PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR VEGETABLE AND SPICES

PRACTICAL MANUAL
Course code- CCAGL-222Course credit-(1+1)

Compiled by:

Dr. Sarthak Bhattacharya

Department of Horticulture
School of Agriculture and Allied Sciences
The Neotia University
Sarisha, Jhinga - 743368, D. H. Road South 24 Parganas, West Bengal
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Contents

SL.No Title Page No Date Signature

1 Identification of Vegetable seeds 3

2 Identification of Spices and their seeds 4

3 Nursery raising of Vegetable and Spices 5

4 Direct seed sowing and transplanting of 7

vegetable crops
5 Study of morphological characters of 9
different vegetables and spices
6 Fertilizer application for Vegetable crops as 11
per recommendation for N, P &K

7 Harvesting and preparation for market of 13

vegetable crops

8 Economics of vegetable and spices 15

cultivation
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Exercise-1: Identification of Vegetable seeds

Introduction:
Seeds are the basic unit of identification of crop species and cultivars can be distinguished from
one another either by morphological or physiological or biochemical characteristics and these
characteristicsaretobereproducibleonrepeatedcultivationundernormalagroclimaticconditions
formaintenanceofseedqualityintermsofgeneticpurity.Botanicallyseedisdefinedasaripened ovule
containing an embryo in arrested state of development usually with a food reserve and a
protective coat. In seed technological term, the part of a plant used for sowing to raise the crop or
any propagative material is known as seed. Although some vegetables like potatoes are
vegetativelypropagated, mostareestablishedfromseeds.Usingqualityseedsisaprerequisitefor
successful vegetableproduction.

Objectives:

1. To identify the Seeds based on the length, width andthickness.

2. To identify the Seeds based on shape (main diagnostic character). The seeds may be
globose or sub-globose or oblong or orbicular or round or flat or rectangular, square,
elliptic,etc.
3. To identify the Seeds based on surface texture. Seed surface varies from very smooth and
glossy to rough and fibrous. Botanical terms applied to the seed surface are smooth,
glabrous, wrinkled, ribbed, punctuate, reticulate, pulp, tomentose andhairy.
4. To identify the Seeds based on external structures such as seed coat, pericarpetc.

Materials required:Seeds of vegetablecrops

Common name Botanical name Family

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Exercise-2: Identification of Spices and their seeds

Introduction:
Spicesconstituteanimportantgroupofagriculturalcommoditieswhicharevirtuallyindispensable in
the culinary art. India is known as the 'The home of spices'. According to the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO); The term 'spices and condiments' applies to such natural
plant or mixtures thereof, in whole or ground form, as are used for imparting flavor, aroma and
piquancy to and for seasoning of foods”. Spices such as black pepper, cumin, small cardamom,
fenugreek,fennel,dill,ajwain,clove,cinnamonetc.haveawidevarietyofbiofunctionsandtheir additive
or synergistic actions are likely to protect the human body against a variety of health hazards.

Objectives:
1. To identify the spices based on the different plant part i.e. leaf, seed, bark, rhizome, flowerbud
etc.
2. To identify the seed spices based on shape (main diagnostic character). The seeds maybe
globose or sub-globose or oblong or orbicular or round or flat or rectangular, square,
elliptic,etc.
3. To identify the spices based on surface texture. Seed surface varies from very smoothand
glossy to rough and fibrous. Botanical terms applied to the seed surface are smooth,
glabrous, wrinkled, ribbed, punctuate, reticulate, pulp, tomentose andhairy.
4. To identify the Seeds based on external structures such as seed coat, pericarpetc.

