Physics G-11 Unit 4 Note

UNIT 4
DYNAMICS
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between net force and the acceleration of an
object in linear motion
 Analyze the effect of a net force in quantitative terms, using graphs, free-body diagrams, and
vector diagrams
 Describe the first condition of equilibrium quantitatively.
 Demonstrate an understanding, in qualitative and quantitative terms, of the concepts of work,
energy, energy transformations and power design and carry out experiments and solve problems
involving energy transformations and the law of conservation of energy.
 Realize that momentum is inherent properties of moving objects express the relationship between
impulse and momentum.
 Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the analysis of bodies, whether static or in motion.
 Mechanics can be divided into kinematics and dynamics.
 Kinematics studies the movements and displacement of the body without considering the cause of motion.
 Dynamics study about the motion of an object and its cause.
4.1. The Concept of Force and Newton’s Laws of motion

 A force is an influence that can cause an object to change its velocity.
Forces can:
Cause an object to start moving Change the direction of a moving object
Change the speed of a moving object Change the shape of an object
Cause a moving object to stop moving (deformation)
 We can measure force using a Newton Balance.
 The Newton Balance has a spring that extends or contracts when a force is applied.
 The change in spring length is directly proportional to the force applied.
Types of forces
 Forces can be divided into primarily into two types of forces:
1. Contact Forces
2. Non-contact Forces
Contact Forces
 Contact forces are forces that arise from direct physical contact between two objects.
 They are also known as mechanical forces.
Contact forces further divide into following types of forces:
1. Muscular Forces
 Muscles functions to produce a resulting force which is known as muscular force.
2. Frictional Forces
 Friction is a force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact.
Prepared by: Yadesa Dabala G-11 note 2016
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3. Normal Force
 Normal force is a contact force that occurs when two objects push against each other perpendicularly
at their point of contact.
4. Applied Force
 When you push a table, it's a contact force.
5. Tension Force
 Tension is a force that arises when an object is pulled by a rope, cable, or other type of flexible connector.
6. Spring Force
 Force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring.
7. Air Resisting Force
 Air resistance is a force that opposes the motion of an object through the air.
Non-contact force
 A non-contact force is a force that acts between two objects that are not physically touching each other.
 They further divide into following types of forces:
1. Gravitational Force
 Gravitational force is an attractive force that can be defined by Newton’s law of gravity which states that
‗gravitational forces between two bodies are directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them‘.
2. Magnetic Force
 The types of forces exerted by a magnet on magnetic objects are ‗magnetic forces‘.
3. Electrostatic Force
 The types of forces exerted by all electrically charged bodies on another charged bodies in the universe are
‗electrostatic forces‘.
Types of forces in nature

There are four fundamental forces in nature:
1. Gravitational force
 This force is responsible for the attraction between any two objects with mass.
 It is the weakest of the four fundamental forces but has an infinite range.
2. Electromagnetic force
 Electromagnetic force is the force between moving electric charges (i.e., electric current) and magnetic
fields.
 Electromagnetic force includes both electrostatic force and magnetic force.
 It is much stronger than gravitational force and has an infinite range.
3. Strong nuclear force
 This force binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.
 It is the strongest of the four fundamental forces but has a very short range.
4. Weak nuclear force
 This force is responsible for nuclear decay and is involved in interactions between subatomic particles.
 It is much weaker than the other three fundamental forces and also has a short range.
2
̅
Note
 The strong and weak forces operate only on the nuclear scale.
 The diameter of an atom is about 10-10 m, whereas the diameter of the nucleus is roughly 10-15 m which
is about 100,000 times smaller.
Newton’s law of motion

1. Newton’s First Law of Motion
Newton‘s First Law of Motion State that:
 An object continues in a state of rest or in a state of motion at a constant speed along a straight line, unless
compelled to change that state by a net force.
 Newton's first law of motion is also called the law of inertia.
 The property of a body to remain at rest or to remain in motion with constant velocity is called inertia.
 The inertia of an object is measured by its mass.
 The motion of a body can only be described relative to other bodies. Bodies with which motion of a body
can be compared are known as frames of reference.
 Frame of reference can be categorized as Inertial frame of reference and Non-inertial frame of
reference.
 A frame of reference which is at rest or moves with a constant velocity is known as an inertial frame of
reference.
 An inertial frame of reference is one that has constant velocity or zero acceleration.
Example
 A stationary car or a car traveling at constant velocity
 A non-inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference that is accelerating or rotating.
Example
 A car turning around a corner
 A plane taking off or landing
 A person standing on a rotating platform.
 All accelerating reference frames are non-inertial.
 All of Newton‘s laws of motion are valid in inertial reference frames.
Newton’s Second Law of motion
Newton‘s Second Law of motion state that:
When an unbalanced force acts on an object of mass m, the object accelerates in the direction of the applied
force with the magnitude of acceleration directly proportional to the net applied force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.
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 The direction of the acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force.
∑
Example
1. The tugboat takes 4 s to move the cruise ship 100 m, starting from rest. If the tugboat exerts N
of thrust, what is the mass of the cruise ship? Ignore drag due to the water, and assume that the tugboat
accelerates uniformly.
Solution
2. A force produces acceleration (all in m/s2), applied separately to n bodies. If these bodies
are combined to form single one, and if same force is taken into account then the acceleration of the
system will be:
A. B. C. D.
Solution
Solution
As the same force is applied to the combined mass, we have
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
4
⁄
3. A body of mass m moves along y such the at time t its position is , where a, b, c
are constant. Calculate the acceleration of the body and the force act on it.
Solution
⁄ ⁄
( )
4. A force produces an acceleration of 5 m/s2 in a body and same force an acceleration of 15 m/s2 in
another body. The acceleration produced by the same force when applied to the combination of two
bodies will be
A. 3.75 m/s2 B. 20 m/s2 C. 10 m/s2 D. 0.667 m/s2
Solution
As the same force is applied to the combined mass, we have
( )( )
5. A 2 kg object at rest is subjected to a force ̂ ̂ N. What is the velocity after 6 second?
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Solution
̂ ̂
̂ ̂
̂ ̂
̂ ̂
6. When 20 N force is applied on a body of mass m, acceleration is produced in it. The same force
when applied on a body of mass m', acceleration of is produced. What will be acceleration
produced by the same force applied on these two bodies tied together.
Solution Acceleration produced when both the bodies
are tied up is:
7. Measurements on a 300g object moving along the x axis show its position (in meters) to be given by
where t is the time in second. Find the net force that acted on the object
during the time for which this expression applies.
Solution
8. A 200g object is subjected to a force ̂ ̂ N. If the object starts from rest, what will be
velocity after 6 second and what was its location at the end of the 6 second period, if the object starts
from origin?
Solution ̂ ̂
( )
̂ ̂
( )
6
( ) ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
( )
̂ ̂
9. A 50 g mass vibrates up and down at the end of a spring has its position given by in
metre for t in seconds. Find the net force that acts on the mass to give it this motion.
Solution
10. A body of mass m moves along x such that at time t its position is where
constants. Calculate the acceleration of the body and the force acting on it.
Solution
Newton’s third law

