Poultry Production

COURSE
GUIDE
ANP 501
POULTRY PRODUCTION
Course Team Dr. O. A. Adebiyi (Course Writer) -UI

Prof. I. O. Matanmi (Course Editor) -OAU
Prof. Grace E. Jokthan (Programme
Leader) – NOUN
Dr. Ahmed A. Njidda (Course Coordinator) -
NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ANP 501 COURSE GUIDE
© 2020 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
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Printed 2020
ISBN: 978-978-970-176-6
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form
or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
ii
MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 Poultry Production in the Nigerian

Economy………………………………………...... 1
Unit 1 Poultry Industry in Nigeria……………................... 1

Unit 2 Poultry Production Systems in Nigeria – Intensive
And Extensive…………….................................. 6
Unit 3 Poultry products Utilisation – Fast foods, Egg
Outlets.…………..................................................... 13
Module 2 Poultry Egg Production……………………….… 20
Unit 1 Hatchery Management……………………………. 20

Unit 2 Pullet Farm Management…………………………. 35
Module 3 Poultry Meat Production…………………………… 48
Unit 1 Broiler Chicken Production and Marketing……… 48

Unit 2 Other Meat Poultry Species- Turkey, Geese, Ostrich.. 57
Module 4 Egg Formation and Morphology………………... 107
Unit 1 Egg Science and Technology……………………… 107

Unit 2 Management and Feeding of Chicks, Growers, Layers
And Ration Formulation………………………... 119
Unit 3 Building and Equipment for Production and
Processing……………………………………………. 134
ANP 501 MODULE 1
MODULE 1 POULTRY PRODUCTION IN THE

NIGERIAN ECONOMY
Unit 1 Poultry Industry in Nigeria

Unit 2 Poultry Production Systems in Nigeria – Intensive and
Extensive
Unit 3 Poultry Products Utilisation – Fast Foods, Egg Outlets,
UNIT 1 POULTRY INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 History of Poultry Production in Nigeria
3.2 Prospects and Problems of Poultry Production in Nigeria
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Poultry is the term used to describe group of birds kept for meat and egg
(e.g chicken) or reared or hunted for a useful purpose (e.g pheasants).
Birds are feathered animals. The group of birds called poultry include
the following: Domestic chicken (fowls), Turkey, Guinea fowls, Duck
and Geese (also called water fowls), Quails, Pheasants, Ostriches,
Pigeons and Doves. The Poultry industry is an emerging agri-business
and has established its position as the fastest growing segment in the
agricultural sector in Nigeria. With increased acceptance of chicken, egg
and meat, the demand for these products is ever increasing. The
Nigerian poultry industry is estimated at ₦80 billion ($600 million) and
is comprised of approximately 165 million birds, which produced
650,000 MT of eggs and 290,000 MT of poultry meat in 2013. From a
market size perspective, Nigeria’s egg production is the largest in Africa
(South Africa is the next largest at 540,000 MT of eggs) and it has the
2nd largest chicken population after South Africa’s 200 million birds.
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ANP 501 POULTRY PRODUCTION
Poultry sector has tremendous employment potential and would go a

long way in reducing unemployment in Nigeria.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 define the term ‘Poultry’

 discuss the history of Poultry Production in Nigeria and their
challenges
 highlight the prospects of Poultry Production in Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 History of Poultry Production in Nigeria
The poultry sub-sector is the most commercialised (capitalised) of all

the sub-sectors of the Nigerian agriculture. The types of poultry that are
commonly reared in Nigeria are chickens, ducks, guinea fowls, turkeys,
pigeons and more recently ostriches. Those that are of commercial or
economic importance given the trade in poultry, however, are chicken,
guinea fowls and turkeys, amongst which the chickens predominate. The
Poultry industry in Nigeria can be divided into three main sections:
small, medium and large-scale production with 25% being provided by
commercial farms, 15% semi-commercial and 60% from backyard. Each
of these systems is associated with features of scale, stock, husbandry
and productivity.
Since the onset of the poultry industry in 1956, commercial production

in Nigeria has passed through various stages of development- each with
its peculiar problems. In the late 1950s, the major problem was
convincing the general population that keeping poultry and egg were
essential for dietary and economic reasons because sociological
attachments of people from egg and broiler production. During the
1960s, the problem shifted away from sociological beliefs to
management and disease. Through government intervention and
encouragement, poultry production became a hobby, farmers are
becoming financially rewarded. Proper management of larger enterprise
therefore became a problem along with outbreaks of diseases unknown
to producers. The 1970 decade presented problems of production,
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ANP 501 MODULE 1
management, disease and marketing. Despite these problems, the rapid

expansion of poultry industry is a sign that poultry production has a
promising future in this country.
The two major events that have been recorded in the industry has been
the ban on importation of frozen poultry product in 2003 which
deepened the market for poultry product and Avian Influenza of 2007
which affected the industry negatively. The ban has not only created
jobs in the industry but also encouraged investment in poultry
production. There are few, if any social or religious stigmas attached to
the use of poultry meat and egg in human diet. Hence demand is high for
live birds and eggs either for consumption or as a gift during festivities.
3.2 Prospects and Problems of Poultry Production in Nigeria
The livestock industry sub-sector is an important component of the

Nigerian Agricultural Economy; its importance derives from the fact
that it is one of the key contributors to national economy. The industry
has the potential of increasing the National Gross Domestic Product
through:
1. Poultry meat production: boiler production for meat and fast food
joints.
2. Poultry egg production: layers production for industries and retail
egg sellers.
3. Breeding and hatching of chicks, poults, keets, ducklings etc.
4. Poultry equipment manufacturing.
5. Processing and marketing of poultry products.
6. Feed production.
7. Production of drugs and vaccines.
However, some of the highlighted problems still being faced are:
1. Scarcity and high cost of day-old chicks (DOC), poults, ducklings

etc. The cost of purchase of DOC is always very high especially
when the festive period is on sight and this eventually affect the
total cost of production.
2. Poor quality of birds available for meat and egg production. This
is also a major problem faced by the poultry industry because our
indigenous breeds have not been genetically improved upon to
grow rapidly especially for the meat type to meet the population
3
increase requirement. Indigenous breeds are also broody in nature

and this limit the numbers of eggs laid.
3. Availability and high cost of poor quality feeds. Feed produced
for poultry industry comes from combinations of various
ingredients which are planted especially in the northern part of
the country. Due to the unrest in this part of the country, the
production of these crops has reduced drastically which indirectly
increased the total cost of production of the feed. Also there is
competition between man and poultry industry for grain which
makes 70% of the ingredient in formulating feed for poultry, thus
resulting in high cost of the feed.
4. Inadequate managerial and technical know-how. The producers
of poultry require regular training especially in the management
and feed formulation to be able to meet the global trend in
production. The use of growth promoter and enzymes usage,
vaccination, medication and artificial insemination also require
adequate knowledge by the producer.
5. Inadequacy of credit facility to poultry farmers. Farmer require
huge collateral to get loans from bank and government policy in
relation to subsidy is not always available to practicing poultry
farmers
6. Poor marketing, distribution and pricing of poultry products.
7. Poor poultry health care services.
8. Unsuitable poultry houses and poor maintenance of houses.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Poultry keeping is ubiquitous in Nigeria’s rural areas and is increasingly

common among peri-urban and urban households as a way to
supplement income and increase access to protein. The commercial
sector is comprised of operations at a range of sizes, including large-
scale, under automated integrated facilities. Despite Avian Influenza,
demand for poultry is rising and is expected to continue increasing as
Nigeria’s economy grows. At all levels in the sector, the country’s
poultry farmers have opportunities to expand production in response to
rising demand.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this course, we have learnt about poultry industry. The various

prospect and problems of poultry producers in Nigeria were also
highlighted. Despite these various challenges, poultry production still
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ANP 501 MODULE 1
remain the fastest means of bridging the protein- deficiency gap

presently prevailing in the country.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Define poultry and explain the various challenges faced by

Nigeria commercial poultry production since 1956.
2. Highlight and explain three prospects and two problems facing
Poultry Production in Nigeria.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
David, A. M. (2002). Nigeria Poultry and Products Update.United

States Department of Agriculture.
Odeh, O. (2010). ‘Nigeria: Ban on Chicken Import Creates 20m Jobs’.

Retrieved November 13, 2012, from All Africa:
http://allafrica.com/stories/201011170218.html
Sonaya, E., & Swan, S. (2004). Small-Scale Poultry Production

Technical Guide. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of
the United Nations.
Adene, D.F. &Oguntade,A.E.(2006). TheStructure and Importance of

the Commercial and Village-Based Poultry Industry in Nigeria.
FAO (Rome) Study, October.
5
UNIT 2 POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN

NIGERIA – INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Free-Range Extensive Systems
3.2 Backyard Extensive Systems
3.3 Semi-Intensive Systems
3.4 Concept of Rural Poultry
3.5 Types of Family/Rural Poultry
3.6 Intensive Systems
3.7 Housing in Intensive Systems
3.7.1. Planning
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
1.0 INTRODUCTION
About 70% of Nigerians live below the poverty line earning less than
the current $2 per capital income. The effect of poverty is therefore felt
more among rural dwellers, those with limited education and the
unemployed. Parallel to commercial poultry industry, a small-scale
poultry production system had been developed and remains part of most
rural communities in developing countries. Family poultry are kept
under a wide range of conditions, which can be classified into one of
four broad production systems.
 free-range extensive
 backyard extensive
 semi-intensive
 intensive.
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ANP 501 MODULE 1
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 state types of poultry production systems

 identify the various principles guiding the management and
production of poultry
 explain how poultry production is being practiced
 discuss rural family poultry.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Free-Range Extensive Systems
In Africa, Asia and Latin America, 80 percent of farmers keep poultry in

the first two extensive systems. Under free-range conditions, the birds
are not confined and can scavenge for food over a wide area.
Rudimentary shelters may be provided, and these may or may not be
used. The birds may roost outside, usually in trees, and nest in the bush.
The flock contains birds of different species and varying ages.
Fig. 1.1: Free Range Birds
Poultry are housed at night but allowed free-range during the day. They
are usually fed a handful of grain in the morning and evening to
supplement scavenging.
7
3.3 Semi-Intensive Systems
These are a combination of the extensive and intensive systems where

birds are confined to a certain area with access to shelter. They are
commonly found in urban and peri-urban as well as rural situations. In
the “run” system, the birds are confined in an enclosed area outside
during the day and housed at night. Feed and water are available in the
house to avoid wastage by rain, wind and wild animals.In the European
system of free-range poultry keeping, there are two other types of
housing. The first of these is the “ark” system, where the poultry are
confined overnight (for security against predators) in a building mounted
on two rails or skids (usually wooden), which enable it to be moved
from place to place with draught power. A typical size is 2 × 2.5 m to
hold about 40 birds.
The second type of housing is the “fold” unit, with a space allowance
(stock density) for adult birds of typically three to four birds per square
metre (birds/m2), both inside and (at least this) outside. The fold unit is
usually small enough to be moved by one person. Neither of these two
systems is commonly found in developing countries.
3.4 Concept of Rural Poultry
The term ‘rural poultry’ or ‘family poultry’ (FP), as used in most

developing countries, is indicative of the traditional low input husbandry
of domestic poultry such as chicken, duck, pigeon, quail and guinea
fowl that is typically maintained by the rural poor (similar to backyard
chicken). A clearer definition of rural poultry was given by Sonaiya in
2007 as the poultry involving any genetic stock; improved or
unimproved that is raised extensively or semi-intensively in relatively
small numbers (usually less than 100 birds at a time).
The rural poultry or family poultry production serves as an important

source of food in rural areas, and a sure way of reducing poverty.
Backyard poultry enables the rural poor, including the landless to create
an asset base with minimum input. The poultry may range freely in the
household compound and find much of their own food, getting
supplementary amounts from the householder. Poultry provide a major
income-generating activity from the sale of birds and eggs. Occasional
consumption provides a valuable source of protein in the diet. Poultry
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ANP 501 MODULE 1
also play an important socio-cultural role in many societies. Poultry

keeping uses family labour, and women (who often own as well as look
after the family flock) are major beneficiaries. For smallholder farmers
in developing countries, family poultry represents one of the few
opportunities for saving, investment and security against risk.
3.5 Types of Family/Rural Poultry
The rural poultry production is practiced either as free range or semi-

intensive. In the free range type of management, the animals are not
provided with any forms of housing or feeding, their survival is only by
scavenging. Under this system, the cost of production is low but high
rate of mortality due to theft, diseases, accident etc.In semi-intensive
management system, the animals feed on household wastes, and
confined in an enclosed area outside during the day and housed at night.
The mortality of the birds under this system is always lower compared
to the free-range or extensive system. The housing system includes those
that are built with raffia or more recently rubber cages.
Fig. 1.2: Raffia Cages
Poultry meat and eggs were obtained from different poultry specie such
as quail, local chicken, duck and guinea fowl. One of the major
constraints to this type of poultry production is increase in the number of
rural-urban drift in search of better jobs, amenities and good
environment. The local chicken farmers have however maintained the
flock size from between 1 to 40 for easy management by the elderly who
cannot cope with larger flock.Some of the factors responsible for the
continuous existence and preference for local chicken were the high
disease resistance of the birds, their scavenging ability which make them
to survive with little or no proprietary concentrate feed, low production
9
cost, their high prolific nature and their hardy but juicy meat which is
highly preferred by rural dwellers.
3.6 Intensive Systems
These systems are used by medium to large-scale commercial

enterprises, and are also used at the household level. Birds are fully
confined either in houses or cages. Capital outlay is higher and the birds
are totally dependent on their owners for all their requirements;
production however is higher. There are three types of intensive
systems:
 Deep litter system: birds are fully confined (with floor space
allowance of 3 to 4 birds/m2 within a house, but can move around
freely. The floor is covered with a deep litter (a 5 to 10 cm deep
layer) of grain husks (maize or rice), straw, wood shavings or a
similarly absorbent (but non-toxic) material. The fully enclosed
system protects the birds from thieves and predators and is
suitable for specially selected commercial breeds of egg or meat-
producing poultry (layers, breeder flocks and broilers).
 Slatted floor system: wire or wooden slatted floors are used

instead of deep litter, which allow stocking rates to be increased
to five birds/m2 of floor space. Birds have reduced contact with
faeces and are allowed some freedom of movement.
 Battery cage system: this is usually used for laying birds, which
are kept throughout their productive life in cages. There is a high
initial capital investment, and the system is mostly confined to
large-scale commercial egg layer operations.An intensive system
of rearing indigenous chickens commercially is uncommon.
3.7 Housing in Intensive Systems
3.7.1 Planning
Complete confinement is only advisable where:
 there is good management

 reproduction is spread equally over the year
 land is scarce or inaccessible all year round
 a supply of hybrid day-old chicks is available
 labour is expensive
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ANP 501 MODULE 1
 parasite and disease control are readily available

 the objective is commercial production.
The reasons for confinement are, in order of priority, to:
 reduce mortality due to predation in chicks under two months of

age
 achieve higher daily gain and better feed conversion in growers
 allow better supervision of production in laying hens.
In all confined systems, the location and building design must be

carefully considered. The area surrounding the house should be mown or
grazed. A good location should meet the following criteria:
 It should be easily accessible.

 There should be a reliable water supply.
 The ground should be well drained.
 It should be at a sufficient distance from residential areas (far
enough to protect human health and close enough to provide
security for the birds).
 It should be well away from woodland.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Clearly differentiate between the free range and intensive system

of raising birds.
ii. What is the difference between the free range and the back-yard
extensive system of raising poultry.
Fig. 1.3: Deep Litter House for Poultry
11
5.0 SUMMARY
It is also important that family poultry production is a sure way of
increasing animal protein supply, creating jobs, increasing income,
reducing rural-urban drift and eradication of poverty in the rural
area.The Poultry system can be grouped into either intensive or semi-
intensive system. Each system has different management strategies. For
increasing productivity, intensive system of poultry production should
be given priority.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The semi-intensive and intensive system of poultry production, under
good feeding and management practices, results in a high level of
performance by the birds.This unit has shown that family poultry
production is a substantial source of animal protein for the rural
populace. The major obstacle to family poultry production is rural–
urban drift in search of education and white–collar jobs.
1. Explain the different types of intensive system of poultry

production.
2. Define Rural Poultry production.
3. Explain the factors responsible for the reduction in reduction in
family poultry.

The Poultry Site.(2012). Isiukwuato LG to Establish Poultry
Farm.Retrieved November 13, 2012.
http://www.thepoultrysite.com/poultrynews/25692/isiukwuato-lg-to-
establish- poultry-farm
Oluyemi, J.A & Robert, F.A (2000).Poultry Production in Warm West

Climate.(Revised ed). Macmillan Press Ltd, London.
Sheldon, B.L. (2000). Research and Development in 2000: Directions
and Priorities for The World’s Poultry Science Community.
Poultry Science.
Sonaiya, E.B. (2007). Family Poultry, Food Security and the Impact of
HPAI.World Poultry Science Journal .
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ANP 501 MODULE 1
UNIT 3 POULTRY PRODUCTS UTILISATION

MARKETING AND PROCESSING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Reasons for Processing
3.2.1 Slaughtering
3.2.2 Dressing
3.2.2.1. Scalding
3.2.2.2. Waxing
3.2.2.3 Evisceration
3.2.2.4 Trussing
3.3 Marketing of Live Poultry
3.3.1 Harvesting and Transport Systems
3.3.2 Display and Sales
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Bridging the gap between teeming populations and food production is

one of the important tasks of developing countries. Expensive staple
foods and policy constraints on food import are the major factors
worsening the food situation in developing countries. The average
Nigerian does not consume enough protein of animal origin, and animal
protein is more efficient than plant protein in providing the amino acids
necessary for tissue development, repair and function (FAO 1994). In
view of this the quality of amino acids in live animal must be preserved
in the meat for final consumer. Hence there is the need for proper
processing of meat and the processing methods
13
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 identify reasons for processing chicken and the processing

methods
 state the steps involved in processing chicken.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Reasons for Processing
Broiler’s meat is processed for the following reasons
 To provide a product with desired texture, flavour and aroma.

 Transformation of raw meat to products with longer shelf life.
 Increase in volume and improvement of qualities e.g. colour and
flavour.
 Enhance marketing
3.2 Processing Methods
The processing method include slaughtering, bleeding, defeathering,

evisceration and packaging.
3.2.1 Slaughtering
Remove feed from birds at least 2 hours before slaughter so that the
intestinal tract clears. The Birds must still have access to cool, clean
drinking water, which will reduce carcass dehydration and facilitate
plucking. Sever the jugular vein by drawing a long, thin, sharp knife
across the throat high on the neck just under the lower bill. Birds killed
this way bleed swiftly and completely.
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ANP 501 MODULE 1
3.2.2 Dressing
3.2.2.1 Scalding
Once they have stopped bleeding, place birds to be wet plucked in a

scalding tank at a water temperature of 60°C for a few minutes — long
enough to loosen the feathers without causing flesh discolouration.
Wet plucking
Several mechanical pluckers are available; all have revolving rubber
‘fingers’ that remove most of the feathers. The remaining pin feathers
must be removed by hand, by grasping them between the thumb and a
dull-edged knife.
Dry plucking
This method of plucking eliminates scalding. Poultry processors prefer it
because it produces an exceptionally attractive carcass. It is, however,
much slower than wet plucking and there is more chance of tearing the
skin.
3.2.2.2 Waxing
Waxing carcases to remove the remaining feathers is recommended

where many birds are to be processed, because remaining feathers are
removed quickly and a better carcass appearance results. Waxing
carcases to remove remaining feathers is common overseas, and more
Australian processors are now using this method. The carcass is covered
with molten wax and placed in cold water to harden the wax; when the
wax is peeled off the carcase, any feathers come with it. The wax can be
used again by remelting it and pouring it through a screen to separate the
wax from the feathers. Commercial blended wax can be obtained for this
purpose.
3.2.2.3 Evisceration
Eviscerate birds on a stainless steel table. Slit the skin on top of the neck
to the shoulder blades and remove the windpipe and oesophagus. The
neck can be nicked with secateurs and turned back in through the top of
the body, or cut through and removed.
15
Remove the visceral organs from the rear end by slitting from the vent to
the end of the breastbone. Then insert one hand high up into the body
cavity. With practice, all organs can be removed in one operation. Cut
through the hock joint to remove the legs. Eviscerated birds should now
be thoroughly washed. Clean and wash giblets, enclose them in sealed
packets made of an approved material, and either stuff them into the
body cavity through the rear end of the carcass, or pack and sell them
separately. The carcass must be labelled either ‘with giblets’ or ‘without
giblets’. A dressing-out loss of about 23% is normal with most breeds.
Fig. 1.4: Processing Method (Automatic Defeathering Machine)
Fig. 1.6: Packaging of Dressed Chicken
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ANP 501 MODULE 1
Fig. 1.5: Dressed Chicken ready for Packaging
3.2.2.4Trussing
The most attractive carcass presentation is to pack birds in a patented

clear plastic bag which shrinks to the contours of the bird’s body. Birds
handled in this way require no special trussing. They are placed in the
correct-sized bag, and the mouth of the bag is then held under the nozzle
of a machine which removes air by vacuum. The end of the bag is
twisted to prevent entry of outside air and is sealed with a metal clip. To
shrink the bag into the body contours, the carcass is then placed into a
shrink tank filled with water at 93°C for a couple of seconds.Chickens
and turkeys have to be pre-chilled to keep their flesh white. Place birds
to be sold as fresh poultry in ordinary plastic bags, first twisting the
wings inwards. The plastic packaging bags can be preprinted in several
colours, with trade name, description and other details.
3.3 Marketing of Live Poultry
3.3.1 Harvesting and Transport Systems
There are many systems for poultry harvesting. The most common
method for small scale operations is for broilers to be caught by hand
and then carried to the transport by one or both legs. This procedure
requires great care as it can cause dislocation of the hip - joint, internal
bleeding and even death.
17
In larger scale operations, herding, sweeping and vacuum systems of

harvesting have been developed. In the first, birds are herded into a
mechanical handling system by catchers onto a conveyor belt. The birds
are then blown into a crate. The sweeping system uses a machine fitted
with a central boom and sweeper arms fitted with rotating, foam rubber
paddles, which gently sweep the birds onto an inclined conveyor. The
vacuum system relies on gentle suction from the floor. Crates are then
filled by a mechanical device.Some birds are marketed as individuals
but others are contained in crates which are either loose or fixed to the
truck or as a module of 4–16 crates carried by fork lift truck to the
vehicle.
3.3.2 Display and Sales
Poultry products are displayed in several different ways. Whole

carcasses are often displayed unrefrigerated at market in the open hung
by their legs or on a stall or shop display, particularly in the developing
world. This is not to be recommended. Refrigerated products are
displayed in shops and other retail units unpackaged or over-wrapped on
plastic trays. In some are as meat is sometimes sold from mobile
refrigerated shops. Products are usually exchanged for cash at the point
of sale. However, poultry producers may have contracts with poultry
processing enterprises, local hotels or restaurants where a lump sum
payment is made. In developing countries small scale producers may sell
by bartering for other consumable items
Highlight and briefly explain the steps involved during dressing of

carcass.
4.0 SUMMARY
The reasons for processing meat and the processing methods such as
slaughtering, bleeding, e.t.c were highlighted in this module.
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ANP 501 MODULE 1
5.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit we have learnt about poultry (chicken) processing, and how
it increases the shelf life, quality and enhances marketing of poultry
products.
1. What are the reasons for processing meat?

