristae is made of lipoprotein.
 Under electron microscope appears as complex structure. KPK
 Mitochondria are
FTB absent in in
mature RBC of
 Outer membrane contains porin protein that it can exchange
human.
material freely and is freely permeable.
 Mitochondria were
 Inner membrane is semi-permeable.
first seen in
 Have its own metabolic machinery.
Muscle cells in
 Diameter 0.5 – 1 µm. 1850.
 Young one gets
Other names for mitochondria all its
mitochondria from
Most busy and its mother (eggs).
ATP mill in cell Cell within cell Cell furnace Storage batteries active organelle in Semi-autonomous
cell cell organelle

BTB
Plastids  Plastids are the
 Plastids are pigmented organelles found in plants. sites of
manufacture and
 Plastids are double membranous organelles.
storage of
 Plastids are of three types:
important
chemical
compounds.
Plastids
 Most plants inherit
plastids from one
parent.
 Example:
Leucoplasts Chromoplasts Chloroplasts. Angiosperms
inherit plastids
from female
 All these three types made of are their precursors called proplastids. gamete, while
many
gymnosperms
Chloroplast inherit plastids
 Membrane bound organelle with small granules. from male pollen.
 Discoid structure.  Chloroplasts are
 Self-replicating. green plastids and
 Responsible for photosynthesis. found in green
 Light reactions on thylakoid membrane and dark reactions occur in parts of plants like
stroma of chloroplast. leaves,
herbaceous
stems.
 The most

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important and
Parts of chloroplast abundant enzyme
is rubisco (about
16% of
Envelope Stroma Thylakoid chloroplast)
 Semi-autonomous
organelle.
 Thylakoids pile up to form grana and inter-grana.  Endosymbiont
 25 – 50 thylakoids form grana (green part). organelle.
 Inter-grana is non-green part.
 Membrane of the thylakoids involved in the formation of ATP. KPK
 Chloroplast is
PTB heterogeneous
 Chlorophyll molecules have Mg+2 as its central atom unlike structure.
haemoglobin.  Stroma covers
 Diameter is 4 – 6 µm. most of the
volume of
 Stroma consists of protein, ribosome (70 S) and DNA (circular)
chloroplast.
FTB
 Outer membrane has poring proteins.
BTB
 Inner membrane is rich in protein and it is semi-permeable.
 Nuclear pores are
 Inter-grana are larger than grana. also guarded by
permeases in the
form of a pore
complex which
regulate RNA,
ionic exchange.
(nucleo-
cytoplasmic traffic
between
nucleoplasm and
cytoplasm)
 Nucleolus usually
attached to
chromatin at
Chromoplasts specific site called
 They impart colour to plants other than green. nuclear
organizer region
 They are found in petals of flowers.
(NOR)
 Also found in ripened fruits.
 Chromatin
 Help in pollination and dispersal of seeds.
consists of both
histone, non-
Leucoplasts histone proteins,
 They are colourless, plastids. DNA, and little
 They are found in underground parts of plant like roots, stem etc. amount of RNA.
 They help in storage of compounds.  Chromas:
 They are triangular in shape. colour; Soma:
body.

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 Chromosome can
Elaioplast Store lipids be best studied at
metaphase stage
because size of is
Leucoplast 03 types Amyloplast Store starch the chromosome
shortest during
Proteinoplast or metaphase
Store protein  Chromosome is
Eluroplast
covered by thin
proteinaceous
Nucleus sheath called
 Discovered by Robert Brown in 1831. pellicle.

KPK
 Diameter of
nucleus = 10 µm.
 Pigeon has 80
chromosome.

 Nucleus is the central part in animal cell and in plant cell it is

peripheral.
 It may be spherical, oval elongated or irregular shape.
 It is visible only when cell is in non-dividing stage.
 In dividing cell, it disappears and chromatin material is replaced by
chromosomes.
 Generally each cell contains one nucleus but sometimes may be two
or many called mono-nucleated, di-karyotic, poly-nucleated etc.

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For example:
1. Muscle cell contains many nuclei.
2. Paramecium is dikaryotic.
3. Opalina is multinucleated.
 Nucleus is absent in some cells like:
a) In mature mammalian RBCs.
b) Mature phloem sieve tube elements in plants.
 Nucleus is self-replicating organelle.
 Nucleus consists of following structures:

Nucleus

Nuclear
Nucleoplasm Nucleolus Nuclear pores Chromatin Chromosomes Karyotype
envelope

Nuclear Envelope

Contains nuclear pores

(porin proteins)
Outer membrane
Continuous with
Membranes of nuclear endoplasmic reticulum.
envelope

Encloses nuclear
Inner membrane
content.

Nucleoplasm
 Nucleoplasm is ground substance of nucleus which is also known
as nuclear matrix or karyoplasm.
 It is transparent complex colloidal fluid contains water, proteins,
enzymes like ATPase, DNA and RNA polymerase,
endonucleases and ions like Ca++, Mg++ etc.

Nucleolus
 Nucleoplasm also contains one or more nucleoli.
 Nucleolus is non-membranous which is spherical darkly stained.
 It is only visible during interphase while disappear during cell
division.

 The main function of nucleolus is to form subunits of ribosomes.

 Factory of ribosome in cell.

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Nucleolus

85% proteins 10% RNA 5% DNA.

Nuclear pores
 Gaps between inner and outer nuclear membranes.
 Number of nuclear pores depends vary from nuclear pores cell to
cell.
 Nuclear pores control traffic of cell.

Chromatin
 Network of nucleoprotein fibers, embedded in nucleoplasm.
 Chromatin condensed to form chromosomes during cell division.

Chromosome
 Chromosomes absorbs deeply in basic dyes during staining, thus
darkly stained structure.

Karyotype
 Array of chromosomes.
 The number of chromosome is definite for each species.

Cell Chromosomes Cell Chromosomes

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Human 46 Chimpanzee 48
Onion 16 Maize 20
Pea 14 Frog 26
Sugarcane 80 Fruit fly 08
Mouse 40 Mucor 02

 Each chromosome has:

1. Two identical sister chromatids
2. Two sister chromatids connected together at a common point
called centromere. (primary constriction)
 Kinetochore protein is present at centromere, during cell division.
 Chromosomes are the vehicle of hereditary material (genes) from
parent cell to daughter cell.

PTB
 Undifferentiated cell has greater nuclear pores than differentiated
cell.
 Egg cell has 30,000 per nucleus.
 While erythrocytes 3 – 4 per nucleus.

Central fibril area rRNA & rDNA

Nucleolus
Peripheral Ribosomal
granular area subunits

 Potato has 48 chromosomes.

 Diploid cell = 2n chromosome.
 Haploid cell = n chromosome.

FTB
 Ends of chromosomes are called telomeres
 Chromosome is made of DNA and Protein.

Nucleus

Controller of
Heart of cell Brain of cell
cell

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1. Pro: before ; karyon: nucleus 1. Eu: true; karyon: nucleus
2. Don't have distinct nucleus 2. Have distinct nucleus.

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3. Bacteria and cyanobacteria 3. Animals, plants, fungi

 Ribosome is the common organelle between prokaryotes and

eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
4. Lacks membrane bound 4. All membrane bound organelles
organelles like cytoskeleton, are present.
mitochondria etc.
5. 70 S ribosome (50 S + 30S) 5. 80S ribosome (60 S + 40S)
6. Nuclear material (DNA) is 6. Nuclear material (DNA) is within
dispersed in cytoplasm. nucleus.
7. Consists of small, single, 7. Consists of two linear
circular chromosome chromosomes.
8. Histone is absent 8. Histone protein is present.
9. Plasma membrane lacks sterols 9. Plasma membrane does have
like cholesterol. sterols in it.
10. Divided by binary fission 10. Divided by mitosis. (normal
cells) Meiosis in germ cells
11. Flagellin is part of flagella. 11. Tubulin is part of flagella.
12. Mesosomes are present. 12. Mesosomes are absent.
13. Prokaryote (bacteria) cell wall is 13. Plant cell wall is made of
made of peptidoglycan cellulose. Fungi cell wall is
(polysaccharide + amino acid) / made of chitin.
murein. (a as whole sacculus)

 Cell wall is the main distinction between prokaryote and eukaryote.

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Membrane bound organelles

Double Membranes

Mitochondria Chloroplast Nucleus

Single Membrane

Vacuole Lysosome Peroxisome Glyoxisome ER Golgi body

Ribosome
Non-membranous
Centriole

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Organelles found only in plant and animal cells

Plants Animals
1. Plastid 1. Centriole
2. Central vacuole 2. Peripheral vacuole
3. Glyoxysome 3. Peroxisome

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Note
 Mitochondria, lysosome, ER, Golgi body, nucleus and ribosomes are
found in both animals and plants.

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 Adjacent cells join together to form branching fibres by specialised
cell-to-cell attachments called intercalated discs, which have gap
like junctions that allow action potentials to pass from cell to cell.

Skeletal muscles

 These muscles are attached to the bone and are responsible for
movements of body parts and whole body movements (locomotion).
 Skeletal muscles or striated muscles show alternate light and dark
regions under microscope.
 Skeletal muscles are composed of muscle fibres or muscle cells.
 Bundles of muscle fibres are enclosed by collagen fibres and
connective tissue.
 At the ends of the muscle the collagen and connective tissue
forms tendons which attach the muscle to skeletal elements.
 Each skeletal muscle fibre is a single cylindrical cell, enclosed by a
plasma membrane like structure called sarcolemma and has
several nuclei.
 The sarcolemma of muscle fibre cell penetrates deep into the cell to
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form a hollow elongated tube, the transverse tubule (T-tubule).
 The cytoplasm of the muscle fiber is called sarcoplasm.
 It contains sarcoplasmic reticulum.
 Within the muscle fibres are numerous thin myofibrils which possess
characteristic cross striations. The myofibrils are 1-2 µm in
diameter that run in parallel fashion and extend the entire length of
the cell.
 Each myofibril is composed of two types of myofilaments thin
myofilaments and thick myofilaments.

Ultrastructure of skeletal muscles

 Under a light microscope only the striated nature of the myofibrils
can be observed.
 This is seen as a regular alternation of light and dark bands called
the I bands and A bands respectively, transversed by thin, dark lines.
 Electron microscope studies clearly indicate that the bands are due
to regular arrangement of thin and thick myofilaments.
 Transversing the middle of each I band is a dark line called the Z
line.
 The section of myofibril between two Z lines is called a sarcomere,
which is a contractile unit.
 From the Z line thin myofilaments extend in both directions, whilst in
the centre of the sarcomere are found thick myofilaments.
 In certain regions of the sarcomere, thin and thick myofilaments
overlap.
 Transverse sections in these regions indicate that six thin
myofilaments surround each thick myofilament.