Newton‘s third law state that:
“For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.”
When a body A exerts a force on B body, the body B exerts a force on the body A which is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction.
Newton‘s third law is known as action and reaction pairs.
 Action and reaction are mutually opposite and act on two different bodies.
 The force acting on a body is known as action.
 When a force acts on a body, then the reaction acts normally to the surface of the body.
Example
1. A hammer strikes a nail with F Newton of force. How much force does the nail exert on the hammer?
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A. B. C. D.
2. Two skaters push off of each other in the middle of an ice rink. If one skater has a mass of 32kg and an
acceleration of 0.5m/s2, what is the mass of the other skater if her acceleration is −1.2m/s2?
A. 32 kg B. 13.33 kg C. 16.5 kg D. 18 kg
Solution
( ) ( )
3. A rocket is launched into space. According to Newton's third law, what force propels the rocket
forward?
A. The force of the rocket's engines pushing against the air.
B. The force of the rocket's engines pushing against the ground.
C. The force of the rocket's engines pushing against the rocket itself.
D. The force of the exhaust gases pushing out of the back of the rocket.
4. Newton‘s third law refers to two forces acting in a pair. These forces
A. Act in the same direction.
B. Act on different objects.
C. Are different types of force.
D. Have different magnitudes.
5. Newton's Third Law applies
A. Only to objects at rest (like pushing on a wall)
B. To object pairs of which at least one must be at rest (like striking a wall with a moving ball)
C. to any two objects that interact
D. Only to pairs of objects for which one is much more massive than the other.
6. Which one of the following can be an example of Newton‘s third law?
A. Jumping of a man from a boat onto the bank of a river.
B. Jerk is produced in a gun when bullet is fired from it.
C. Pulling of cart by a horse
D. All
E. A & B only
Weight and the Gravitational Force

 The weight of an object arises because of the gravitational pull of the earth.
 The weight of an object on or above the earth is the gravitational force that the earth exerts on the object.
 The weight always acts downward, toward the center of the earth.
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 On or above another astronomical body, the weight is the gravitational force exerted on the object by that
body.
 SI Unit of Weight is Newton (N)
 The magnitude of the weight, for the mass of the object m, and for the mass of the earth ME is given by:
The symbol G denotes the universal gravitational constant
 The value for G was first measured in an experiment by the English scientist Henry Cavendish (1731–
1810), more than a century after Newton proposed his law of universal gravitation.
Example
1. The mass of the Hubble Space Telescope is 11 600 kg. Determine the weight of the telescope
A. When it was resting on the earth and
B. As it is in its orbit 598 km above the earth‘s surface. Use the radius of the earth is equal to
and mass of the earth is equal to
Solution
A. On the earth‘s surface, the weight is given by
B. When the telescope is 598 km above the surface, its distance from the center of the earth is
2. A space traveler weighs 540 N on earth. What will the traveler weigh on another planet whose radius is
three times that of earth and whose mass is twice that of earth?
Solution
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3. On earth, two parts of a space probe weigh 11 000 N and 3400 N. These parts are separated by a center-to-
center distance of 12 m and may be treated as uniform spherical objects. Find the magnitude of the
gravitational force that each part exerts on the other out in space, far from any other objects.
Solution
( )
( )
Relation between Mass and Weight

 Mass is a quantitative measure of inertia. As such, mass is an intrinsic
 Property of matter and does not change as an object is moved from one location to another.
 Weight, in contrast, is the gravitational force acting on the object and can vary, depending on how far the
object is above the earth‘s surface.
 The relation between weight W and mass m can be written in two ways:
( )
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 The specific value of g applies only when r equals the radius of the earth.
Example
1. Saturn has an equatorial radius of and a mass of .
A. Compute the acceleration of gravity at the equator of Saturn.
B. What is the ratio of a person‘s weight on Saturn to that on earth?
2. A bowling ball (mass = 7.2 kg, radius = 0.11 m) and a billiard ball (mass = 0.38 kg, radius = 0.028 m) may
each be treated as uniform spheres. What is the magnitude of the maximum gravitational force that each
can exert on the other?
Solution
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3. The weight of an object is the same on planets A and B. The mass of planet A is 60% that of planet B. Find
the ratio of the radii of the planets.
4. A space traveler whose mass is 115 kg leaves earth. What are his weight and mass (a) on earth and (b) in
interplanetary space where there are no nearby planetary objects?
Solution
A) ( )
B)
Normal Force
 The normal force is one component of the force that a surface exerts on an object with which it is in contact
namely, the component that is perpendicular to the surface.
 To understand how an inanimate object, such as a tabletop, can exert a normal force, think about what
happens when you sit on a mattress. Your weight causes the springs in the mattress to compress.
 As a result, the compressed springs exert an upward force (the normal force) on you.
 In a similar manner, the weight of the block causes invisible ―atomic springs‖ in the surface of the table to
compress, thus producing a normal force on the block.
 Newton‘s third law plays an important role in connection with the normal force.
 The block exerts a force on the table by pressing down on it. Consistent with the third law, the table exerts
an oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on the block.
 This reaction force is the normal force.
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 The magnitude of the normal force indicates how hard the two objects press against each other.
 If an object is resting on a horizontal surface and there are no vertically acting forces except the object‘s
weight and the normal force, the magnitudes of these two forces are equal.
 The weight must be balanced by the normal force for the object to remain at rest on the table.
 If the magnitudes of these forces were not equal, there would be a net force acting on the block, and the
block would accelerate either upward or downward, in accord with Newton‘s second law.
 If other forces in addition to and act in the vertical direction, the magnitudes of the normal force and
the weight are no longer equal.
 When objects are placed on non-leveled surfaces such as on an inclined plane the normal force is less than
the weight by a factor of .
 As is increased the normal force that supports the object is decreased and it will be zero when is 900.
 When is 00 the inclined plane becomes a level surface and the normal force will be equal to the weight.
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Example
1. Box A has a mass of 100 kg, box B has a mass of 50 kg, and box C has a box a mass of 25 kg. The
boxes are arranged in the following arrangement. What is the normal force, exerted by the ground,
experienced by Box A?
Solution
Normal force and Apparent Weight