2. List the processing methods?
Odeh, O. (2010). Nigeria: Ban on Chicken Import Creates 20m Jobs.

Retrieved November 13, 2012, from All Africa:
http://allafrica.com/stories/201011170218.html
Jeannette, Beranger (2011).Processing and Marketing

Regulations.Research & Technical Program Manager, American
Livestock Breeds Conservancy; Marjorie Bender, Research &
Technical Program Manager, American Livestock Breeds
Conservancy.
19
MODULE 2 POULTRY EGG PRODUCTION
Unit 1 Hatchery Management

Unit 2 Pullet Farm Management
Unit 3 Hatchery Management
UNIT 1 HATCHERY MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Hatchery Requirements
3.1.1 Hatchery Buildings
3.1.2 Incubators
3.2 Hatching Eggs Management
3.3 Egg Storage
3.4 Setting Eggs
3.5 Setting Time
3.6 Setter Operation
3.7 Temperature
3.8 Humidity
3.9 Turning
3.10 Egg Transfer
3.11 Operation of Hatcher
3.11.1 Ventilation and Humidity
3.12.2 Temperature
3.11.3 Chick Pull and Processing
3.12 Feather Sexing of Broiler Chicks
3.13 Hatchery Waste Disposal
3.14 Chick Transport
3.15 Maintenance
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
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ANP 501 MODULE 2
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Many changes have taken place in hatcheries in recent years, such as the
introduction of computer monitoring and control of the machines, and
automation of many day-to-day hatchery operations. Additionally, there
is increasing awareness of the role of the hatchery in disease control.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the hatchery requirements

 explain the factors that may affect the hatching potential of eggs.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
The measure of success of any hatchery is the number of first-quality

chicks produced. This number expressed as a percentage of all eggs set
for incubation is normally termed hatchability. Hatchability is
influenced by many factors (Table 1). Some of these are the
responsibility of the breeding farm and others are the responsibility of
the hatchery. Mating activity is a good example of a factor entirely
influenced on the farm. The hatchery cannot alter it, although many
other factors can be influenced by both the farm and the hatchery.
Table 1: Controlling Factors on Farm and in Hatchery
CONTROLLING FACTORS
FARM HATCHERY
Breeder Nutrition Incubation – management of setters and
hatchers
Mating Activity Egg Storage
Egg Damage Sanitation
Disease Egg Damage
Correct Male and Female Chick Handling
BW
Egg Sanitation
Egg storage
Thus, the breeder farm has a major influence on results at the hatchery
and it is essential for the farm and hatchery to work closely together.
21
3.1 Hatchery Requirements
To operate a hatchery successfully, one requires the following:
3.1.1 Hatchery Buildings
Hatchery buildings are usually designed to provide room for holding

hatching eggs (Table 2) prior to setting, grading and traying of the eggs;
incubating and hatching machines; grading and holding prior to sale.
Additional rooms are often provided to cater for fumigation, washing of
equipment and showering of visitors.The design and construction of a
hatchery must be professionally came out because of the absolute
necessity for room temperature and humidity control and regular
washing and sanitation for disease control purposes. The size of the
incubators and hatchers plus any anticipated future expansion must be
used to determine the size of the building. High ceiling of about 3.1m
(10ft) are necessary since most hatcheries are built with force-draft
ventilation system. Because the interior of the hatchery has to be
subjected to regular washing and disinfection, it is important that the
inside walls should be covered with a glazed, hard, non-absorbent finish.
Tiles are usually used to accomplish this objective. The floors, which
must be concrete, should have a glazed finish in additions to making
provisions for adequate drainage. Other construction details to provide
for ventilation and refrigeration facilities must also be considered.
It is for the same reason that hatchery building should be cited.
Table 2: Floor space for hatchery rooms
Room Type Per 100 eggs incubators- Per1000 straight-run

hatcher (m2) chicks per hatch
(m2)
Egg receiving room 0.19 1.39
Egg storage room 0.03 0.23
Chick holding room 0.37 2.79
Wash room 0.07 0.55
Storage room 0.07 0.49
Source: Mack O. North, 1984. Commercial Chicken Production Manual
22
ANP 501 MODULE 2
3.1.2 Incubators
An incubator is a machine into which fertile eggs are usually set for
hatching. Two types are used commercially: The Cabinet (forced
drought) and the Flat (table) or still air type
3.2 Hatching Eggs Management
Optimum hatchability and chick quality can only be achieved when the
egg is held under optimum conditions between laying and setting in the
incubator. Once the egg is laid, its hatching potential can at best be
maintained, not improved. If mishandled, hatching potential will quickly
deteriorate.
Some of the factors that may affect egg hatchability are as follows
1. Use of floor eggs depresses hatchability. They should be

collected and packed separately from nest eggs, and clearly
identified. If they are to be incubated, they should be treated
separately.
2. Prevent hair-line cracks by handling eggs carefully at all times.
3. Place hatching eggs carefully into the setter tray or transport tray,
small (narrow) end downward.
4. Take care with egg grading. During the early production period
check the weight of border-lined sized eggs to select hatching
eggs.
5. Store the eggs in a separate room in which the temperature and
humidity are controlled.
6. Keep the farm eggs handling room clean and tidy. Maintain good
vermin control in your egg room. Refuse to accept dirty egg
containers and buggies from the hatchery, and take
care of them while on your premises.
3.3 Egg Storage
Eggs should be collected from the farms and transported to the hatchery
at least twice a week. There are three storage areas: farm egg room,
transport, and hatchery egg room. It is important to match the conditions
in each of these situations as closely as possible to avoid sharp changes
in temperature and humidity, which can lead to condensation
(“sweating”) on eggs or eggs being chilled or overheated. Also,
temperature fluctuations must be avoided during transport and storage.
23
The temperature decrease must be a smooth transition when cooling the

eggs from the hen house to the hatchery egg room, and also a smooth
transition when warming the eggs from the hatchery egg room to the
setter machine.
The main effects of storing eggs are:
1. Storage prolongs incubation time. On average, one day’s storage

adds one hour to incubation time. This must be taken into account
when eggs are set, so fresh and stored eggs should be set at
different times.
2. Hatchability is depressed by prolonged storage. The effect
increases with storage time after the initial six-day period,
resulting in losses of 0.5 to 1.5% per day with the percent
increasing as storage extends further.
3. Chick quality will be affected and hence broiler weights can be
depressed in chicks from eggs that have been stored for 14 days
or more.
Gas exchange can occur through the pores in the egg shell during
storage. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the egg, and its concentration
declines rapidly during the first 12 hours after the egg is laid. Eggs also
lose water vapor while in storage. This loss of both carbon dioxide and
water contributes to the loss in hatchability and chick quality after
storage. Storage conditions must therefore be designed to minimise
these losses. Most eggs are placed in open-sided cases or farm racks, but
some are placed in solid covered cases. Allow covered eggs to cool
down and dry thoroughly before casing to avoid condensation and
subsequent mold growth.
3.4 Setting Eggs
To avoid temperature shock to the embryo and consequent condensation

on the shell, eggs should be removed from the egg room and pre-
warmed before setting. Ideally, eggs should be pre-warmed in a
purpose-built room at around 75-80 °F (24-27 °C) so that all can achieve
the desired temperature. Effective air circulation and correct room
temperature are essential to achieve the necessary even pre-warming of
eggs. Uneven pre-warming increases variation in hatch time – precisely
the opposite of the desired effect of pre-warming. Even with good air
circulation, it will take 8 hours for eggs on a buggy to reach 78 °F (25
24
ANP 501 MODULE 2
°C), irrespective of their initial temperature. With poor air circulation, it

may take twice as long. So the recommendation is to:
• Provide good air circulation around the eggs.

• Allow 6 to 12 hours for pre-warming.
3.5 Setting Time
Three factors influence the total incubation time of eggs:
Temperature of incubation: normally fixed for any hatchery, but to

achieve a desired pull time for chicks, variation in the time at which
eggs are set can be modified according to age and size of eggs.
Age of the eggs: stored eggs take longer to incubate. You will need to
add extra incubation time if eggs are stored over 6 days. (1hour per day
of storage)
Size of the eggs: larger eggs take longer to incubate.
3.6 Setter Operation
The optimum physical conditions for any broiler embryo to grow

Successfully are:
• Correct temperature
• Correct humidity
• Adequate gas exchange
• Regular turning of eggs
Infertile Day 1 Day 2

No development Appearance of tissue development Tissue very Appearance
visible. of blood vessels.
25
Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6

Heart beats. Eye pigment Appearance of elbow Appearance Blood
vessel and knee very visible
Day 7 Day 8 Day 9

Comb growth begins Feather tracts seen. Embryo starts to look bird-like.
Egg tooth begins to appear. Upper and lower beak Mouth opening appears.
equal in length
Day 10 Day 11 Day 12

Egg tooth prominent. Comb serrated Toes fully formed First few
Toe nails Tail feathers apparent visible feathers.
Day 13 Day 14 Day 15
Appearance of scales. Embryo turns head Gut is drawn into

Body covered lightly with feathers towards large egg abdominal cavity visible
26
ANP 501 MODULE 2
Day16 Day 17 Day 18

Feather cover complete body Amniotic fluid Decreases Growth of embryo
. Head is between Legs early complete
Yolk sac is still on
outside of embryo
Head is under the
right wing.
Day 19 Day 20
Yolk sac draws into Yolk sac drawn
body cavity. completely into body
Amniotic fluid gone Embryo becomes a chick
Embryo occupies (breathing in air cell).
most of space Internal and external pip.
within egg (not in
the air cell)
Fig. 1.7- (Days 1- 20) Development of Chicken Embryo

Source: COBB Hatchery Management Guide (2008)
3.7 Temperature
Temperature determines the metabolic rate of the embryo and hence its
rate of development. In a multi-stage machine, temperature should
remain constant. The optimum temperature for both hatchability and
chick quality will differ depending on the type of incubator. Higher or
lower temperatures than the manufacturer’s recommendations will lead
to faster or slower development and consequent reduction in
hatchability.
In single-stage incubation, temperature can be altered for the growth of

the embryo and increased animal heat production, starting at a higher
temperature and reducing in stages through transfer. Incorrect balance in
loading multi-stage setters can create major temperature variations.
27
Partly filled machines may not achieve the correct temperature and
prolong incubation, while loading double sets can create overheating
problems. Both conditions will adversely affect hatchability and chick
quality.
3.8 Humidity
During incubation, water vapor is lost from the egg through the pores of
the shell. The rate at which this moisture is lost depends on the number
and size of the pores (the gas conductance of the shell) and the humidity
in the air around the egg. For best hatchability, an egg must lose 12% of
its weight by 18 days of incubation. Chicken eggs require a relative
humidity of 75 to 80 percent. Due to differences in shell structure and
hence gas conductance, when all eggs are incubated under the same
humidity conditions, there will be a variation in moisture loss. With
eggs from broiler breeders, this variation does not normally have any
significant effect on the hatchability. However, when age, nutrition or
disease reduces the eggs’quality, it may be necessary to adjust incubator
humidity conditions to maintain optimum hatchability and chick quality.
3.9 Turning
Eggs must be turned during incubation. This prevents the embryo from
sticking to shell membranes, particularly during the first week of
incubation, and aids development of the embryonic membranes. As
embryos develop and their heat production increases, regular turning
will aid airflow and assist cooling (Fig 8).
Fig. 1.8: Interior views of chicken's egg before and after incubation
28
ANP 501 MODULE 2
3.10 Egg Transfer
Eggs are removed from the setter after 18 or 19 days and transferred to
the hatcher trays. This is done for two reasons. The eggs are laid on their
sides to allow free movement of the chick out of the shell at hatching. It
also assists hygiene; large quantities of fluff are generated during
hatching and could spread this potential contamination around the
hatchery. Transferring too early or too late will result in embryos being
subjected to sub-optimal conditions causing lower hatchability. This
should be considered in any decision to vary the transfer time. Transfer
times will differ according to the different types of setters (18 to 19 days
are usually the norm).
1. The transfer operation should proceed smoothly and quickly to

avoid cooling the eggs as this will delay hatching.
2. At transfer, eggs may be candled to enable clears (infertiles and
early dead germs together with rots) to be removed and counted.
3. Shells are more brittle at this stage because the embryos have
withdrawn some of the shell calcium for skeletal development.
Therefore, care must be taken when transferring eggs to avoid
breakages. Rough handled eggs at this stage may cause ruptures
and hemorrhages. Automated transfer equipment enables this task
to be carried out more gently than a manual system.
4. Ensure the hatcher trays are properly washed and allowed to dry
before eggs are transferred. Eggs in wet trays will cool down
while the water is evaporating in the hatcher. Hatchers must be
dry and up to proper temperature prior to transfer.
5. Dispose of ‘rots’ and ‘exploders’ in a container of disinfectant.
6. In-ovo egg injection systems are now available, which may be
considered for Mareks protection and administration of other
vaccines. Manufacturers’ recommendations for use must be
followed.
3.11 Operation of Hatcher
3.11.1Ventilation and Humidity
Air supplied to the hatcher fresh air plenum should be 17cfm per 1000
eggs (28.7 Cubic meters per hour). From point of transfer to pipping,
airflow and humidity in the hatcher should be maintained the same as in
the setter. Moisture is important during the hatching process to ensure
the shell membranes remain soft and pliable so that the chick can escape
29
unhindered. When pipping starts, the moisture level will rise causing the
wet bulb temperature to also rise. At this point, the damper will require
adjustment to maintain this level. Additional moisture may be required
from the spray system. A few hours before takeoff the damper is opened
to increase air supply for the chicks
3.11.2Temperature
Hatcher temperatures are usually slightly lower than those of the setter
to reduce the risk of overheating.
3.11.3Chick Pull and Processing
Chicks are ready to be taken off when most of them are dry and fluffed
up, with a few (about 5%) still having some moisture on the backs of
their necks. A common mistake is to allow chicks to spend too long in
the hatchers so they dehydrate excessively. Dehydration of chicks may
result from incorrect adjustment of setting time for egg age or excessive
weight loss during incubation. Similarly, if they are “green”, e.g., not yet
ready, check setting times and also check for opportunities for the eggs
to have become cooled down in incubation, reducing the rate of
development. Upon pulling chicks, they have to be separated from their
debris, graded into first quality and culls, and counted into boxes. Some
hatcheries carry out additional operations such as:
 Sexing, primarily using feather-sexing with broilers but also Vent

sexing with breeding stock
 Vaccination, sprayed or injected, using hand or automatic
vaccinators
 Beak conditioning
During processing, chicks must be held in a controlled environment that

prevents overheating or overcooling. They must not be overcrowded in
the boxes or while on conveyers. To reduce weight loss from the chicks,
maintain the correct humidity in the chick holding areas. Aim for 23 °C
(73 °F) with a relative humidity of 65 - 70%. Avoid rough handling of
chicks in manual operations and when equipment is used. Equipment
must be correctly and regularly maintained.Clean all equipment
thoroughly after each hatch. All chick contact areas such as conveyers
and carousel must be easily accessible for cleaning.
30
ANP 501 MODULE 2
3.12 Feather Sexing of Broiler Chicks
Enormous benefits have resulted from the ability to sex day-old

chickens, not only for hatcheries but for the industry in general. The
procedure has reduced the cost of rearing chickens by 50% which in turn
has reduced labour and feed expenses. The advent of feather sexing has
allowed the meat chicken industry (broilers) to separate males from
females for a quicker turn around.
Feather Sexing
Feather sexing isn't hard, but it requires that the chickens be bred to
show their sex in differences in the feathers as chicks. Male chickens in
these breeds have longer wing pinfeathers than the females do, which
makes them relatively easy to tell apart. Most chickens do not have these
traits bred into them, and the chicks are identical to all but the skilled
eye of the pro- chicken sexer.
Vent Sexing
Vent sexing is performed by examining a day old chick's vent for the
presence, or lack of, the formation of a male sex organ. The chick is held
upside down to perform the examination. "Experts" are 95%+ accurate
at this method. "Non-professionals," after being taught the basics of vent
sexing, can easily achieve an accuracy of 60-70%.
3.13 Hatchery Waste Disposal
These eggs, together with the eggshells that remain after pulling chicks,
constitute hatchery waste. Legislation in some countries now prohibits
the incorporation of hatchery waste into by-product meal due to the risk
of spreading pathogenic organisms. There are very few profitable outlets
for this material and most hatcheries will have to dispose of this as
waste.
1. Unhatched eggs from the hatcher tray should be macerated to

destroy any unhatched embryos. Pipped eggs and cull chicks
should be destroyed using carbon dioxide gas or other locally
acceptable procedure.
31
2. Macerated debris can be augured into a bin or trailer, or removed

by vacuum into a sealed storage hopper. This should be disposed
of according to local practice and environment constraints.
3.14 Chick Transport
Specially designed vehicles must be used to control the chicks’

environment throughout the journey from hatchery to growing farm.
1. The minimum ventilation rate needed to satisfy adequate oxygen

is 20 CFM (34 m3/hr) per 1000 chicks during winter weather,
and twice this amount during hot weather. The vehicle should be
equipped with an auxiliary heating system but may use fresh
ambient air for cooling. If summer air temperatures exceed 86 °F
(30 °C), cooling equipment is required.
2. The vehicle cab should have a display showing the temperature
within the load to enable the driver to adjust air vents for cooling.
3. Chicks should be held at an in-box temperature of about 90 °F
(32 °C) that can usually be achieved by a vehicle air temperature
of 75 °F (24 °C) with plastic boxes or 71 °F (20 °C) with
cardboard boxes.
4. Chicks delivered in plastic boxes require greater care to prevent
overheating or chilling than those in cardboard. Ensure the
vehicle has adequate heating and cooling to handle plastic boxes.
5. Boxes must be correctly stacked and spaced to allow free air
movement around them. Each row of boxes should be locked
with a bar running the full width of the vehicle to prevent any
movement during the journey.
6. The vehicles can be provided with a rear plastic curtain to help
retain heat while chicks are being unloaded.
7. Chick delivery drivers must be well trained and conscientious.
Each driver should start the day with clean clothing and should
change into fresh coveralls/footwear for each delivery. It is
preferable for drivers not to enter the poultry house.
8. Power wash delivery vehicles with detergent/disinfectant on each
return to the hatchery. Vehicles should carry a disinfectant spray
so that the wheels can be cleaned between farms if delivering to
more than one location in a day.
9. Chick boxes returning to the hatchery represent a high health risk.
They must be kept separate and thoroughly washed and
disinfected before re-use.
32
ANP 501 MODULE 2
3.15 Maintenance
As hatcheries become larger and more automated, the need for

preventative maintenance becomes crucial. Below are some suggestions:
1. Obtain manufacturers’ recommendations for routine servicing

and maintenance.
2. Perform a thorough inspection and cleaning at least once a year
on multistage setters.
3. Have a spare machine to enable essential repairs to be carried out
when necessary.
4. Keep a stock of regularly required spare parts and maintain an
accurate inventory of items purchased and used.
5. Make sure staff that operates setters and hatchers are properly
trained and familiar with their operation and have a procedure to
follow in the event of machine failure.
6. Ensure adequate safety precautions are adopted. Provide the
necessary guards and safety switches. Ensure all working
practices comply with safety legislation.
i. List five factors that may affect hatching potential of egg.

ii. Highlight four ways of maintaining hatchery.
4.0 SUMMARY
In this lecture, we have examined briefly the hatchery requirements and

hatching egg management. Egg setting operation and the conditions of
the setter and hatcher are the key factor that determines a successful egg
hatching. Hourly developmental stages of egg were also highlighted.
During transportation of the chicks, especially designed vehicles must
be used to control the chicks’ environment throughout the journey from
hatchery to growing farm because this is considered as a vital aspect of
hatchery process.
5.0 CONCLUSION
The measure of success of any hatchery is the number of first-quality

chicks produced. Optimum hatchability and chick quality can only be
achieved when the egg is held under optimum conditions between laying
33
and setting in the incubator. Therefore, the need for preventive

maintenance of the hatchery becomes crucial.
1. Explain how temperature and humidity affect incubation.