5. To identify the spices based on aroma, pungency, phenolic compounds present in it andcolour.

Materialsrequired:Differentplantpartsofspicescropsuchasseed,flowerbud,fruit,bark.
Common name Botanical name Family
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Exercise-3: Nursery raising of Vegetable and Spices

Introduction:
Nursery is a place where seedlings are grown before transplanting them in the main plots.
Generally, seed are to grow vegetables and to raise seedlings. Therefore, quality of seed is very
important based on which the vegetables and spices seed are sown. There are some vegetables
which cannot grow directly by sowing the seed in to the plot. For example, for vegetable such as
tomato, eggplant, cabbage and cauliflower, seedling first need to be raised and then transplanted
intheplot.Generally,theseedsarecoveredwithalayerofsoilaftersowing.Whiletherearesome other
vegetables whose seed need to be direct sowing in the main plot such as okra, legumes etc.
Inmanycases,iftheseedaresowntooclosetothesurfacetheriskisgreaterthattheywillbedried out by the
sun or eaten by birds or rodents. There are several different types of vegetable seeds based on
their size and it is important to maintain to correct distances between plant to plant and row to
rowdistances.

Objectives:
The development of seedling in nursery is not only reduces the crop span but also increase the
uniformity of the crop and thus, harvesting as compared to direct sown crops. Transplanting of
seedling are also eliminate the need of thinning and providing good opportunities for virus free
vigorousoffseasonnursery,ifgrownunderprotectedcondition.Nurseryishelpfulandconvenient
tomanageseedlingundersmallareaandgrowercangettimelyplantprotectionmeasuresarewith
minimalefforts.Developmentofanurseryprovidesfavourableclimatetoemergingplantsfortheir better
growth and development. The effective utilization of unfavourable period by preparing nursery
under protected condition. Seed cost of some crops like hybrid vegetables and spices can be
economized through nursery. Nursery production help in maintaining effective plants stand in
shortest possible time through gapfilling.
Criteria for selecting Nursery:

1. Site for nursery should be selected at such places where abundant sunshine and proper
ventilation isavailable.
2. Nursery site should be on higher location so that water stagnation isavoidable.
3. In humid and rain prone areas nursery place should be well protected from heavy rains
through protectedstructures.
4. The site should be nearer to irrigation facilities andaccessible.
5. It should be protected from stray animals, snail, ratsetc.
6. SoilshouldbesandyloamorloamywithpHrangeof6to7andrichinorganicmatterand free from
pathogenicinoculums.

Materials required for raising plug tray nursery: Good quality seeds, plug tray/poly tray,
coco peat, vermicompost, Nursery net, mulching sheet, rose can etc.
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Procedure:
1. The seedling tray (pro tray) is filled with the growing medium (cocopeat/Soil).
2. A small depression (0.5 cm) is made with fingertip in the centre of the cell of the pro tray
for sowing. One seed per cell is sown and covered withmedium.
3. After sowing 10 trays are kept one over other for 3 to 6 days, depending on the crops.The
entirestackwillbecoveredusingpolyethylenesheetorpaddystrawtoensureconservation of
moisture untilgermination
4. Thetraysareirrigatedlightlyeverydaydependingupontheprevailingweatherconditions
byusing a fine sprinkling rose can. Drenching the trays with fungicides as a precautionary
measure against seedling mortality is also beingdone.
5. he seedlings at right stage of planting are hardened by withholding irrigation andreducing
the shade before transplanting or selling to the growers. Systemic insecticides are sprayed
7 - 10 days after germination and before transplanting for managing the insectvectors.
6. The seedlings would be ready in about 21-30 days for transplanting to the main field
depending upon thecrop.

Conclusion:
Production and timely distribution of quality seedlings of vegetables/spices would be a greater
scopetomeetthe growingdemand.Moreprofitcanbeearnedifthistechnologyisadoptedbythe farming
community. More income, more production of quality disease free seedlings, more employment
and entrepreneurship development can beachieved.
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Exercise-4: Direct seed sowing and transplanting of vegetable crops

Introduction:
There are two methods of planting to raise a crop viz. direct seeding and transplanting. To briefly
distinguish, ‘direct seeding’ means planting at the crop area with the use of seeds while
‘transplanting’ is planting with the use of pre-grown seedlings or plants that had been propagated
from seeds. Therefore, the two methods of planting can also be described as ‘direct planting’ and
‘indirect planting’. For transplanting, it is indirect because the seeds are not immediately sown
on the field. Instead, these seeds are first used to raise seedlings in pots or in any temporary place
and only when they reach the right age are they out planted. The actual field planting may be
accomplished either manually or by mechanicalmeans

Objectives:
The choice of direct seeding or transplanting for field planting depends on many factors. Among
others, these include: (1) the crop species to be grown, (2) ease in planting and survival rate,(3)
farmer'sfamiliarity,(4)timeliness,(5) financialcapabilityofthefarmer,and(6)returnon investment.