 An object's apparent weight is the upward force (the normal force, or reaction force), typically transmitted
through the ground, that opposes gravity and prevents a supported object from falling.
Applying Newton‘s second law in the vertical direction gives:
∑
⏟ ⏟
However, the acceleration a may be either positive or negative, depending on whether the elevator is
accelerating upward (+) or downward (−).
 When the elevator is not accelerating ( , the apparent weight is equal to the true weight of the person.
⏟ ⏟
 When the elevator accelerates upward, the apparent weight exceeds the true weight.
⏟ ⏟
⏟ ⏟
 When the elevator accelerates downward, the apparent weight is less than the true weight.
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⏟ ⏟
⏟ ⏟
 The apparent weight is zero if the elevator falls freely—that is, if it falls with the acceleration due to
gravity.
Example
1. An elevator with a passenger accelerates upwards from rest at a value of 3 m/s2. What is the normal
force of the elevator on the passenger if the passenger has a mass of 50 kg?
Solution
⏟ ⏟
( ) ( )
2. A person tries to lift a very heavy 70kg rock by applying an upward force of 500N, but is unable to
move it upward. Calculate how much additional force was needed to lift the rock from the ground.
Solution
The additional force required to lift the rock is
3. A person who weighs 700N is standing in an elevator. The elevator then accelerates upward at a rate
of . During this acceleration, how much does the person weigh?
Solution
4. A block is on an incline with an inclination angle of 18 degrees. The normal force on the block has a
magnitude of 112 N. What is the mass of the block?
Solution
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5. A block of mass 4 kilograms is on an incline. The normal force on the block has a magnitude of 36 N.
What is the angle of inclination?
Solution
6. Weightlessness is experienced when the normal force equals __________.

A. a negative value C. the force due to gravity
B. the mass of the object D. zero
4.2. Frictional Force
At the end of completion of this section you should be able to:
 Describe the general characteristics of friction list the various types of friction
 Calculate the magnitude of static and kinetic friction, and use these in problems involving Newton‘s laws
of motion
 Solve more complex acceleration problems involving Newton‘s laws of motion.
 Use free-body diagrams to solve problems on Newton‘s Laws of motion.
 Friction is a force that opposes motion.
 When the object moves or attempts to move along the surface, there is also a component of the force that is
parallel to the surface.
 This parallel force component is called the frictional force, or simply friction.
 It occurs when two surfaces are in contact with each other and when one surface slides or attempts to slide
over the other.
 Friction occurs due to the roughness of the surfaces in contact.
 Friction has many practical uses in our daily lives, some of which include:
1. Walking and running: Friction between our shoes and the ground allows us to walk and run without
slipping.
2. Brakes: Friction is used in brakes to slow down or stop vehicles, bicycles, and other machines.
3. Writing: Friction between the pen/pencil and paper allows us to write.
4. Cooking: Friction is used in cooking to create heat by rubbing two surfaces together, such as when
using a matchstick to light a fire or rubbing two sticks together to create friction and start a fire.
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5. Gripping: Friction is used in materials such as rubber to provide grip and prevent slipping.
6. Sports: Friction is important in sports such as soccer, basketball, and tennis, where it helps players to
control the ball or racket.
7. Cutting: Friction is used in cutting tools such as saws and knives to cut through materials.
8. Cleaning: Friction is used in cleaning tools such as scrub brushes and sponges to remove dirt and
grime.
9. Printing: Friction is used in printing presses to transfer ink from the printing plate to the paper.
10. Manufacturing: Friction is used in manufacturing processes such as polishing, grinding, and sanding
to create smooth surfaces and remove imperfections.
 There are two types of friction.
1. Static friction
2. Kinetic friction
Static friction
 Static friction is the friction between two surfaces when there is no movement.
 Suppose you pull a block slightly along a table top.
 When a horizontal force ⃗ is applied to the block by means of a rope, If is ⃗ small:
 The direction of ⃗ is opposite to that of ⃗ .
 The magnitude of ⃗ equals the magnitude of the applied force ⃗ .
 The block will not move with such a small force that you apply.
 Increasing the applied force by a small amount still does not cause the block to move.
 There is no movement because the static frictional force also increases by an amount that cancels out the
increase in the applied force.
 If the applied force continues to increase, however, there comes a point when the block finally “breaks
away” and begins to slide.
 The force just before breakaway represents the maximum static frictional force.
 Any applied force that is greater than cannot be balanced by static friction, and the resulting net force
accelerates the block to the right.
 The force that keeps the block form sliding is the force of static friction and is directed opposite to the
applied force.
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 The coefficient of static friction, being the ratio of the magnitudes of two forces.
 The coefficient of static friction depend on:

 The type of material from which each surface is made (steel on wood, rubber on concrete, etc.
 The condition of the surfaces (polished, rough, etc.), and
 Other variables such as temperature.
Kinetic friction
 Kinetic friction is the friction between two surfaces when one of them is sliding over the other.
 For example, when the block that you push begins to slide over the table.
 Kinetic friction is less than static friction.

