DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY DUTSIN-MA
COURSE TITLE: SOCIOLOGY OF WORK AND OCCUPATION
COURSE CODE: SOC 262
LECTURER: ZAKARIYYA, M.
LECTURE NOTE 2
TOPIC: BASIC CONCEPTS IN WORK
(The basic concepts in work are: work environment, work behaviour, work ethics, work culture and
work outcome).
WORK ENVIRONMENT
The work environment affects the individual’s performance and efficiency at the workplace. The purpose of
work environment is to establish and maintain physical working conditions that allow individuals to perform
their works efficiently and to concentrate on their tasks without unnecessary distractions. Work environment
has to ensure that it complies with all applicable laws and regulations, that improvements are made to enhance
performance, impediments are removed and distractions are minimized.
CONDITIONS THAT AFFECTS WORK ENVIRONMENT
Work performance and behaviour is constantly affected by physical conditions of work such as noise,
illumination, heat, humidity etc. Improving work environment can resolve many work-related issues
associated with productivity and morale.
1. Noise
One of the most widespread physical hazards in industry is noise. When noise becomes too intense it not only
distracts employees but often causes both psychological and physical side effects. It may also reduce output
and efficiency and cause fatigue apart from various health disorders. Noise prevention measures have to be
adopted whenever necessary. Complete elimination of noise is not possible some attempts should be made to
keep it within permissible limits.
2. Lighting
Lighting should meet optimal illumination, uniform lighting, avoidance of glare, appropriate contrast and
correct Colour. The effect of proper lighting at the place of work contributes significantly to human
performance. Proper lighting creates cheerful mood and leads to partial improvements in efficiency and
productivity.
3. Ventilation
Every workplace requires good ventilation to enable the worker to work efficiently. The purpose of ventilation
is to either keep the occupants cool or to reduce the concentration of contaminant in the air inhaled by them.
4. Temperature
Temperature at the workplace can have a significant impact on how focused and engaged employees are.
While it may be difficult to find the ideal office temperature that suits the workplace, too high or low
temperature at workplace creates discomfort. Maximum permissible limits must be set for the thermal severity
of work places in order to maintain thermal balance either throughout a working day or over the duration
required for the completion of a specific task. Care should be taken to maintain relative humidity level as
humidity levels also affect productivity.
5. Music
The use of music in an industry as an accompaniment of work is not a new thing. It is doubtful whether music
as such has any effect on the efficiency of work. It can be introduced only where there is sufficient silence.
However light instrumental music is a mood enhancer and can increase the productivity of work.
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WAYS OF IMPROVING WORK ENVIRONMENT
1. Make work areas as pleasant, clean and attractive as possible.
2. Check the adequacy and comfortable level of illumination, ventilation, temperature and equipment.
3. Eliminate hazardous conditions at work making workplace safe.
4. Provide employees with clean and adequate washrooms, clean and pure drinking water, canteen and
recreation facilities.
WORK BEHAVIOUR
Working conditions in varying degree contribute to work behaviour. Unsafe working condition, poor lighting
and ventilation, hot and humid environment not only influence the productivity and efficiency but also affect
satisfaction and human behaviour.
ASPECTS OF WORK BEHAVIOUR
The important aspects of work behaviour are: accidents, fatigue, absenteeism, alcoholism and drug abuse.
1. Accidents
R. Blake defines accidents as “unplanned or unintended occurrences that interrupt or interfere with work
activity”. A number of factors in the physical work environment lead to accidents. These factors could be
unprotected place, congested workplace, unsafe piling and storage, overloading, poor maintenance, unguarded
machines, unsafe equipment etc. Accidents at workplace are costly for both the employers and the employees
and their families. If accidents happen while on the office premises because of defective equipment or unsafe
working conditions employees should be compensated for by the company. Continuous efforts should be made
to minimize accidents and recommendations should be implemented. Accident prevention however requires
a concerted effort on part of the top management through clear policies and programmes.
2. Fatigue
Fatigue is defined as the reduction in the ability to carry on with work because of overwork. This is
accompanied by the feeling of being tired which is often due to lengthy and intensity of the activity in work.
Fatigue can be psychological as well as physiological. Physiological fatigue is essentially the physical fatigue
of muscles and nervous system as a result of physical exertion like lifting heavy loads, pushing or pulling
heavy objects etc. Psychological fatigue includes decrease in efficiency of work, mental fatigue, boredom and
monotony. Monotony and boredom can be explained by motivation factors. Low motivation may lead to low
productivity and increased motivation at workplace can make work enjoyable and reduce fatigue.
3. Absenteeism
Absenteeism is a universal phenomenon that could be seen as the indiscriminate or absent in work place.
Absenteeism is one of the major human problems in many organizations. It results in reduction of work,
increase in labour cost, reduction in productivity and if unchecked increases indiscipline. Absenteeism may
be due to motivational factors, family pressures and monotonous work.
4. Alcoholism, drug abuse and smoking
Alcoholics are excessive drinkers whose dependence upon alcohol has reached such noticeable heights that it
leads to mental disturbance or an interference with the body and mental health affecting interpersonal relations
and smooth social and economic functioning. Industry has recognized the disastrous effects of alcohol on its
workers wherein it has been found that alcoholics have higher rate of sickness, inefficiency and are more prone
to accidents. Drug abuse alters the mood, the level of perception or brain functioning. Increase in the
consumption of tobacco and smoking also is a major cause of concern.
Bad working conditions in industry can result in lower and poorer production. Thus, to maximize the output
and profit work environment should be taken care of because work environment is also responsible for good
work.