Materialsrequired:Goodqualityseedsasplantingmaterial,NPKfertilizer,leafmould,spade,
nirani, shovel, rose can, mulching material such as paddy straw, plastic mulchetc.

Procedure:
A. Direct seedsowing:
1. Seeds can be sown in a variety oy ways such as furrows, line sowing, mounds, or by
simply poking holes in the soil and dropping theseeds.
2. In case of direct seeded crop, requires loose, friable soil for proper germination of
seeds.Soitshouldbesowninwellpulverizedfieldbyploughingfirstwithsoilturning plough
and afterwards with 4 to 5 ploughings with countryplough.
3. Ploughing should be followed bylevelling.
4. FYM @20-25tonnes per ha should be applied at the time of fieldpreparation.
5. In addition, apply Nitrogen, phosphorus (P2O5) and (K2O) kg per hectare depending
upon the fertility status of thesoil.
6. Half of nitrogen and full dose of phosphorus and potassium should be applied at the
timeofsowingandremainingnitrogencanbetopdressedintwosplitdosesatspecific interval
depending upon the crop aftersowing.
7. Interculture operations should be performed followed byweeding.
8. Irrigations should be applied as and whennecessary.
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B. Transplanting:
1. Seed beds are prepared finely, well drained, 15-20 cm raised, 1.0m wide and of
convenientlength.

2. FineandfullydecomposedFYMorcompost@3-4Kg/m2shouldbewellmixedtothe beds.
3. Drench the beds with formaldehyde (4%) or Captan @ 2-3g/litre and covered with
polythene sheet for 7 to 10 days to avoid damping offdisease.
4. Treat the seed with Captan or Thiram@2-3 g per kg of seeds beforesowing.

5. Seedsaresownatshallowdepth5.0cmapartintherowandcoveredwithfinelysieved leaf
mould and sprinkle waterregularly.
6. Hardening of the seedlings by withholding water at least 4-6 days beforetransplanting
7. Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they attain a height of 12-15cm with 4
leaves in 4-5 weeks. Plantation is done on flat or raised (rainfall prone areas)beds.

Classification based on methods of raising

I. Direct sown crops: Okra, Carrot, Radish, Beans and Peasetc.
II. Transplanted crops: Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli, Cabbage, Caulifloweretc.

Conclusion:
Though both method of planting as well as raising seedling has some pro and cons but has been
proven effective and adaptive to the farmers.
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Exercise-5: Study of morphological characters of different vegetables and spices

Introduction:
Vegetables and spices are the products of herbaceous plants which are annuals, biennial and
perennials (mostly annual) whose plant parts such as fruits, leaves, roots, stems, petiole, flower
etc.areusedforculinarypurposesorconsumedasraw.Thevegetableandspicesplantsdifferwith respect
to each other in their morphological characters. It is essential to know the different parts of the
plants before undertaking the identification. The knowledge of different plant parts serves as the
foundation for identifying the vegetable and spices crop plants at different growth stages. Some
crops are very similar in their morphological characters and it is difficult to identify them
especially during early stages of their growth. Keen and frequent observations on vegetative and
reproductive parts of the plants help in easy and clearidentification.

Objectives:
1. To study the morphological characters of different vegetable crops based on root system,
stem characteristics, leaf characteristics, inflorescence, economic part.
2. Tostudythemorphologicalcharactersofdifferentspicescropsbasedonrootsystem,stem
characteristics, leaf characteristics, inflorescence, economicpart.