⃗ ⃗
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Example
1. A skier is standing motionless on a horizontal patch of snow. She is holding onto a horizontal tow rope,
which is about to pull her forward. The skier‘s mass is 59 kg, and the coefficient of static friction
between the skis and snow is 0.14. What is the magnitude of the maximum force that the tow rope can
apply to the skier without causing her to move?
Solution
Applying Newton's second law:
F x 0
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
F y 0
( )
2. A car of mass 1700 kg is parked on a road that rises 15° above the horizontal. What are the magnitudes
of (a) the normal force and (b) the static frictional force that the ground exerts on the tires?
Solution
F y 0
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( )
F x 0
( )
3. A block whose weight is 45.0 N rests on a horizontal table. A horizontal force of 36.0 N is applied to
the block. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction are 0.65 and 0.42, respectively. Will the block
move and if so, what will be the block‘s acceleration?
Solution
4. An 81kg baseball player slides into second base. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the player
and the ground is 0.49. (a) What is the magnitude of the frictional force? (b) If the player comes to rest
after 1.6 s, what was his initial velocity?
Solution
( )
F x  max
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5. A block of mass m is placed on horizontal surface. The coefficient of static friction between the block
and the surface is u. A force of magnitude F acts on the block at an angle e as shown in the figure
below.
The minimum magnitude of the force F required to slide the block on the surface is____.
A. C.
B. D.
Solution
6. A plank with a box on it at one end is gradually raised about the other end. As the angle of inclination
with the horizontal reaches 30º the box starts to slip and slides 4.0 m down the plank in 4.0s. The
coefficients of static and kinetic friction between the box and the plank will be, respectively:
A. 0.6 and 0.5 B. 0.5 and 0.6 C. 0.4 and 0.3 D. 0.6 and 0.6
No-equilibrium Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion

1. A free-body diagram
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 When an object is accelerating, it is not in equilibrium.
 The forces acting on it are not balanced, so the net force is not zero in Newton‘s second law.
F x  max
F y  ma y
Example
1. A 6 kg block is placed on a ramp that makes an angle of 30o above the horizontal as shown in figure below.
If the kinetic coefficient between the block and the surface is 0.5 and the block move down ward what is
the acceleration of the block?
Solution
When the block accelerates down the plane
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2. Two objects of masses m1 and m2 are arranged as shown in the figure below. A force F is applied on the
system in the direction shown. The coefficient of friction between the objects and the table is . What is
the magnitude of the acceleration of the system?
Solution
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3. A force ⃗ of magnitude is applied to a block of mass that lies on a rough, horizontal surface as
shown in figure below. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the surface is . What is
the magnitude of the acceleration of the block?
A. B. C. D.
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Solution
4. Figure shows two blocks in contact and sliding down the inclined surface of inclination . Coefficient of
friction between the block of mass 4 kg and the inclined plane is and that between the block of
mass 2 kg and the inclined plane is . Assume coefficients of static and kinetic friction to be
equal. Find the acceleration of 2 kg block. Take .
√ √
A. B. √ C. √ D.
Solution
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 Since there is relative motion between the blocks and incline, kinetic friction will act.
Since acceleration of 2 kg block down the plane will be more than the acceleration of 4 kg
√ √
√ √
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2. Tension Forces
 Tension forces occur when an object is being pulled or stretched by a force in opposite directions.
 Tension forces are always directed away from the surface of the object.
 Newton's second law can be used to calculate tension force.
Example
1. Two blocks of masses and are connected by a light string as shown in the figure
below. What would be the tension in the string connecting the masses?
Solution
For
For
2. A block of mass hangs from three cords as shown below. Taking , ,

, and , find the tensions in the three cords.
Solution
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The tension in the vertical cord balances the weight
of the block.
When we substitute the result of into the y
component equation, after putting
F x 0 ( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
F y 0
( )
From the x-component equation we get the

( )
following relation:
( )
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3. A block of mass lying on a rough horizontal surface is connected to a second block of
mass by a light non-stretchable cord over a massless, frictionless pulley as shown in figure
below. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the surface is . (a) Find the
magnitudes of the acceleration of the system and the tension in the cord. (b) Find the tension
Solution
When Newton‘s second law is applied to , we find:
When Newton‘s second law is applied to , we find:
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We can find T by substituting the expression of a into T to get:
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1. Three objects are connected on the table as shown in Figure below. The table is rough and has a coefficient
of kinetic friction of 0.350. The objects have masses of 4.00 kg, 1.00 kg, and 2.00 kg, as shown, and the
pulleys are frictionless. Determine the acceleration of each object and their directions and determine the
tensions in the two cords.
B. C. D.
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Two blocks of mass 3.50 kg and 8.00 kg are connected by a massless string that passes over a frictionless
pulley shown in figure below. The inclines are frictionless. Find (a) the magnitude of the acceleration of each
block and (b) the tension in the string.
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2. A 44-kg chandelier is suspended 1.5 m below a ceiling by three wires, each of which has the same tension
and the same length of 2.0 m (see the drawing). Find the tension in each wire.
4.3. The first condition of equilibrium

At the end of completion of this section you should be able to:
 Define the term equilibrium
 Explain the first condition of equilibrium
 Apply the first condition of equilibrium to solve practical problems.
 Equilibrium is a state in which the net force acting on an object is zero.
 Depending on the state motion, there are two common types of equilibrium
1. Translational equilibrium
2. Rotational equilibrium
Translational equilibrium
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 Translational equilibrium is a type of equilibrium in which the net force acting on an object is zero.
 This means that the object is either at rest or moving at a constant velocity in a straight line.
 In translational equilibrium, the forces acting on the object are balanced and cancel each other resulting in a
state of balance.
For example
 A book lying on a table
 Car moving at a constant speed on a straight road.
 The first condition of equilibrium, relate to translational equilibrium.
 The first condition of equilibrium is that the net force acting on an object must be zero.
 If there are multiple forces acting on an object, the vector sum of all the forces must be equal to zero.
 This condition applies to both static equilibrium (when the object is at rest) and dynamic equilibrium
(when the object is moving at a constant velocity in a straight line).
 F  ma
F  0
For n number of forces acting on a object, we write
F x 0 F y 0
Rotational Equilibrium
 Rotational equilibrium is a state in which an object is rotating at a constant angular velocity with no net
torque acting on it.
 This means that the object is not accelerating rotationally and is in a state of balance.
 An example of this is a seesaw.
 The second condition of equilibrium, relate to rotational equilibrium.
 The second condition of equilibrium is that the net torque acting on an object must be zero.
  0
 If there are multiple torques acting on an object, the vector sum of all the torques must be equal to zero.
 Torque is a measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis.
 For rotational equilibrium:
 There are three common types of equilibrium (Rotational and Translational) Problems
1. Plank or SeeSaw problems
2. Shelf or crane problems (beam sticking out of wall)
3. Ladder problems
Example
1. A uniform bar is 4m long. It weighs 300N. At one end, 1m from the pivot point, there is a resisting weight
of 2000N. What force must be applied at the other end to produce equilibrium?
36
Solution
By equilibrium of torques around R1
2. Two forces act on a bar as shown in below.