2. List four Preventive Measures a farmer with a hatchery need for
effective performance of its Hatchery.
3. List some conditions necessary for chicks during transportation.
COBB Hatchery Management Guide(2008). Cobb-Vantress Inc.Siloam

Springs Arkansas.72761, US.
Extension Bulleting, (1998).Hatchery Management Practices in

Poultry.Agricultural Extension and Research Liason
Services.Ahmadu Bello University Zaria
Nico, Van Wageningen& Johan,Meinderts (1990).Hatching Eggs by

Hen or Incubator.Agrodok 34, CTA Pub. Agromisa. P.O BOX
41 6700aa Wageningen, the Netherland.
MacK, O. North (1984).Commercial Chicken Production Manual,(3rd

ed.). The AVI Publishing Company, Inc. Westport, Connecticut.
34
ANP 501 MODULE 2
UNIT 2 PULLET FARM MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Identification of Laying Hens
3.2 Layer Breeds
3.3 Keeping Chicks for Layer Poultry Farming:
3.3.1 Vaccination and its Importance for Layer Poultry
Farming:
3.4 Egg Production for Layer Poultry Farming:
3.4.1 Method and Importance of Debeaking:
3.5 Water Management for Layer Poultry Farming:
3.6 Layer Farm Sequence:
3.6.1 Brooding for Layer Poultry Farming: (Day-old to 8
weeks):
3.6.2 Growers’ Production (9 to 20 weeks):
3.6.3 Adult Layer Production (20 to/up to 78 weeks):
3.7 Egg Collecting and Grading:
3.8 Marketing for Layer Poultry Farming:
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A hen can lay only one egg per day and there are days when there is no
egg production. The reasons for this Laying Schedule relate to the hen’s
reproductive system. A hen’s body begins forming an egg shortly after
the previous egg is laid, and it takes 26 1/2 hours for an egg to form
fully. So there are shifts in the times of daily egg production. For
example if the hen lays at 8.00am today, tomorrow, it lays at 10.30am,
then 1.00pm etc. Thus eggs are not laid every day but in batches during
the day time (between 8.00am and 5.00pm). Because a hen’s
reproductive system is sensitive to light exposure, eventually the hen
35
will lay too late in a day for its body to begin forming a new egg. The
hen will then skip a day or more before laying again.
If one plans to start, or has started raising chickens for egg production,
one needs to understand flock production capabilities. Such as: how to
gauge the number of eggs the flock can produce and be aware of the
variables that affect egg production. One should be able to identify
which hens are laying and determine why one hen may not lay. By
having a good grasp of these factors, success of the flock can be
assured.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 state why birds will not lay everyday

 explain the nutritional requirement of laying birds at every stage
 manage laying birds from day-old to the stage of production.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
A layer is a commercially viable egg producing bird. The egg is in great

demand because of its nutritive value, easy and quick preparation time
and as co-ingredient in a wide variety of dietary preparations (house-
hold and commercial). Hence Layer Farming has gained importance as
the fastest growing industry in the livestock sector.Also, hens in a flock
do not begin to lay on exactly the same day, nor do they continue laying
for the same length of time. The flock comes into production quickly,
peaks, and then slowly reduces the level of production. The length of
time that a flock will produce eggs varies as well. Many home flocks
produce eggs on and off progressively for three to four years. Each year,
the level of egg production is lower than the previous year. Also, egg
size increases and shell quality decreases each year.
Both the number of eggs you can get from a flock and the number of
years a flock will produce eggs depend on several variables as follows:
 Breed
36
ANP 501 MODULE 2
 Management of pullets prior to lay

 Light management
 Nutrition
 Space allowances.
Breed
Some commercial breeds of chickens have been developed specifically

for egg production. The commercial White Leghorn is used in large egg
production complexes, but these birds typically do not produce well in
home flocks. They are simply too flighty. Moreover, they lay white-
shelled eggs. People purchasing eggs from small flocks often prefer to
buy brown-shelled eggs, even though no nutritional differences exist
between brown-shelled eggs and white-shelled eggs.Breeding
companies also have developed commercial layers for brown-shelled
egg production, with some bred specifically for pasture poultry
production. In addition, many hatcheries sell what are called sex-link
crosses. These specific crosses allow the hatchery to sex the chicks at
hatch based on feather colour. As a result, the number of sexing errors is
reduced, so you are less likely to get an unwanted rooster.
Some people prefer a flock that is composed of different breeds. Such a
flock can produce eggs having a selection of shell colours. Many dual-
purpose breeds, such as Plymouth Rock and Rhode Island Red, lay eggs
with light brown shells. Obviously, you can choose from several breeds.
When making your decision about which breed or breeds to rise, keep in
mind that commercial-type hens may give you a higher level of
production initially, while other breeds tend to lay for more years.
Pullet management
It is important to manage pullets correctly, especially in the areas of
nutrition and light management, because correct management will affect
the level and quality of egg production once the birds start to lay. If the
pullets come into production too early, they may have problems
with prolapse, which can cause health problems across the flock. Also,
the hens may lay smaller eggs throughout the production cycle. When
raising pullets from day-old chicks, brood the chicks as you would any
other type of chick. For future laying flocks, keep in mind that light
management is important from brooding through all laying periods.
If you purchase pullets ready-to-lay, you should ask how the pullets
were raised with regard to nutrition and light management so that you
37
can adjust your subsequent management of the flock accordingly. For

example, you may have to delay light stimulation if the hens are too
small.
Light management for year-round production
Chickens are called long-season breeders, meaning that they come into
production as days become longer. That is, they start producing eggs
when there are more hours of light per day. Typically, day-old chicks
are kept on 23 to 24 hours of light per day for the first few days to make
sure that they are able to find food and water, especially water. After
that time period, you should reduce the number of hours of light per day.
If you are raising the birds indoors, you can give them just 8 hours of
light per day. If you expose them to outdoor conditions, you are limited
by the number of hours of light per day in your area. When the pullets
are ready to start laying, slowly increase the light exposure until they are
exposed to about 14 hours of light per day.
This exposure should stimulate the flock to come into play. To keep the
flock in lay year-round, you will need to maintain a schedule of at least
14 hours of light per day. You can increase the amount of light slowly to
16 hours per day late in the egg production cycle to help keep the flock
in production. For most flock owners, this strategy involves providing
supplemental lighting. Using a light with a stop/start timer, you can
cause the light to come on early in the morning before sunrise and in the
evening before sunset to ensure that the length of light exposure for the
flock totals 14 to 16 hours. Also, you can get a light sensor so that the
light bulb does not come on when natural daylight is available. By using
such a device, you minimize your electricity use. The supplemental light
you provide does not have to be overly bright. A typical 60-watt
incandescent light bulb works fine for a small laying flock
Nutrition
Chickens of any type and age require a complete, balanced diet. Feed
mills assemble the available ingredients in combinations that provide all
the nutrients needed by a flock in one package. Some producers mix
complete feeds with cheaper scratch grains, but doing so dilutes the
levels of nutrients the chickens are receiving, and nutrient deficiencies
can occur. Nutrient deficiencies can adversely affect the growth of
pullets and the level of production of hens.
38
ANP 501 MODULE 2
It is also important to feed the specific feed tailored for the type and age
of the chickens you have. For example, do not feed a “meat-maker” type
diet to growing pullets or laying hens as it will not meet their nutritional
needs. Likewise, do not feed a layer diet to growing chickens. The diet
of a laying hen is high in calcium, which is needed for the production of
eggshells. This level of calcium, however, is harmful to non-laying
chickens. Some hens have a higher need for calcium than others. It is
always good to have an additional source of calcium available. Oyster
shell, usually available in feed stores, is an excellent calcium
supplement for a laying flock.
Space allowances
To produce effectively, laying hens must have adequate space. The
amount of floor space required by a flock depends on the size of the
chickens (which is related to the breed of chicken chosen) and the type
of housing used. A minimum of 1.5 square feet per hen is recommended,
with 2 square feet per hen being the most commonly used space
allowance. Larger allowances are required for some of the larger breeds.
To make use of the entire housing facility can be incorporated. The hens
will sleep on the perches at night, keeping them off the floor. The use of
perches also helps concentrate much of the manure in a single location
for easier cleaning of the poultry house. Moreover, chickens have a
desire to perch, so providing for this behaviour contributes to animal
welfare.
If you provide outdoor space for your chickens, the amount of outdoor
space needed depends on the quality of the space. If your goal is to
maintain a pasture, you will require more area than you would need if
simply providing outdoor access for a small backyard flock. An
allowance of 2 square feet per hen typically is recommended for simple
outdoor access. If you do provide your flock with outdoor access, be
aware of predator possibilities from both the ground and the air, and
provide the hens with the protection they require.
3.1 Identification of Laying Hens

To determine which of your hens are laying, it is important to know
more about the type of hens you have. For many breeds, hens that are
good layers do have large, bright red combs and wattles. For other
breeds, the combs and wattles are of normal colour during the laying
period but fade after the laying period. For hens with yellow pigment in
the skin, such as Rhode Island Red and Plymouth Rock, the level of
39
pigmentation is a good indication of where the hens are in the

production cycle. Hens lose the yellow pigment in a specific order. The
colour fades first from the vent; then the face (beak, eye ring, and
earlobe); and then the feet (shanks, toes, and hock). An additional
method for identifying laying hens involves evaluating the level of fat in
the abdomen and the abdominal capacity as measured by the distances
between the pubic bones (abdominal width) and between the pubic
bones and the tip of the keel, or breast bone (abdominal depth). The
lower the level of fat and the larger the abdominal capacity, the more
likely that the hen is laying.
Fig. 1.9: Cage Sytem of Layer House
Layer poultry farming means raising egg laying poultry birds for the
purpose of commercial egg production. Layer chickens are such a
special breeds of hens, which need to be raised from when they are one
day old. They start laying eggs commercially from 18-19 weeks of age.
They remain laying eggs continuously until they are 72-78 weeks of age.
They can produce about one kg of eggs by consuming about 2.25 kg of
food during their egg laying period. For the purpose of producing hybrid
eggs layer, consider the various characteristics of cock and hen before
40
ANP 501 MODULE 2
breeding. There are various types of highly egg productive layer breeds
available throughout the world.
3.2 Layer Breeds
According to the nature and colour of egg, layer hens are of two types.
 White egg laying hens: These types of hens are comparatively

smaller in size. Relatively eat less food, and the colour of egg
shell is white. Isa White, Lehman White, Nikchik, Bab Cock BV-
300, Havard White, Hi Sex White, Sever White, Hi line White,
Bovanch White etc. are some popular white egg laying chickens.
 Brown egg laying hens: Brown egg laying hens are relatively
larger in size. They consume more feeds, compared to white egg
layers. They lay bigger eggs than other laying breeds. Egg shell is
brown coloured. There are many types of brown layer available.
Among those Isa Brown, Hi Sex Brown, Sever 579, Lehman
Brown, Hi Line Brown, Bab Cock BV-380, Gold Line,
BablonaTetro, BablonaHarko, Havard Brown etc. are very
suitable for commercial layer poultry farming.
3.3 Keeping Chicks for Layer Poultry Farming
During the first weeks after birth, many chicks do not readily drink
water due to transporting them from one place to another. So you have
to make adequate water drinking systems in their brooder house, and
you have to train them for drinking water. Mix 5% glucose with water,
so that they can easily get energy. Provide them any type of high quality
multivitamins by mixing with water. Multivitamins and electrolyte are
very effective when you transport chicks from a long distance. It reduces
tiredness and lack of water, and helps to make the chick grow normally.
3.3.1 Vaccination and its Importance for Layer Poultry

Farming
Vaccination program is a must for chicks, so as to keep them free from

all types of diseases. The main advantages of poultry vaccination are
listed below.
 Timely vaccination results in disease resistance power in the

body of chick.
41
 Help to keep the hen free from infective poultry diseases.

 Disease prevalence will be less.
 Mortality rate will reduce.
 And low Mortality Rate = More Production = More Profit.
There are many types of poultry vaccines are available for layer hens.
Marex, Ranikheth, Gamboro, Bruchaities, Bosonto, Salmonela etc. are
used for layer chickens.
Before vaccination:
You have to maintain some rules before vaccination.
 Hold the chickens with great care.

 Vaccinate the chickens without any strain.
 There is no need to vaccinate the sick hen.
 Wash the Vaccination Equipment with hot boiled water or
germicide medicine/antiseptic.
 Do the vaccination program in cold weather condition.
 Preventive Vaccine is always applicable to healthy birds. Never
vaccinate an infected bird.
3.4 Egg Production for Layer Poultry Farming
Egg production in a layer poultry farm depends on the care and farm
management. If in farm take good care of your birds and manage them
properly, then the production and profit will be high.
 Within the first 20 weeks of age, about 5% of hens start laying

eggs.
 About 10% birds start laying at their 21 weeks of age.
 When they reach 26 to 30 weeks of age, they produce highly.
Although, it may be different depending on their strain.
 After laying a maximum number of eggs, they usually stop laying
for a few days.
 And after this period, their egg production might reduce slowly.
 Egg laying rate and size of eggs increases gradually.
 The hens grow till their 40 weeks of age.
 Weight and size of eggs increases till their 50 weeks of
age.
3.4.1Method and Importance of Debeaking
Debeaking of laying hens is very important. The main benefits are listed
below.
42
ANP 501 MODULE 2
 Debeakin helps to reduce mutual fights.

 It helps to prevent food waste.
 Debeak chicks at 8 to 10 days of age.
 Debeak growing chicken at their 8 to 12 weeks of age.
 Debeak chicks 0.2 cm from their nose.
 Debeak 0.45 cm in the case of growing chickens.
 Debeak both upper and lower lips.
 Use block chick trimming machine to debeak.
Do not debeak two days after or before vaccination, after or before using
some medicines like sulfur. Do not debeak if the hen has a strain, and
during adverse weather conditions and if the hen start laying eggs.
Serve the chicken water mixed with Vitamin “K” three days before
debeaking. Wash the debeakin instrument with antiseptic. Test the edge
and temperature of blade. You have to be careful, and don’t damage
their eyes and tongue. Debeaking should be carried out in cold weather.
Debeaking process should be carried out by an experienced technician.
After debeaking, serve layers in a deep pot. Provide them some extra
energy-enriched feed.
3.5 Water Management for Layer Poultry Farming
Chickens’ health depends on the supply of pure, clean and fresh

drinking water. You have to provide adequate water according to the
demand of your laying hens. For purifying the water, mix Aquacure.
Determine a suitable place to keep the water pot inside the poultry
house. Supply cold water during the summer season and hot weather,
and slightly hot water in cold weather or winter season.According to
with the age and species of chickens, providing the right feed can
control the weights of chicken. Use sufficient calcium, phosphorus,
vitamins, amino acids and other mineral substances in their feed. For
purifying water use Aquacure. If you follow the methods mentioned
above, then you can make better profit from your layer poultry
farming business.
3.6 Layer Farm Sequence
A standard procedure is followed for the Layer Farm Sequence. This

procedure starts when female chicks are raised into pullets for
commercial egg production. This stage is called ‘rearing’, and there are
several common rearing systems. Some farms raise layer chicks on a
43
litter floor in a shed similar to a meat chicken shed. Other pullets are
either finished off or reared entirely in wire-floored cages.
3.6.1 Brooding for Layer Poultry Farming (Day-old to 8 weeks)
When a hen sits still for a prolonged period without feeding or drinking
normally, she is said to be ‘broody’. This is a normal process during
which the hen stops producing eggs in order to incubate a nest full of
eggs. When the eggs hatch the hen then cares for the chicks by keeping
them warm and finding feed and water for them. Modern strains of
chicken have been selected not to go broody so that more eggs are laid
over a period of time.When rearing chicks commercially the aim is to do
the same thing as the hen. The stage of life when chicks need some
additional heat is called the brooding stage. It lasts up to six weeks,
depending on the temperature of the environment until the chicks can
control their body temperature themselves. From day-old they usually
receive chick starter feed which aims to ensure they have plenty of
protein (19%) and energy for body growth.
3.6.2 Growing (9 to 20 weeks)
Once chicks can control their body temperature they still need to be
protected from climate extremes. At this stage they receive pullet grower
feed which is less expensive and contains only 15% to 17% protein and
7% less energy than the starter feed.
 The birds should be transferred to the grower house at 9 weeks of

age
 The Waterer and Feeder should be adjusted as per the need of the
birds
 Grower Mash should be fed to the birds
 Ensure there is cross ventilation
 De-beaking may be carried out as necessary
 Vaccinate Birds as scheduled
 Check feed intake and body weight at regular intervals
 Provide light for 12 hours a day
 Cull runts, unproductive and undesirable pullets as early as
possible.
 Isolate diseased pullets.
44
ANP 501 MODULE 2
Moving
Pullets are usually moved into their laying quarters, at 16-18 weeks of
age, before they reach sexual maturity. This ensures that they are settled
in before egg production begins. Handling birds at any time must be
done with care to avoid injury. As pullets mature into laying hens they
are fed a layer ration designed to enable them to perform best.
3.6.3 Adult Layer (20 to/up to 78 weeks)
Adult hens are the real workers of the industry. For best performance
they need to be fed carefully and kept in a house at 21-28oC. This means
that hen houses are designed to keep as near as possible to this
temperature year round. The hens are checked regularly to monitor their
health and medicines may be administered as needed. Tinted egg strains
usually require less feed (105g feed/hen/day) than brown egg strains
(120g feed/hen/day).The quality of feed provided to hens may be varied
for the level of production. Hens can need more nutrients just before and
during their peak production than at other times. This is called phase
feeding. It can be economical to adjust rations for such high demand
periods.
3.7 Egg Collecting and Grading
Mechanical collection of eggs is common in modern layer farms. It

takes about 26 hours for each egg to develop and each hen lays an egg a
little later each day. This is not an exact thing and most eggs are laid in
the morning. Eggs should be collected regularly and transferred from the
hen house to an egg room where they are graded or checked for weight
and for damaged shells. A sample of eggs is often broken open to check
internal quality. Eggs are packed into cartons for 12 eggs or trays of 30
eggs for sale. Prices vary with egg size, so eggs must be separated on the
basis of egg weight. This is done automatically by a machine called an
egg grader.
3.8 Marketing for Layer Poultry Farming
Eggs are stored in a cool room at about 13oC and transported in an

insulated truck. Unfortunately, many shops selling eggs do not store
them under ideal conditions. In the home and shop situation, it is best to
store them at normal refrigerator temperature (4-6oC). Marketing
45
involves a range of prices, depending on the different sizes of egg,

different brands, or other differences which attract particular buyers.
Free-range and fat modified eggs are among the varieties available.
i. Write short notes on the different stages of a layer with their

respective durations.
ii. Give a short description of the two types of layer birds.
4.0 SUMMARY
Laying Birds production has been discussed fully in this unit. Factors
that are important in effective production, signs of non-productive birds,
vaccination and grading and marketing of eggs are all involved in the
production chain.
5.0 CONCLUSION
A layer is a commercially viable egg producing bird. Egg is in great

demand because of its nutritive value, easy and quick preparation time
and as co-ingredient in wide variety of preparation (household and
commercial). Hence layer farming has gained importance as the fastest
growing industry in livestock sector.
1. Highlight three importance of debeaking in laying birds.