Myosin
Thick filament
16 nm
Myofilament
Actin
Thin filament
KPK
7 to 8 nm
 Muscle is a
 This arrangement of thin and thick myofilaments results in a number specialized tissue
of other bands being recognizable in the sarcomere. of mesodermal
 The entire length of thick myofilaments constitute the A band origin.
because they are anisotropic that can polarize visible light.  Muscle tissue
 Thin myofilaments alone constitute I band, which is isotropic or makes up nearly
non polarizing. half the human
 The centre of the A band is lighter than the outer regions in a relaxed body mass.
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sarcomere as there are no overlap between the thin and thick  The most
myofilament in this region. It is called the H zone (H stands for 'hele' distinguishing
means bright). functional
 The H zone itself may be bisected by a dark line, the M line. characteristic of
 The M line joins adjacent myosin filaments together at a point muscles is their
halfway along their length. ability to transform
 Thick myofilaments are 16 nm in diameter and are composed of chemical energy
only myosin protein. (ATP) into
 The thin filaments are 7-8 nm in diameter and are composed of mechanical
three proteins. energy.
 Skeletal muscles
can contract
actin TnI rapidly, but get tire
easily and must
Proteins in rest after short
troponin TnC
thin filament
periods of activity,
or fatigued.
tropomyosin TnT
 Nevertheless, it
can exert
 Two intertwisted beaded chain of actin which form the core of tremendous
filament. power.
 Two strands of tropomyosin spiral about the actin core and help  Skeletal muscles
stiffen it. In a relaxed muscle fibre, they block myosin binding sites are also
on actin so that the myosin heads cannot bind to the thin filaments. remarkably
 Troponin is a three-polypeptide complex found at regular intervals on adaptable. For
thin myofilaments. One of these polypeptides (TnI) is an inhibitory example, hand
subunit that binds to actin; another (TnT) binds to tropomyosin and muscles can exert
helps position it on actin. The third (TnC) binds calcium ions. a force of a
 Both troponin and tropomyosin help control the myosin-actin fraction of an
interactions involved in contraction ounce to pick up a
dropped paper clip
and the same
Muscle Contraction - Sliding Filament Model muscles can exert
a force of many
 The sliding filament theory of contraction states that during pounds to pick
contraction the thin myofilaments slide past the thick ones so that heavy loads like a
they overlap to a greater degree. bucket full of
 In a relaxed muscle fibre, the thick and thin myofilaments overlap water.
only at the ends of the A band.  Once most of the
 But when muscle fibres are stimulated by the nervous system, the calcium is
myosin heads are attached on to myosin binding sites on actin in the sequestered in the
thin myofilaments, and the sliding begins. sarcoplasmic
 These links are called cross bridges which are formed and broken reticulum sacs,
several times during a contraction, acting like tiny ratchets to which takes only
generate tension and propel the thin myofilaments toward the centre milliseconds, the
of the sarcomere. binding between
 As this event occurs simultaneously in sarcomeres throughout the the myosin heads
cell, the muscle cell shortens. and the actin
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 The I bands shorten filaments can no
 The distance between successive Z discs is reduced longer occur.
 The H zone disappears  The immediate
 The contiguous A bands move closer together but do not change in source of energy
length. for the muscle
contraction is
Control of cross bridges ATP, stored in the
muscle cells.
 An enzyme
 Muscle contraction is initiated by nerve impulse arriving at the
ATPase, in the
neuromuscular junction.
muscle cells
 The nerve impulse is carried through the sarcolemma to the T tubule
breaks ATP to
then to the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). ADP, thus
 The calcium gates of the SR open releasing calcium into the cytosol. releasing energy
 When muscle is at rest the tropomyosin is disposed in such a way for muscle
that it covers the sites on the actin chain where the heads of myosin contraction.
become attach.  Of the total energy
 When calcium ions bind with the troponin molecules they cause expended in
them to move slightly. This has the effect of displacing the muscles
tropomyosin and exposing the binding sites for the myosin head. contraction, only
 Once the myosin head has become attached to the actin filament, about 35% is
ATP is hydrolysed and the crossed bridges are broken down. utilized for the
 The formation and breakdown of cross bridges occur again and performance of
again during this process. work; the
remaining is
FTB liberated in the
form of heat,
 Externally muscle is covered in a connective tissue wrapping called which is employed
epimysium. Each skeletal muscle consists of hundreds to to maintain body
thousands of muscles fibres (muscle cells). temperature.
 Each muscle is divided into discrete bundles of muscle cells called  In cold weather
fascicles. The fascicle is surrounded by perimysium. the production of
 Each muscle fibre within the fascicle is covered by a layer of heat can be
connective tissue called the endomysium increased through
 Each myosin molecule consists of six polypeptides which are voluntary
arranged in such a way that each myosin molecule possesses a tail muscular activity
and two globular heads. (walking, rubbing
 Each thick filament contains about 300 myosin molecules bundled hand together etc)
together with their tails forming the central part of the thick filament or involuntary by
and their heads facing outward and in opposite directions at each shivering.
end.  Conversely, in
 The kidney-shaped polypeptide subunits of actin, called globular warm weather,
actin or G actin, bear the active sites to which the myosin heads muscular activity
attach during contraction. is deliberately
 G actin monomers are polymerized into long actin filaments called decreased to
fibrous, or F actin. reduce heat
 The backbone of each thin filament appears to be formed by two production.
intertwined actin filaments that look like a twisted double strand of
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pearls. BTB
PTB  There are over
640 muscles in
 Each muscle fibre is a long cylindrical cell with multiple oval nuclei the body of human
arranged just beneath its sarcolemma. .
 Skeletal muscle fibres are huge cells. Their diameter is 10-100 µm.  The hardest
 Sarcoplasm of the muscle fibre is similar to the cytoplasm of other working muscle in
cells but it contains usually large amount of stored glycogen and the body are
unique oxygen bonding protein myoglobin, a red pigment that stores cardiac.
oxygen.  The heart pump
 Each dark band is called A band, because it is anisotropic, i.e it can about 2500 gallon
polarize visible light. of blood per day.
 The light band called I band is isotropic or non-polarizing.  The smallest
 It gives the cell as a whole its striped appearance. muscles
 Sarcomere is the smallest contractile unit of muscle fibre. (stapedius) of the
 A. F. Huxley and their colleagues suggested a hypothesis in 1954 to body lie in the ear
explain all events in muscle contraction, this is called "Sliding along with
filament model" of muscle contraction. smallest bone
 It is revealed that ATP is needed to break the link between the (Stapes), while the
myosin and the actin. strongest muscle,
 After death, the amount of ATP in the body falls. based on its
 Under these circumstances the bridges can not be broken and so weight, is the
they remain firmly bound. This results in the body becoming stiff, a masseter, in the
condition known as rigor mortis. jaw.
 Muscle contraction is initiated by nerve impulse arriving at the  The sarcomere is
neuromuscular junction. All the fibres innervated by a single motor the structural and
neuron are a "motor unit" and contract simultaneously in response functional unit of
to the action potential fired by the motor neurons. muscle fibre
(muscle cell
 The thousands of T-tubules of each muscle cell are collectively
called T-system. It extends and encircles the myofibril at the  Muscles are built
level of Z-line or A and I junction. during sleep, not
in gym or during
 The T-tubule and the terminal portion of the adjacent envelope of
exercise because
sarcoplasmic reticulum form triads at regular intervals along the
at this time more
length of the fibril.
blood circulation
 The nerve impulse is carried through the T-tubule to the adjacent
and hormo- nes
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).
are released.
 The calcium gates of the SR open releasing calcium into the cytosol,
 Half of the myosin
thus binding calcium ion to troponin molecules of the thin filament.
heads projecting
 The binding sites are exposed and cross bridges with myosin can from it at an angle
form, and contraction occurs. to the left and half
of them angle to
All or None Response the right, creating
an area in the
 The contraction of each muscle fibre is based on "all or none" middle of the
principle i.e. all of its fibrils participate in contraction. The degree of filament known as
contraction depends upon the number of muscle fibers that bare zone.
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participate in contraction.  Each actin
 Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (S.R) is continuous system of sarco- filament also
tubules extending throughout the sarcoplasm around each myofibril. contains 40-60
It is like endoplasmic reticulum but devoid of ribosomes and molecules of
exhibits a highly specialized repeating pattern. tropomyosin, the
protein which
Energy For Muscle Contraction block the active
sites of thin
 Energy for muscle contraction comes from the ATP. filaments when
the muscle is
 Supply of ATP is maintained by the aerobic breakdown of glucose in
relaxed.
muscle cell, which comes from stored glycogen in the cell.
 According to
 When more energy is required due to high metabolism, it is provided
sliding filament
by another energy storing substance called creatine phosphate.
theory of muscle
 Sometime during oxygen deficiency or very high metabolic activity
contraction, the
such as prolonged or strenuous exercise ATP requirement is met
actual length of
by anaerobic breakdown of glucose into lactic acid.
actin and myosin
 Lactic acid accumulation causes muscle fatigue. filament does not
 At rest, 1/5 of the lactic acid is broken aerobically and its energy is change but actin
used to change the remaining 4/5 lactic acid into glucose. filaments slide
over myosin
Effect of Exercise on Muscle activity filaments.
 The actual trick is
 The amount of work a muscle does is reflected in muscular activity. played by myosin
 When muscles are used actively they increase on size and become filaments.
more efficient and fatigue resistant.  The sliding
 Aerobic exercises such as swimming, jogging, and fast walking filament theory or
result in several changes in skeletal model is
 Capillaries surrounding the muscle fibers , as well as mitochondria universally
within them increase in number and fiber synthesizes more accepted.
myoglobin.
 These changes result in more efficient muscle metabolism an
fatigue resistant.
 Complete immobilization of muscle leads to muscle weakness and
severe atrophy.

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NOTES

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INTRODUCTION
 All animals show some common characteristics, one of these is to
produce a response to stimuli (i.e. any internal and external change).
 The activities of different body parts in response to the stimuli must
be coordinated.
 The coordination makes possible the integration of functions
essential to animal behavior.
 It is must for animals and human to survive. In humans and most
animals there are two types of coordination, i.e. nervous coordination
and endocrine coordination.
 This unit deals with only nervous coordination.

NERVOUS COORDINATION
This type of co-ordination involves specialized cells or neurons linked
together directly or via the central nervous system, to form network that
connects the cell or organs which receive stimuli (receptors) and those
which carry out actions or responses (effectors). The neuron has the
capacity to generate and conduct impulses which travel across the
synapse and pass from the receptors to the effectors, bringing about
nervous coordination. The elements of nervous system which help in co-
ordination are:

Elements of NS

1. Receptors 2. Neurons 3. Effectors

FTB

 The system of the body that provides coordination through electric

signals among different body parts for the response to a particular
stimulus is called the nervous system.
 The human nervous system is the most evolved among all the
animals. The study of the structure of the nervous system is called

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neurology.
 Nervous coordination in higher animals therefore consists of three
basic steps i.e... reception of, stimulus, processing/analysis of
information and response to stimulus.
The most developed, advanced and evolved nervous system among all
organisms is that of humans.

BASIC ORGANISATION OF HUMAN NERVOUS

SYSTEM
The human nervous system consists of central nervous system (CNS)
and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is a coordinating centre
and it lies in the midline of the body, whereas, the PNS transmits
information from receptors to CNS and transmits orders and commands
from CNS to effectors. An outline of divisions of human nervous system
is given in figure.

BTB

 Humans and most animals (except coelenterates and Echinoderms)

have centralized nervous system. Centralized nervous system in the
characteristic is the characteristic of most animals from flat worms to
chordates.
 Human nervous system is most advanced and also possess some
unique features, i.e. enable us to convey our complex ideas,
information and messages in the form of language, make and use
various tools, preserve information (in written and video), great
learning, memory storage capacities.

Nervous
system

Central nervous Peripheral

system nervous system

Motor Sensory
Brain Spinal cord
neurons neurons

Central Nervous System (CNS)

 The CNS consists of brain and spinal cord which are hollow and are
both protected in three ways.
 Cranium, which is a part of skull, protects the brain and neural
arches, of vertebrae of vertebral column protect the spinal cord.

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 The brain and spinal cord are also protected by triple layers of
meninges(singular:meninx)
 Brain is enclosed within the cranium while spinal cord is enclosed
within vertebral column.
 The three meninges are dura matter (next to the cranium), arachnoid
matter (middle membrane) pia matter (next to the nervous tissue).
Between the arachnoid and pia matter there is a fluid, the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF),
 The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), similar in composition to blood
plasma, bathes the neurons of brain and spinal cord and it cushions
against the bumps and jolts.
 Both brain and spinal cord are hollow.
 The spinal cord has central canal and brain has many cavities
(ventricles) filled by CSF, which is also present between the
meninges.

Protection of brain and spinal cord:

They are protected in three ways.

Skeleton

 The parts of skeleton that protect the brain and spinal cord are
cranium and vertebral column.
 Cranium is the part of skull that covers the brain.
 Vertebral column consists of 33 vertebrae that encloses the spinal
cord.
 These parts protect the brain and spinal cord from accidents or other
physical traumas.

Meninges

 The meninges is the system of membranes which envelopes the

central nervous system.

Cerebrospinal Fluid or CSF

 The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced from blood vessels of

brain and spinal cord by a combined process of diffusion, pinocytosis
and active transport.
 CSF is found in between pia mater and arachnoid mater, around the
surface of brain and spinal cord, in the ventricles of brain and in the
central hollow canal of spinal cord.