What is the net torque about:
a) axis A
b) axis B?
3.
4. Find maximum value of weight W that can be attached at point p if the maximum breaking tension of the
string is 30 N.
37
Solution
∑ ⃗⃗
∑ ⃗⃗
5. A uniform beam ( ) is supported by a cable that is attached to the center of the beam a
shown in the diagram.
A. Find the tension in the cable.
38
B. Find the horizontal and vertical forces acting on the hinge.
Solution
With pivot at center:
6. A uniform 4.8 m long ladder of mass 16 kg leans against a frictionless vertical wall as shown in the
diagram below. What minimum force of friction is needed at the base of the ladder to keep it from sliding?
39
Solution
4.4. Work, Energy and Power

By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Define work in terms of the applied force and the displacement.
 Calculate the work done by a constant force, by a varying force.
 Demonstrate by examples that maximum work is done when the applied force is parallel to the
displacement vector.
 Apply work-energy theorem to solve problems.
 Calculate kinetic energy and potential energy of a body.
 Differentiate between conservative and non-conservative forces.
 Explain the law of the conservation of energy.
 Solve problems by applying the law of conservation of energy.
 Define power and solve problems involving power.
40
 Work is the process of transforming energy.
 It is the dot product of the vectors force and displacement.
 As observed from the figure above, when the box moves while a force is being exerted on it, then work
is being done on the box by the force.
 If the box moves through a displacement d ( r) while a constant force F is acting on it, the force does
an amount of work equal to:

where  is the angle between d and F.
 Work is a scalar physical quantity, Its SI unit is J and its dimensional formula is given by M L2 T 2  
 Relationship among different units of work are as shown below:
1J  1N.m  10 7 erg
1KWH  3.6MJ
1calorie  4.18J
Positive work is done when the force applied on an object is in the same direction as the displacement of
the object.
 This means that the force is doing work and increasing the energy of the object.
Negative work is done when the force applied on an object is in the opposite direction to the displacement
of the object.
 This means that the force is taking away energy from the object and decreasing its energy.
Zero work is done when the force applied on an object is perpendicular to the displacement of the object.
 This means that the force is not affecting the energy of the object as it is not causing any displacement
in the direction of the force.
 Under three condition, work done becomes zero
1. If the force is perpendicular to the displacement [⃗⃗ ⃗]
Example: When a body moves in a circle the work done by the centripetal force is always zero.
2. If there is no displacement [ ⃗=0]
Example: When a person tries to displace a wall or heavy stone by applying a force then it does not move, the
work done is zero.
41
3. If there is no force acting on the body [⃗⃗ = 0]
Example: Motion of an isolated body in free space.
Example
1. A body of mass 4kg is placed at the origin, and can move only on the x-axis. A force of 10N is acting
on it in a direction making an angle of with the x-axis and displaces it along the x-axis by 12
metres. Find the work done by the force
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ‖⃗⃗‖‖⃗⃗‖
(120J)(0.6)=72J
2. Find the work done if a particle moves from a position ⃗⃗ to a position ⃗⃗
under the effect of force ⃗⃗ .
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
3. The constant forces ̂ ̂ ̂ N and ̂ ̂ ̂ act together on a particle during a

displacement from position ̂ cm to position ̂ ̂ cm. Determine the total work done
on the particle.
Solution ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
( ̂ ̂ ̂)
(̂ ̂ ̂) ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ̂)
J
̂ ̂ ̂ J
̂ ̂ ̂
42
A uniform force of ̂ ̂ N acts on a particle of mass 2 kg. The particle is displaced from position ( ̂ ̂)
m to position ( ̂ ̂ ̂ ) m. The work done by the force on the particle is
A. 6 J B. 13 J C. 15 J D. 9 J
Work done by variable forces

 Variable force is a force that changes in magnitude or direction as a function of time.
 Variable force is a force that varies with time or position.
 Area under force displacement curve represents work done by variable the force.
 Consider a particle being displaced along the x-axis under the action of a force that varies with position.
The particle is displaced in the direction of increasing x from to .
 we imagine that the particle undergoes a very small displacement the x component of the force is
approximately constant over this small interval; for this small displacement, we can approximate the work done
on the particle by the force as:
 If we imagine the versus x curve divided into a large number of such intervals, the total work done
for the displacement from to is approximately equal to the sum of a large number of such terms:

The total work done for the displacement from

to is approximately equal to the sum of the
area of the all the rectangles
The work done by the component F of the varying

force as the particle moves from to is exactly
equal to the area under the curve.
43
 The total work done by variable force can be obtained by integrating the elementary work from initial
to final limit.
A particle is subject to a force Fx that varies with position as shown in Figure below. Find the total work done by
the force over the distance from x =0 to x = 15m?
Work done = area of the region bounded by component of the force

W= + +
W= + +
W=30J
 There are two types variable force.