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WORK ETHICS
Work ethics is defined as the principles and moral code that guides employee behaviour. Strong work ethics
can help perform the tasks efficiently building positive image for the business. Work ethics can be traced to
the Protestant work ethic. It is defined as reliability and trustworthiness, willingness to learn responsibilities
for one’s actions, willingness to work and willingness to work cooperatively (Miller and Coady 1989).
Work ethics is the willingness to work that lead to application to the job and is evident through satisfaction
with the material rewards at work. It is the willingness to stay employed with focus on beliefs, values and
principles. These guide the way individuals interpret and act upon their rights and responsibilities within the
work context at any given time. Work ethics is associated with increased efficiency.
The worker who practices good work ethics deserves better position, challenging work, increased
responsibility and promotion. Workers lacking in prevailing norms of work ethics are lacking in capability
and therefore deserve no promotion.
The changing workplace with job upgradation has greatly affected the work ethics. There is a shift in values
at the workplace with the new values reshaping business. With increasing attrition rates companies are making
efforts to attract and retain sincere and loyal employees. Strong work ethics are required to achieve the goals
of the industrial organization.
WORK CULTURE
Work culture is a set of values and beliefs carried forward from a long time and have impact on the behaviour,
quality and quantity of work done by the employee in an organization. It is important for the growth of a
company.
Good organizational work culture can improve organizational performance increasing productivity, profits
and growth. According to Likerd, the best performance climate involves openness, trust, sharing, two-way
communication and participative leadership. Walton along with the abovementioned ideals also includes high
skill levels and flexibility.
Sample of Organizational work culture in traditional and modern societies.

Cultural values Expression in traditional societies Expression in modern societies

Commitment to employees Lifetime employment Short-term employment

Evaluation Slow and qualitative Fast and quantitative

Careers Very broad Narrow

Control Implicit and informal Explicit and formal

Decision-making group and consensus Individual

Responsibility The group Individual

Concern for people wholistic Narrow

Source: course lecturer’s note compilation,2024

Some characteristics of organizational work culture which are important in the context of work are discipline,
teamwork, cooperation, communication, consultation, delegation of authority, activation levels of individuals
and groups, identity, flexibility, work innovation, role of unions and associations.
WORK OUTCOMES
Work outcomes are the consequences of working, the glue that attaches people to their work. The following
list gives some idea of the range of outcomes for workers:
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1. Without work, the hours may drag by; work prevents a feeling of drift, aimlessness.
2. Work provides a culturally approved means of obtaining income.
3. Work is a basis for being the head of one’s household or a partner in supporting the family.
4. The content of work may be experienced as pleasing.
5. A job’s features (prestige, income), or simply holding a job, may raise one’s self-esteem.

TYPES OF WORK OUTCOMES

There are two major work outcomes: prestige and satisfaction.

1. PRESTIGE
Prestige, often described as social standing, status, or respect that indicates location in a social hierarchy. The
basics of prestige in sociology is based on ascription (assigned) and achievement (earned). In the
industrialized societies of the modern world, however, birth is viewed as a starting point from which
unfavorable circumstances can be overcome.

The key social measure of achievement and boost prestige is occupation. Donald Treiman (1977) noted that
differences in occupational prestige result from variations in control over scarce resources. These include:
(1) The knowledge or skill required for socially valued tasks.
(2) Control over economic resources on which others depend.
(3) The authority to coordinate or define others’ work.

Disparities in power are thus embedded in the division of labor, power that underpins prestige. Treiman went
a step further, proposing that elite occupations in one country also will be highly regarded elsewhere: "the
connections between educational requirements, income and prestige are similar throughout the world". Other
analysts agree that education and income are the best predictors of occupational prestige (Erikson and
Goldthorpe, 1993).

2. JOB SATISFACTION
Work is an important Source of self‐identity for many people. It can help people feel positive about themselves
or it can cause them to feel alienated. Job satisfaction refers to people's attitudes toward their work, based on
the following three (3) major headings:
(1) Their job responsibilities.
(2) The organizational structure in which they work.
(3) Their individual needs and values. (Hodson and Sullivan, 1990).

Studies have found that worker satisfaction is at highest stage when employees have some degree of control
over their work, when they are part of the decision‐making process, when they are not too closely supervised
and when they feel that they play an important part in the outcome (Kohn et al., 1990).

Job satisfaction often is related to both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors pertain to the nature of
the work itself, while extrinsic factors include such things as vacation and holiday policies, parking privileges,
on‐site day‐care centers, and other amenities that contribute to workers' overall perception that their employer
cares about them.

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