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Cerebrospinal fluid

Formation Function

Active
Diffusion Pinocytosis Homeostasis Metabolism
transport

BRAIN
The brain is a part of Central nervous system. CNS includes the brain
and spinal cord.

PROTECTION

Protection of
brain

Triple layer (Cerebrospinal

Cranium
of meninges fluid)

Arachnoid Helps to
Dura matter Pia matter cushion the
matter
brain from
shock.
(Next to the
(next to the (Middle
nervous
cranium) membrane)
tissue)

PTB

PARTS OF BRAIN
Parts of brains

Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain

FOREBRAIN

Forebrain is further divided into three functional parts, the thalamus, the
limbic system and the cerebrum.

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THALAMUS

It is below the cerebrum.

Functions: Thalamus carries sensory information to the limbic system
and cerebrum. The information includes sensory input from auditory and
visual pathways, from the skin and from within the body.
BTB
FTB
CNS act as a
It receives all sensory impulses (except sense of smell) and channels coordinating center,
them to limbic system and to appropriate regions of cortex for these lies in the skull
interpretations. (Brain) and above the
vertebral column
LIMBIC SYSTEM: (spinal cord) i.e. in
The limbic system is located in an arc between the thalamus and midline of the body.
cerebrum.  Cavity of spinal
cord is known as
Functions central canal.

It works together to produce our most basic and primitive emotions, KPK
drives, and behaviors, including fear, rage, tranquility , hunger, thirst,
pleasure and sexual responses. The brain is involved
 It is also involved in formation of memories. more in coordination
than spinal cord.
Spinal cord also acts
The limbic system and thalamus
as a link between
PNS and brain.
 The limbic system extends through several brain regions. It seems to
be the center of most unconscious emotional behaviors, such as
love, hatred, hunger, sexual responses, and fear. The thalamus is a
crucial relay center among the senses, the limbic system, and the
cerebral cortex.

FTB

 The limbic system is a complex set of structures that lies on both

sides of the thalamus, just under the cerebrum.

PARTS OF LIMBIC SYSTEM

Parts of limbic system

Nearby
Hypothalamus Amygdala Hippocampus regions of
cerebrum

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HYPOTHALAMUS

The hypothalamus through its hormone production and neural

connections acts as a major coordinating center controlling body
temperature, hunger, the menstrual cycle, water balance, the sleep-
wake cycle, biorythms etc.

FTB

On the ventral side of the thalamus is the hypothalamus.

 It maintains homeostasis, blood pressure and sexual response and
fight or flight etc.
 Controls pituitary gland and serves as a link between the nervous
and endocrine system.

AMYGDALA

Functions of amygdala

sexual
pleasure punishment fear rage
arousal

FTB

The amygdalae are two almond shaped masses of neurons on either

side of the thalamus. They control feelings of love, hate, anger.

HIPOCAMPUS

Hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of long-term

memory, and thus is required for learning.

FTB

 It consists of two horns that curve back from the amygdala. It seems
to be very important in converting things that are in your mind at the
moment (in your short term memory) into the things that will you
remember for the long run (long-term memory).

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olfactory bulbs BTB

telencephalon
Forebrain cerebrum FOREBRAIN
diencephalon
 Forebrain has two
sub- divisions:
telencephalon
CEREBRUM: (cerebrum) and
diencephalon
 Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided into two (thalamus and
halves, called cerebral hemispheres. limbic system).
 These halves communicate with each other by means of a large  The cerebrum of
band of axons, called corpus callosum. human is largest
 Tens of billions of neurons are packed into this part. The outer among all other
region, the cerebral cortex, forms folds called convolutions, which animals (more
greatly increase its surface area. than half of the
brain).
FUNCTIONS OF CEREBRUM  It carries memory
available on one
 This part receives sensory information, processes it, stores some in side of the brain to
memory for future use. the other side.
 Directs voluntary movements.  It also controls
 It is responsible for the poorly understood process that we call voluntary
thinking. movements,
 The cerebral cortex contains primary sensory areas where signals thinking, learning,
originating in sensory organs such as eyes and ears are received conscious
and converted into subjective impressions, such as light and sound. sensations,
judgment,
reasoning,
Functions of cerebrum
decision-making,
dreams, emotional
feeling,
intelligence reasoning judgement thinking speech
intelligence,
analysis and
interpretation of
 The left cerebral hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and memory.
the right cerebral hemisphere controls the left side of the body.  Although the
motor sensory and
FTB associated areas
are located in all
 Each cerebral hemisphere contains four surface lobes. parts of cerebrum,
however motor
areas are more
abundant in frontal
lobe.
 The associated

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areas are most
Surface lobes of cerebral occupy the
hemispheres
anterior of frontal
lobe and
Frontal parietal occipital temporal widespread in
lateral portion of
parietal, temporal
 Each lobe further contains different functional areas. Each functional and occipital
area consists of three sub areas: lobes.
 Cerebrum
contains highest
Functional
sub-areas number of
neurons than any
other part of brain.
Association
Sensory area Motor area According to
area
"Roger Spray"
Sensory Area
 Both cerebral
hemisphere of
Receives impulses from different parts of body.
cerebrum
superficially same
Association area but right and left
portion function so
Interprets or analyzes incoming information. differently that we
could almost say
Motor area we have two
brains in one.
Controls responses of the body.  Left cerebrum
house our
CEREBRAL CORTEX: language center,
logic mathematical
 The surface of cerebrum is called cerebral cortex. It has many folds abilities while the
or convulsions forming ridges or gyri (singular, GYRUS) which are right hemisphere
separated by grooves. imagination,
 A shallow groove is called a sulcus (plural, sulci) and a deep groove spatial perception,
is called as fissure. The two hemispheres (cerebrum) are separated artistic and
by longitudinal fissure. emotional abilities.
 These grooves greatly increase the surface area of the cerebrum.  The limbic
system consists
PTB of hypothalamus,
amygdala,
hippocampus and
MIDBRAIN some part of
cerebrum.
Midbrain is reduced in humans, and it contains auditory relay centre and
centre that controls relex movements of eyes.
 Midbrain contains reticular formation, which is a relay centre
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connecting hindbrain with the forebrain. Reticular formation is very HIND BRAIN
important in screening the input information, before they reach
higher brain centres.  Pons is a group of
neuron, it act as a
HINDBRAIN bridge between
cerebellum,
medulla and
cerebrum.
Parts of hindbrain  Cerebellum is
second largest
part of the brain,
medulla pons cerebellum bulb or leaf like in
shape.
 Medulla is last
It acts as a bridge between the cerebellum, medulla and cerebrum. part of brain but in
evolutionary point
MEDULLA of view, it
developed first.
It controls several automatic functions, such as breathing, Heart rate,  The mid brain,
blood pressure and swallowing. together with pons
and medulla know
as brain stem,
PONS
which support the
life.
It is small.Certain neurons in pons, located above the medulla, appear
to influence transitions between sleep and wakefulness, and the rate
and pattern of breathing. VENTRICLES OF
BRAIN
CEREBELLUM
 Human brain
The cerebellum is important in co-ordinating movements of the body. possesses four
The cerebellum guides, smooth and accurate motions and maintains ventricles or
body position. The cerebellum is also involved in the learning and cavities, which are
memory storage for behaviours. filled with
 It is best developed in bird, which is engaged in the complex activity cerebrospinal
of light. fluid.
 It consists of a central lobe and two lateral lobes.  The first and
second
 If it is destroyed the movements become jerky, shaky and disturbed.
ventricles are
present between
FTB limbic system and
cerebrum known
Cerebellum controls equilibrium. body position and coordination of the as lateral
actions of individual muscles to produce complex activities such as ventricles.
walking, running, riding bicycles etc.
 Another ventricle
 The brain is hollow structure, and it has cavities known as Ventricles. is present
 There are four ventricles. between limbic
system and

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thalamus called
Special reflexes of medulla third ventricle
while fourth
salivary ventricle is
vomiting coughing sneezing present in
secretions
medulla.
 There is a tube
RECEPTORS between third and
fourth ventricle
The neuron fibres and cell bodies can be excited by small electric known as iter or
shocks, mechanical, chemical, light and temperature stimuli. Receptors cerebral aqueduct.
detect changes in the external and internal environment of the animal. while an opening
The receptor may be a cell, or neuron ending or a receptor organ. between lateral
Receptors are classified as follows: ventricles and
third ventricle is
called intra
Receptors ventricular
foramen.
Chemo- Mechano- Thermo- Photo-
Nociceptors KPK
receptors receptors receptors receptors

 Forebrain is
Chemoreceptors massively
developed and
These are for smell taste and for blood CO, oxygen, glucose, amino contains the most
acids and fatty acid (e.g. receptors in the hypothalamus) sophisticated
integrating
Mechanoreceptors centers.
 The olfactory
These detect stimuli of touch pressure, hearing and equilibrium (e.g. bulbs are
Free nerve endings + expanded lip endings + stray endings) concerned with
the sense of
Photoreceptors smell. The
cerebrum has
Electromagnetic receptors, these respond to stimuli of light, for example many folds or
in eyes, rods, and cones. in the retina of the eye. convolutions that
may be related to
Thermoreceptors intelligence.
 The Diencephalon
These are free nerve endings. These show a response to cold and region harbors
warmth. limbic system,
Nociceptors: (Undifferentiated endings) which produce the sensation of collectively
pain. representing parts
of thalamus,
PTB hypothalamus,
amygdala and
hippocampus.
 There are many receptors which respond to the mechanical

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conditions of the internal organs. MID BRAIN
 Examples are the receptors of the stomach wall which may be
concerned with arousal of 'hunger'; stretch receptors in the carotid  It is reduced in
and aortic arteries of tetrapods have important roles in the regulation human and
of blood pressure; endings with similar properties are found in the contain reticular
branchial vessels of fishes. formation which is
 Each type of the principal type of sensation that There a we can a network of
experience pain, touch, sight, sound and so forth are called neurons running
modalities of sensation. through medulla in
 Yet despite the fact that we experience these different modalities of the hindbrain,
sensation; nerve fibres transmit only impulses. How is it that different through the
nerve fibres transmit different modalities of sensation? The answer midbrain and up
to this question is: into the thalamus
 Each nerve tract terminates at a specific point in the CNS; and the and hypothalamus
type of sensation is determined by the point in the nervous system to of the forebrain.
which the fibre leads. So, touch stimulus is carried by nerve impulse  It receives input
in the 'touch' area of the brain. Similarly, fibres from the eyes (retina) from most of the
terminate in the visual cortex of the brain. senses and sends
 Moreover, each receptor organ is specialized to receive a particular outputs to higher
type of stimulus and this is carried to the particular area of the brain. brain centers,
filtering the
Working of Sensory Receptors with Special sensory
information.
Reference to Skin
HIND BRAIN
In the skin there are at least 3 different types of sensoryendings
involved in touch stimulus reception. In skin, the receptors are
 Medulla oblongata
concerned with at least five different senses: touch, pressure, heat, cold
is the posterior
and pain.
most portion of the
1. Situated at the base of hairs, hair end organs receive touch
brain. It is broad in
stimulus.
front and narrows
behind, where it is
Meissner's corpuscles continuous with
the spinal cord.
2. Meissner's corpuscles (encapsulated endings) which lie in
 Medulla oblongata
papillae which extend into the ridges of the fingertips. The corpuscle is the highway of
consists of spiral and much twisted endings, each of which ends in a
communication
knob. These are touch receptors. between the body
and the brain.
Pacinian corpuscles

4. Pacinian corpuscles receive deep pressure stimulus. Those

located in the limbs probably form a basis for vibration sense.
 The relative abundance of various types of receptors differs greatly
e.g. pain receptors are nearly 27 times more abundant than cold
receptors.
 Cold receptors are nearly 10 times more abundant than heat or
temperature receptors.
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 The receptors are not distributed evenly over the entire surface of
the body.
 e.g. touch receptors are much more numerous in the fingertips than
in the skin of the back, as might be expected in view of the normal
functions of those two parts of the body.