1. Constantly varying force
2. Non-Linear Variable Forces
Work done by constantly varying force
 Here are some examples of constantly varying forces:
1. Gravitational force
 The force of gravity varies depending on the distance between two objects.
 As two objects move closer or farther apart, the force of gravity between them changes.
2. Spring force
 The force exerted by a spring varies depending on how much it is compressed or stretched.
 As the spring is compressed or stretched further, the force it exerts changes.
3. Frictional force
 The force of friction between two surfaces depends on the nature of the surfaces and the amount of force
applied.
 As the surfaces move relative to each other, the force of friction may change.
1. Work done by gravitational force
 The work done by gravitational force is given by
 If an object is lifted vertically against gravity, the work done by gravity would be negative since the force
of gravity is acting in the opposite direction of the displacement.
44
 If an object is lifting downward, the work done by gravity would be positive since the force of gravity is
acting in the opposite direction of the displacement.
Example
1. A particle of mass 20 g is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 10 m/s. Find the work done by the
force of gravity during the time the particle goes up.
Solution
Suppose the particle reaches a maximum height h. As the velocity at the highest point is zero, we have
( )
( )
( )
( )
2. A weight lifter lifts a mass of 250 kg with a force 5000 N to the height of 5 m.
A. What is the work done by the weight lifter?
B. What is the work done by the gravity?
C. What is the net work done on the object?
Solution
A. When the weight lifter lifts the mass, force and displacement are in the same direction, which means
that the angle between them .
B. When the weight lifter lifts the mass, the gravity acts downwards which means that the force and
displacement are in opposite direction. Therefore, the angle between them
C. The net work done (or total work done) on the object
45
2. Work done by spring force
 When a spring is stretched or compressed from its normal position (x = 0) by a small distance x, then a
restoring force is produced in the spring to bring it to the normal position.
 According to Hooke‘s law this restoring force is proportional to the displacement x and its direction is
always opposite to the displacement.
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
where k is called spring constant.
 If x = 1, F = k (Numerically) or k = F
 Hence spring constant is numerically equal to force required to produce unit displacement
(compression or extension) in the spring.
 If required force is more, then spring is said to be more stiff and vice-versa.
 k is a measure of the stiffness/softness of the spring.
 When a spring is compressed, stretched, or twisted, it stores potential energy called elastic
potential energy.
 When a spring is stretched or compressed from its normal position (x = 0), work has to be done by
external force against restoring force.
⃗ ⃗
 Let the spring is further stretched through the distance , then work done.
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
∫ ∫ ⃗ ⃗
∫ ⃗ ⃗
x
 x2 
W  k 
 2 0
1
W  kx2
2
 Work done to stretch the spring from to
46
 This work done is stored as the potential energy of the stretched spring.
Elastic potential energy:
Elastic potential energy:

Example
1. A spring of spring constant is stretched initially by 5 cm from the un-stretched position. Then the
work required to stretch it further by another 5 cm is
A. 6.25 Nm B. 12.50 N-m C. 18.75 N-m D. 25.00 N-m
2. A long spring is stretched by 2 cm, its potential energy is U. If the spring is stretched by 10 cm, the potential
energy stored in it will be
A. B. C. D.
3. Two springs of spring constants 1500 N /m and 3000 N /m respectively are stretched with the same force.
They will have potential energy in the ratio:
A. 4 : 1 B. 1 : 4 C. 2 : 1 D. 1 : 2
4. Two springs A and B having spring constant and are stretched by applying a force of
equal magnitude. If the energy stored in spring A is E, then the energy stored in B will be:
A. B. C. D.
Solution
47
5. If two springs A and B are stretched by the same suspended weights, then the ratio of the work
done in stretching is equal to:
A. 1:2 B. 2:1 C. 1:1 D. 1:4
Solution
3. Work done by frictional force

 The work done by frictional force can be calculated by multiplying the magnitude of the frictional
force by the distance over which the force acts.
Example
1. A 100 kg rock is sliding across a level surface. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the rock and the
surface is 0.25. How much work does the kinetic friction do on the rock over 10 meters?
Solution
2. Calculate the work done by the frictional force in pulling a mass of 50kg for a distance of 100m on a road.
The limiting coefficient of friction for a road is .
Solution
48
4. Net Work (the total work)
 The total work is the summation of all types of work done on an object.
Example
1. A 40 kg box is pulled 30 m on a horizontal floor by applying a force F of magnitude 100 N directed by an
angle of 60º above the horizontal. If the floor exerts a friction force of magnitude 20 N, calculate
A. The work done by each one of these forces.
B. The work done by the weight and the normal force.
C. The total work done on the box.
Solution
A. The work done by each one of these forces can be:

 The work done by the force is
 The work done by the friction force is
B. The work done by the gravity force is
 The box is moving along x-axis and there is no displacement along the vertical direction,
therefore its work is zero.
49
 The work done by the normal force is
C. The total work done on the box is
2. Consider a block of mass m is pushed up a rough inclined plane of angle θ by a constant Force F parallel to the
incline, as shown in figure below. The displacement of the block up the incline is d.
A. by the applied force
B. by the force of gravity
C. by the normal force
D. by the kinetic friction
Solution
A. The work done by the applied force
B. The work done by gravity
is the component of the weight parallel to the displacement and 1800 is the angle between
and the displacement.
C. The work done by the normal force is:
D. The work done by the kinetic friction is:
50
Kinetic Energy and Work
 Kinetic energy is defined as the energy possessed by moving objects.
 The work can be defined as the change in the kinetic energy.

 If a body changes its velocity from to the work done is defined as:
This is known as the work-energy theorem:

The work-energy theorem states that the change of kinetic energy of a body is equal to the work of all the
forces acting upon it.
Proof of work-energy theorem
( )
( )
Example
1. A 2000kg car travelling at 20 m/s comes to rest on a level ground in a distance of 100m. Find the average
frictional force tending to stop it.
Solution
51
2. A 100kg man is in a car travelling at 20 m/s.
A. Find his kinetic energy
B. The car strikes a concrete and comes to rest after the front of the car has collapsed 1 m. The man
wearing a seat belt and harness. What is the average force exerted by the belt and harness during the
crash?
Solution
A. The kinetic energy is given by
( )
B. Since car is suddenly stopping, KE possessed by man is doing work against the belt which stops him at
the end of the crash
Power
 Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
( )
The SI unit of power is watt.
Example
3. A pump is needed to water through a height of 2.5 m at the rate of 500g/min. What must the minimum
horsepower of the pump be?
Solution
( )
52
( )
4. An engine raises a load of 100 kg from a mine that is 300 m deep in 2 minutes. What is the power of the
engine?
A. 245W B. 294 000W C. 29KW D. 2500W
Solution
( )
Conservative and non-conservative force