Procedure:
1. Critically observe the morphological characteristics of the specimen. To identify plants,
look for morphological features such as size, shape and color of the leaves as well as
unusual characteristics like aroma orhair.
2. Draw the sketch of theplant.
3. Record the observations with respect to root, stem, leaf, inflorescence and fruit
characteristics in the data sheet.
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Fig: Edible parts of different vegetable crops

Materials required: Forceps, hand lens, paper sheet, paper and pen
Conclusion:
Morphological characters play a very important role in distinguishing characters of important
vegetable and spices crops. It takes time and exposure to learn to identify different vegetable and
spices plants.
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Exercise-6: Fertilizer application for Vegetable crops as per recommendation

for N, P &K
Introduction:
Vegetable crops require nutrients for its growth and development which are absorbed from the
soil. The most important nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) and soils
donothaveenoughofthesethreenutrientstomeetthecroprequirement.Hence,thesearerequired in
relatively large amounts for plant growth. The recommendation of these nutrients is available
from various sources. Recommendations are always made in terms of nutrients and not in terms
of fertilizers directly because different fertilizers contain nutrients in different amounts. We have
to calculate the amount of a particular fertilizer based on the recommended dose of N, P-K
nutrients to a particular crop on the basis of nutrient status of the soil of a particular area/state. It
is always advisable to go for soil testing and accordingly N-P-K or other additional nutrient
requirement can be made. Fertilizer bags are labelled by providing information with regards to
percentage of nitrogen (N), available phosphate (as P2O5) and soluble potash (as K2O) and
represent nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, commonly referred to as N-P-K. These elements
are symbolically represented as N- P2O5-K2O.

Objectives:
1. To study the method of fertilizer application for vegetablecrops.
2. To calculate the amount of fertilizer required for vegetablecrops.

Procedure:
Before calculating the fertilizer dose, one should have the knowledge about
1. The recommended dose of N- P2O5- K2O for a crop for which the fertilizer doses have tobe
calculated.
2. Different growth stages of the crop at which fertilizers are to beapplied.
3. The source of fertilizers from which the N-P-K requirements have to be met e.g.CAN/Urea,
SSP, MOP etc.
Source of fertilizers supplying nutrients: Different fertilizer grade refers to the guarantee
minimum percentage of N, P2O, and K2O contained in the fertilizer material. For example

Composition (%)
Fertilizer N P2O K2 O
Urea 46 - -
CAN 25 - -
SSP - 16 -
Double super phosphate - 32 -
Diammonium phosphate 18 46
MOP - - 60
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Calculation:
If the recommended dose of nutrient and the percentage content of that nutrient in the fertilizer
are known,the quantity of fertilizer required can be calculated by using following formula.
Quantity of fertilizer required (kg) = (Recommended dose of nutrient application) ×100
(% Nutrient content present in the fertilizer)

Table: Represents recommended dose of nutrient for important vegetable crops (the doses may
vary according to growing area, varieties and cultural practices).

Table: Recommendation of primary nutrients (NPK) for different vegetable crops

Crop Recommended dose of primary nutrients

N P2O K2 O
Tomato 75-100 50-75 50-60
Brinjal 75-100 60-80 50-60
Potato 120 80 60
Onion 60-150 35-150 25-120
Cucumber 100 60 60
Cabbage 220 100 220
Chilli 100-120 70-80 50-60

Materials required: Fertilizers (to apply in field), Paper sheet and pen to note down
the calculation procedure.

Conclusion:
Proper amount of fertilizer application in vegetables crops by adopting best possible methods to
achieveoptimalnutrientuseefficiency, cropyields,cropquality,andeconomicreturnsisthemain
principles of successfulcultivation.
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Exercise-7: Harvesting and preparation for market of vegetable crops