 The detection of vibrations of the ground by terrestrial vertebrates is

probably achieved by receptors in the joints.
 The stimulus received by the receptors in the skin which are the
endings of sensory neurons is passed to the motor neurons via inter
or associative neurons which are present in the brain and via spinal
cord impulse is sent by the motor neurons to the effectors, which are
muscles and glands.
 The sensations of touch, pressure, heat, cold, and pain are detected
by modified sensory neurons having naked nerve endings (touch
and pain receptors) or specialized cellular corpuscles (pressure, hot
and cold receptors).

FTB

Receptor act as transducer because it converts one form of energy into

another form e.g., rod and cone cell in the retina of eye convert the light
energy into nerve impulse (electro chemical energy).

Sensory Receptors and their Working

 The body must detect what is occurring inside and outside the body
and is performed by sensory receptors.
 Here we will discuss receptors for smell, tastes, touch and pain.
Olfactory receptors

 The smell or olfactory receptors are chemoreceptors, stimulated by

chemicals dissolved in liquids.
 The olfactory organs, which contain the olfactory receptors, are
present in the upper part of the nasal cavity.
 The olfactory receptor cells are neurons.
 These cells are surrounded by columnar epithelial cells having cilia
at the distal ends.
 Chemicals that stimulate the olfactory receptors enter the nasal
cavity as gases.
 They must dissolve at least partially in the watery fluids that surround
the cilia before they can be detected.
Taste receptors

 Taste buds occur primarily on the surface of the tongue and are
associated with tiny elevations called papillae.
 Each taste bud includes a group of modified epithelial cells, the taste
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cells, which function as receptors.
 The taste bud has an opening, the taste pore on its surface.
 Tiny projections, called taste hairs, protrude from outer ends of taste
cells and just protrude through the taste pore.
 There are four primary taste sensations i.e., sweet, sour, salty and
bitter, which are situated at various regions on the tongue.
 All the four regions overlap at certain places.

Sensory receptors in human skin

 The dermis of the skin contains receptors for touch, pressure,
temperature and pain, Meissner's corpuscles and Merkel disks are
touch receptors.
 These consist of small, oval masses of flattened connective tissue
cells.
 Two or more sensory nerve fibres branch into each corpuscle.
 Meissner's corpuscles are especially numerous in the lips, fingertips,
palm, and soles.
 Paccinian's corpuscles are also encapsulated nerve endings present
in the fatty layer deep into the skin.
 They are concerned with sensation of pressure. Receptors for touch
and pressure are also called mechanoreceptors.
 Skin also has cold and heat receptors to detect the temperature
variations.
Pain receptors are technically called nociceptors. Pain receptors are
located at the top of the skin in the epidermis area to detect pain.
These receptors are free nerve endings that respond to chemicals
released by damaged tissues or excess stimuli of heat or pressure.
These receptors are widely distributed throughout the skin and inner
tissues, except in the tissue of the brain.

Structure and Functioning of Receptors

Smell or Olfactory Receptors

The receptors, which are stimulated by chemicals are called smell or

olfactory receptors. In humans it is not as much developed or important
as vision and hearing. Although in most predator’s sense of smell is
highly developed and important to detect prey.
The axons of neurons carry the smell impulses to the olfactory bulb of
fore brain for appropriate responses.
There are about 1,000 different types of receptor protein on receptor
neurons, each is sensitive to different odors.

Taste Receptors (Gustation)

These receptors are located on the throat and mouth especially in the
upper surface of tongue as many raised structures called papillae or
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 Index
Sr. Chapter Name Page
1. Biological molecules 01
2. Enzymes 32
3. Cell structure and function 43
4. Viruses 69
5. Prokaryotes 83
6. Kingdom Animalia 98
7. Bioenergetics 167
8. Nutrition 204
9. Gaseous Exchange 240
10. Transport 260
11. Immunity 304
12. Support and movement 325
13. Nervous coordination 344
14. Chemical coordination 378
15. Reproduction 412
16. Genetics 430
17. Evolution 459
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CHAPTER

01 BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemistry BTB

 It deals with study of chemical processes (metabolism) and their  Trace elements
occurring in living organisms. are also called
 All living things are made of certain chemical compounds which are dietary elements.
of two types:
KPK
Proteins
 Water is the most
abundant of all the
compounds in
Carbohydrates protoplasm and
Organic forms three fourth
of the body.
Lipids  Proteins are the
most abundant
organic
Nucleic acid compounds in
Chemical body.
compounds Proteins have
Water structural and
functional roles in
cell.
CO2
Inorganic
Acids & bases

Salts

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INSIGHT MDCAT

Composition
Chemical Bacteria cell Mammalian
components (prokaryote) cell (human)
Water 70% 70%
proteins 15% 18%
Carbohydrate 3% 4%
Lipids 2% 3%
DNA 1% 0.25%
RNA 6% 1.1%
Other organic 2% 2%
molecules
(enzymes,hormones,me
tabolites)
Inorganic 1% 1%
ions(Na+,K+etc)

PTB
 All the chemical reactions taking place in call are called metabolism.
 Metabolism is characterized as :
Needs energy

Simpler compounds
join
Anabolism
Complex
compounds are
formed

Such as
photosynthesis
Metabolism

Energy is released

Larger molecules
break
Catabolism
Smaller simpler
molecules formed

Such as respiration

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1. C-H bond Hydrocarbon (potential source of chemical energy for
cellular activities)
2. C-N bond Peptide bond (forms proteins which are very important
due to their diversity in structure and function)
3. C-O bond Glyosidic bond (provides stability to complex
carbohydrate molecules)

FTB

 Approximately 25 elements out of 92 naturally occurring elements of

earth. These are called biogenic or bio-elements.
 These are classified as:

Major Minor Trace

6 elements (99% of 1% of body 0.01% of the body
body)
Oxygen 65% Potassium 0.35% Iron
Carbon 18% Sulphur 0.25% Copper
Hydrogen 10% Chlorine 0.15% manganese
Nitrogen 3% Sodium 0.15% zinc
Calcium 2% Magnesium 0.05% iodine
Phosphorous 1% - etc

 Condensation is the formation of dimer (polymer) when water

molecule is released. It is called dehydration synthesis because
water is removed and a new bond is formed.
 Hydrolysis is the reverse process of condensation in which polymers
are broken into monomers by the addition of water.
 There are four types of fundamental macromolecules :

Macromolecules

Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic acids

Importance of water BTB

 Water is the most abundant compound in all organisms.  Blood contains
 It varies from 65-89% of the body(two third of the earth) 88% of water.
 Human tissues like:  The density of
 Bone and seed contains 20% water decreases
 Brain cells 85% below 4oC;
 Almost all the reactions take part in the presence of water. therefore,ice is
 It is also used as raw material for photosynthesis. lighter than water.
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Solvent properties: KPK

 Due to its polarity,water is an excellent solvent.  It is essential for

 The bonds which are formed by mutual sharing are called covalent existence of
compounds. protoplasm
 Covalent compounds may be polar or non-polar. because
 Polar compounds like ionic compounds are easily dissolved in water protoplasm can’t
due to positive and negative ions. survive if its water
 Non-polar or non-ionic substances are dispersed in water. content is reduced
 Therefore, all reactions take part in aqueous environment. as low as 10%.
 Non-polar substances such as fat are insoluble in water and help to  Hydrogen bonds
maintain membranes which make compartments in cell. are weaker than
covalent bonds.
Heat capacity  Water would boil
at -80oC and
 Water has great ability of absorbing heat with minimum of change in
freeze at -100oC if
its own temperature.
hydrogen bonding
 Specific heat of water is the number of calories are required to raise
is removed.
the temperature of 1g of water from 15-16oC is 1.0 (4.18 joule)
 Much of energy is required to break hydrogen bonds.
 Water thus acts temperature stabilizer.
 Hence protects living material against sudden thermal changes.

Heat of vaporization

 Water absorbs much heat as it changes from liquid to gas.

 Heat of vaporization of water is 574kcal/kg.
 It plays role in regulation of heat released by oxidation.
 It also provides cooling effects to plants when water is transpired and
animals when water is perspired.
 Evaporation of only two ml out of one litre of water lowers the
temperature of the remaining 998ml by 1 oC.

Ionization of water:

 The water molecule ionize to form H+ and OH- ions.

 It produces equal number of both ions at 25 oC as 10-7mol/litre.
 The H+ and OH– ions affect and take part in many of the reactions
that occur in cells.

PTB

 Water is effective lubricant that provides protection against damage

resulting from friction.
 Tears protect the surface of eye from rubbing of eyelids.
 Water also forms a fluid cushion around organs that helps to protect
them from trauma.
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FTB

 Heat of vaporization of water is 574 calories per gram

Cohesion

 Attraction among water molecules.

Adhesion
 Water molecules also have attraction to polar surfaces.
 These properties help to circulate in living bodies and to act as a
transparent medium.

Hydrophobic exclusion

 Reduction of contact area between water and hydrophobic

substance.
 If you place few drops of oil in water,oil drops tend to coalesce into a
single drop.
 Hydrophobic exclusion plays key roles in maintaining the integrity of
lipids bilayer membranes.

Lower density of ice

 Ice floats on water because ice is less dense than water.

 Ice has a giant structure and show hydrogen bonding.
 This is due to empty spaces in ice lattice.
 Organisms can also live under the ice.
 Jelly fish contains 99% of water.

Carbohydrates BTB

 Carbohydrates are
Carbohydrates strong reducing
agents.

KPK

Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides  They are most

abundant organic
biomolecules in
nature.
 Carbohydrates means hydrated carbons.
 They constitute carbon,hydrogen and oxygen.

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 Hydrogen and oxygen are found in the same ratio as water 2:1.
 More valid definition is: “poly hydroxy aldehyde or ketone which upon
hydrolysis yield such compounds and their derivatives.”
 Their general formula is Cx(H2O)y .where x is whole number from 3
to many thousands.
 Where y is may be same or different whole number.

PTB

 Carbohydrates occur most abundantly in cells.

 They are found in all organisms and all parts of body.
 They play both structural and functional roles.
 They are main source of energy in cells.
 The sources of carbohydrates are green plants and their primary
products are photosynthesis.
 Carbohydrates combine with lipids and proteins called glycoproteins
and glycolipids.
 Both have structural role in extracellular matrix of animals and
bacterial cell wall.
 Both are the conjugated molecule.

Monosaccharides

 Monosaccharide is derived from Greek word sweet sugar.

 They are simplest form of sugar.
 They can’t be hydrolysed into simpler units.
 Monosaccharides are made of 3-7 carbon atoms.
 They are easily soluble in water.
 All the carbon atoms in a monosaccharide except one has hydroxyl
group.
 The remaining carbon is either a part of ketone or aldehyde group.
 The sugar with aldehyde group is called aldo sugar and that with
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keto group is called keto sugar.
 Specific formula for monosaccharide is:Cn(H2O)n, where n is number
of carbon atoms.

 On the basis of number of number of carbon atoms,

monosaccharides are classified as:

Mono- Formula Name Description

saccharides
Trioses (3C) C3H6O3 Glyceraldehyde Intermediates in
(aldo) photosynthesis
Dihydroxy and respiration.
acetone (keto )
Tetroses (4C) C4H8O4 Erythrose (aldo) Intermediate in
Erythrulose(keto) bacterial
photosynthesis.
Pentoses (5C) C5H10O5 Ribose (aldo) Ribose and
Ribulose(keto) deoxyribose are
components of
RNA and DNA
respectively.
Ribulose is an
intermediate in
photosynthesis.
Hexoses (6C) C6H12O6 Glucose (aldo) Glucose is
Fructose (keto) respiratory
fuel(initial
substrate)

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Fructose is an
intermediate in
respiration.
Galactose is the
component of
milk sugar,
Heptoses(7C) C7H14O7 Glucoheptose(ald Intermediate in
o) photosynthesis.
Sedoheptulose(k
eto)

 Monosaccharide are usually found in open chain but when dissolved

in water most of them are converted into ring chain.
 Two types of rings are found.
 Furanose is a five cornered ring in which one oxygen atom and four
carbon atoms are found.
 Oxygen atom is liked with C1 and C4.
 All pentoses and ketohexoses like fructose are converted into
furanose ring.
 Pyranose ring is six cornered ring in which one oxygen and 5 carbon
are found and oxygen is linked with C1 and C5.
 Only aldohexoses are converted into pyranose rings.