2. List four ways of identifying productive laying birds.
3. Highlight five benefits of vaccinating laying bird.
46
ANP 501 MODULE 2
Aboluwade, A. (2012, April 1). Northerners Consume 50% Of Eggs

Produced In Nigeria.Retrieved November 20, 2012, from Punch
Nigeria:
http://www.punchng.com/business/agric-economy/northerners-
consume-50-of-eggs-produced-in-nigeria-%E2%80%A2-some-
smugglers-of-frozen-chicken-preserve-them-with-chemical-used-
in-preserving-corpses
Akinwumi, J., Okike, I., & Rich, K. M. (2010).Analyses of the Poultry

Value Chain and Its Linkages and Interactions with HPAI Risk
Factors inNigeria.
DFID, FAO, RVC, Rural Development Research Consortium,

International Food Policy Research Institute, International
Livestock Research Institute.
Anderson, L., &Gugerty, M. K. (2010). Poultry Market in West Africa:

Nigeria. Evans School of Public Affairs, University of
Washington.
47
MODULE 3 POULTRY MEAT PRODUCTION
Unit 1 Broiler Chicken Production and Marketing

Unit 2 Other Meat Poultry Species- Turkey, Geese, Ostrich
UNIT 1 BROILER CHICKEN PRODUCTION AND

MARKETING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Management of Broilers
3.2 Feeding of Broilers
3.3 Supply of Nutrients
3.4 Environment
3.5 Litter Quality in Broiler House
3.6 How to Improve Feed Efficiency on a Broiler Farm
3.7 Water Supply
3.8 Housing Systems
3.9 Vaccination Programme
3.10 Marketing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Broilers are birds which have been selected for fast growth so as to be
ready for the market at about eight weeks. Broilers are usually reared on
Deep Litter (Fig 18). There have been reported cases of production on
cages but with consequence of breast blisters which reduce the bird’s
market value. If cages are used, the floor should be covered with soft
material. The attainment of market weight of broilers depends mostly on
the quantity and quality of feeds.
48
ANP 501 MODULE 3
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain broiler production and all factors necessary for

consideration during production.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Management of Broilers
The management of broilers includes brooding, which has being fully

discussed in unit 2 Module 4. The Brooder House must be well
ventilated and the stocking density high. The intensity of light should be
low as broilers require light only to see their feed. A high light intensity
will depress growth rate. Feeding must be adequate to prevent
cannibalism in the flock.
Broiler rations are of two types – broiler starter mash (fed from day old
to about 4-5 weeks) and broiler finisher (fed from about 4-5 weeks to
market weight). A batch system of broiler production is recommended.
This is known as “All in All out” system. The production schedule
should be such that the whole house can be cleared in between batches
to prevent the build-up of disease organisms.
Fig. 1.10: Deep Litter System of Broiler Production
49
3.2 Feeding of Broilers
Broilers are male and female birds reared for meat. Broilers when
properly fed and cared for, are ready for the market between 6 and 8
weeks age. The speed of attainment of market weight of 2.5-3.0kg live
weight depends mostly on the quantity of feeds.
3.3 Supply of Nutrients

Energy
Broilers require energy for growth of tissue, maintenance and activity.
Carbohydrate sources, such as corn and wheat, and various fats or oils
are the major source of energy in poultry feeds. Energy levels in diets
are expressed in Mega Joules (MJ/kg) or Kilocalories (kcal/kg) of
Metabolizable Energy (ME).
Protein
Feed proteins, such as those in cereals and soybean meal, are complex
compounds that are broken down by digestion into amino acids. These
amino acids are absorbed and assembled into body proteins that are used
in the construction of body tissues, e.g. muscles, nerves, skin and
feathers. Dietary Crude Protein levels do not indicate the quality of the
proteins in feed ingredients. A good protein quality diet is based on the
level, balance and digestibility of essential amino acids in the final
mixed feed. Higher levels of digestible amino acids have been shown to
improve profitability by increasing broiler performance and processing
yield.
Macro minerals
The provision of the correct levels of the major minerals in the appropri-
ate balance is important for high-performing broilers. The macro
minerals involved are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and
chloride.
Calcium and phosphorus: Calcium in the diet of broilers influences

growth, feed efficiency, bone development, leg health, nerve function
and the immune system. It is vital that calcium is supplied in adequate
quantities and on a consistent basis. Phosphorus, like calcium, is
required in the correct form and quantity to optimise skeletal structure
and growth.
50
ANP 501 MODULE 3
Sodium, potassium and chloride: These minerals are needed for gen-
eral metabolic functions. Shortages can affect feed intake, growth and
blood pH. Excess levels of these minerals result in increased water
intake and subsequent poor litter quality.
Trace minerals and vitamins

Trace Minerals and Vitamins are needed for all metabolic functions.
Appropriate Vitamin and trace Mineral Supplementation depends on the
feed ingredients used and local circumstances. Due to differences in
vitamin levels of various cereals, the level of supplementation of some
vitamins must be modified. Accordingly, separate recommendations are
usually made for some vitamins, depending on the cereals (e.g. Wheat
versus maize) used in diet.
Enzymes
Enzymes are now being routinely used in poultry feeds to improve
digestibility of feed ingredients. In general, enzymes that act on
carbohydrates, proteins and plant-bound minerals are available.
Two types of feed are usually fed:
a. Broiler Starter Diet: These diets contain between 22 and 24%

crude protein and an energy content of 3000 Kcal/kg. The feed is
usually fed from day-old up to four weeks of age.
Grower feeds
Broiler Grower Feed is generally fed for 14 to 16 days following the
Starter. Starter to Grower transition will involve a change of texture
(maintaining the crude protein and energy value) from crumbs/mini-
pellets to pellets. Depending on the pellet size produced, it may be
necessary to feed the first delivery of Grower as crumbs or mini-pellets.
b. Broiler Finisher Diets: These diets contain 20% Crude Protein and
Energy content of 3000 kcal/kg to 3200 Kcal/kg. This diet should be fed
from 25 days of age up to 8 weeks of age. Broiler Finisher Feeds
account for the major volume and cost of feeding a broiler. It is
therefore important that feeds are designed to maximize financial return
for the type of products being produced. Finisher Feeds should be given
from four to five weeks until processing.
51
3.4 Environment
Nitrogen and Ammonia emissions can be reduced by minimizing excess
Crude Protein levels in the Feed. This is achieved by formulating diets
to balanced recommended levels of digestible essential amino acids,
rather than to minimum Crude Protein levels. Phosphorus excretion rates
can be reduced by feeding closely to the bird’s requirement and utilizing
phytase enzymes. Birds must be protected from poor ventilation and
extremes in temperature. The house should be constructed with their
length parallel to wind direction.
3.5 Litter Quality in Broiler House
Litter quality directly affects the health of the bird. Lower moisture
levels in the litter help to reduce respiratory stress by reducing the
amount of ammonia in the atmosphere. Good quality litter will also
reduce the incidence of foot pad dermatitis.With suitable management,
health and environmental practices, the following nutritional strategies
will help to maintain good litter quality:
 Avoid excessive levels of Crude Protein in diets.

 Avoid high salt/sodium levels, as this will increase bird water
intake and cause wet litter.
 Avoid using poorly digestible or high fiber feed ingredients in the
diets.
 Provide good-quality feed fats/oils in the diet, as this helps avoid
enteric disorders which produce wet litter.
3.6 How to Improve Feed Efficiency on a Broiler Farm
The efficiency of feed utilisation is a very important factor for

consideration by a poultry farmer that wishes to stay in business. The
following measures should therefore be taken to improve efficiency for
feed utilisation by flock managers
Reduce feed spillage by attendants during feeding.
- Provide well design feeders with “lips”.

- Do not fill feeders more than ½ full.
- Control rats, as they contaminate and waste feeds.
- Ensure that the feeders are hung such that the levels of the feeder
should be about.
52
ANP 501 MODULE 3
level with the back of the hens.
- In a given flock, provide adequate feeding space such that at least

75% of the birds must be able to feed at once.
3.7 Water Supply
A chicken consumes two to three times as much water as the feed it

consumes. Therefore, when water supply to the flock is restricted, feed
intake drops and consequently egg production declines. It is therefore
essential to provide all poultry flocks with fresh, cool and clean water at
all times (Ad libitum).
- Provide adequate number of drinkers of correct sizes for the age

of the flock.
- Wash drinkers daily.
- Serve fresh cool water and clean the drinkers at least twice a day
– mornings and evenings.
- Place drinkers on raised platforms to minimize water wastage and
contamination.
Floor spacing
The following space requirement is recommended for broiler
Space Requirement
a. Day-old to three weeks 9.14 cm/chick

b. 3 weeks to 4 weeks 15.24 cm/chick
c. 5 weeks to Market Age 30.48 cm/bird
Feeding space
a. Day-old to 4 weeks 2.5 cm/bird
b. 4 weeks to 8 weeks 5 to 6.5 cm/bird
Watering space
a. Day-old to 4 weeks 0.5 cm/bird or two 3.79L drinking
fountains/100 birds
b. 4 weeks to 8 weeks 0.6 to 1 cm/bird or two 7.57L drinking
fountains/100 birds
53
3.8 Housing Systems
Broilers can be housed on deep-litter, slatted or wire floor or cages.

However, cage, slat and wire floor rearing of broilers are not as popular
as litter floor rearing, due to problems like breast blisters, leg weakness
and higher initial investment.
Rearing systems
The systems of rearing refer to either single batch at a time (all-in all-out
system) or multiple batches of brooding and rearing of broilers
3.9 Vaccination Schedule
Route of
S. No. Age Vaccine
Administration
Marek’s (at
1 First day S/C at neck
hatchery)
5-7th
2 RDV F1 I/O or I/N
day
3 14th day IBD Vaccine I/O or I/N
4 21st day RDV LaSota Drinking Water
IBD Vaccine
5 28th day Drinking Water
(Booster)
3.10 Marketing
A proper market survey is essential as that will enable the farmer to

identify the current and emerging markets where broiler mean can be
sold at a better price.
Marketing activities include among other value adding, grading, quality,

promotions and packaging. A proper utilisation of these activities is
essential as that will lead to selling large volumes of products as quickly
as possible resulting in the farmer making a lot of profit.
54
ANP 501 MODULE 3
Value adding: In broiler production, processes that need to be

performed within the business aimed to add value to the product before
selling are: slaughtering, cutting chicken portions, grading, weighing
and packaging. It is advisable that farmers process their meat products
within the business and before selling, because the product will attract
better prices than relatively unprocessed meat.
Quality: The final performance of broiler meat in the market depends

on the quality of the chicks. Therefore, farmers should provide the flock
with proper feeding, good ventilated houses and proper handling during
the growth stage to ensure good quality meat. It is important for farmers
to ensure that chickens are always alert, have uniform weight and no
deformities on placement which are results of good management
practices. In addition; chicken should be sold when it is still fresh from
that farm, or after culling
Promotions: Advertising is essential for the success and growth of any

Poultry business as it will help farmers to identify and attract potential
customers as well as build good relationship with them. Therefore,
farmers should promote broiler products well so that they make them
appear to be different from others and that will increase the demand for
their broiler products
Packaging: Packaging is important, not necessarily for protecting the

product but for the profitability of poultry business. Targeted packaging
will increase sales.
i. Explain four ways of enhancing the marketability of broilers

ii. List two nutritional methods of maintaining litter quality.
5.0 SUMMARY
Broiler production is considered in this unit. The Principles guiding the

management and production were discussed. Possible ways of
increasing efficiency in the Broiler Farm was also discussed.
55
4.0 CONCLUSION
Broilers birds are fast growing birds; they are ready for the market at
about 8 weeks. Broilers are usually reared on Deep Litter. The birds are
fed either Broiler Starter or Broiler Finisher Feed depending on their
age. Eighty percent of the energy content of the feed is obtained from
Grains (Maize). To increase productivity feed utilisation by the birds
must be enhanced, water must be supplied Ad-libitum and litter properly
managed.
1. Highlight five measures of improving efficiency in Poultry Farm.

2. Write briefly on the types of feed and the key nutrient supplied
used during Broiler Production.
Sonaiya, E.B. (2007). Family Poultry, Food Security and the Impact of
HPAI.World Poultry, Science Journal.
CTA. (1990). Small-Holder Rural Poultry Production - Requirements of

Research and Development. Thessaloniki, Greece.
FAO. (1980). Survey and Feasibility Study, Livestock Sector,

Nigeria.Terminal Report, FAO/UNDP Project NIR/75/038.
56
ANP 501 MODULE 3
UNIT 2 OTHER MEAT POULTRY SPECIES- TURKEY,

GEESE, OSTRICH
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Turkey Production
3.1.1 Housing
3.1.2 Factors to Consider in Constructing a Commercial
Turkey House
3.1.3 Preparing for Arrival of Poults
3.1.4 Brooding
3.1.4.1 Brooder Guards/Rings
3.1.4.2 Brooder Stove Arrangement and
Temperature
3.1.5 Lighting
3.1.6 Nutrition and Feeds
3.1.7 Debeaking (Beak trimming)
3.1.8 Desnooding
3.1.9 Toe Clipping
3.1.11 Health Management
3.1.12 Diseases
3.1.13 Blackhead Disease [Histomoniasis]
3.1.13.1 Signs
3.1.13.2 Treatment
3.1.13.3 Prevention and Control
3.1.14 Haemorrhagic Enteritis
3.1.15 Erysipelas
3.1.16 Biosecurity
3.1.17 Marketing
3.2 Ostrich Production
3.2.1 Establishment
3.2.2 Egg Production
3.2.3 Incubation and Brooding
3.2.3.1Artificial Incubation of Eggs
3.2.4 Brooding
3.2.5 Mating
3.2.6 Nutrition
3.2.7 Housing and Fencing
3.2.8 Managing for Health and Productivity
57
3.3 Goose Production

3.3.1 Brooding
3.3.2 Growing
3.3.3 Marketing
3.4 Guinea Fowl Production
3.4.1 Advantages of Keeping Guinea Fowl
3.4.2 Varieties of Guinea Fowl
3.4.3 Production Systems
3.4.4 Mating
3.4.6 Egg Incubation
3.4.7 Keets Brooding
3.4.8 Housing
3.4.9 Rearing Pen
3.4.10 Space Requirement/Stock Density
3.4.11 Feeds and Feeding
3.4.12 Feeder and Drinker Requirement
3.4.13 Health Care and Management
3.5 Quail Production
3.5.1 Breeds of Quails
3.5.2 Selection of Stock
3.5.3 Size of the Flock
3.5.4 Management
3.5.4.1 Housing and Equipment
3.5.4.2 Brooding Management
3.5.4.3 Rearing Management
3.5.4.4 Layer Management
3.5.4.5 Feeding Management
3.5.4.6 Maintaining Health
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Poultry industry is an emerging agri-business it has established its

position as the fastest growing segment in the agricultural sector in
Nigeria. With the increased acceptance of chicken, egg and meat, the
demand for these products is ever increasing. However, there is need to
understand the management and production of other Poultry species
apart from chicken, (meat type and egg type) to be able to feed the
teeming population of Nigeria.
58
ANP 501 MODULE 3
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 list other species of poultry

 state the production principles of different kinds of poultry birds
such as: Ostrich, Turkey, Guinea fowl etc.
 explain the Nutrient Requirements of the different kinds of
Poultry Birds.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Turkey Production
Turkeys (Meleagrisgallopavo) are native to the New World. They have

been regarded as ‘’traditional thanksgiving’’ and Christmas fare since
the Pilgrims hunted wild turkeys to grace their tables on the first
Thanksgiving Day.
3.1.1 Housing
The main reason to provide housing for birds is to provide protection

from the weather. Housing also provides protection from predators,
reduces the spread of pathogens and provides protection from
vandalism. Additionally, housing enables the separation of birds
according to age for easy management. In the case of small flocks,
simple structures may be built using locally available material. For
commercial production, turkeys are raised under intensive conditions
similar tothose of broiler chickens.
3.1.2 Factors to Consider in Constructing a Commercial

Turkey
House include:
Orientation: The orientation of the building with respect to the sun and
prevailing winds is important. An east-west orientation is preferable, as
it minimizes heat gain in summer. The house must be constructed in
such a manner that it takes into account the prevailing winds to enhance
drying of manure or litter.
59
Width: The house should be no more than 10 m wide. Widths greater

than 10 m have difficulties with ventilation, especially if open-sided
houses are used for rearing.
Length: Any length could be used.
Distance from other poultry houses: The house should be a reasonable

distance from other houses to minimize disease spread.
Topography: The topography should be high and level with no abrupt

slopes. A relatively level area requires less site preparation, thus
reducing construction costs.
Drainage: A porous soil and gentle slope will enhance dryness.
Floors: Solid floors are preferred over earth floors as they are durable,
easy to clean and disinfect.
Type of house: Poultry houses can be open-sided (rely on natural

ventilation) or environmentally controlled (temperature and ventilation are
controlled). Open-sided houses are cheaper to construct and maintain than
environmental houses.
3.1.3 Preparing for Arrival of Poults
The poultry house should be cleaned and disinfected and left unoccupied
for at least 14 days prior to poult placement. Also, equipment such as
feeders, drinkers, brooders etc. should be cleaned and disinfected. Fresh
litter (straw, wood shavings etc.) should be spread over the floor area
and brooder guards/rings set up. Wood shavings are the common litter.
Litter provides insulation from the floor and will soak up moisture from
the droppings. It also helps to prevent damage to the birds’ legs due to
slipping on slippery surfaces. The depth of the litter should be 8 to 10
cm. Feed and clean water should be provided before poults’ arrival.
Feed may be placed in flat surfaces such as egg flats or box lids to
encourage poults to feed. The producer should introduce poults to water
by dipping their beaks in the water immediately they are placed on the
floor. Poults may be encouraged to drink and feed by hanging bright 100
watt bulb 1 m above litter level. Furthermore, poults may be encouraged
to eat by placing feed in small silver-coloured trays, and to drink by
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
placing coloured marbles in the drinkers. The heat source should be on

24 hours before the arrival of poults.
3.1.4 Brooding
The term brooding refers to the period of the poult’s life extending from
one day-old to about 6 weeks of age. Poults are usually placed in
brooder rings for the first 5 to 6 days. From 7 days to 5 weeks of age
depending on the sex of the bird, they are given from 0.9 to 1.4 m2 (1 to
1.5 square feet) of floor space per bird. During this time, the poult needs
supplemental heat, special starter feed, and protection from exposure to
disease. One way of reducing disease infestation is to separate the
brooding phase from the growing and reproductive phases.
3.1.4.1 Brooder Guards/Rings
In the early stages of brooding, it is ideal to confine newly hatched

poults to a smaller space to keep poults close to brooder stoves for heat,
feed and water for the first 5 to 7 days of age or longer in colder
weather. Brooder guards usually consist of a 30 to 45 cm wide strip of
hard board which has been cut to an appropriate length in order to form
a ring 2.4 to 3.6 m in diameter. It is set up in the pen where the chicks
are placed, and is removed once they are a few days 1 old and have
started jumping over it. The size of the guards is increased as poults get
older to give them enough room to move about or to move away from
brooder as temperature gets higher than they can tolerate.
3.1.4.2 Brooder Stove Arrangement and Temperature
Usually, each brooder has three drinkers and at least three feeders. As
mentioned earlier, to encourage day-old poults (DOP) to start eating and
drinking, three to five clean egg flats or some newspapers may be placed
around each brooder with feed sprinkled on each one. Drinkers are
placed next to the feeders. Depending on the season, brooders should be
adjusted in such a way that it provides a comfortable environment for
the poults. The height of the brooder stoves may need to be increased
slightly each day after 2 days of age. Brooders in curtain type buildings
do not have to be raised often, but need to be adjusted to keep poults
from roosting on them and burning their foot pads. The temperature for
DOPs should be around 35 °C, as DOPs need plenty of heat. This
61
temperature should be reduced by 1 °C every three days until a

temperature of 21 °C is reached. Temperatures are used only as guides
because the best way to adjust the temperature for the comfort of the
poults is to observe their behaviour, if poults crowd near the heat source
and chirp loudly, it means the temperature is too low. If they move well
away from the heat source and start panting, they are too hot. Ideally
they should be fairly quiet and spread evenly under and around the heat
source.
3.1.5 Lighting
Constant lighting at a fairly high intensity (20-50 lux) is required to aid

poults in getting used to their new environment as well as to find the
water and feed. Light intensity is lowered to 5 lux after about 5-7 days.
At this light intensity it is nearly impossible to read a newspaper in the
shelter. The lower light intensity helps to minimize cannibalism. After
3-7 days, lighting programs that reduce the number of hours of light a
day during the growing period can be used to reduce the incidence of
various metabolic diseases and lame birds when raising broilers or
turkeys. Reducing day length to 8-12 hours per day, even having lights
on only during natural day light hours should help reduce the number of
lame and diseased birds. If continuous light is used, an hour of darkness
should be provided daily to prevent crowding and piling up in corners
(causing suffocation) when a power failure occurs. Birds raised for egg-
laying purposes should be provided a maximum of 8-10 hours of light
daily until they are sexually mature and produce eggs, which is usually
at 20 weeks of age.
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
Fig. 11: Turkey Production
During the first week of brooding, small amounts of feed should be

provided in feed trays, box lids, egg flats and/or spread on newspapers
on litter to encourage them to feed. Also, placing feed and water close
together in the first few days of brooding assists the chicks to eat and
drink, thus reducing mortality due to starvation. However, after a few
days feed should be placed immediately adjacent to drinkers to prevent
wet feed and dirty water.
3.1.7 Debeaking (beak trimming)
Poults should be debeaked in order to control feather picking and

cannibalism, especially if they are raised in confinement. Debeaking is
carried out at 10 days of age to prevent cannibalism.
63
3.1.8 Desnooding
The removal of the snood or dew-bill (the tubular fleshy appendage on

top of the head near the front) is referred to as “desnooding”. It helps to
prevent the head injuries from picking or fighting and may reduce the
spread of erysipelas should this disease get started in the flock. The
snood can be removed at one-day-old by thumbnail and finger pressure.
After about three weeks, it can be cut off close to the head with sharp,
pointed scissors.
3.1.9 Toe Clipping
Toe clipping or removal of toenails is usually carried out at the hatchery,

but toes of turkeys as old as five weeks can be clipped when turkeys are
debeaked. Toe clipping can improve the grade of processed turkeys.
Turkeys in large groups, especially when excited, often step on each
other causing scratches or skin tears on the backs and sides. The
problem is aggravated with increased flock sizes and densities,
especially when turkeys are reared in confinement. The most common
form of toe clipping involves cutting the inside and middle toe (front) on
each foot. Toes can be cut with surgical scissors, a nail clipper or a
modified hot-blade debeaker.
Nutritional requirements of growing turkeys and breeders have been

extensively researched. The modern turkey nutritionist uses formulas
developed by scientific research and modifies these to meet the needs of
a particular strain of turkey. A turkey diet containing 24% and 28%
crude protein (CP) should be fed until 8 weeks of age. Ideally, a diet
containing 28% CP should be fed for the first 4 weeks of life and
thereafter CP reduced to 24% for the next 4 weeks. The protein level is
further reduced to 20% and fed until marketing age. A conventional
feeding program for turkey toms (males) is given in Table 3.
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
Table 3: Nutrient Requirements of Turkeys According to Age
Diet Age CP ME Meth. Meth&Cys Lys Ca Av.Phosphorus