Introduction:
Harvesting is the final agricultural operation in field. The time of harvest, among other factors is
determinedbymaturityandquality.Itdependsuponkindandvarietyofcrop,weather,conditions at time
of sowing, distance of market and the purpose of marketing. Good quality of vegetablesis a
combination of flavour, texture appearance and food value which given pleasure or satisfaction
to the consumer. Good quality is thus extremely important to all phases of the harvest and post-
harvest period. Commercial vegetable growers, wholesalers and retailers are experts at selecting
theoptimumharvesttimeandstorageconditionstoensurethatthevegetableswillhavethelongest
possible shelflife.
Objectives:
1. To identify the harvesting stage of particularvegetables.
2. To learn harvestingtechniques.
3. To study the grading of variousvegetables.
4. To study the types of packaging forvegetables.
Materials required:
Knife, pen and paper to note down the observations.
Important indices for judging maturity of some common vegetables are:

Crop Maturity Indices

Potato, onion and garlic Tops begin to dry out and topple down
Bell pepper Well-developed shining and green fruits
Tomato Development of jelly in the locules and at
least attain mature green stage

Garden pea Well filled, green, tender pods that open easily

French bean, cow pea and Tender pods, desirable size, stringless
other beans (without fibre formation) seeds soft and snap
easily

Snake gourd and bottle gourd Desirable size and thumbnail can penetrate
flesh readily
Cauliflower Curd compact, well developed and at least 15
cm in diameter
Cabbage Compact, well developed at least 750-1000 g
Broccoli Bud cluster compact, adequate diameter, all
florets should be closed.
Radish, turnip and carrot Large enough and crispy but should not be
over mature (pithy)
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Packaging:
Packaging is an important consideration in vegetable market. The use of properly designed
containers for transporting and marketing of vegetables can significantly reduce their losses and
maintain their freshness succulence and quality for longer period. Packaging also provides
protection from mechanical damage and undesirable physiological changes and pathological
deterioration during storage, transportation and marketing. Many vegetables are transported in
gunnybagsofbamboobaskets.Packagingmaterialsuchaspolythenefilms,paperboars,andboxes lived
with polythene and other materials can effectively prolong the shelf life of vegetables. By using
plastic films vegetables can be protected from dry air. Polythene packaging, provides
modifiedatmosphereandconsequentlyreducesdecay,softening,andlossofsolids.Thethickness
andpermeabilitytoCO2,O2andwatervapouroffilmsneedstobestandardizedforeachvegetable.
Packaging of vegetables in perforated films significantly reduces weight and water loss in
transportation. eg.Carrot.
Procedure/methodology:
Afterbringingfromthefield,thefirstoperationthatusuallyfollowsistheremovalofunmarketable
material.Thisisperformedpriortosizingandgrading.Afterremovaloftheunmarketableproducts
thegradingisdone.Itconsistsofsortingproductingradesorcategoriesofqualitylikesize,shape,
colour,andfirmness.Generally,produceisgradedasA,BorCaspersize,shapeandcolour. The fruit
vegetables such as bitter gourd, okra, bell pepper, brinjal, green chill, etc. also graded on the
basis of size into three grades as small, medium andlarge.
Conclusion:
Harvest should be completed during the coolest time of the day, which is usually in the early
morning, and produce should be kept shaded in the field. Crops destined for storage should be as
freeaspossiblefromskinbreaks,bruises,spots,rots,decay,andotherdeterioration. It isessential to
grade the produce brought to the market on scientific lines in order to get remunerative prices.
Grading not only promotes the international trade but also improves national credentials in the
internationalmarket.Itfurthersavestimeandenergyofboththesellerandbuyerintheprocessof
marketing. Packaging also provides protection from mechanical damage and undesirable
physiologicalchangesandpathologicaldeteriorationduringstorage,transportationandmarketing.
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Exercise-8: Economics of vegetable and spices cultivation

Introduction:
The term “cost of Cultivation” and “Cost of production” is used as synonyms for the purposeof
cost study. However, nice distinction can be made between the two, the cost of cultivation
includesfactorcostsuptothestageofgatheringtheharvestandthatcostofproductiontoinclude factor
costs up to the stage of marketing the produce. Cost of production is to be worked out as cost
per unit or area and production i.e. per hectare and per quintal/tonnes. The cost of cultivation
varies according to the type of the farmers and evenbetween the first and second crop. There
may be variations in the cost of cultivation even between two different sample areas. This will
have an impact on returns also. Cost of cultivation of any crop
covers;cropcost,labourcost,landcost,machinerycostand livestock cost.