PTB

 Pentoses and hexoses are most common Important hexose is

glucose which is aldose sugar
 In free form, glucose is present in all fruits.
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 Abundant in grapes,figs and dates.
 Our blood normally contains 0.08% glucose.
 In combined form,it is found in disaccharides and polysaccharides.
 Starch,cellulose and glycogen yields glucose upon hydrolysis.
 Glucose is the primary product of photosynthesis.
 For the synthesis of 10g of glucose,717.6 kcal of solar energy used.
 The energy stored in glucose as chemical energy.
 This energy becomes available to all organisms when it is oxidized.

FTB
 Second last carbon is called penultimate carbon e.g., carbon 4 in
ribose.
 In ring structure formation,oxygen atom reacts with penultimate
carbon to link.
 Acetic acid,lactic acid and formaldehyde have the same formula as
carbohydrates but they are not carbohydrates.
 While rhamnose (C6H12O5)n does not match the carbohydrate
formula but are carbohydrates.
 The ring structure demonstrated by Emil Fischer is called Fischer
projection and it is two dimensional.
 While the structure represented by Norman Haworth is called
Haworth structure and it is three dimensional.
 In ring structure if –OH group is found downward on C1 is called
alpha carbon.
 If –OH group is upward on C1 it is called beta carbon.
 Those isomers in which –H and –OH groups are arranged in
different pattern to the asymmetric carbon(chiral carbon) are called
stereoisomers.
 An asymmetric carbon (chiral) is that which makes four bonds with
different atoms.
 In glucose,C2,C3,C4,C5 are asymmetric.
 In monosaccharides, the number of stereoisomers depend upon the
number of asymmetriccarbons and can be calculated by the formula
2n where n is number of asymmetric carbon.
 In glucose, there are 16 stereoisomers.
 Stereoisomers are classified into 3 groups:

Enantiomers Diastereomers Epimers

These are non- These have different These have differed
superimposable arrangement of H and arrangement of H and
image of each other. –OH groups at more OH groups at only
than one one asymmetrical
asymmetrical carbon carbon are called
atoms. epimers.
These are not mirror
images.
D and L isomers of d-Glucose and D- d-Glucose and d-
glucose. altrose. mannose.

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INSIGHT MDCAT

Stereoisomers

Enantiomers Diastereomers Epimers

 D-isomers (right handed form) are those in whichasymmetric carbon

of penultimate carbon has –OH group on right side.
 L-isomers (also called left handed form) the –OH group is on left
hand side at penultimate carbon.
 Out of 16 stereoisomers of glucose, 8 are enantiomers of the other.
 Laboratory manufactured sugars are left handed.
 While naturally occurring sugars in bodies as D-sugars.
 The enzymes in your stomach can digest only right handed sugar.
 Just like the glove fits only one on the proper hand, a right handed
enzyme cannot fit on or react with a left handed substrate.

Oligosaccharides
 On hydrolysis, oligosaccharides yield two to ten monosaccharides
units.
 They are less sweet in taste and less soluble in water.
 On the basis of number of saccharide units, oligosaccharides are
classified as disaccharides, disaccharides etc.
 Most common are disaccharides.
 The covalent bond between two monosaccharides is called glyosidic
linkage.
 Physiologically important disaccharides are maltose, sucrose,
lactose.

PTB

 Most familiar disaccharide is sucrose (cane sugar) which on

hydrolysis yields glucose and fructose.

FTB

 The general formula of disaccharides is C12H22O11.

 Sucrose is common sweetener used in homes.
 In plants, sucrose is called transport disaccharide as prepared food
in plants is transported in the form of sucrose.

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Sucrose Maltose Lactose
Cane /transport Malt sugar. Also called milk
sugar. Intermediate sugar.
disaccharide
produced during the
breakdown of starch
and glycogen.
Maltose is found in
germinating seeds.
In brewing industry
the maltose is
produced from the
breakdown of barley
starch by the help of
amylase enzyme.
This process is known
as malting.
Upon hydrolysis it Upon hydrolysis, it Upon hydrolysis, it
yields alpha glucose yields two alpha yields beta glucose
and beta fructose glucose molecules. and beta galactose.
Alpha 1-2 glycosidic Alpha 1-4 glycosidic Beta 1-4 glycosidic
linkage between C1 of linkage between C1 of linkage between C1 of
glucose and C2 of one glucose and C4 galactose and C4 of
fructose. of other glucose. glucose.
 Sucrose and polysaccharides are non-reducing sugars.
 Maltose is found in digestive tract.
 Glucose and fructose are reducing sugars

Polysaccharides
 The carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis yield more than ten
monosaccharides are called polysaccharides.
 Polysaccharides are usually branched
 Polysaccharides are sparingly soluble in water
 This is the largest and most abundant carbohydrate in nature.
 They are tasteless and insoluble in water.
 They are the most complex.
 Some biologically important polysaccharides are
starch,glycogen,cellulose, chitin,agar,pectin and dextrin.

Starch
 It is found in fruits,grains,seeds and tubers.
 It is main source of carbohydrates for animals
 On hydrolysis, it yields glucose.
 Starches are of two types:

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Unbranched
chains.
Amylose
Soluble in hot
water.
Starch
Branched chains
Amylopectin
Insoluble in water.

 Starches give blue colour with iodine.

Glycogen

 It is also called animal starch.

 It is the chief form of carbohydrates stored in liver and muscle and
store in every cell.
 On hydrolysis, it yields glucose.
 It gives red colour with iodine test.

Cellulose

 It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature.

 Cotton (paper) is pure form of cellulose.
 It is also the main constitute of cell wall.
 It is highly soluble in water.
 Cellulose gives no colour with iodine test.

PTB

 In the herbivores,cellulose is digested because of

microorganisms(bacteria,yeasts,protozoa) in their digestive tract.
 Thesemicroorganisms secrete an enzyme called cellulase for its
digestion.

FTB

 Starch is digested in oral cavity and in small intestine by the enzyme

amylase.
 Amylose has alpha 1-4 glycosidic linkage.
 Amylopectin has alpha 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic linkage.
 Structure of glycogen resembles with amylopectin but glycogen has
more branching.
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Starch

Glycogen
Homopolysaccharides
Cellulose

Chitin
Polysaccharides

Agar

Heteropolysaccharides Pectin

Peptidoglycan
 Glycogen has also alpha 1-4 and1-6 linkages.
 Cellulose is formed by beta glucoses and resembles with amylose
starch.
 It has beta 1-4 glycosidic linkage.

Chitin BTB
 It is the second most abundant carbohydrate in nature.  Many amino acids
 It is major component of cell wall of fungi and exoskeleton of insects are non-essential
and also called fungal cellulose. because body of
 Chitin is the derivative of N-acetyl glucosamine. the organisms can
 It has beta 1-4 glycosidic linkage. prepare them.
 Few amino acids
Proteins are essential
because body
 Proteins are the most abundant organic compound found in cell. can’t prepare
 Proteins are polymer of amino acids or polypeptides. them and are
 An amino acid contains a carbon called alpha carbon or chiral required in diet.
carbon also because it is attached with a amino group,carboxylic  Word protein has
group, hydrogen and R group. been derived from
 R group is variable and varies from amino acid to amino acid. Greek word
 R group is H in case of glycine and CH3 in case of alanine. “proteios” means
 The amino group of one amino acid reacts with carboxylic group of prime or first.
other amino acid releasing a water molecule.
 The linkage group between the hydroxyl group of carboxyl group of
one amino acid and the hydrogen of amino group of another amino
acid release H2O and C-N link to form a bond called peptide bond.
 The product of two amino acids is called dipeptide and three is called
tripeptide.

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 A dipeptide has an amino group at one end and carboxylic group at
other end so that further peptide bonds are formed to produce tri-
peptides,tetra-peptide leading to polypeptide chain.

PTB

 Proteins are over 50% of their total dry weight.

 They are present in all types of cells and in all parts of the cell.
 Proteins contain carbon,hydrogen,oxygen and nitrogen.
 The number of amino acids varies from a few to 3000 or more.
 About 170 types of amino acids have been found to occur in cells
and tissues.
 About 25 are constituents of proteins.
 Most of proteins are however made of 20 types of amino acids.

FTB

 Proteins are the main structural components of cell.

 Some proteins also contain P and S.
 Few proteins have Fe and Mg incorporated into the molecule.
 Dipeptides and tripeptides are formed by condensation of amino
acids on the ribosome under instructions of mRNA which takes these
instructions to from DNA.
 This process is known as translation.
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INSIGHT MDCAT
 A new amino acid can be added in this chain from its carboxylic acid
or C-terminal end.

Structural level of proteins

 There are four levels of organization which are described below:

Primary structure

Secondary structure

Protein organization

Tertiary structure

Quaternary structure

Primary structure

 The primary structure consists of number and sequence of amino

acids in a protein molecule.

Secondary structure

 The polypeptide chains don’t lie flat.

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 They usually coil into a helix, or into some other regular
configuration.
 One of the common secondary structure is the alpha helix.
 Alpha helix involves spiral formation (helical)
 Beta pleated sheet is formed by folding back of the polypeptide.
 The secondary structure is established by hydrogen bonding.

Tertiary structure

 Usually a polypeptide chain bends and folds upon itself forming a

globular shape.
 It is maintained by three types of bonds:

Tertiary structure

Ionic bond Hydrogen bond Disulphide bridge

 It is three dimensional structure.

Quaternary Structure

 In many highly complex proteins,polypeptide tertiary chains are

aggregated and held together by hydrophobic interactions.
 Tertiary structure includes :

Quaternary structure

Hydrophobic
Hydrogen bond. Ionic bonds.
interactions.

 Haemoglobin is of quaternary structure.

PTB

 Each protein has specific properties which are determined by the :

 Number of amino acids.
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 Specific sequence of amino acids.
 Shape which the molecule assumes when folds into compact form.
 F.Sanger was the first scientist who determined the sequence of
amino acids in protein molecule (insulin) after ten years of his work.

Insulin

21 amino acids (A chain) 30 amino acids (B chain)

 Insulin chains are held together by disulphide bridges.

 Haemoglobin is composed of 574 amino acids in four chains.
 Two alpha chains and two beta chains.
 Each alpha chain contains 141 amino acids (282 in both) and each
beta chain contains 146 amino acids (292 in both).

141 amino acids

Two alpha chains
141 amino acids
Hb (574 amino
acids)
146 amino acids
Two beta chains
146 amino acids

 The size of a protein molecule is determined by :

 Type of amino acids.
 Number of amino acids.
 The alpha helix is a very uniform geometric structure with 3.6 amino
acids in each turn of helix.
 In aqueous environment, the most stable tertiary confirmation is that
in which hydrophobic amino acids are buried inside while hydrophilic
amino acids are on the surface of the molecule.

FTB

 Primary structure is shown by all proteins at the time of their

synthesis on ribosomal surface.

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Significance of amino acid sequence KPK

 Sequence of amino acid in a polypeptide is characteristic feature of  In sickle cell

primary structure of a protein which is responsible for proper anaemia, a person
functioning of protein. inherits two
 It is determined by sequence of nucleotides in DNA. abnormal genes
 Change of even single or few nucleotides in DNA (point (one from each
mutation),the sequence of amino acids in protein changes and parent) that
causes severe defects in body like sickle cell anaemia (hereditary causes RBCs to
disease) become disc or
 Normal red blood cells can easily cross the blood vessels while crescent or sickle
crescent or sickle cells cause blockage thus pain and organ damage. shaped.
 One of the best example is sickle cell anaemia in which only one
amino acid (glutamic acid) at position 6 in each beta chain is
replaced by other amino acid (valine).Thus, haemoglobin fails to
carry any or sufficient oxygen hence leading to death of patient.