Starter 1 0-2 weeks 28.00 2850. 0.70 1.10 1.70 1.4 0.80
00 0
Starter 2 2-4weeks 26.00 2950. 0.62 1.00 1.60 1.3 0.70
00 0
Grower 1 4-8weeks 23.00 2050. 0.60 0.90 1.45 1.2 0.60
00 0
Grower 2 8- 20.00 3150. 0.55 0.82 1.30 1.1 0.50
12weeks 00 0
Developer 12- 18.00 3225. 0.50 0.79 1.00 0.9 0.45
15weeks 00 0
Finisher 1 12- 16.00 3300. 0.45 0.65 0.90 0.9 0.45
(female) 16weeks 00 0
Finisher 2 15- 16.00 3350. 0.40 0.62 0.80 0.8 0.40
(male) 18weeks 00 0
Finisher 2 15- 16.00 3250. 0.38 0.60 0.75 0.9 0.40
(male) 20weeks 00 0
CP – crude protein; ME – Metabolizable energy: Meth – methionine;
Cys – cystine; Ca – calcium; Av. Phosphorus – available Phosphorus.
Source: Leeson& Summers (1997)
65
Table 4: Growth Rate, Feed, and Energy Consumption of Large-

type Turkeys
Age Body Body Feed Cumulative feed ME
weight weight consumption consumption consumption
per week per week
(kg): (kg): F (kg): (kg): (kg): M (kg): F (Mcal): (Mcal):
M M F M F
1 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.30 0.30
weeks
2 0.27 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.30 0.27 0.60 0.50
weeks
3 0.58 0.47 0.45 0.39 0.75 0.66 1.1 0.80
weeks
4 1.0 0.70 0.61 0.46 1.36 1.12 1.7 1.2
weeks
5 1.5 1.1 0.70 0.60 2.06 1.72 2.3 1.6
weeks
6 2.0 1.6 0.86 0.76 2.92 2.48 2.9 2.1
weeks
7 2.6 2.1 1.08 0.89 4.00 3.37 3.5 2.6
weeks
8 3.3 2.6 1.30 1.04 5.30 4.41 4.1 3.1
weeks
9 4.0 3.1 1.51 1.18 6.81 5.59 4.8 3.6
weeks
10 4.7 3.7 1.78 1.34 8.59 6.93 5.2 4.1
weeks
11 5.5 4.3 1.99 1.47 10.58 8.40 5.7 4.6
weeks
12 6.3 4.8 2.25 1.59 12.83 9.99 6.3 5.1
weeks
13 7.1 5.3 2.51 1.70 15.34 11.69 7.1 5.5
weeks
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
14 8.0 5.8 2.66 1.75 18.00 13.44 7.8 5.8

weeks
15 8.8 6.3 2.89 1.82 20.89 15.26 8.4 6.1
weeks
16 9.7 6.7 3.05 1.92 23.94 17.18 8.8 6.4
weeks
17 10.5 7.1 3.13 2.03 27.03 19.21 9.6 6.7
weeks
18 11.3 7.5 3.27 2.07 30.34 21.28 10.2 6.9
weeks
19 12.1 7.8 3.43 2.15 33.77 23.43 10.9 7.1
weeks
20 12.8 8.1 3.60 2.23 37.37 25.66 11.6 7.3
weeks
21 13.5 3.71 41.08 12.5
weeks
22 14.2 3.82 44.90 12.9
weeks
23 14.8 3.94 48.84 13.2
weeks
Source: Leeson& Summers (1997)
3.1.11Health Management
It appears that turkeys are rather susceptible to diseases, indicating that

they require a much higher level of management and skill than for other
domestic fowls. There are four primary causes of disease: genetics,
nutrition, environment and infection.
3.1.12Diseases
Some common diseases of turkeys include Blackhead, Newcastle

Disease (NCD), Erysipelas, Fowl Cholera, Fowl Pox and Haemorrhagic
Enteritis.
67
3.1.13 Blackhead Disease [Histomoniasis]
Blackhead disease, or more correctly, histomoniasis, is primarily a

disease of young turkeys. Chickens are more resistant to the effects of
the infection but may act as carriers of the disease-causing organism.
Histomoniasis is caused by a microscopic protozoan called
HistomonasMeleagridis. The name blackhead is a poor descriptive term
because the heads of the birds infected with this parasite are not dark.
The protozoan causes considerable damage to the liver and ceca of
infected turkeys, and the untreated birds usually die.
3.1.13.1 Signs
A decrease in feed consumption and loss of weight may be the first signs
observed. Sick birds appear dull and depressed, and often stand by
themselves with dropping trails, ruffled feathers, and a sleepy
appearance. Sulphur colored yellow droppings may be observed. If birds
are not treated, or if treatment is delayed, mortality may be very high.
Birds dying of histomoniasis have characteristic enlarged livers with
circular depressed areas and enlarged ceca containing a rather dry
cheesy material. Recovered birds may show swollen hard and scarred
livers at the time of slaughter.
3.1.13.2 Treatment
The drug Dimetridazole can be added to the drinking water or feed to

control outbreaks of histomoniasis. Other drugs occasionally are used
for treatment but are better used as preventatives. Sick birds should be
isolated from the main flock and treated separately. Dead birds should
be burned or buried deeply. All equipment used by an infected flock
should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.
3.1.13.3 Prevention and Control
The protozoa-causing blackhead may remain infective within the eggs of

the cecal worms in the soil for nearly three years therefore each flock of
new turkeys should be raised on new uncontaminated ground. Young
turkeys should never be reared near older turkeys or with chickens that
may carry the infection. In addition to domestic chickens, various wild
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
birds such as pheasant and grouse may serve as reservoirs of infection

for domestic turkeys.
The periodic moving of feeders, waterers, and roosts will help prevent
the local build-up of infective organisms. Good sanitation and litter
management will help prevent transmission of the cecal worm as well as
the blackhead organism. Many histiostats or preventative drugs are
available and they are commonly included in commercial turkey rations.
Because of the very serious nature of blackhead in turkeys, it is
advisable to develop a regular program of preventative drug treatment.
3.1.14Haemorrhagic Enteritis
Hemorrhagic Enteritis is an acute gastrointestinal disorder affecting

young turkeys. In its most severe form, it is characterised by depression,
bloody droppings, and substantial mortality.Hemorrhagic enteritis is
geographically widespread and considered endemic in areas where
turkeys are raised commercially. The usual route of infection is oral, and
virus is often introduced onto previously uninfected premises via
personnel or equipment contaminated withinfectious faeces. Turkey
poults aged less than 4 weeks are resistant to infection due to age-related
resistance or, the presence of maternal antibody. The virus may survive
under moist conditions in litter beyond the refractory period. Large
quantities of virus are shed in the faeces facilitating rapid spread of
disease. Morbidity usually approaches 100%. In addition to good
biosecurity, prevention hinges on the use of vaccines which are
administered in the water at 4-5 weeks of age.
3.1.15Erysipelas
Erysipelas occurs sporadically in poultry of all ages. Turkeys are

susceptible regardless of sex or age. Outbreaks usually occur suddenly,
with a few birds being found dead followed by increasing mortality on
subsequent days. Mortality may range from less than 1% to 50%. The
causative agent is Erysipelothrixrhusiopathiae. The organism is shed in
faeces from infected animals and contaminates the soil, in which it may
survive for long periods depending on temperature and pH. The onset of
cold and rainy weather is associated with disease occurrence. Poultry, as
well as other animals, may be carriers and shed the organism without
showing clinical signs of disease.
69
In addition to causing mortalities, the disease reduces the fertility status

of toms. Marketing losses may also result from condemnations or
downgrading of carcasses due to the evidence of septicaemia or lack of
finish. Erysipelas is controlled by vaccination using both inactivated and
live vaccines.
3.1.16 Biosecurity
Biosecurity is utilisation of measures which can stop or slow down the

introduction and spread of infection into or between components of
production systems. It includes managing people, equipment, pests and
their potential for carrying diseases into a flock. Biosecurity must be a
priority to control infectious disease and minimize introduction of
pathogens into flocks.
Biosecurity measures include:
 allow only necessary visitors to production sites;

 install fence enclosures;
 control movement of workers and equipment between shelters,
production sites and age groups;
 provide foot baths, showers and protective clothing at strategic
points;
 reduce microbial load on trucks and equipment by washing and
disinfecting at critical times;
 locate production sites strategically in relation to other production
sites and movement of poultry to minimize transfer of disease
causing organisms;
 control rodents and wild birds effectively, both of which are
potential disease vectors; and
 confine pets away from commercial poultry.
Immediately following depopulation, the buildings and equipment

should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before new birds are
introduced. Manure should be removed and disposed of at least 1 km
away from the production sites. Mortality disposal should also form part
of the biosecurity protocol.
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
3.1.17Marketing
Traditionally, Turkeys are sold at Christmas and Easter as big birds,

ranging from 2.5 to over 5.0 kg in size (dressed weight). However, this
requirement is gradually changing as families prefer to buy smaller one-
meal birds all year round. It is, however, apparent that sales of turkey
meat are high at the end of the year.Hens are marketed between 14 and
16 weeks of age. At this age hens will typically weigh from 6.67 to
7.98kg. Toms are often marketed between 17 and 20 weeks of age and
will weigh 11.97 to 14.65kg. Market age is determined by the product
being produced. Most integrators produce both whole bodied and further
processed products.
About 70% of all turkeys grown are further processed. For this market,
the industry prefers to grow toms, because their larger weight is
advantageous. However, many hens are also further processed even
though the unit cost is higher with the lighter weight. About 16% of all
turkeys are processed for the whole body market. A larger proportion of
hens are sold as whole body due to the preference for further processing
the larger toms. About 14% of all turkeys produced are processed as
parts. In the past, parts like wings and drums were often sold at greatly
reduced prices.
3.2 Ostrich Production
The Ostrich, a flightless bird that belongs to the Ratite family and
originated from Africa, is the world’s largest living bird. When fully
grown, the ostrich weighs approximately 204.12kg and stands eight-
feet-tall. Ostrich production can be adopted by small scale and part–time
farmers with adequate investment capital because land and husbandry
requirements are minimal.The ostrich is a very adaptable animal, one
that can thrive in many different environments. In the wild, the ostrich
may not reach sexual maturity until age four or five years, but in
captivity two to three years is normal with the female likely to reach
sexual maturity earlier than the male. The male, which may in some
cases stand nine to ten feet tall and weigh in excess of 90.72kg, displays
black and white feathers. The color of the feathers is much brighter
during mating season. The hen is somewhat smaller than the male and
the feathers are more gray and drab.
71
The ostrich is the largest known bird and some scientists believe that the
present bird developed from ancestors that were capable of flight. The
ostrich of today cannot fly, but does run well and is capable of speeds of
50 miles per hour with strides of 15 feet (for very large bird the stride
may be 20 feet or more). The feet of the ostrich have only two toes, the
only bird that does. It has been said that the ostrich may hide its head in
the sand, but this seems to be a myth. Instead the birds crouch very low
to the ground and extend their neck and head along the ground in an
attempt to blend into the surroundings. The bird does not always run and
hide and is capable of kicking with a force of as much as 226.79kg per
square foot. The kick of the ostrich is usually forward and down, so
approaching an aggressive bird from the back or side may be safer.
Animals may be more docile if their head is covered with a sock or cloth
sack.
3.2.1 Establishing
An ostrich operation can be established in several ways.
 The producer can purchase and incubate eggs. This method is

lowest in cost, but also highest in risk. Ostrich eggs are white and
easily candled; their fertility can be guaranteed once incubation is
started. However, a sound knowledge of ostrich egg incubation is
required for a successful hatch.
 The producer can purchase chicks more than three months old
(the highest mortality rate is from one day to three months).
Although more expensive than purchasing eggs or hatchlings, the
purchase of chicks at this age will probably prove more cost
effective because the mortality rate is greatly reduced after the
age of three months.
 The producer can purchase yearlings or young adults. While

yearlings are more expensive than chicks, yearlings should be
productive within two years.
 The most costly method is the purchase of proven breeders, pairs

of birds that have produced fertile eggs together. This method of
buying will allow production to begin in the next season.
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
Egg production will begin when the female is sexually mature (usually
at approximately two years of age) and if she is mating with the male.
Egg production will likely begin about five to ten days after the first
mating. The male usually scratches out a crude nest in the dirt and the
female will then deposit the eggs in the nest. The number of eggs varies
widely with 15 to 20 being considered normal. Removing the eggs from
the nest encourages the female to produce more eggs. The eggs usually
weigh about 1.25kg and take 42 days to hatch.
3.2.3 Incubation and Brooding
Under natural conditions both the male and female sit on the eggs. The
hen usually sits during the day and the cock usually sits at night. The
incubation process takes about 42 days to complete.
3.2.3.1Artificial Incubation of Eggs
Most producers prefer to use artificial incubation rather than natural

incubation to hatch eggs. When eggs are collected, they should be stored
in a cool place until incubation begins. A temperature of 55 to 65° F and
a humidity of 75 percent are suggested for storage of the eggs. Daily
turning of the eggs and setting within five to seven days is also
necessary to maintain maximum hatchability. Eggs which need cleaning
can be carefully sanded to remove any adhering dirt. In the case of
extremely dirty eggs, washing can be an alternative as long as clean
wash water is used and the temperature should be at least 10 degrees
warmer than the eggs (do not use hot water).
The incubator should be tested for at least 12 hours prior to placing eggs
inside. In this way, the temperature control can be properly adjusted
before the incubation process starts. It is important that the incubator be
cleaned and disinfected prior to use. The appropriate temperature for
incubation of ostrich eggs is 100° F. Eggs should be positioned with the
large end up, and if possible, at a 45 degree angle. Positioning eggs on
the side is also acceptable. The eggs should be turned at least twice daily
(up to eight times per day is better) until the 39th day. Egg should be
marked on each side (perhaps with an X or 0) to ensure that all eggs are
turned. Ostrich eggs seem to yield better results at humidity of 25 to 40
73
percent. Eggs can be candled to determine fertility after about two

weeks. Once identified, infertile eggs should be removed from the
incubator. After the 39th day the eggs can be moved to a hatcher if
desired. When hatched the chicks will appear mottled yellow-brown.
The chicks can safely go without feed for a few hours after hatching
since they receive nourishment from a portion of the egg yolk that is
drawn into the body prior to hatching. As soon as the chicks are dry they
can be removed from the incubator or hatcher and transferred to the
brooding area.
3.2.4 Brooding
The brooding period is a very critical time and can be a time of high
mortality if proper management is not used. The brooding area should
always be clean and sanitary and have protection from the weather. A
source of heat should be provided for the brooding area. Chicks will
need access to temperatures of approximately 90° F for the first 10 to 14
days. The temperature can be reduced a few degrees each week until the
chicks can survive without supplemental heat. (A few days or a few
weeks depending on environmental temperatures.) Chicks will usually
demonstrate the need for more or less heat by their actions. If they
huddle close to the heat source additional heat may be necessary, while
if they are grouped as far from the heat as possible, less heat and more
fresh air may be needed. Maintaining the brooding area at a uniform
temperature rather than having just one heat source may be preferred
since the likelihood of chicks getting too far from the heat and getting
chilled is minimized.
The floor of the brooding area should not be slick because chicks may
slip and leg damage (spraddle legged) can result. Slick material such as
plastic, newspaper, or cardboard should not be used to cover the floor.
Usually the floor should be covered with some sort of absorbent material
such as wood shavings, straw, rice hulls, or clean sand. Producers
should be aware that gastric impactions may become problems since
ostrich chicks are prone to eat large quantities of these materials. To
prevent this problem it may be desirable to cover the litter with
something like burlap or a similar material. After about two weeks this
covering can be removed, but the chicks still need to be watched to be
sure they are not eating the litter. Throughout the time when litter is
used it should be stirred to encourage drying and any wet caked litter
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
removed from the pen or house. A rake or pitch fork can be used for
small areas, but for large areas a roto-tiller may be necessary.
When birds are old enough to be moved outside, the pen areas should be
managed like those for other types of animals and should be well
drained and clean. Even older chicks and young adult birds are prone to
eat almost anything, so range or pen areas should be free of trash and
litter, small rocks, or other material that could become a problem if
eaten. In addition, the birds will need some type of shelter at night and
during extremely cold weather.
3.2.5 Mating
It is advisable to keep the males and females separated prior to pairing

for mating. The birds will likely be more docile and easier to control. At
the time of pairing, the ostriches should be kept in a pen or paddock
away from other birds. The pen should be fenced with a smooth wire
fence approximately five to six feet high. The pair will likely prepare a
nest which will consist of a shallow depression in the ground. If for
some reason, the pair does not make a nest or if no eggs are produced,
another pairing should be tried. A second pairing is sometimes helpful if
the hen stops laying. Some producers have been successful with
breeding pens with one male and two to four females. If this program is
used, extra time may be required to determine if all females are mating
and laying eggs. If no eggs are being produced by some of the females, a
change in the breeding pens may be necessary.
3.2.6 Nutrition
As with any livestock, the nutritional needs of ostriches are different at

different stages of development
Hatchlings – hatching to two days of age. Provide water and start

chicks on a good quality turkey or game bird starter ration containing at
least 26 percent protein. Chicks should receive continuous light. The
first week after hatching it is imperative that the yolk sac be completely
absorbed. Running seems to help the chick absorb the yolk sac. This is
the most difficult stage in raising ostriches. Chicks will eat anything and
tend to eat too much. Clogging together (i.e sleeping on one another) is
the most common reason for motarlity.
75
Chicks – two days after hatch to approximately six months of age. Feed
a good starter crumble either from the ratite rations developed by feed
companies or a regular chicken starter with at least 26 percent protein.
Chicks should receive the starter crumble ration at all times during the
first three weeks. After the first three weeks, feed all they can consume
in two, short (20 minutes), daily feeding periods. Alfalfa pellets should
be available on a continuous basis. Vitamins and electrolytes for poultry
should be added to the drinking water at the recommended level for the
first two to three weeks of age.
Yearlings – six months to approximately 18 months of age. Use a

commercial ratite grower feed or a turkey-broiler grower feed. Protein
should be 24 to 26 percent and fiber should be 11 to 12 percent when the
birds are not on grass.
Adult – when the birds are sexually mature. Use a layer ration or a
breeder ration from a commercial feed company and supplemental
alfalfa pellets or cubes. Pellets or cubes are less wasteful and easier to
feed than hay. Always have clean water available to all birds at all
stages of development. Waterers should be rinsed daily and scrubbed
with soap and water every three days. Grit is also essential to an ostrich
diet. Small stones or commercial grit is best.
3.2.7 Housing and Fencing
Each pair of ostriches should be considered individually, but the

following recommendations can be used as guidelines for fencing, pen
size, and shelter. Ostriches require high tensile or mesh fence that will
not allow them to get their heads or legs caught. Ostriches can be quite
aggressive and will bite or nip. They will reach over, though, and under
any type of fence if possible, and can hurt themselves if their necks or
legs get caught. Ostriches can grow to more than eight-feet-tall, so the
fencing should be at least six-feet high around a recommended running
area of one to three acres. Ostriches need shelter from the extreme cold
of winter and heat of summer. The shelter is best placed inside the
fenced area where ostriches will have free access. The design of the
shelter can range from a plywood three-sided building to a small barn
that can be heated if necessary. A shelter measuring 20 feet by 20 feet is
adequate for a breeder pair.
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
3.2.8 Managing for Health and Productivity
Ostriches have developed unique characteristics in order to adapt and

survive. These characteristics make ostriches different from other birds
in terms of management and nutrition. To ensure ostriches are healthy
and productive, appropriate management is important. Consider the
following:
 When changing from one feed to another, do so gradually over a

ten-day period.
 Make certain your birds get enough exercise. Exercise helps to

prevent leg problems and decrease the incidence of impactions.
 Minimize moving birds from one location to another, either

within the same production unit or to another.
 Carefully check pens for and remove any object that can be
picked up and swallowed.
 Mixing grit with feed may help to decrease the incidence of

impactions.
3.3 Goose Production
The rearing of geese can be a profitable enterprise on a farm. Goslings

can be purchased directly from a licensed hatchery at day old. Improved
crosses of geese are available that give better results in terms of weight
gain and feed conversion efficiency than the traditional breeds. Goose
meat is a luxury priced food when compared with any of the other
poultry meats.
3.3.1 Brooding
Brooding is the management practice by which young poultry are

subjected immediately after hatching and for geese, this is considered to
be the first three weeks of life. The most important aspect of brooding is
to provide extra heat so that there will be no temperature shock when the
newly hatched goslings are moved from the incubator to the area where
they will be brooded and grown. To ensure that the temperature in the
brooding area is stable, it is important that the heat sources be turned on
77
at least 24 hours before the goslings arrive (Fig 12, 13).Success in

raising geese depends to a large extent on the care and attention the
young birds receive during the brooding period. Frequent management
checks to make sure that the goslings are comfortable and have enough
feed and water is one of the surest ways of raising healthy goslings.
Almost any building can be used for brooding geese providing it is dry,
clean and free of draughts and vermin. It is important to remember that
the colder the ambient temperature of the room or building where the
goslings are being brooded, the more heat will be required from the
localized brooder heat source to maintain the temperature where the
birds are located. Any brooder heat source that can be used for chickens
can be used for goslings with the recommendation, depending on
ambient temperature, that the number of goslings does not exceed one-
third to half the number of chicks.
Energy sources may include electricity, oil, coal, natural gas, propane or
other organic fuel. Normally the areas where the brooder heat sources
are located will have a protective guard placed around them to reduce
draughts and to ensure that the goslings will not stray from the heat
source. This guard need only be in place for the first 2-3 days of the
brooding period. A circular area is preferable for this purpose as it
prevents the goslings from crowding into a corner.
Fig. 12: Newly Hatched Goslings with Feed, Water and a Protective
Guard(Source: Buckland, 1995)
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
Fig. 13: A pen with automatic feeders, drinkers and an electric heat
source ready to receive goslings. (Source: Buckland, 1995)
When goslings arrive, the temperature at bird level directly under the
heat source should be 36-37°C which can be reduced to 32-33°C at the
end of the first week and to 23-25°C by the end of the second week.
After the third week, no further additional heat source should be
required unless the ambient temperature in the building is below 20°C.
The best guide to deciding when to reduce the temperature and when to
remove the brooding heat source is the behaviour of the goslings. If they
are too cold, they will be huddled together close to the heat source and if
they are too warm they will be far away from the heat source as for other
poultry birds.
The goose has the fastest initial growth rate of birds kept for meat
production (table 5). This rapid growth rate, combined with the fact that
they are susceptible to overcrowding, means that it is very important that
geese have adequate space during the brooding period. On average,
maximum density per square metre should not exceed 14-20 birds
during the first week, 7-14 birds during the second week and 4-5 birds
during the third week.
Even during the brooding period when the goslings are two weeks of
age, they can be let out to graze, provided the weather is warm and it is
not raining. This can reduce the building space requirements per gosling.
Goslings should not be permitted out in heavy, cold rain until about five
weeks of age, since before that they do not have sufficient feather cover
to protect them.
79
Almost any material can be used as a source of bedding for goslings e.g.
straw, wood shavings, rice hulls etc. provided the material is dry, highly
absorbent and that it is not easily compacted. These points are important
for goslings as their droppings are moist and they tend to spill water
onto the litter. For these reasons, it is recommended that the water be
placed on wire mesh or on plastic or wooden slats which are supported
by a frame to prevent spilled water from wetting the litter
TABLE 5: Growth Rate of Goslings from Hatching to three weeks

of age
Male Female
Egg Wt 170.1 170.1
Hatching wt (g) 104.9 104.3
1 week wt (g) 307.9 295.9
2 week wt (g) 800.0 755.8
3 week wt (g) 1513.0 1365.5
(Source: Willin, 1995)