Conservative force
 Conservative force is a force in which work done is independent of the path followed.
 A work is said to be conservative:
 if the work done by or against the force in moving a body depends on only the initial and final
positions of the body
 Does not depend on the nature of the path followed.
Example
 Gravitational force
 Electrostatic force
 Spring force
 Viscous force
Conservative forces have these two equivalent properties:
1. The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between any two points is independent of the
path taken by the particle.
2. The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving through any closed path is zero.
 A closed path is one in which the beginning and end points are identical.
Non-conservative force (dissipative force)
 Non-conservative force is a force in which work done is path dependent.
 If the work done in moving a body against a force from one point to another point depends on the path along
which the body moves, then such force is called non-conservative force.
Example
 Frictional force
53
 The work done by or against the force in moving a body over a closed path is not zero.
 Non-conservative forces acting within a system cause a change in the mechanical energy ME of the system.
 The work done on a system by a non-conservative force is equal to the change in mechanical energy of the
system.
 is work done by dissipative forces.
KE = ½ mv2, gravitational , and Elastic PE = ½ kx2

4.5. Conservation of mechanical energy
 Define mechanical energy.
 State the law of conservation of mechanical energy.
 Apply the law of conservation of mechanical energy to solve problems
 Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work.
 The energy possessed by a body due to its position or due to its motion is called mechanical energy.
 The mechanical energy of a body is the energy in the body consists of potential energy and kinetic energy.
The potential energy of a body is the energy stored in the body by virtue of its position or the state of strain.
Example:
 Water stored in a reservoir
 A wound spring
 Compressed air
 Stretched rubber chord
The kinetic energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motion.
Example:
 A falling body
 A bullet fired from a rifle
 A swinging pendulum, etc
Law of conservation of mechanical energy
The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that in the absence of dissipative forces like air resistance and
friction, the total mechanical energy of an object or system of objects remains unchanged.
54
Example
1. A particle of mass m is hung from the ceiling by a massless string of length 1.0 m, as shown in Figure
below. The particle is released from rest, when the angle between the string and the downward vertical
direction is . What is its speed when it reaches the lowest point of its arc?
Solution
Since the particle is released from rest, the initial kinetic energy is zero. At the lowest point, we define the
gravitational potential energy to be zero.
Therefore our conservation of energy formula reduces to:
√ ( )
55
2. A pendulum shown in the figure below has 2.5 m length and mass m. When it passes point A, its mass has
a speed of 2 m/s. The height of the pendulum at displacement positions B and C will be:
Solution
( )
3. A mass of 0.5 kg moving with a speed of 1.5 m/s on a horizontal smooth surface, collides with a nearly
weightless spring of force constant k = 50 N/m. The maximum compression of the spring would be
A. 0.5 m B. 0.15 m C. 0.12 m D. 1.5 m

Solution ( ) ( )
( )
56
4. A 3.00 kg crate slides down a ramp. The ramp is 1.00 m in length and inclined at an angle of 30.0° as
shown in Figure below. The crate starts from rest at the top, experiences a constant friction force of
magnitude 5.00 N, and continues to move a short distance on the horizontal floor after it leaves the
determine the speed of the crate at the bottom of the ramp.
Solution
5. A particle of mass m 5.00 kg is released from point and slides on the frictionless track shown in Figure
below. Determine
A. the particle‘s speed at points and
B. the net work done by the gravitational force as the particle moves from to
Solution Particle speed at point b can be calculated as:
57
Particle speed at point c can be calculated as:
6. A bead slides without friction around a loop-the-loop. The bead is released from a height .
(a) What is its speed at point ? (b) How large is the normal force on it if its mass is 5.00 g?
Solution
58
7. A roller-coaster vehicle is on the track shown below.
A. What is the maximum speed the vehicle can have at B and still remain on the track?
B. What must be the vehicle‘s speed at point A to reach point B with the speed you just calculated?
59
8. A block of mass 50 kg is projected horizontally on a rough horizontal floor. The coefficient of friction
between the block and the floor is 0.1. The block strikes a light spring of stiffness with a
velocity 2 m/s. The maximum compression of the spring is:
A. 4m
B. 3m
C. 2m
D. 1m
60
4.6. Impulse and Linear Momentum
 Discuss impulse and linear momentum relate impulses to collisions
 Apply the impulse-momentum theorem to solve problems
 Differentiate elastic and inelastic collisions
 State the law of conservation of linear momentum
 Explain the meaning and usefulness of the concept of center of mass calculate the center of mass of a
given system
 Calculate the velocity of the center of mass
 Apply the law of conservation of linear momentum to solve problems involving collision in one
dimension.
Linear momentum
 Linear momentum is the property of a moving object that describes how hard it is to set a body in motion
or to stop it.
 It is hard to stop a fast moving object than a slow moving object.
 It is hard to stop a larger mass than a smaller mass provided that they move with the same speed.
 Linear momentum is the product of a system‘s mass and its velocity.
⃗⃗ ⃗
 Momentum is a vector quantity directed along the direction of the velocity and its SI unit is .
 According to Newton's second law, velocity of a moving object changes when a non-zero net force acts on
it.
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗
 The change in momentum of a particle during a time interval equals the impulse of the net force that acts
on the particle during that interval. This statement defines the Impulse-Momentum theory.
 The area of the net force versus time graph is equal to the magnitude of the impulse provided.
61
 For a system of more than one body, the total momentum ⃗ of the system is the vector sum of the
momentum of the individual bodies.
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Example
1. Calculate the momentum of a 110 kg football player running at 8 m/s and compare the player‘s
momentum with the momentum of a 0.410 kg football thrown hard at a speed of 25 m/s.
Solution
⃗⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ ( )
⃗⃗ ( )
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
2. A 2.5 kg stone is released from rest and falls toward Earth. After 4.0 s what is the magnitude of
momentum?
Solution
⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗
⃗
3. A force pushes the cart for 1 s, starting from rest. To achieve the same speed with a force half as big,
the force would need to push for
A. 4 s B. 3s C. 5 s D. 6 s
Solution ⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗
4. Force (F) – time (t) graph is given below. Calculate the impulse experienced by the body.
Solution
62
⃗
⃗
⃗
5. The position-time graph of a body of mass 2 kg is as given in the figure. Calculate the impulse on the
body at and .
Solution
 Impulse will be zero because velocity is constant by graph because slope is constant. Hence no force is
there to produce impulse.
Exercise
1. The graph given below belongs to an object
having mass 2kg and velocity 10m/s. It moves
on a horizontal surface. If a force is applied to
this object between (1-7) seconds find the
velocity of the object at 7. Second.
Kinetic energy and linear momentum
Example
1. Two bodies of masses m and 4 m are moving with equal KE. The ratio of their linear momentum is
A. 4 : 1 B. 1 : 1 C. 1 : 2 D. 1 : 4
2. Two bodies with kinetic energies in the ratio 4:1 are moving with equal linear momentum. The ratio of
their masses is
63
A. 1 : 2 B. 1 : 1 C. 4 : 1 D. 1 : 4
Law of conservation of linear momentum