PTB
 There are over 10,000 proteins in the human body which are
composed of unique and specific sequence of 20 types of amino
acids.
BTB
Classification of proteins
 Fibrous proteins
 According to their structure, proteins are classified as: perform structural
role in cells and
Fibrous Globular organisms.
1. Linearly arranged in the form 1. Spherical or ellipsoid in shape  Collagen (most
of fibrils. due to folding abundant protein
2. Water insoluble 2. Water soluble in animal kingdom
3. Elastic and non-crystalline 3. Non elastic and crystalline or higher
4. Secondary structure is 4. Tertiary structure is important vertebrates) is
important fibrous in nature.
5. Examples : 5. Examples :
Silk fibre (from silk worm, spider’s Enzymes
web) Hormones
Myosin (on muscle cell) Antibodies
Fibrin (blood clotting) Haemoglobin
Keratin(of nails, hairs, hooves, Albumin etc
feathers), ligament,tendon etc

PTB

 Globular proteins may disorganize with physical or physiological

changes
 Proteins are the diverse polymers.
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Role of proteins KPK

 Proteins play both structural and functional roles as follow:  In plants, proteins
are stored in most
Structural roles Functional roles seeds for future
1. Collagen (it establishes the 1. Enzymes (control metabolism) need of the
matrix of bone and cartilage) embryos. e.g.,
bean, pulses, pea
2. Elastin (it provides support for 2. Hormones (regulate
etc.
connective tissues such as metabolism)
tendons and ligaments )
3. Keratin (it strengthens 3. Antibodies (produced in
protective coverings like response to antigens and
quills,horns and beaks etc) provide immunity)
4. Histone (it arranges the DNA 4. Haemoglobin (found in RBCs
into the chromosome) and transports oxygen mainly
and to some extent CO2 also).
5. Fibrinogen (blood clotting)
found in blood plasma.
6. Oval albumin (egg white) and
casein (milk based protein)
both are involved in storage of
amino acids.

PTB

 Haemoglobin transports specific substances such as oxygen, lipids

and metal ions etc.
 During anaphase proteins also help in movement of chromosomes.
 They help in movement of organs and organisms.

Lipids
 Heterogeneous group of compounds related to fatty acids.
 It includes fats, oils,waxes,fat like molecules (steroids) found in body.
 As they are non-polar molecules,most lipids are insoluble in water
but soluble in non-polar solvents like alcohol,acetone and
ether,benzene etc.
 They are intermediate size molecules.
 They don’t achieve the giant size of polysaccharides,proteins and
nucleic acids.
 Chief means of long term energy storage in animals.
 Have higher proportion of C – H bonds and low proportion of oxygen.
 Store the double amount of energy as compared to same amount of
carbohydrates.
 In general,lipids are components of components of cell membrane
(phospholipids and cholesterol)

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Functions of lipids

Protection Water proofing Insulation Buoyancy

Classification of lipids

Acyl- Phospho- Sphingo- Glyco- Prosta-

Waxes Terpenes Steroids
glycerols lipids lipids lipids glandins

Acylglycerols BTB
 Chemically, they can be defined as esters of fatty acids and alcohol,
 Acylglycerols are
the reaction is called esterification.
called neutral
 Acylglycerols = glycerol + fatty acids
lipids because
 Most widely spread acylglycerols is the triacylglycerol also called as
both acid and
triglycerides or neutral lipids.
base are present
in them.
Fatty acids
KPK

 During formation
of
triglycerides,three
water molecules
are released and
process is called
condensation.
 Most of the fatty
acids in cell
contain 16-18
carbons per
molecule.

 Most important component of triglycerides. STB

 Solubility of fatty acid in organic solvents and their melting points
increase with the increasing number of carbon atoms in the chain.  Stearin is found in
 Lipids used by animals to store energy are triacylglycerol. beef and mutton.
 Bloor first
proposed term
lipids in 1943.

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Saturated fatty acid Unsaturated fatty acid  Linolin (C57H104O6)
1. C-C single bond 1. Upto six C=C bond. is found in cotton
2. Straight chain 2. Ring or branched seed have linoleic
3. Solid at room temperature 3. Liquid at room temperature acid.
4. Fats 4. Oils
5. Found in animals 5. Found in Plants

PTB

 -OH released from alcohol and H is from acid.

 Fatty acids contain even number of 2-30 carbon atoms in a straight
chain attached with hydrogen and have an acidic group(carboxylic
group)
 They are not crystalline but can be crystallized under specific
conditions.
 Hydrophobic compounds.
 Fats and oils are lighter than H2O and have a specific gravity of 0.8
 Palmitic acid (C16) is much more soluble in organic solvent than
butyric acid (C4)
 The melting point of palmitic acid is 63.1C as against -8C for butyric
acid.
 Oleic acid is unsaturated fatty acid (double bond is present between
C9 and C10).

FTB

Glycerol + 1 fatty
Monoacyglycerol
acid

Glycerol + 2 fatty
Acylglycerols Diacyglycerol
acids

Glycerol + 3 fatty
Triacyglycerol
acids

 Lipids contain the elements C, H,O and sometimes phosphorus and

nitrogen.
 Tristearin is a simple lipid which shows molecular formula as
C57H110O6.
 Acylglycerols are the most abundant lipids in living organisms.
 About 30 different fatty acids are found.
 Fatty acids vary in length.
 Each fatty acid is represented as RCOOH, where R is hydrocarbon
21 | P a g e
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tail.
 Acetic acid and butyric acids are the simplest fatty acid.
 Palmitic acid (C16) and stearic acid (C18) are the most common
fatty acids.
 Oleic acid (C18) is found in olive oil having melting point 4 oC.
 Linoleic acid (C18 with 2 double bonds) is found in vegetable oil
having melting point -5oC.

Quantity Biomolecule Calories value

1g Carbohydrate 4.1 kcal
1g Proteins 4.6 kcal
1g Lipids 9 kcal

Phospholipids
BTB
 Phospholipids are derivatives of phosphatidic acid.
 They are
amphiphatic
Composition of phospholipids compounds.

STB
Glycerol Fatty acids Phosphoric acid  They regulate cell
permeability and
transport process.
 Nitrogenous bases are important components of phospholipids.

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N-bases in phospholipids

Choline Ethanolamine Inositol Serine

(N - base) (amino alcohol) (amino alcohol) (amino acid)

 Most common phospholipid is phosphatidylcholine or lecithin.

Glycerol In backbone

2 fatty acids At C1 and C2

Composition of
lecithin
Phosphoric acid
On C3

Nitrogenous base Attached to

(choline) phosphoric acid

 Phospholipid molecule contains two parts.

 3 fatty acids+1 glycerol =triglycerides.
 2fatty acids +1glycerol+phosphate group=phosphatidic acid
 2fatty acids+1glycerol=phosphate group+N-base=phospholipids.

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Hydrophilic

Polar head

Phosphate region
Parts of
phospholipid
Hydrophobic

Two non-polar tails

Contain fatty acids

PTB

 They are widespread in bacteria, animal, and plant cells and are
frequently associated with membranes.

FTB

 They are complex or compound lipids.

 Phosphatidic acid molecule is most similar to diglyceride.

Terpenes KPK

 Terpenes are made up of simple repeating units called isoprene or  Terpenoids lack
isoprenoid units. fatty acids.
 These units condense in different ways to form many compounds
like rubber, carotenoids, steroids etc.

FTB STB

 Terpenes are derived lipids.  Terpenes help in

 Isoprene unit is a 5 carbon unsaturated compound (C 5H8) (2-Methyl- oxidation-
1,3-butadiene) reduction
reactions.
Monoterpene (2 isoprene units) Menthol
Diterpene (4 isoprene units ) Vitamin A, phytol (chlorophyll tail)
Triterpene (6 isoprene units) Ambrein
Polyterpene Natural rubber

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Steroids BTB

 Steroids are composed of 17 carbon atoms arranged in 4 interlocked  They are not fatty
rings in which 3 are of 6 carbons and 1 contains 5 carbons. acids lipids.
 Cholesterol is the structural component of cell membrane.  All steroids are
 It is precursor of a large number of equally important steroids which manufactured in
include bile salts, male sex hormone testosterone,oestrogen etc. cells.
 Bile salts which emulsify fats and vitamin D which helps to regulate
calcium metabolism are also steroids.

FTB

 They can be crystallized.

 They are synthesized from isoprene units.

Waxes STB
 Waxes are used as protective coatings on fruits and leaves.  Formula of wax is
 Waxes are mixtures of long chain alkanes (with odd number of CH3(CH2)4COO(C
carbon atoms ranging from C25-C35) and alcohols,aldehydes, H2)29CH3.
ketones and esters of long chain fatty acids.  Waxes are water
repellent.
PTB
BTB
 Some insects also secrete wax
 Waxes protect from water loss and abrasive damage.  Most common
 They also provide water barrier for insects,birds and animals such as animal wax is
sheep. bee’s wax and
plant wax is
FTB epicuticular wax.

 They are highly hydrophobic hydrocarbons.

 There are two types of waxes:

Natural Synthetic
1. They are simple lipids. 1. These are generally derived
from petroleum or
polyethylene.
2. They are typical esters of long 2. Paraffin wax is used to make
chain fatty acids and long candles, waxpaper, lubricants
chain alcohols. and sealing material.
 Bees wax found in honey
comb.
 Cutin found on surface of
plants.
 Lanolin found from sheep
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wool.
 Suberin found in cell wall of
endodermis of plant roots.
3. They are chemically inert and
resistant to atmospheric
oxidation.

Prostaglandins
BTB
 They exit in virtually every mammalian tissue, acting as local
hormone.  The name
 They are derived from arachidonic acid. prostaglandin is
 Their function vary widely depending on the tissues derived from
prostate gland
 Some reduce blood pressure others raise it.
because it was
 In the immune system various prostaglandins help to induce fever
first isolated from
and inflammation and also intensify the sensation of pain.
seminal fluid in
 They also help to regulate the aggregation of platelets, an early step 1935.
in the formation of blood clots.
 They are derived
 The fact the ability of prostaglandins to reduce fever and decrease enzymatically from
pain depends on the inhibition of prostaglandins synthesis. fatty acids.
 Every
Uses of synthetic prostaglandin prostaglandin
contains 20
carbon atoms
Treatment of
Induce Prevent peptic Treat peptic Prevent egg
pulmonary including 5 rings.
parturition ulcer ulcer binding  In 1971 it was
hypertension
discovered that
aspirin like drugs
RNA (Ribonucleic acid) could inhibit the
synthesis of
prostaglandin.
 They play a role in
Types of RNA dilation and
contraction in
smooth muscle
cells.
mRNA tRNA rRNA  They sensitize
spinal neuron for
pain.
 Thermoregulatory
3 – 4% 10 – 20% 80% centre of
hypothalamus to
regulate fever.
 Like DNA, RNA is a polymer of ribonucleotides.
 The RNA molecule occurs as a single strand, which may be folded
back on itself, to give a double helical characteristic.
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 Nitrogenous bases form the usual complementary pairing viz.
cytosine(C) with guanine(G) and uracil(U) with adenine(A).
 RNA is synthesized by DNA in a process called as transcription.

Types of RNA

 Three main types of RNAs — messenger RNA (abbreviated as

mRNA), transfer RNA (abbreviated as tRNA) and ribosomal RNA
(abbreviated as rRNA) are recognized.
 All these three types of RNAs are synthesized from DNA in the
nucleus and then are moved out in the cytoplasm to perform their
specific functions.

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

 This type of RNA consists of a single strand of variable length.

 Its length depends upon the size of the gene as well as the protein
for which it is taking the message.
 For example, for a protein molecule of 1,000 amino acids, mRNA will
have the length of 3,000 nucleotides.
 mRNA is about 3 to 4% of the total RNA in the cell.Messenger RNA
carries the genetic information from DNA (nucleus) to ribosomes in
cytoplasm, where amino acids are arranged according to the
information in mRNA to form specific protein molecule.

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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

 It is the major portion of RNA in the cell and may be up to 80% of the
total RNA.
 It acts as a machinery for the synthesis of proteins.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

 Transfer RNA molecules are small, each with a chain length of 75 to

90 nucleotides.
 It transfers amino acid molecules to the site where peptide chains
are being synthesized.
 There is one specific tRNA for each amino acid. So, the cell will have
at least 20 kinds of tRNA molecules.