The watering space recommended during the brooding period is a
minimum of 2 cm per bird and this can be provided by either a circular
drinker or a linear drinking trough. Goslings require 1.5 cm of feeder
space per bird which can be provided either with a double-sided linear
feeder or with a circular feeder. For the first 24 hours after hatching, it is
advisable to provide additional, more accessible feed to ensure that all
goslings start to eat immediately. This feed can be put in egg trays
which are placed on the litter in the brooding area for easy access.
During the brooding period, a waterfowl starter ration in the form of

either crumbles or small pellets is recommended and should be fed Ad
libitum. These starter rations normally have a crude protein level of
between 16.0-18.0 percent and a metabolisable energy level of between
2600-2900 kcal ME/kg (table 6). If a goose starter ration is not available
then a chicken starter ration of similar protein and energy levels can be
used. Mash feed can also be used if neither crumbles nor pellets are
available. In many low-income and food-deficient countries, where feed
mills do not exist, farmers must use the local sources of nutrients to
provide essential nutrients such as ground cereals and chopped fresh
grass. Such feeding systems, however, are usually protein deficient and
can lead to very slow growth. If it is possible, the diet should be
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
balanced with a supplement high in protein content such as soybeans,

cotton seed or peanuts.
The total feed consumption for goslings, depending on breed, for this
initial three week period will be between 2.5-2.7 kg of starter ration.
Goslings will consume between 7-8 litres of water during this period. If
the goslings have access to high quality forage (ryegrass, white clover,
cabbage, or even nettles) during the three week brooding period, this
could reduce their intake of the complete ration by as much as 20
percent.
When the goslings are three weeks old, it is possible to restrict their feed
intake up to 75 percent of Ad libitum. However, where a higher level of
restriction must be exercised because of a shortage of either a starter
ration or mixed grains, then every effort must be made to provide the
goslings with young tender forage either through direct grazing or by
cutting and carrying the forage to them. Fresh kitchen and/or garden
waste may also be used during this period. If the goslings are required to
graze, then any starter ration or mixed grains should be fed at night so
that during the day the goslings will be hungry. This will increase their
forage intake. If feed restriction is practised at this young age, it is very
important to keep a close watch on the goslings to see that they remain
in good health.
Ration 1 Ration 2
Energy (Kcal ME/kg) 2600 2800

Crude Protein (%) 15.8 17.0
Amino acid
Lysine 0.89 0.95
Methionine 0.40 0.42
Sulphur Amino acid 0.79 0.85
Tryptophan 0.17 0.18
Threonine 0.58 0.62
Mineral (%)
Calcium 0.75 0.80
Total Phosphorus 0.67 0.70
Available Phosp. 0.42 0.45
Sodium 0.14 0.15
Chloride 0.13 0.14
Table 6:Recommended dietary energy, crude protein, amino acid and mineral levels
for Goslings during the brooding period of three weeks
(Source: Leclercq et al., 1987).
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3.3.2 Growing
After the brooding period geese can be grown to market weight under
either intensive confinement conditions, extensive range-type conditions
or a mixture of the two. The growing facility need not be sophisticated
since these birds are not demanding - a simple shelter should be
adequate. The most important factor is to ensure that the goslings are
warm during the brooding period and protected from sun, heavy rain and
predators, especially during the night. In hot countries, a wooden shelter
is sufficient for this purpose.
The growing of geese in confinement permits greater control of the

environment (Fig 14). Although this has a number of advantages, it does
not, however, capitalise on the goose's natural capacity to consume and
utilise large volumes of forage. When they are grazing, geese consume
not only grass, but also insects, snails, worms, etc. which can provide
about 10 percent of their total protein intake. Furthermore, the strong
legs of the goose combined with its aquatic tendencies means it can
travel long distances if required to consume forage both on land and in
the water. Finally, the production of geese on extensive pasture type
conditions eliminates the need for expensive housing and equipment and
requires only drinkers, feeders, fencing and shelters for shade.
Because of the relatively high cost of the buildings and equipment

needed when raising geese under confined conditions, geese are
normally brought to market weight as quickly as possible. Broiler type
geese can go to market at 8-9 weeks of age at a body weight of 4.0 kg
and heavy type geese can go to market at 12-14 weeks of age at a body
weight of 6.0 kg. This means that geese produced under these systems
are generally not plucked during the growing period
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Fig. 14: Geese in Floor Pens being Fattened for Market

(Source: Buckland, 1995).
Geese grown in confinement are generally raised on deep litter which is

considered the classical system of poultry production. However, they
may also be grown on a raised floor of wooden slates, plastic slats,
heavy wire mesh or expanded metal without exhibiting any of the
problems of breast blisters etc. so common with chicken broilers grown
under these systems. The advantages of the raised floor systems are:
 approximately twice as many birds can be housed per square

metre;
 the droppings pass through the floor to a pit or the ground below;
 any water spilled from the drinkers passes through the floor and
does not cause any problem
 the risk of parasite infection is reduced.
With the deep litter system, the drinkers should be located on a wire or
slatted area so that spilled water does not wet the litter. One practice is
to have one third of the floor space elevated with wire mesh or wooden
or plastic slats to accommodate the drinkers.Under intensive confined
conditions, geese should receive 15 cm of feeding space per bird. If at
any time restricted feeding is practised, irrespective of the system used,
it is vital that sufficient feeder space is provided so that all birds can eat
at the same time. If this is not done, the more timid birds will simply not
get any feed as it will be all gone by the time they get to the feeder.
The watering space per bird should be about 5 cm per bird. Drinkers
must be of a durable nature and should not be large. A drinker 20 cm
square and 10 cm deep to contain about 3 cm of water is recommended
83
by some producers, while both commercial hog and cattle drinkers have
been reported to work very well with geese. It is important that the
drinker does not spill a lot of water. When automatic drinkers are not
available, it is possible to use any ordinary container, but it must be
filled often to provide abundant fresh water. It is useful to adapt the
containers so that the birds cannot bath in them.
The type of feed generally fed during the growing period is a pelted
waterfowl growing ration ranging from 10-13 percent crude protein with
a metabolisable energy level of 2 700-2 900 kcal ME/kg. If such rations
are not available then a chicken broiler or a chicken roaster ration of
similar nutrient density can be used. While the recommendation is to use
a pelted or crumbled feed for growing geese, in many parts of the world
these are not available and, in such cases, the rations can be fed as a
mash.The main advantage of growing of geese for meat under extensive
conditions is the goose's unique ability to utilise high-fibre feeds and
thus use a variety of types of forage. This ability holds true whether the
geese are kept under well-managed pasture systems or under less
structured scavenging systems.
Under extensive management conditions, geese will generally reach

market weight at a later age than under confinement. In fact, the age at
which geese go to market may not depend on their ability to grow, but
rather on whether:
 the birds are to be plucked before they go to market

 the birds are to meet a particular market demand at a particular
time.
Providing geese with access to good quality pasture during the growing
period, even without any form of feed restriction, can result in
substantial savings with respect to grain consumption. Restricting the
feeding of grain in any form while geese are on pasture is a very popular
practice and one that is recommended. Depending on the level of
restriction, it is a practice that can ensure the maximum use of available
forage or any other feedstuffs. Almost all kinds of grain can be used in
combination with pasture feeding.
The greater the level of feed restriction, the more forage the geese will
consume and the less selective they will be in what they eat. If
necessary, geese will travel considerable distances to obtain forage. The
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
level of feed restriction that is practised will depend on a number of

factors. For example, if there are no alternative energy-protein sources
available, then the level of restriction will be severe and the dependency
on foraging and/or scavenging will be high. Under these conditions, the
geese should be monitored closely, particularly if severe restriction is
begun prior to three weeks of age. If the quality of the local forage is
low and there are no other supplementary feeds, then there may be a
need to cut and carry forage to the geese.
This forage should be of the highest possible quality. If good forage is

available, then even with small amounts of grain, high quality geese can
be produced. The only difference is that they will be ready for market at
an older age and the carcass will be leaner than that produced by a high
grain (energy) ration. Even when available grain is not a constraint, it
may be desirable to restrict grain intake to maximise the use of any
available forage, and a restriction of between 0.5-1.0 kg of grain per
goose per week is recommended. However, to achieve the desired
market weight and have adequate fleshing, it is recommended that the
geese be fed a complete ration for the last 2-3 weeks before killing.
When planting a pasture specifically for geese, it should be noted that
they will eat almost any grass or clover species although they do not like
alfalfa as much as other clovers. One pasture mixture that has been
recommended in Great Britain consists of Perenial Ryegrass
(Loliumperenne L.), Timothy (Phleumpratense L.) and White Clover
(Trifoliumrepens L.). Stocking densities for geese on pasture are around
150 geese per hectare depending on the quality of the forage and how
fast it is growing. Geese like new growth, so pasture management
should be practised and it should include rotation and clipping.
To summarise, the management of geese under extensive conditions

both in managed pastures and under extensive scavenger situations is, in
many respects, similar:
 the behavioural characteristics of geese lend themselves to

extensive management systems because they have a natural
tendency to flock and at the end of a day will return home on
their own accord;
 it is very important that geese are provided with a natural or man-
made shelter to provide protection from the sun;
 they must have water available at all times and feeders must be
built so that the feed remains dry in case of rain;
85
 if predators are a problem, fences and secure housing at night

must be provided.
3.3.3 Marketing
The market is specialised and should be secured before investing in a

goose enterprise. Geese will be presented ready to cook. They can be
humanely killed by stunning and dislocation of the neck or by cutting
the carotid artery. Dry plucking is slow and tedious but gives a good
finish when combined with wax plucking. Wet plucking is fast and
efficient but the birds will have a short shelf life.
3.4 Guinea Fowl Production
Guinea fowl belongs to the pheasant family. The bird is commonly

found in the Western, Central and Southern parts of Africa. The name
“Guinea fowl” is derived from the Guinea coast of Africa, which is
where the birds are believed to have originated. In West Africa, the grey
breasted and helmeted varieties are common in the areas bordering the
Sahara. In Nigeria, many household in the north keep guinea fowls, and
the meat and eggs are very popular. The flesh is white and delicate with
distinctive game flavour and the carcasses weigh between (0.5-1.0kg) at
ten weeks, which make them suitable table birds for the small family.
3.4.1 Advantages of keeping Guinea Fowl
 The guinea fowls are always more capable of coping with the
effects of dry weather conditions prevailing in the Northern
Guinea Savanna and the Sahelian ecological zones than other
domestic poultry.
 Guinea fowls are apparently free from the poultry diseases that
are worrisome to most farmers and scientists.
 In many urban homes, the guinea fowl meat is used as substitute
for game birds. The flesh of young guinea fowl is tender and has
a fine flavor resembling that of white game.
 The guinea fowl egg commands premium market prices because
of the gammy flavor and has better storage ability than the
chicken egg. The egg shell does not crack easily due to thickness.
The eggs are believed to enhance virility and sexual potency.
 Guinea fowls with their eggs are used for scientific research,
notably in physiology studies.
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
 The birds are less expensive to buy by a beginner and are less of
financial risk to maintain on the farm.
 The over 50 million semi-domesticated guinea fowls in Nigeria
constitute about 25% of the entire domestic poultry population in
Nigeria, making it a variable source of animal protein which is
socially acceptable.
3.4.2 Varieties of Guinea Fowl
1. Pearl variety
This guinea fowl has a purplish gray plumage, regularly dotted or
splashed with white. The bird is so handsome that the feathers are
often used for ornamental purposes. The pearl variety of guinea
fowl is the most popular in this country.
2. The grey breasted variety

This guinea fowl has gray or white breast feathers with the
plumage like that of the pearl variety. These two varieties are the
most common guinea fowls in Nigeria and do have great
potential for commercial production in the poultry industry
because of their wide acceptability.
3. The Lavender Variety

This guinea fowl also resemble the pearl variety, but the plumage
is light gray or lavender regularly dotted with white markings.
4. The White Variety

This variety like the name indicates has a pure white plumage. Its
skin is lighter in color than that of the pearl variety. The pure
white color of this variety is definitely advantageous with respect
to minimizing heat stress during the excessive heat period.
3.4.3 Production Systems
The systems of keeping guinea fowls like in the other poultry species
refer to the extent to which the birds are allowed access to green runs
(pasture) and exposure to sunshine. The different management systems
for raising guinea fowls are as below:
87
1. Extensive (free range) system
This system of guinea fowl management is the most common in Nigeria,

and suitable for those farmers with lot of land and fields for pasture. In
this management system, the birds are not confined and thus are free to
fend for their won feed and roost, as well as ridding the field of insect
pests and weed seeds. Because the birds find their own food and shelter,
the management is almost at no cost to the farmer. However, the free
range management system cannot be practiced on an intensive
commercial scale as the birds could easily revert to the feral state and
might not be easily caught when needed. Also, on free range, the birds
are exposed to climatic conditions which often result in heavy losses,
predatory beast, parasites and infectious diseases. This system of
production is therefore not recommended for intensive commercial scale
but for the small scale back-yard production.
2. Semi intensive system
This system requires a permanent housing with attached fenced runs or

pasture. They should be in the minimum, two pasture area. The birds
should have access to each plot in turn while the other pasture is rested
and the number of birds raised depends on the amount of land available.
This method is particularly suitable where land is limited and small
holder farms. Under the semi intensive system, disease condition could
be common and therefore requires close monitoring and control. At the
present levels of guinea fowl production in Nigeria, this system seems
suitable and is therefore recommended.
Intensive System
This is the system which is used commercially and involves confining

the birds indoors either in battery cages or on deep litter within a large
controlled environment. The food and water requirement of the birds are
made available all the time.In Nigeria, rearing guinea fowl on the deep
litter at commercial level of production is common. The deep litter
system consists of solid buildings with suitable litter materials such as
wood shavings, dry maize cobs and chopped straw. The system affords
effective insulation of the birds from outside atmospheric conditions
while perches are provided for the birds as from the fourth week of age.
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
This system is recommended for large scale commercial guinea fowl

production, because it allows high stock density, efficient management
of resources and labour resulting in high production output.
3.4.4 Mating
Guinea fowls are naturally seasonal breeders because of their

monogamous characteristics and so, for a commercial breeding program,
artificial insemination will be of great advantage. However, for the small
scale farmer who keeps the birds on the range, the practice of keeping
fewer number cocks in a flock is better. This is because the cock often
prepares the nests for a group of guinea hens that flock with him. This is
why it is common to find 20 to 30 eggs in a single nest during the egg
producing season in the wild. The nests are usually located in well
hidden places making it difficult for the farmer to locate the nests when
many males are kept. Such eggs also may be of poor fertility due to the
monogamous tendency of the males. Once the egg nests are located,
farmers are advised to leave at least three newly marked or dummy eggs
in the nest during each collection to encourage the guinea fowl hen to
continue using the same nest during the breeding next season.
In the wild, reproductive pairs are established during the rains, the pairs
and their offspring merge together with others to form larger group at
the end of the breeding season. Thus, in improved husbandry program,
efforts should be made to ensure continuous breeding and elimination of
permanent pair bonds between reproductive adults.
Guinea fowls come into play at about 25 to 28 weeks of age and will
continue to lay for about 8 months producing between 150-160eggs
during the first laying period. The second laying period may start at 12
to 14 weeks after the end of the first and may last for 4 to 51/2 months
producing slightly higher number of eggs than that produced during the
first cycle. The egg production efficiency however depends on breeding
stock and management.Egg collection should be done daily but do not
disturb the hens while they are laying. Guinea fowl eggs are smaller that
chick eggs. They weigh between 35 to 40 grams as compared to between
45 to 55 grams in the chickens. The eggs collected should be stored in
cool dry place.
89
3.4.6 Egg Incubation
Guinea fowls are not particularly good mothers and the eggs are best
hatched under broody chicken hens naturally or by artificially incubation
using incubators.
1. Natural incubation
The incubation period of guinea fowl egg is between 26 to 28 days. The

natural incubation method is commonly used by farmers with small
flocks. The chicken hens are usually used because they are more
adaptable than guinea fowl hens which are too wild to be set anywhere
except in the nests where they have become broody. From 12 to 15 eggs
may be set under a guinea hen while 20 to 28 eggs can be set under a
large chicken hen. Hens should be treated against lice before they are
set. Also ensure adequate food and water for the broody hens.
2. Artificial incubation
The artificial method of incubation is by the use of machine called

incubator. The incubators which are of different type have in-built
devices for the production of controlled heating at recommended
temperature, controlled humidity level and egg turning device.
Recommended temperature and humidity of the air within incubators are
about the same for both guinea fowl and turkey eggs. Temperature level
of 38oc with 58% humidity for the first 3 weeks is recommended but the
temperature should be lowered to 36oc while the humidity is raised to
75% for the last week in the incubator. Each egg should be turned at
least 4 to 5 times daily for the first 24 days of incubation. Kerosene
incubators are recommended for rural farmers who keep small flock and
have no access to electricity.
3.4.7 Keets Brooding
Brooding of keets could be carried out by the natural method or by

artificial brooding.
a) Natural brooding of keets

Guinea fowl are not highly reputed for the care of their young ones. It
will be necessary to separate the newly hatched keets from their
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
mothers. Guinea hens are likely to take keets through wet grass and lead
them too far from the home. The common practice is to give out newly
hatched keets to a broody chicken hen to raise. A large chicken hen will
brood as many as 25 keets. For the first 2-3 days, the hen and the keets
should be confined to an enclosure, after that time, they should be
allowed to range. However, shelter should be provided at night to keep
out predatory animals.Keets raised by natural method will usually leave
the brooders house from the age of 6 to 8 weeks and will begin roosting
at night in a nearby tree in the open air. But if they have been
accustomed to going into the house at night in company of the chicken
mother hen, they are so trained and will not be so difficult to catch when
they are wanted for the market.
b) Artificial brooding
The newly hatched keets may be raised with the same kinds of brooders
and brooding houses as are used for chicken or turkeys. The
recommended brooding methods and temperatures are similar to those
used for chickens. Artificial brooding using electric bulbs can be started
at a temperature range of 34-40oc from the first three weeks. This should
be reduced under the brooder to 30-35oc between four and six weeks and
28-32oc as from 7-8 weeks. Thereafter, heating can be discontinued
except during the cold season. These temperatures can be attained using
12 by 60 watt bulbs per 50m floor space or 18 by 40 watts bulb at about
15cm above the floor. Kerosene lamp could also be used as a cheap and
readily available source of producing warmth for young guinea fowls.
The brooder house should be constructed to provide both warmth and

adequate ventilation for the keets and located where there should be the
least disturbance, which could cause losses due to pilling up as a result
of frights.
Overcrowding should be avoided and any form of disturbances e.g.