The law of conservation of momentum states that:
 When two objects collide in an isolated system, the total momentum before and after the collision remain
equal.
 No external force acts on the isolated system. Under that case, the rate of change of total Momentum
doesn‘t change.
 The initial total momentum is equal to the final total momentum.
∑⃗ ∑⃗
Example
1. There are cars with masses 4 kg and 10 kg respectively that are at rest. The car having the mass 10 kg
moves towards the east with a velocity of . Find the velocity of the car with mass 4 kg with respect to
ground.
Solution
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2. Find the velocity of a bullet of mass 5 grams which is fired from a pistol of mass 1.5 kg. The recoil velocity
of the pistol is .
Solution
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
64
Collisions
 Collisions occur when one object strikes another.
 There are two types of collisions:
1. Elastic collisions: momentum is conserved and kinetic energy is conserved.
2. Inelastic collisions
Elastic collisions
 A collision in which both total momentum and total kinetic energy are conserved is known as Elastic
collision.
 Elastic collisions occur between atomic and subatomic particles.
Divide (4) by (2)
Example
1. A 4kg ball moving east at a speed of 5 m/s strikes a 2kg ball at rest. Calculate the velocities of the two
balls assuming a perfectly elastic collision.
Solution
( )
Inelastic collision
 For inelastic collisions, momentum is conserved and kinetic energy is not conserved.
 Inelastic collisions are of two types.
 When the colliding objects stick together after the collision, the collision is called perfectly inelastic.
65
 When the colliding objects do not stick together, but some kinetic energy is lost the collision is called
inelastic.
 For a perfectly inelastic collision where the masses stick together after collision
Example
1. A 5 g bullet moving at strikes a 1 kg stationary block of wood placed on a smooth horizontal
surface and embeds itself 2.5cm deep. Determine the velocity of the combined mass after the collision.
Solution
( )
( )
66
Center of Mass
 The center of mass (or center of gravity) is the point in a system or object where its mass can be
considered to be concentrated.
 Consider a system of N point masses , , ,… whose position vectors from origin O are given
by ⃗ , ⃗ , ⃗ ,…., ⃗ respectively.
 The position vector of the centre of mass C of the system is given by:
n
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ m r
i 1
i i
⃗ n
m
i 1
i
67
⃗
Example
1. Two particles of mass 1 kg and 2 kg are located at and . Find the position of their
centre of mass.
Solution ⃗
⃗
2. The position vector of three particles of masses , , and are ⃗

(̂ ̂ ̂ ), ⃗ (̂ ̂ ̂ ) and ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) respectively. Find the position vector of
their centre of mass.
Solution
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗
(̂ ̂ ̂) (̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗
( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
3. Four particles of mass 1 kg, 2 kg, 3 kg and 4 kg are placed at the four vertices A, B, C and D of a
square of side 1 m. Find the position of centre of mass of the particles.
Solution
68
⃗
Exercise
1. Three particles of masses 0.5 kg, 1.0 kg and 1.5 kg are placed at the three corners of a right angled
triangle of sides 3.0 cm, 4.0 cm and 5.0 cm as shown in the figure. Locate the centre of mass of the
system.
Motion of Center of the Mass

 Let us consider a system of particles ,… …and so on.
 The initial position vectors of these particles are ⃗ , ⃗ , ⃗ ,…., ⃗ respectively.
 Now, these particles start moving in the directions of their position vectors the velocity of the Center of mass of the
system is given by
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Example
69
1. Two point masses, m1 = 2Kg and m2 = 2Kg, are located moving at a speed of v1 = 2 m/s and v2 = 4 m/s
respectively. Find the velocity of Center of mass.
Solution
⃗
( ) ( )
⃗
⃗
2. A system consisting of two masses has a momentum of and its Center of mass has a velocity of
. 4 Kg mass has a velocity of . Find the velocity of the other mass.

Solution
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗
Exercise
1. Two-point masses, m1 = 10Kg and m2 = 20Kg, are located moving at a speed of v1 = 10 m/s and v2 = 5 m/s
respectively. Find the velocity of the Center of mass.
Conservation of Momentum Applied to Rockets
 The law of conservation of momentum can also be used to explain why a rocket can accelerate even in a
vacuum.
 Before launch, the total momentum of a rocket and its fuel is zero.
⃗ ⃗
 During launch, the downward momentum of the expanding exhaust gases just equals in magnitude the
upward momentum of the rising rocket, so that the total momentum of the system remains constant.
Exercise
1. Rockets work on the principle of conservation of:
A. Energy B. Mass C. Impulse D. Momentum
70

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UNIT 4

4.1. The Concept of Force and Newton’s Laws of motion

Types of forces in nature

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Newton’s law of motion

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As the same force is applied to the combined mass, we have

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As the same force is applied to the combined mass, we have

5. A 2 kg object at rest is subjected to a force ̂ ̂ N. What is the velocity after 6 second?

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Newton’s third law

“For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.”

Newton‘s third law is known as action and reaction pairs.

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Weight and the Gravitational Force

The symbol G denotes the universal gravitational constant

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Relation between Mass and Weight

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Normal force and Apparent Weight

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The additional force required to lift the rock is

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6. Weightlessness is experienced when the normal force equals __________.

 The coefficient of static friction depend on:

 Kinetic friction is less than static friction.

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No-equilibrium Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion

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2. A block of mass hangs from three cords as shown below. Taking , ,

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From the x-component equation we get the

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When Newton‘s second law is applied to , we find:

When Newton‘s second law is applied to , we find:

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4.3. The first condition of equilibrium

 For rotational equilibrium:

2. Two forces act on a bar as shown in below.

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With pivot at center:

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4.4. Work, Energy and Power

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