FTB

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

 Every three nucleotides in mRNA encode a specific amino acid, such

triplets of nucleotides along the length of the mRNA are called
codons of genetic codes.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) BTB

 Ribosome consists of rRNA and protein. rRNA is transcribed by the  The rRNA is the
genes present on the DNA of the several chromosomes it is called catalytic
rRNA because it eventually becomes part of the ribosome. component of
 The rRNA is packaged with a variety of proteins into ribosomal ribosome.
subunits.  It is synthesized
 The basic sequence of rRNA is similar from bacteria to higher plants by the genes on
and animals. DNA of several
 rRNA have the largest size among the RNA. chromosomes
found within the
Transfer RNA (tRNA) region of nucleus
called nuclear
 A tRNA is a single stranded molecule but it shows a duplex organizer.
appearance at its some regions where complementary bases are  The base
bonded to one another. sequence of rRNA
 It shows a flat cloverleaf shape in two dimensional views. Its 5' end of all organisms is
always terminates in Guanine base while the 3' end is always similar thus there
terminated with base sequence of CCA. is only one type of
 Amino acid is attached to tRNA at this end. rRNA.
 The nucleotide sequence of the rest of the molecule is variable.
 tRNA has three loops. The middle loop in all the tRNA is composed
of 7 bases, the middle three of which form the anticodon;

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 It is complementary to specific codon of mRNA.
 The D loop recognizes the activation enzyme.
 Theta (θ) loop recognizes the specific place on the ribosome for
binding during protein synthesis.
 Sixty tRNA have been identified. However, human cells contain
about 45 different kinds of tRNA molecules, each transports a
specific amino acid from cytoplasm to the surface of ribosome for
protein synthesis.

PTB

 It is strongly associated with the ribosomal protein where 40 to 50%

of it is present.
 On the surface of the ribosome the mRNA and tRNA molecules
interact to translate the information from genes into a specific
protein.
 It comprises about 10 to 20% of the cellular RNA.
 Transfer RNA picks up amino acids and transfers them to
ribosomes, where they are linked to each other to form proteins.

Conjugated molecules
 Molecules when joined by other kinds of molecules are called
conjugated molecules.
Conjugated molecules

Glyocolipids Glycoproteins Lipoproteins Nucleoproteins

 Glycolipids are complex lipids containing one or more simple

sugars in connection with long fatty acids or alcohol.
 Glycolipids are present in white matter of brain and myelin sheath of
nerve fibers and chloroplast membrane.
 Glycoproteins are formed when proteins are covalently attached to
carbohydrates.
 Glycoproteins are widely distributed in the cells. They function as
hormones, transport proteins, structured proteins and receptors. T
 The blood group antigens contain glycoproteins, which also play an
important role in blood grouping.
 Lipoproteins are formed by the combination of protein with
phospholipids.
 Phospholipid protein complexes are widely distributed in plant and
animal material. They occur in milk, blood, cell nucleus, egg
 Nucleoproteins consist of simple basic, chromosomes and
ribosomes.
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FTB

 A hydroxyl group at the 2 position can participate in a reaction that

cleaves the phosphodiester bond.
 Thus, DNA can act as a stable long-term protein and nucleic acid.
 They are found in repository for genetic information.
 RNA is usually degraded within your cells in 30 minutes.

PTB

 Two different molecules, belonging to different categories, usually

combine together to form conjugated molecules.
 Most of the cellular secretions are glycoprotein in nature.
 Both glycoproteins and glycolipids are integral structural components
of plasma membranes.
 Lipoprotein formed by combination of lipids and proteins are basic
structural framework of all types of membranes in the cells.
The nucleohistones are present in chromosomes. These conjugated
proteins are not only of structural, but also are of functional significance.
They play an important role in regulation of gene expression.

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NOTES

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 Centrioles lie in a distinctly staining region of cytoplasm Known as BTB
centro-sphere.  Microfilaments are
 Centrioles and centrosphere are together called centrosome. involved in
 Centrioles also give rise to basal bodies or kinetosome of cilia and 1. Muscle
flagella. contraction.
2. Change in cell
Cytoskeleton shape
3. Division of
 Cytosol contains fiber network culled cytoskeleton. cytoplasm during cell
 It contains three types of fibers: division

KPK
Cytoskeleton  Koltzoff in 1928
suggested the
existence of
Fibrous network,
Intermediate later on, Cohen
Microfilament Microtubule
filament (1977) confirmed
his views.
Microfilament
BTB
 Made of actin protein.  Microtubules
perhaps are
PTB involved in the
transport of cell
wall materials
 More slender, linked to the inner surface of plasma membrane.
from Golgi bodies
 Involves in internal cell motion.
to outside of cell.
 Amoeboid or cyclosis movement is also due to microfilament.
BTB
FTB
 Intermediate
filaments also
 Microfilament is of 7 nm diameter.
plays role in
 Four twisted chains. attachment of
 Two chains of F - actin and two chains of tropomyosin and triplets of muscle cell.
troponin at regular intervals.

Microtubule

 Long, unbranched, slender, tubulin protein structure.

 Plays role in assembly and disassembly of spindle structures during
cell division.
 Involved in formation of mitotic apparatus.
 Involved in formation of cilia, flagella, centriole and basal body.

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FTB
 0.2 – 0.25 µm in length.
 25 nm in diameter.
 Tubulin is a dimer.

Intermediate filament
 Role in support and maintenance of cell shape.

PTB
 Size in between microtubule and microfilament.

FTB
 8 – 10 nm in diameter.
 Contains vimentin protein.
 Vimentin contains three chains of intermediate filaments with no
hollow space and twisted around each other.

Mitochondria
 It is found in all eukaryotic cells.
 Powerhouse of cell.
 Role in production of ATP from ADP.
 Self-replicating organelle.
 Varies in number from cell to cell.
 Two membranes:
 Outer smooth layer.
 Inner contain foldings called cristae.
 Cristae consists of F₁-Fo particles.

Other names of F1 particles

Fernandas -
Stalked Elementen
Oxysome ATP synthase Moran
particle particles particles

 Matrix of mitochondria consists of many coenzymes, ions and

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important chemicals like DNA, RNA, and ribosome (70 S). BTB
 Kreb's cycle and oxidation (fatty acid oxidation) of pyruvate occurs in  Mitos means
mitochondria. thread; chondrion
 Extracting energy from food. means granules.
 Site of cellular respiration.  Altman (1890)
 Endo-symbiont origin organelle. established
mitochondria, and
called them
bioblast.
 The term
mitochondria is
given by C.
Benda. (1898)
 All the
mitochondria
present in a cell
called
chondriome.
 Animal cells have
greater
mitochondria than
plant cell.
 If outer membrane
of mitochondria is
removed, it is
called mitoplast.
PTB  Cristae increase
 Membrane enfolding or cristae is made of lipoprotein. surface area for
 Under electron microscope appears as complex structure. chemical reaction.
 1% of total DNA is
FTB present in
 Outer membrane contains porin protein that it can exchange mitochondria.
material freely and is freely permeable.  This DNA is small,
circular and can
 Inner membrane is semi-permeable.
code the synthesis
 Have its own metabolic machinery.
of some type of
 Diameter 0.5 – 1 µm.
proteins.
 Mitochondria also
Other names for mitochondria
help in
vitellogenesis
Most busy and (yolk formation)
ATP mill in cell Cell within cell Cell furnace Storage batteries active organelle in Semi-autonomous
cell cell organelle in oocyte.
 It is believed that
Plastids mitochondria have
endosymbiotic
origin from purple
 Plastids are pigmented organelles found in plants.
sulphur bacteria.
 Plastids are double membranous organelles.
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 Plastids are of three types: KPK
 Mitochondria are
absent in in
Plastids mature RBC of
human.
 Mitochondria were
first seen in
Leucoplasts Chromoplasts Chloroplasts. Muscle cells in
1850.
 Young one gets all
its mitochondria
 All these three types made of are their precursors called proplastids. from its mother
(eggs).
Chloroplast
 Membrane bound organelle with small granules. BTB
 Discoid structure.  Plastids are the
 Self-replicating. sites of
 Responsible for photosynthesis. manufacture and
 Light reactions on thylakoid membrane and dark reactions occur in storage of
stroma of chloroplast. important
chemical
compounds.
Parts of chloroplast  Most plants inherit
plastids from one
parent.
Envelope Stroma Thylakoid  Example:
Angiosperms
inherit plastids
 Thylakoids pile up to form grana and inter-grana. from female
 25 – 50 thylakoids form grana (green part). gamete, while
 Inter-grana is non-green part. many
 Membrane of the thylakoids involved in the formation of ATP. gymnosperms
inherit plastids
PTB from male pollen.
 Chlorophyll molecules have Mg+2 as its central atom unlike  Chloroplasts are
haemoglobin. green plastids and
found in green
 Diameter is 4 – 6 µm.
parts of plants like
 Stroma consists of protein, ribosome (70 S) and DNA (circular)
leaves,
herbaceous
FTB stems.
 Outer membrane has poring proteins.  The most
 Inner membrane is rich in protein and it is semi-permeable. important and
 Inter-grana are larger than grana. abundant enzyme
is rubisco (about
16% of
chloroplast)

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Chromoplasts  Semi-autonomous
 They impart colour to plants other than green. organelle.
 They are found in petals of flowers.  Endosymbiont
 Also found in ripened fruits. organelle.
 Help in pollination and dispersal of seeds.
KPK
Leucoplasts  Chloroplast is
 They are colourless, plastids. heterogeneous
 They are found in underground parts of plant like roots, stem etc. structure.
 They help in storage of compounds.  Stroma covers
most of the
 They are triangular in shape.
volume of
chloroplast.
Elaioplast Store lipids

Leucoplast 03 types Amyloplast Store starch

Proteinoplast or
Store protein
Eluroplast

Nucleus
 Discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.

 Nucleus is the central part in animal cell and in plant cell it is

peripheral.
 It may be spherical, oval elongated or irregular shape.
 It is visible only when cell is in non-dividing stage.
 In dividing cell, it disappears and chromatin material is replaced by
chromosomes.
 Generally each cell contains one nucleus but sometimes may be two
or many called mono-nucleated, di-karyotic, poly-nucleated etc.
61 | P a g e
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BTB
 Nuclear pores are
also guarded by
permeases in the
form of a pore
complex which
regulate RNA,
ionic exchange.
(nucleo-
For example: cytoplasmic traffic
 Muscle cell contains many nuclei. between
 Paramecium is dikaryotic. nucleoplasm and
 Opalina is multinucleated. cytoplasm)
 Nucleus is absent in some cells like:  Nucleolus usually
attached to
 In mature mammalian RBCs.
chromatin at
 Mature phloem sieve tube elements in plants.
specific site called
 Nucleus is self-replicating organelle. nuclear
 Nucleus consists of following structures: organizer region
(NOR)
Nucleus  Chromatin
consists of both
Nuclear
histone, non-
Nucleoplasm Nucleolus Nuclear pores Chromatin Chromosomes Karyotype
envelope histone proteins,
DNA, and little
amount of RNA.
Nuclear Envelope  Chromas:
colour; Soma:
Contains nuclear pores body.
(porin proteins)  Chromosome can
Outer membrane be best studied at
Continuous with
metaphase stage
Membranes of nuclear endoplasmic reticulum. because size of is
envelope the chromosome
shortest during
Encloses nuclear metaphase
Inner membrane
content.
 Chromosome is
covered by thin
proteinaceous
Nucleoplasm sheath called
pellicle.

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 Nucleoplasm is ground substance of nucleus which is also known as KPK
nuclear matrix or karyoplasm.  Diameter of
 It is transparent complex colloidal fluid contains water, proteins, nucleus = 10 µm.
enzymes like ATPase, DNA and RNA polymerase, endonucleases  Pigeon has 80
and ions like Ca++, Mg++ etc. chromosome.

Nucleolus

 Nucleoplasm also contains one or more nucleoli.

 Nucleolus is non-membranous which is spherical darkly stained.
 It is only visible during interphase while disappear during cell
division.
 The main function of nucleolus is to form subunits of ribosomes.
 Factory of ribosome in cell.

Nucleolus

85% proteins 10% RNA 5% DNA.

Nuclear pores

 Gaps between inner and outer nuclear membranes.

 Number of nuclear pores depends vary from nuclear pores cell to
cell.
 Nuclear pores control traffic of cell.