noise, too frequent visits and sight of other animals. Corner guards are
useful to prevent piling up while pinioning of wings helps to reduce
flightiness.
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3.4.8 Housing
Commercially, guinea fowls are kept confined in suitably adapted

buildings on a 75mm litter of wood shavings. Adequate ventilation is
important because the droppings are much drier than those of other
poultry and this leads to a dustier atmosphere and therefore to an
increased risk of respiratory diseases. Overstocking should be avoided.
3.4.9 Rearing Pen
 The floor of the rearing pen should be cemented and slightly

slopped to facilitate easy cleaning and washing
 Dwarf walls (1m high) made of block or dried brick or mud are
adequate.
 On top of the wall should be a chicken wire mesh of 2.5m high
supported by wooden frames.
 Ventilation holes should be made into the walls but with movable
cover of plank to regulate heat.
 Roof could be made of asbestos to ensure cooling.
 Perches may also be provided.
3.4.10 Space Requirement/Stock Density
Floor space requirement of about 0.06 m should be allowed per bird

from day old till maturity. Stocking density is at the rate of 100 birds per
55-65 m. a stocking rate of more than 16 birds per meter is
overcrowding and can result to heavy losses. Up to 50% of the entire
flock could be lost through such over stocking. Over-stocked birds also
look unthrifty and do not normally grow well.It is also advisable not to
under-stock as the birds especially when young tend to wander far away
from source of heat, food and water which often cause death due to
starvation. In order to ensure optimum performance, rearing size should
not exceed a thousand birds.Equipment for rearing of guinea fowl are
the same with that of chickens which include drinkers, feeders and the
nest boxes while lighting devices are optional.
3.4.11Feeds and Feeding
In the wild, guinea fowl’s diets are naturally rich and include grass
seeds, crop wastes and about 60 species of insects. In the villages, free
range guinea fowls feed along with the local chickens and scientists tend
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
to believe that the nutrient requirements of guinea fowls are similar to

those of the chickens.However, in captivity, adequate feeding of birds
with balanced diet is very important for the production of fast growing
healthy guinea fowls. The guinea fowl being a range bird could be
allowed access to the pasture with good fresh plants e.g. stylo, tridax and
water leaf.
Guinea fowls have relatively small crops and therefore needs feeding
more frequently than other poultry. Commercially, guinea fowls are fed
much the same as turkeys. Also, a broiler type ration is known to
support good body weight gains in guinea fowls. However, some
coccidiostat additives in poultry rations are toxic to guinea fowl if they
exceed certain levels. You should check this point with your feed
supplier before giving your birds such rations.For rapid growth rate, it is
recommended to start guinea fowls on high protein diets containing
25%-26% crude protein and about 3200kcal/kg for the first 6 weeks of
life. Between 6-12 weeks of age, a diet containing 20% crude protein
and 3200kcal/kg is best. Above 12 weeks of age till market size is
attained, the protein levels in the diets may be reduced to 18% (table 7,
8).
The feed intake of guinea fowl is between 25-30g, 50-60g and 70-80g
per bird per day between the ages of 0-6, 6-12 and 12-16 weeks
respectively. Feed consumption record of guinea fowl is apparently high
because of the tendency to waste the feed due to their manner of
scooping and picking of the feed. This feed wastage could be minimized
by feeding the required feed twice daily rather than Ad libitum and using
deeper feeder for adults. Feed in pelleted form can also solve the
wastage problems. Clean water should be made available always. It is
also advisable that finely chopped tender green leaves be scattered a
little on guinea fowl rations. Feeding the guinea fowl on range in late
afternoon has the advantage of making them to return to their coop
(shelter) at night.
93
Table7: Feed and Feeding Requirement for Broiler Guinea Fowl.
Age Prote Energ Amou Lysi Methion Methion Ca P

(wee in y nt of ne ine ine +
ks) (%) Value Feed Cystine
Kcal/ neede
Kg d per
day
(g)
0-5 25.5 3200 25-30 1.38 0.55 1.00 1.0 0.3
5-8 20 3100 50-60 0.99 0.42 0.88 0 9
8-12 18 3100 70-80 0.79 0.33 0.66 0.9 0.3
0 5
0.8 0.3
0 3
Sources: Tewe (1983).
Table 8: Nutrient Levels for Breeders
Age Protei Energy Amount Lysine Methionine Ca P

(Weeks) n (%) Kcal/Kg of Feed + (%) (%)
Needed cystine
(g)
1-6 22 3000 25-27 1.20 0.81 0.70 0.40
6-28 14.0 2800 55-60 0.65 0.59 0.60 0.35
Breeder 17-18 2800 70-80 0.90 0.59 2.70 0.55
Sources: Offiong (1983).
However, as from the ages of 8-10 weeks, rearing guinea fowls on free
range may be combined with confinement if the birds are pinioned or
wind clipped. Two fenced range or pasture areas on either side of the
fixed building with tender and fresh greens are highly recommended.
The two fenced range conditions will allow pasture grazing rotation and
reduce the incidence of diseases.
3.4.12Feeder and Drinker Requirement
In intensive method of production, few hours (2-3 hrs) before the newly
hatched keets are received on the farm, feed should be placed on pieces
of paper or flat trays, while drinkers should be placed around to get the
birds familiar with them. The drinkers should be filled with clean cool
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
water and positioned about 1m from the wall but away from sources of
heat. Coloured feeders and drinkers are preferred. Red colour is
favoured because it attracts the keets. Drinking spaces of 1cm, 1.5 cm-
3.0 cm and 3.0 cm-5.0 cm per bird should be allowed for the first 4
weeks, 5-12 weeks and 12-16 weeks old respectively (Table 9).
Table 9: Feeder and Drinker Requirement per 100 birds

Age (weeks) Drinker Requirement Feeder Requirement
0-4 2 by 4 liter size 2 by 1.2m size
16 and above 6 by 6 liter size 5 by 1.2m size
Source: Offiong (1983).
3.4.13 Health Care and Management
It is generally believed that guinea fowls are more resistant to parasitic

infestations than the domestic chickens. However, with high stocking
density, on large intensive farms, there could be occasions when ailing
guinea fowls are noticed on the farm. Often, it is nothing serious but
there is the chance that it could be. It is therefore important to be able to
recognize general and specific symptoms and develop the ‘stockman
eye’ which will help spot any unusual behavior in the birds at an early
stage.
The major parasites that have been reported infecting guinea fowls in
Nigeria are such likeHeterakissppand Ascaridiagalli while
Eimeriasppare the most important gastro-intestinal protozoan parasites.
It is also known that A. galli, HeterakissppandEimeriaspp are
responsible for deaths especially among the young ones. The practice in
most farms, with considerable success had been to treat guinea fowls
with the same drugs as those recommended for the treatment of other
poultry particularly chickens. However, in Nigeria, no viral disease has
been incriminated in local guinea fowls.In guinea fowl, like other
domestic birds, prevention is obviously better than cure and you can
avoid diseases a great deal by good sanitary conditions. This can be
attained by the following health management practices.
95
a) Cleanliness
Ensure that all feed and drink containers are kept clean. Clean stock
house regularly and place fresh litter in nest boxes. This litter material
replacement could be carried out monthly along with a clean
surrounding and proper drainage systems.
b) Adequate feeding
The issue of a balanced diet cannot be over emphasized in the
management of guinea fowls. They should be allowed access to fresh,
clean water at all times. For guinea fowls on pasture, the principle of
rotational grazing should be applied to avoid overgrazing and access to
fresh greens.
c) Action against lice, mites and other pests
Houses, perches and nest boxes should have regular dusting with
powder to control infestation. Treat the birds and pay particular
attention to the areas under the wings, at the back of the head and
around the vent.
Also, sick and decaying dead bodies should be removed as soon
as they are observed while veterinary attention should
immediately be drawn to any disease condition.
3.5 Quail Production
Quails by some distribution are classified as “game” or “hunting” birds

and as such, the quails’ requirements are different from that of chicken
On a commercial scale, raising quail has not attracted the interest of the
investors because of the lack of data particularly with regards to feeding.
Many people who go into quail raising are usually hobbyist who are not
income conscious.
3.5.1 Breeds of Quails

 Japanese Seattle
 Silver
 Negro
 Japanese Taiwan/ Chinese Quail
 Tuxedo
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
3.5.2 Selection of Stock

It is best to start with quail pullets about 30-35 days old. Some of the
pointers in selecting quails are:
a) Body conformation
1. The feathers should be tidy and neat
2. Avoid buying those with streak or white or black feathers-
these could be signs of inbreeding
b) Choose birds with uniform size. A mature (60 days old) Japanese
Quail (Coturnixjaponica) would have an average weight of 120g.
However, a 30-35 day old bird would only average 100g. The
American quail (Coturnixconurnix) however weigh heavier at
220g for the mature bird and 200g for the 30-35 days old.
c) Record the parent stock
1. Size of eggs
2. Laying efficiency- a 65% average laying efficiency within
300 days laying period is desirable
3. Growth rate/ body weight.
3.5.3 Size of the Flock
The size of the initial stock totally depends on the financial capacity of
the person. However, it is not advisable to start big. Quails are not easy
to raise and a beginner should first get the necessary experience before
going into large scale. Quails multiply rapidly and therefore expansion
will not be a problem. A beginner can start with 10-15 pullets.
3.5.4 Management
3.5.4.1 Housing and Equipment
One of the advantages in raising quail is the relative small space that is
required. Commensurately, the cost of putting up a cage is less. The
materials commonly used in making quail cages are:
1) Plywood
2) ¼ inch mesh wire
3) 1” by 1” lumber to serve as frame work
For the different stages of growth in the quail’s life, space requirement
varies. This is true as in the case of other fowls and even life stock
animals. The following (table 10) will help guide the raiser in
determining the space required for quails.
97
Table 10: Space requirement for quail at different stages of growth
Japanese American
(per bird) (perbird)
1. Chick stage 21/2” by 21/2” 21/2” by 21/2”

(1-15daysold)
2. Growing stage 3” by 3” 31/2” by 31/2”
(16-35 days old)
3. Laying stage 31/2” by 31/2” 41/2” by 41/2”
(36 days old and above)
Since quails are not efficient feed converter, they should not be raised
for broiler production.
Layer cages should not be too high preferably a 5” and 6” height can
accommodate the Japanese and American breed, respectively. Providing
too much space will encourage too much movement thereby increasing
the risk of injuries.
3.5.4.2Brooding Management
Temperature
During the first five days, the temperature requirement of the quail chick
is 95o F. This may be reduced to 90o F on the 6th day down to 85oF on the
10th day after which the quail birds will have developed enough feathers
to keep their body warm under ordinary room temperature.To ensure
better circulation of air in the brooding box, air vents should be spread
over the screened portion of the brooder especially during the first 10
days. This will help to conserve heat in the brooder. Five or six layers of
clean and dry newspaper should be used to cover the mesh wire flooring
during the first 10 days.
This practice is necessary because it will not only help conserve the heat
inside the brooder box but more importantly, cleaning and removal of
quail manure (which is carried out on every other paper) is facilitated by
just rolling the topmost layer of paper. After the 10th day, all the papers
are removed from the feeding through covered with1/4 mesh wire (to
avoid too much spillage) will be used. Water in the drinking fountain
should be changed daily and care must be exercised to avoid spilling of
98
ANP 501 MODULE 3
water over the paper to prevent unnecessary dampness.Gas lamp or

electric bulb may be used to control the temperature inside the brooder.
The brooder box must be cat and rat proof. With proper feeds, enough
water and optimum temperature maintained, the mortality of quails can
be kept at 5%-8% during the brooding stage which usually last up to 15
days.
3.5.4.3 Rearing Management
After the fifteenth day, the birds are transferred to the growing cages.
During the growing stages, it is not advisable to expose the birds to
more than 12 hours of light. For smaller operation, a brooder/ grower
box combination can be constructed but the space requirement of the
birds should be observed.Only birds which are healthy and with uniform
size should be transferred to the growing cages. The small ones should
be disposed. The average mortality from the start of the growing period
up to 35 days is 1%- 4%. On the 35th day, the male birds are already
discernable by the dark brown color of the breast feather. At this stage,
the female birds can be segregated and transferred to the laying cages.
Approximately 40% of the total population can be chosen as layers on
the assumed 50/50 male/female ratio. The remaining birds can be
fattened up to 60 days before they are dressed and sold as broilers.
During the 25 days fattening period, the light should be restricted to 6-8
hours a day. This practice will improve the quality of meat.
3.5.4.4 Layer Management
On the average, quail starts laying after 45 days from hatching. The
production cycle lasts for 300-320 days and within this period, the
laying efficiency should be maintained at 65%. Some of the major
considerations when managing layers are;
a) Feeding- this will be discussed separately

b) Water- like any other bird, quail needs a lot of fresh and clean
water. Whenever possible, flowing water should be maintained
except when there is supply problem in which case, water should
be replaced daily and the watering trough must be cleaned every
day.
c) Culling- for large scale operation, it is advisable that massive
culling be carried out regularly, preferably on a quarterly basis or
even once every four months. Birds that have physical defects
99
should be removed including those that have grown fat or are

sickly and are not laying eggs. This latter condition is manifested
by the size of the vent and the conformation of the abdominal
parts.
d) Removal of Waste- because of the high protein content of the
quail feeds, quail manure has high ammonia content which will
cause discomfort for the birds if not removed daily. Removal of
the manure can be facilitated by placing a manure receptacle or
receiver under the cage.
e) Light- laying quails may be given extra light up to midnight. This
will allow the birds to consume the feed in the trough.
Furthermore, the weaker birds in the group will have enough time
to eat after the dominant ones have eaten their share.
f) It is not advisable to mix the male birds in the laying cage except
when fertile eggs are to be produced. If there is an intention of
producing fertile eggs for further replacement, the male should
be kept in separate cage and should only be mixed with the
layers at the time fertile eggs are to be produced at a ratio of 1:6
and 1:3 for the Japanese and American breed respectively.
g) Quail birds are very sensitive to high salt level in the feeds. The
optimum level of this mineral should be kept at 0.7% and in no
case be more than 1%.
3.5.4.5 Feeding Management
The major cause of failure in quail raising is the faulty feeding practice
employed by the raiser. Most of the quail raisers today feed commercial
chicken feeds to quails. This is an erroneous practice and it should be
corrected. The protein requirements of chicken and quails are different
and as such, the use of chicken feeds in quail raising is not advisable.
Below is a comparison of the crude protein requirement of chicken and
quail (table 11).
Table 11: Comparison of the Crude Protein Requirement of

Chicken and Quail
Quail Chicken
Chick stage 28% 21%
Grower stage 24% 16%
Layer stage 26% 15%
From the above information, we can clearly see the mark difference in
the primary requirement of both birds. Quail cannot survive on chicken
feeds for a long time. If ever they will survive, the mortality rate will be
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
very high sometimes reaching up to 70% from day old to 45 days.

Moreover, the growth of the birds is very uneven and the survivors will
not be efficient layers. The productive laying period for quails fed with
chicken feed does not go beyond six months.
Another disadvantage of feeding chicken mash to quails is the very

occurrence of molting which affects severely the egg production.
The claim that mixing quail feeds with higher protein is expensive and
not economical is baseless. The advantages of giving the right ration far
outweigh the cost of giving chick feeds. These advantages can be
summarized below:
1. Mortality rate can be kept low with good feed:

5-8% from 1-15 days
1-4% from 16-35 days
8-12% from 36-360 days
2. Production:
a) Laying efficiency can be easily maintained within the average
range of 63%-68% for a period of 300-320 days. It is not rare to
get laying efficiency of 80%
b) Eggs are bigger and more nutritious.
c) For breeders- fertility and hatchability are high.
These things when quantified and taken together would positively refute
the claim that feeding quails with higher protein content as
recommended here is costly and economical.
The feed consumption of quail at different stages is shown in table12
Table 12: Feed Consumption of Quail at Different Stages
Japanese American
Chick stage 7 grams/day 10grams/day
(per bird)
Growing stage 17 grams/day 32grams/day

(per bird)
Laying stage 23 grams/day 45grams/day
(per bird)
During the first 15 days, the feeds of the birds should be grounded to a
fineness enough to pass an ordinary window screen wire.
101
Like chicken, quails are affected by abrupt changes in feeding. Hence, it

is not advisable to change feed abruptly.
3.4.5.6 Maintaining Health
There is no known morbid disease of quails. While they suffer from

some respiratory disorders, these do not spread fast and the mortality
rate is very low. Hence, it is not difficult to maintain the health of the
birds. Regular cleaning and disinfection program however should be
followed. Cages and broiler boxes including the incubator and hatchery
trays can be cleaned with water and dried under the sun. Spraying with
disinfectant follows. Vitamin premix can also be added to the feeds or
drinking water to promote growth and improve the laying performance.
i. Enumerate 4 advantages of keeping guinea fowl.

ii. Explain the two types of incubation in guinea fowl production
4.0 SUMMARY
The term Poultry is used for a group of birds including Chicken, Turkey,
Ostrich, Guinea Fowl, Ducks, Goose, Quail, Pheasant, Pigeon and
Doves. The management and production system of some of these
poultry species starting from the housing (location, dimension and
orientation and preparation), brooding methods, nutrient requirement of
each class, and health management were fully discussed in this module.
Litter management (i.e controlling ammonia in the poultry house) and
biosecurity measures are also important for any successful poultry
production.
5.0 CONCLUSION
For successful poultry production, the management and production of

these poultry species which include housing, brooding methods, health
management, feeding, litter management and most importantly,
biosecurity are very important.
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ANP 501 MODULE 3
1 List the factors to be considered in constructing a commercial

turkey house
2 What is desnooding?
3 What is the crude protein and energy requirement of turkey at:
a. 2 – 4 weeks
b. 8-12 weeks
c. 12- 15 weeks
d. 15-20 weeks
4. List 2 diseases of turkey, their signs and treatment
5. Write short note on the brooding of ostrich
6. Highlight the breeds of quail.
Anon, 2004. Best Management Practices for Turkey Production.

National Turkey Federation, Washington DC. 3.
Arrington, L.C., 1980. Market Turkey Management-Brooding. North

Carolina Regional Extension Publication #115.
Bolla, G., 2005. Raising turkeys.Agfact A5.0.9 (Fourth edition).
Ensminger, M.E., 1992. Poultry Science (Third Edition). Interstate

Publishers, Inc. Danville, Illinois, USA. 329-356.
Leeson, S. & Summers, J.D., 1997.Commercial Poultry Nutrition

(Second Edition).University Books, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
302.
Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food, 2000.General brooding and

rearing.
Scott, H.M., 1940. Turkey Management.Circular 200. Agricultural

Experimental Station, Kansas State College of Agriculture and
Applied Science. 20-21.
The Merck Veterinary Manual, 2006. <

http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/2
02900.htm&hide=1>
Voris, J.C., 1997. California turkey production. Poultry Fact Sheet No.
16c.University of California.
103
Voris, J.C., McMartin, D. & Bradley, F., 1998. Animal Care Series:
Turkey Care Practices (Second Edition). University of California,
Davis. 11-12.
Joe Berry (2012).Ostrich Production. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension

Fact Sheets http://osufacts.okstate.edu
FAO (2011) Goose Production. FAO Animal Production and Health

paper 154
National Agricultural Extension and Research Liason Service

(2008).The Production of Guinea Fowl in Nigeria. Extension
Bulletin Ahmadu Bello University Zaria Nigeria.
Tewe, O. O., 1983. Replacing maize with plantain peels in diets for
broilers. Nutr. Rep. Int., 28 (1): 23-29
Willin, E.S. (1995). Geese for Meat Production

ww.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4359E/y4359e0b.htm
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
MODULE 4 EGG FORMATION AND MORPHOLOGY
Unit 1 Egg Science and Technology

Unit 2 Management and Feeding of Chicks, Growers, Layers and
Ration Formulation
Unit 3 Building and Equipment for Production and Processing
UNIT 1 EGG SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Process and Organs in Egg Formation
3.1.1 Ovary
3.1.2 Oviduct
3.1.3 Infundibulum
3.1.4 Magnum
3.1.5 Isthmus:
3.1.6 Uterus
3.2 Egg deformities
3.2.1 Body Check
3.2.2 Abnormal Shape
3.3 Avian Reproductive System
3.3.1 The Female Reproductive Organ
3.3.1.1 Factors that Stimulate Reproduction in
Birds
3.3.2 The Male Reproductive Organ
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The formation of an egg is a remarkable process that takes just over a

day, from ovulation to oviposition. The reproductive system of the hen
consists of the ovary, the organ where the yolk develops, and the oviduct
where the egg is completed. The ovary is attached to the back about
halfwaybetween the neck and the tail. The oviduct, a tubelike organ
105
approximately 26 inches long, is loosely attached to the backbone

between the ovary and the tail. During the process of formation, the egg
will have to pass through different sections from Oviduct to uterus.
When the egg is laid, certain deformities could be observed which could
either be attributable to formation process or nutrition of the hen.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the processes involved in egg formation

 state various egg deformities and their causes
 explain the male and female reproductive systems of a chicken.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Process and Organs of Egg Formation
Ovulation is the release of an ovum from a ruptured follicle. The ovum

drops into the ovarian pocket and within a few minutes is captured by
the infundibulum. Ovulation generally occurs about a half an hour after
the previous egg has been laid. Fertilization occurs in the infundibulum,
which stores sperm for seven to fourteen days following insemination.
Formation occurs as the egg travels down the oviduct and is encased in
the various layers that make up a chicken egg.
Fig. 15: Model Showing the Internal Organs of the Female Chicken
Source: Jacquie Jacob et al (2011)
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
3.1.1 Ovary: A female chick is born with a fully formed ovary

containing several thousand tiny ova, or future yolks. These begin to
develop, one at a time, when the pullet reaches sexual maturity. Each
yolk is enclosed in its own sac or follicle.
The follicle contains a highly developed system of blood vessels which

carry nourishment to the developing yolk. At ovulation the follicle
ruptures to release the yolk into the oviduct. A double-yolked egg is the
result of two yolks being released at the same time. Rupture occurs at
the stigma line, in the area of the follicle which has no blood vessels.
3.1.2 Oviduct: This term refers to the system that receives the ovum
(or yolk) from the ovary and produces an egg, which is then laid. The
entire oviduct is actually one organ with many parts and it is bout sixty-
five centimeters long.
3.1.3 Infundibulum: This is a funnel-shaped structure at the top of

the oviduct that captures a mature ovum shortly after ovulation. This is
where fertilisation, if it occurred, would take place. After about 15
minutes, the yolk passes along to the magnum
3.1.4 Magnum: This is a glandular structure made up of layers of

circular muscles that carry the ovum along. It produces the majority of
the albumen. Here, in approximately 3 hours, the albumen is deposited
around the yolk as the albumen is formed, the yolk rotates, twisting the
albumenousfibers to form the chalazae
3.1.5 Isthmus: The next site of activity is the isthmus where the two
shell membranes are formed in about 1 1/4 hours.
3.1.6 Uterus
The egg has now reached its full size and shape, It passes along to the
uterus to acquire, after 19-20 hours, the egg acquires salt and water
before calcification occurs, forming the calcium carbonate shell and its
color during the last 5 hours. After a few minutes pause in the vagina,
the uterus inverts through the vagina, the cloaca (the. junction of the
digestive, urinary and reproductive systems) and the vent to release the
egg outside the hen's body.
107
Laying of the egg is known as oviposition. An egg has 2 ends, the large
or broad end and the narrow or small end.
During formation the egg moves through the oviduct with the small end
first. Just before laying, it is rotated and laid large end first. A young hen
lays small eggs. The size of the egg increases as the hen gets older.
Fig. 16: The Chicken Egg