Objectives:
1. To calculate cost of production of vegetable and spicescrops.
2. To calculate the cost benefit ratio for vegetable and spicescrops.

Materials required:
Paper sheet and pen to note down the instructions and calculation.

These are the following components for calculating cost of cultivation of vegetable and
spices crops per hectare.

i. VariableCost:
1. Nurserymanagement
2. Landpreparation
a) Ploughing
b) Harrowing
c) Preparation of beds and channels
3. Transplanting
4. Manures and fertilizersapplication
5. Intercultureoperations
6. Irrigation
7. Plantprotection
8. Harvesting
a) Picking
b) Grading
c) Packing
d) Transportation
9. Seed
10. Manures andfertilizers
11. PlantProtection
12. Miscellaneous
13. Interest on workingcapital
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ii. FixedCost
Land revenue, Rental value of land, Management cost, Risk margin, Depreciation cost, Plough,
Harrow, Ridges, Buckets, Pump, Sprayer, Total Fixed Capital, Interest on Fixed Capital.
Therefore,
1. Total cost of cultivation = Total variable cost + Total fixedcost
2. Total income = Yield (kg) × Market price of the produce(Rs./kg)
3. Net Profit = Total Income - Total cost ofcultivation
4. Benefit cost Ratio = Cost of totalbenefit

Cost of production

Example: Cost of cultivation of cabbage

SL. No. Particulars Cost (Rs)

(A) Cost of variable Resources:

1. Seed cost for 500 g @ Rs 4000/kg
2000
2. Fertilizers cost:
a. FYM 15000kg @ Rs 0.75/kg
11250
b. Urea 2.85q @ Rs 500/q
1425
c. SSP 8.50q @ Rs 640/q
5440
d. MOP 2.25q @ Rs 450/q
1012

3. Plant protection cost:

(a) pesticides/insecticides Malathion
160
500ml @Rs 80/250 ml
450
Metasystox 1L@450Rs./L(b)
180
Fungicide:
120
Dithane M-45 500g @ Rs 180/500g
190
Bavistin 200g @ Rs 60/100g
Blitox 500g @ 190Rs/500g
4. Labour cost:
(a) Seed treatment 520
(b) Land preparation
(b1) Ploughing 800
(b2) Planting
(b3) Preparation of ridges and 750
furrows 1000
(c) Manures and Fertilizers 500
application 1000
(d) Intercultural operations 1000
1000
(e) Irrigation
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(f) Plant protection 3000

(g) Harvesting 1500
(h) Transportation 1000
(i) Packing/electricity charges
(j) Nursery cost 1000

5. Bullock/Tractor cost
1000

TOTAL COST 36297

726
6. Miscellaneous (2% of totalcost)
1814
7. Interest on working capital(5%)
Total Variable cost 38337

B) Fixed Cost
1. Land Ravenue (Rs 15./ha) 12
2. Rental Value of Land 1000
3. Depriciation 100
No Junk Value 180
With Junk Value 2000
4. Management Cost (5% of working 165
capital)
5. Interest on Fixed Capital (5%)

TOTAL FIXED COST 3500

Cost of Cultivation = Total Fixed

Cost +Total Variable Cost = 3500 + 41837
38337

Average Yield of Cabbage 250q/ha

Sale Rate (Rs /kg) 7

Total Income/Cost of production/ha 1,75,000
Net Return = Total Income - Cost of
cultivation = 150000 – 41837= 133163

Benefit Cost Ratio =NET

RETURN/ COST OF
CULTIVATION = 133163/ 41837 3.18:1
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Conclusion:
Cost of cultivation helps to minimize the risk of loss in crop cultivation. It helps in management
of different factors during cultivation of crops. It also helps in planning and initiation of any crop
cultivation and reveals the requirements for cultivation It increase the sustainability in farmers
income.