Chromatin

 Network of nucleoprotein fibers, embedded in nucleoplasm.

 Chromatin condensed to form chromosomes during cell division.

Chromosome

 Chromosomes absorbs deeply in basic dyes during staining, thus

darkly stained structure.

Karyotype
 Array of chromosomes.
 The number of chromosome is definite for each species.

Cell Chromosomes Cell Chromosomes

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Human 46 Chimpanzee 48
Onion 16 Maize 20
Pea 14 Frog 26
Sugarcane 80 Fruit fly 08
Mouse 40 Mucor 02

 Each chromosome has:

 Two identical sister chromatids
 Two sister chromatids connected together at a common point called
centromere. (primary constriction)
 Kinetochore protein is present at centromere, during cell division.
 Chromosomes are the vehicle of hereditary material (genes) from
parent cell to daughter cell.

PTB
 Undifferentiated cell has greater nuclear pores than differentiated
cell.
 Egg cell has 30,000 per nucleus.
 While erythrocytes 3 – 4 per nucleus.

Central fibril area rRNA & rDNA

Nucleolus
Peripheral Ribosomal
granular area subunits

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 Potato has 48 chromosomes.
 Diploid cell = 2n chromosome.
 Haploid cell = n chromosome.

FTB
 Ends of chromosomes are called telomeres
 Chromosome is made of DNA and Protein.

Nucleus

Controller of
Heart of cell Brain of cell
cell

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1. Pro: before ; karyon: nucleus 1. Eu: true; karyon: nucleus
2. Don't have distinct nucleus 2. Have distinct nucleus.
3. Bacteria and cyanobacteria 3. Animals, plants, fungi
 Ribosome is the common organelle between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
4. Lacks membrane bound 4. All membrane bound
organelles like cytoskeleton, organelles are present.
mitochondria etc.
5. 70 S ribosome (50 S + 30S) 5. 80S ribosome (60 S + 40S)
6. Nuclear material (DNA) is 6. Nuclear material (DNA) is
dispersed in cytoplasm. within nucleus.
7. Consists of small, single, 7. Consists of two linear
circular chromosome chromosomes.
8. Histone is absent 8. Histone protein is present.
9. Plasma membrane lacks9. Plasma membrane does have
sterols like cholesterol. sterols in it.
10. Divided by binary fission 10. Divided by mitosis. (normal
cells) Meiosis in germ cells
11. Flagellin is part of flagella. 11. Tubulin is part of flagella.
12. Mesosomes are present. 12. Mesosomes are absent.
13. Prokaryote (bacteria) cell wall 13. Plant cell wall is made of
is made of peptidoglycan cellulose. Fungi cell wall is
(polysaccharide + amino acid) / made of chitin.
murein. (a as whole sacculus)

 Cell wall is the main distinction between prokaryote and eukaryote.

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Organelles found only in plant and animal cells

Plants Animals
1. Plastid 1. Centriole
2. Central vacuole 2. Peripheral vacuole
3. Glyoxysome 3. Peroxisome

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Note
Mitochondria, lysosome, ER, Golgi body, nucleus and ribosomes are
found in both animals and plants.

Membrane bound organelles

Double Membranes

Mitochondria Chloroplast Nucleus

Single Membrane

Vacuole Lysosome Peroxisome Glyoxisome ER Golgi body

Ribosome
Non-membranous
Centriole

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NOTES

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Introduction
 Word virus is derived from Latin word "Venom" means "Poison".
 Non-cellular infectious entities containing either RNA or DNA in a
protein coat
 Reproduce only in living cell.
 They depend host cell because they lack biosynthetic machinery
 Causes disease in plant and animal like influenza bird flu, dengue
fever, swine flu
 They don't follow cell theory

History of viruses

 About a century ago, at the time of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch,
the word virus is referred as disease and death
 First infectious disease against which vaccination was used was viral
disease.
 In 1796 Edward Jenner, first Vaccinated an eight year old boy with
cowpox lesion after 6 week, he was inoculated with puss from a
small pox victim.
 The boy didn't get the disease
 As the material was from cow (Latin: vacca), Pasteur reformed this
process as vaccination.
 Rabies a disease caused by bite of dog, foxes cats etc.
 Charles Chamberland:
 In 1884, Charles Chamberland, found that organism or agents
Responsible for rabies could pass through the porcelain filters of
(100-1000nm) while filter can remove all bacteria or other cells from
cell/liquid suspension.
 These agents were considered as filterable Virus.
 Iwanosky, in 1892, he discovered that infectious entities responsible
for tobacco mosaic disease is filterable.
 To examine, he extract the juice from diseased tobacco plants and
pass it through the filter to remove the bacteria, when the juice was
applied on normal plants, they got disease
 W.M.Stanely: He crystallized the tobacco mosaic (T.M.V) in 1935.
 The study of virus is known as virology.

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PTB

 Yellow Fever 1901

 Foot and mouth disease 1898

Characteristics of viruses
 Viruses are seen through electron microscope.
 Can pass through filter.
 Reproduce only in living cells.
 Occur in different stains.
 Contain either RNA or DNA and can undergo mutation.
 Destroyed by ultraviolet radiations.
 Lack cellular structure and enzymes.
 No metabolic activity of its own.
 Can be crystallized and stored in bottles.
 Non-living outside the organism.
 Resistant to broad range antibiotics like tetracycline etc.

PTB

 Largest viruses is pox viruses (250nm)

 Smallest viruses are parvoviruses (20nm).
 Can be grown on artificial media (glassware).
 Viruses have both living and non-living characters:

Living Non-living
1. Have genetic material 1. Non-cellular.
2. Undergo mutation. 2. Lack enzymes and
coenzymes.
3. Reproduce inside host cell by 3. Can be crystallized and stored
using host machinery. in laboratory.
4. Destroyed by UV radiations 4. Don’t respire and use energy
and chemicals. of host.
5. Occur in different strains. 5. Have ambivalent (fluctuating)
nature.

 Due to these properties, viruses are considered as boundary line

between living and non-living.

Structure of virus
 Complete and mature virus is known as VIRION.
 Composed of two parts primarily:
 Protein coat(made of capsomere known as capsid)

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 Nucleic acid (either RNA or DNA) also known as genome.
 There is an additional covering derived from host cell membrane
called envelope.
 Envelope is external to capsid.
 Genome + capsid =core
 Enzyme in core helps in virus mode of action.
 Capsid gives definite shape.
 No.of capsomeres is specific for each virus.

Virus Capsomeres
Herpes 162
Adeno 252

 Genome + capsid =nucleocapsid

 Non enveloped viruses are also known as naked viruses are more
resistive to antibiotics than enveloped viruses.

PTB

 There are different forms of animal and plant viruses:

Viruses

Polyhedron Helical Icosahedral Bacteriophage

Many sides 20 triangles Cubical Helical

Regular solids Rod shaped

Icosahedral

 Many phages consist of head and tail.

 Head is polyhedral but tail is rod shaped.
 Bacteriophages are viruses that eat or infect viruses.
 They are discovered by Twort in 1915 and D. Herelle in 1917
independently.

FTB
 Retroviruses and hepatitis B have reverse transcriptase that
converts single stranded RNA into double stranded DNA.

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 Polio virus has 32 capsomeres.
 Virus envelope is also covered by glycoprotein spike (to recognise
host cells).

Some common viral diseases KPK

Diseases Agent Description Symptoms  Virus abundant in

nature composed
1. Small pox Pox virus DNA Raised fluid filled,
of
enveloped latter pustules and
macromolecules
then pocks.
 Composed by the
2. Herpes Herpes DNA Vascular lesions in
organism they
simplex virus enveloped ectodermal tissues of
infect.
epithelial layer of
 Virus affect living
mouth, lips and soft
organism from
skin.
Bacteria to
3. Mumps Paramyxo Enveloped Painful swelling of
mammals
virus RNA salivary glands
 In ten
(parotids)
minutes,virus
4. Influenza Influenza Enveloped High grade fever, control over cell
virus RNA coughing and and reproduce
sneezing. itself 100 times
5. Measles Paramyxo Enveloped Fever and rashes on and kill a cell.
viruses RNA skin  Virus reproduction
6. Polio Poliomyletis RNA in Inflammation of time 70s.
virus spherical nervous system and  Bacteria
capsid paralysis reproduction time
20 minutes.
PTB  Virus can be
crystallized.
 This disease is known to have occurred as epidemic in China as
early as the twelfth century.
 Until the early twentieth century,small pox was common throughout
the world.
 In 1980,it was declared by WHO that small pox has been eradicated
from the world.
 Herpes simplex is naturally occurring disease of mankind.
 Influenza is wide spread disease in man and occurs in epidemic
form.
 Mumps is highly contagious, widespread, but seldom fatal.
 About 60% of adults are immune to it.
 Measles is the commonest disease of the childhood and adults both.
 Measles develops immunity in its victim.
 The age at which the primary infection of polio occurs varies with
Social and Economic factors.
 Polioviruses are smaller known viruses.

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FTB KPK

 Viruses are highly specific to their host.  Viruses don’t

excrete.
Virus Host/infection site
1. Bacteriophage Bacteria
2. TMV Tobacco plants
3. Rabies Only mammals
4. HIV Certain type of WBCs.
5. Polio Spinal cord cells.
6. Hepatitis virus Only liver cell.
7. Human cold virus Upper respiratory tract.
8. (adenovirus)

 The specificity of attachment determines host range of the virus.

Narrow range Broad range

 Polio virus can enter the cells  Rabies virus can enter all
of only human and other mammalian cells.
primates.

Influenza virus
 This virus belongs to family orthomyxoviruses.
 It includes seven genera and out of which 3 are common.

Virus A
Infecting
vertebrates
Genera of Virus C
influenza virus

Infecting humans Virus B

BTB
 Vaccines and drugs are available for this disease.
 The total genome length of flu virus is 12000-15000 nucleotides and  Bacteriophage are
the genome contains 6-8 segments. ubiquitous viruses
found wherever
Polio virus bacteria exist.
 It is estimated that
 Also called infantile paralysis number of
 First identified by KarlLandsteiner in 1908. bacteriophages is
 transmitted by: more than any
 Contaminated water with faeces. other organism on
earth.
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 Coughing
 Sneezing

Polio virus

symptoms : vaccines

Inactivated Oral polio

non-paralytic paralytic
polio vaccine vaccine(opv)

 Leaf curl virus disease is plant disease characterised by curling of

leaves, darken veins and swelling of veins.
 This disease is main threat tocotton crop and was first reported in
Punjab in Multan in 1985.
 The vector of this disease is whitefly Bemisiatabaci.
 Bird flu is also called avian influenza.
 H5N1 is the most common form of bird flu.

AIDS (acquired immuno deficiency syndrome)

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 The Aids was first reported in young male homosexuals in early

1980.
 It is caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).
 HIV was discovered by Pasture institute in France and National
institute of Health in USA in 1984.
 HIV named in 1986.
 The major call infected by HIV are Helper T-lymphocytes, major cells
of immune system.
 The infection decrease the Helper T-cells and person becomes
susceptible to other diseases.

Structure of HIV
 Following are features of HIV:

HIV

Matrix Spherical
Enveloped Spikes Viral capsid Viral RNA
protein shape

Glycoprotein Bullet shaped Two in no.

Conical
Identical
shaped

Types of HIV

Infect specific
Host specific
host
Types of HIV
Can infect any
Non-host specific
host

Life cycle of HIV

 Attachment,entry,and uncoiling:
 The virion enters the host cell at CD4 receptor site and is uncoated
inside the host cell.
 Reverse Transcription and integration:
 The enzyme acts on viral RNA to make a DNA and then uses the
strand of DNA to make DNA double helix.
 This DNA then enters nucleus and integrates into chromosomal DNA
of the host as a provirus.
 Viral RNA and protein synthesis:
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 The proviral DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into
proteins.
 Assembly and release:
 New capsids assemble and around viral RNA and attached reverse
transcriptase molecule and bud from plasma membrane by
exocytosis.

KPK

 Influenza virus
exists in different
shapes from
round balls to
long, spaghetti-
like filaments.

Common symptoms

 Fever
 Headache
 Severe pneumonia
 Rare vascular cancer
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