3.2 Egg Deformities
Occasionally an egg will be laid without a shell. It looks like a water

balloon. The shell membranes were placed on the yolk and egg white,
but it somehow slipped past the "shell mechanism" and the shell wasn't
deposited. The occurrence of the occasional shell-less egg is not
necessarily an indication of any health problem. If the incidence
increases, however, there may be a deficiency of calcium, phosphorus
and/or vitamin D. If the condition persists a poultry nutritionist should
be consulted before calling a veterinarian. Infectious Bronchitis and Egg
Drop Syndrome have been known to cause an increase in shell-less
eggs.
3.2.1 Body Check: This occurs when the shell becomes damaged
while still in the shell gland and is repaired prior to being laid (Fig 17).
There will be ‘thin spots’ in the shell or ‘ridges’ will form. The shells of
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
such eggs, though not cracked, are weaker than ‘normal’ eggs and
should not be used as hatching eggs
A. Body check B. Thin spot C. Ridges

Fig. 17:Poor Exterior Egg Quality Related to Shell Texture
3.2.2 Abnormal shape: This is another category of problems that

causes egg deformities (fig 18). Such eggs do not fit well into a typical
egg carton or are more likely to break during transport, so they are
removed during egg inspection and do not normally appear in eggs sold
in the store.
To be considered a hatching egg, the egg should be a typical ‘egg
shape.’ Abnormally shaped eggs should not be used as hatching eggs.
Eggs should be trayed and incubated large end up and narrow end down.
A . Pear-shaped egg B. Football-shaped egg

Fig. 18: Examples of Abnormally Shaped Eggs
3.3 Avian Reproductive System

The avian reproductive system is very different from that of mammals.
Birds are able to produce multiple offspring and tend to their needs for
only a short period of time. The amount of time they devote to caring for
their offspring depends on whether they are precocial or altricial, with
the latter requiring more post-hatch parental care.
109
Precocialbirds are well developed when hatched and are able to get up
and walk around on their own very quickly. This includes most of the
domestic poultry species - chickens, ducks, turkeys, etc. The exception
is pigeons.
Altricialbirds are still underdeveloped when they hatch and require a

considerable amount of
parental care before they are able to get up and survive on their own.
This would include pigeons and passerine birds (i.e., perching).
3.3.1 The Female Reproductive Organ

The female reproductive system of the chicken is divided into two
separate parts: the ovaryand the oviduct (fig 19). In almost all species
of birds, including chickens, only the left ovary and oviduct are
functional. Although the embryo has two ovaries and oviducts, only the
left pair (i.e., ovary and oviduct) develops. The right typically regresses
during development and is non-functional in the adult bird.
Fig. 19: Female Reproductive System of a Domestic Bird

(Source Linda Pesek (1999)
The ovary is a cluster of developing yolks or ova (Fig 20)and is located

midway between the neck and the tail of the bird, attached to the back.
The ovary is fully formed when pullet chicks hatch, but it is very small
until the chicks reach sexual maturity. At hatch, pullet chicks have tens
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
of thousands of potential eggs (i.e., ova) which theoretically could be

laid. Most of these, however, never develop to the point of ovulation. So
the maximum number of eggs a hen can lay is determined when she
hatches since no new ova are added once the chick has hatched. Each
ovum (singular form of ova) starts out as a single cell surrounded by a
vitelline membrane. As the ovum develops, yolk is added. The color of
the yolk comes from fat soluble pigments called xanthophyllscontained
in the hen’s diet. Hens fed diets with yellow maize, or allowed to range
on grass, typically have dark yellow yolks. Hens fed diets with white
maize, sorghum, millet or wheat typically have pale yolks. The color of
the yolks from these hens can be ‘improved’ by the addition of marigold
petals to provide the desired level of xanthophylls in the yolk
Fig. 20: Ovary of Female Chicken

The female reproductive system is sensitive to light exposure, especially

the number of hours of light in a day. The release of the next ova
typically occurs 30-75 minutes after the previous egg has been laid. If
the egg was laid too late in the day the next ovulation will wait till the
next day and the hen will have a day when she does not lay an egg
because LH is released only in the dark.
Birds lay eggs in clutches. A clutch consists of one or more eggs laid
each day for several days, followed by a rest period of about a day or
more. Then another egg or set of eggs is laid. Clutch size is species- and
breed-specific. For commercial egg layers clutch size is typically quite
large. Clutch size, as well as the numbers of clutches laid in a laying
cycle, will vary with species, but the principle is the same.
A hen will produce double yolked eggs. This phenomenon can be
related to hen age but genetic factors are also involved. Young hens
111
sometimes release two yolks from the ovary in quick succession.

Double- yolked eggs are typically larger in size than single yolk eggs.
Double-yolked eggs are not suitable for hatching. There is typically not
enough nutrients and space available for two chicks to develop to hatch.
It has happened, but it is rare. It is rare, but not unusual, for a young hen
to produce an egg with no yolk at all. Yolkless eggs are usually formed
when a bit of tissue is sloughed off the ovary or oviduct. This tissue
stimulates the secreting glands of the different parts of the oviduct and a
yolkless egg results. Even rarer is an egg within an egg. This occurs
when an egg that is nearly ready to be laid reverses direction and moves
up the oviduct and encounters another egg in process of being put
together. The results is that the first egg gets a new layer of albumen
added and two ‘eggs’ are encased together within a new shell. Such eggs
are so rare that no one knows exactly why they happen. Another egg
problem that is commonly noted is blood and meat spots. Blood spots
are normally found on or around the yolk (fig 21). The main cause is a
small break in one of the tiny blood vessels around the yolk when it is
ovulated. High levels of activity during the time of ovulation can
increase the incidence of blood spots. Meat spots are usually brown in
color and are more often associated with the egg white. They are formed
when small pieces of the wall of the oviduct are sloughed off when the
egg is passing through. In commercial operations, eggs with blood or
meat spots are typically identified during candling and removed. It is
rare, therefore, to see these eggs in stores. The incidence is higher in
brown shelled eggs, and it is harder to identify them when candling the
darker colored shell
Fig. 21: An Egg with a Blood Spot on the Yolk
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
3.3.1.1 Factors that Stimulate Reproduction in Birds
1. Day length or photoperiod plays an important role in birds that

are seasonal reproducers. Environmental light stimulates neural
receptor which, in conjunction with an internal circadian cycle,
enables the bird to respond to the most favourable time for
reproduction. As day length increases, the ovaries and testes of
most temperate species increase in size and undergo
development.
2. Temperature and humidity influence reproduction in many free
ranging species. In areas where the climate is stable and dry and
day length is constant, rainfall may trigger reproductive
behaviour.
3. In the budgie male, vocalization triggers reproduction by
stimulating ovarian development and ovulation.
4. In colony breeding species, such as budgies, the presence of other
breeding birds is a reproductive stimulus. Auditory as well as
visual contact stimulates reproduction.
5. The availability of a suitable nest and nesting material plays an
important stimulus for breeding in some species such as finches
and cockatiels.
6. Biologic clocks, known as circannua cycles, control the release of
hormones that regulate reproduction, metabolism and behaviour.
In the male, FSH initiates seasonal growth and development of the

seminiferous tubules in the testes and spermatogenisis. LH promotes the
production of testosterone, the male hormone responsible for the
production of secondary sexual characteristics and behavior.
3.3.2 The Male Reproductive Organ
Male birds have two functional bean-shaped testes located within the
body, just above the kidneys (Fig 22). This is in contrast to many female
birds in which the right ovary regresses, leaving just one functional left
ovary. The testes grow in size as the bird reaches sexual maturity. In
seasonal breeders, the testes enlarge during the breeding season and
often change colour - from yellow to white in most birds. Immature or
inactive testes are yellow in colour due to the accumulation of lipids.
During the onset of breeding, the testes change to a white colour due to
the increase in the size of the seminiferous tubules. The testes are
covered by a very thin tunic membrane. The bulk of the testis is
composed of numerous convoluted seminiferous tubules. Sperm cells
113
are formed in the tubules. Sperm formation occurs more rapidly in birds
as compared to mammals.
Fig. 22: Male Reproductive System of a Bird

Source : Linda Pesek (1999)
The testes also produce the male hormone testosterone. This hormone is
very important in stimulating growth of the male reproductive tract, the
development of secondary sexual characteristics such as courtship
behaviour and aggression and, in chickens, the bright red combs and
bright red wattles.
Once the sperm leave the testes, it travel through a small tube, known as
the epididymis. The avian epdidymis is very small in the bird and is not
divided into three parts, the head, the body and the tail as in mammals.
Sperm then enter the Ductus deferens a long narrow tube that travels
next to the ureter and enters the cloaca. The ductus is densely packed
with sperm during the breeding season. It takes from one to four days
for the sperm to travel from the testes to the end of the ductus. Sperm
undergo maturation in the male reproductive tract.
The spermatazoon is composed of an acrosome, a head and a tail. The
acrosome contains an enzyme which enables the sperm to penetrate the
egg.
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
Highlight the sections of the female reproductive sections that egg will
have to pass through and the time involved before being laid
5.0 SUMMARY
The formation of an egg is a remarkable process that takes just over a

day, from ovulation to oviposition. For proper chick formation,
deformed or abnormal egg should not be taken to hatchery.
A female chick is born with a fully formed ovary containing several
thousand tiny ova, or future yolks which developed into full egg when
the pullet reaches maturity. The male and female reproductive systems
of birds are regulated by the hypothalamus- pituitary-gonadal axis which
produces a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) that stimulates
pituitary gland production of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH), which regulate ovarian and testicular
function. Factors that stimulate reproduction in bird were highlighted.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The process of egg formation goes through Infundibulum, Magnum,

Isthmus, Uterus and through vaginal, cloaca and the vent to be released
outside the hen's body. It takes about 25-26 hours before an egg can be
fully formed.
The reproductive system of the hen consists of the ovary, the organ
where the yolk develops, and the oviduct where the egg is completed.
The male and female avian reproductive systems are regulated by the
hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis. The hypothalamus produces a
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) that stimulates pituitary gland
production of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH), which in turn regulate ovarian and testicular function.
1. Briefly but concisely summarise what happen at each stage of

egg formation
2. Explain 4 factors that stimulate reproduction in birds
3. Differentiate between Precocial and Altricial birds
115
Mickey A. Latour, Ryan Meunier, and Jessica Stewart (1998).The

Process of Egg Formation.Cooperative Extension work in
Agriculture and Home Economics, state of Indiana, Purdue
University,and U.S. Department of Agriculture. U.S.
http://www.nutrecocanada.com/docs/shur-gain---poultry/egg-formation-
and-eggshell-quality-in-layers.pdf
https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/as/as-525-w.pdf
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
UNIT 2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF CHICKS,

GROWERS, LAYERS AND RATION
FORMULATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Management of Chicks at the Brooder Stage
3.2 Management of Growers
3.3 Management of Layers
3.3.1 Debeaking
3.3.2 Lighting Programme
3.3.3 Forced Moulting
3.4 Feeding of Starters, Growers and Layers
3.4.1 Feeding Pullets
3.4.2 Feeding Layers
3.4.3 Feeding Commercial Layers
3.4.4 Layers Mash
3.5 Performance Standards
3.6 Important Considerations in Feed Formulation:
3.7 Methods of Formulating Feed
3.7.1 Trial and Error Method
3.7.2 Pearson Method
3.7.3 Substitution Method
3.7.4 Linear Programming
3.8 Merits of Formulated Rations - Using Computer
4.0 Summary
50 Conclusion
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Day-old chicks are purchased from hatcheries. The ways these chicks
are managed during their first week of arrival determine their
survivability. Laying hens are chickens selected for table egg production
and have a smaller body frame and body weight than chickens grown for
meat. Some commercial hybrid egg producing chickens produce up to
300 eggs per year. They have a mature body weight of 1.8 to 2.0 kg. For
birds to perform maximally, feed balanced in quantity and quality
117
cannot be over emphasised. Ration can be defined as the total amount of

feed given to the animals on daily basis while Feed formulation is the
process of quantifying the amounts of feed ingredients that need to be
put together, to form a single uniform mixture (diet) for animal that
supplies all of their nutrient requirements. It is one of the central
operations of the animal industry, in view of its role in ensuring good
nutrition. Feed costs account for more than 70% of the total production
costs for most types of poultry, so it is important that returns are
maximised through use of adequate diets.
Different Species, Strains or Classes of animals have different

requirements for energy (Carbohydrate and fats), proteins, Minerals, and
Vitamins in order to maintain its various functions like body
maintenance, reproduction, egg production, milk production and meat
production
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain how to manage broiler from day old to market

 discuss the nutritional requirement at every stage of live of birds
and
 explain the different methods of feed formulation.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Management of Chicks at the Brooder Stage
This is the most critical period for chicks and at this period more death
can occur than in the later stages. Before the arrival of the chicks, the
brooder house must be thoroughly cleaned, disinfected and dried. The
house isolated as much as possible with a footbath of disinfectant kept at
the entrance to the house. The brooder guards should be installed about
36 cm high. This keeps the chicks confined to the brooder areas and
result in their eating and drinking faster. During the first few days, the
feeders should be half filled with chick’s marsh. This is to minimize
feed wastage. Initially the chicks can have their beaks dipped into the
water to help them to drink and reduce early dehydration and mortality.
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
Where automatic feeders and drinkers are used, these must be

introduced to them as soon as possible.
Temperature in the brooder house is vital for the chicks’ survival.
Temperature in the first day of brooding should be about 35 °C. This is
slowly decreased to about 30 °C towards the end of the first week. From
then on, the temperature should be decreased by about 3 °C for each
successive two weeks because chicks require lower temperature to grow
feathers. They should neither crowd together nor disperse from the
source of heat. Removal of source of heat depends on the climate and
season as well as rate of feathering. Proper aeration will also eradicate
strong ammonia odour. Stocking density in the brooder is in most cases
at the discretion of the farmer but a space of 7-8m2 for about 1000
chicks is recommended.
Fig.23: Brooding under Intensive Management
Fig. 24: Even Distribution of Chicks during Brooding
119
Bird Brooder TOO COLD
TOO HOT
Bird brooder
Bird Brooder JUST RIGHT

Fig. 25: Reactions of Birds to Heat during Brooding
3.2 Management of Growers
Growers are birds between 8 and 18 weeks of age. The growing or

rearing period is that period between brooding and the point of lay in
layers and between brooding and marketing for broilers and turkeys.
Management of growers in confinement is common and popular with
large scale farmers. In general, the temperature requirement for growers
is less than that for chicks while the former require more ventilation.
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
Growers are reared on deep litter. As from the 8th week, the chick’s
mash is gradually replaced with growers mash.
3.3 Management of Layers
It is very important that hens start laying eggs at about 18 weeks. At this
stage, the birds must be acute, lean and relatively small. If the birds are
too heavy, their feed intake should be restricted. Routine management of
laying birds in cages consists mainly of provision of feed and water
without restriction and egg collection. In the tropics, birds lay mainly
between 0800 and 1700h while egg collection is carried out twice at
1100h and 1500h.
When layers are kept in deep litter, routine operations carried out
include removal of dead birds, provision of fresh feed; after litter and
droppings have been removed from the feeder; cleaning of water
fountain and replenishment with clean cool water; collection of eggs and
turning of the litter. Deworming, delousing and occasional offer of anti-
stress are also carried out in the layer unit.
A bag of feed 25kg is sufficient for 200 layers for one day. The laying
birds are maintained for about 12 months. To cover cost of feed, the
laying rate should not be less than 45 to 50%. This means that 100
layers should produce not less than 45 to 50 eggs per day. A 1000 layer
unit should produce 450 to 500 eggs or 15 to 17 trays of eggs per day.
Nevertheless, about 65% hen day production is required in order to
cover the cost of production and still obtain a margin of profit. Eggs
weighing less than 50 g may not attract good market. Management
should be efficient so as to keep the mortality below 10%.
121
Fig. 26: Battery Cage System of Layer Production
Fig. 27: Laying Birds on Deep Litter System
3.3.1 Debeaking
This is a process of removing at least ½ of the upper beak from the

nostrils and 1/3 of the lower beak. There is cold debeaking, this is
carried out by the use of a scissors or any sharp cutter. With cold
debeaking, the beaks will grow back after sometimes. The more
effective method is by an electric debeaker. Debeaking is best carried
out at between 6 and 8 weeks of age and early in the morning between
6-7 am. Be sure that the flock is in good health before debeaking.
Debeaking prevents cannibalism and egg eating habits in the flock.
3.3.2 Lighting Programme
In the laying phase, it will be advantageous to increase the day length by

3 hours by giving supplementary lights from 6-9 pm in the evenings.
Once a supplementary lighting schedule has been started, it must not be
interrupted by power failures. Hence standby generators may be
required for a successful lighting programme for layers.
3.3.3 Forced Moulting
Forced moulting is the practice of forcing the flock to rest from egg
production for the purpose of the flock to be re-cycled for the second
year. Forced-moulting may be achieved in cages simply by withdrawing
the feeds from the flock for 10 days. Production will drop to zero level
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by the 5th day. Normal feeding should start by the 11th day while the
flock should be back in production within 28 days. Forced-moulting
must be done by the end of 10 months in lay to be effective. It is also a
useful practice if the glut of eggs coincides with this age for a flock and
there is no good market for the old layers.
3.4 Feeding of Starters, Growers and Layers
Feed is a major component of the total cost of poultry production. To

support optimum performance, formulate rations to give the correct
balance of energy, protein and amino acids, minerals, vitamins and
essential fatty acids. The choice of feeding program will depend on the
target of the business; for instance whether the focus is on maximizing
profitability of live birds or optimizing yield of carcass components.
3.4.1 Feeding Pullets
Two types of feeds are used in raising pullets to point of lay. The first is
the chick mash or chick starter. This type is fed from day old to 7 or 8
weeks of age. It is then followed by a growers’ mash which is fed from
7 or 8 weeks to about 18 weeks of age or point of lay. The switch from
chick to grower ration should be gradual (3/4 + 1/4), (1/2 + 1/2) and (1/4
+ 3/4). It is worth noting that growers show great capacity to perform
well on different diets even on those diets that do not meet the specific
nutrient requirements. This is because the growth rate is much slower
than for fast growing boilers which require precise formulations.
3.4.2 Feeding Layers

Feed constitutes between 50 and 60 percent of the cost egg production.
Feed cost is therefore an important factor to consider for the
improvement of production efficiency. It is recommended that pullets be
changed from grower to layer feeds when they attain at least 5%
production which should be between 18 weeks and 22 weeks of age.
3.4.3 Feeding Commercial Layers
Hens laying table egg production and layer breeder hens should be fed
ad libitum (i.e. at all times) from point of lay for the entire laying period
of 12 months. Balanced feed must be provided. Feed dilution with
maize, wheat offal or other grains will reduce productivity.
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3.4.4 Layers Mash
This feed contains 16.5 to 17% crude protein and is meant for table egg
production flocks. It must contain sufficient energy of 2600-2700
kcal/kg. The protein ingredients must be such that provide the required
levels of the essentials amino acids such as lysine, methionine
(Methionine + Cysteine) and tryptophan.
3.5 Performance Standards
Under good feeding and management practice a high level of

performance can be maintained. It is necessary for the poultry farmers to
monitor regularly the performance of their flocks by comparing them
with the standards achievable by the top ranking farmers in the locality.
The following standards may be taken as a guide:
For rearing of chicks (0-8 weeks) (egg- type chicks)

Mortality up to 8 weeks below 3%
Feed intake to 8 weeks 1.6kg/birds
Weight at 8 weeks 650g/birds
For Growers 9-20 weeks

Mortality rate 9-20 weeks Less than 2%
Feed intake 6.5kg/bird
Body weight at 20 weeks 1550g/bird
Laying birds
Laying house mortality less than 10%/year
Age at 5% production 147 days
Age at 50% production 168 days
% HD production at peak 87
Feed/dozen eggs (kg) 2.35
Egg weight (g) 59g/egg
Average feed intake g/hen/day 135 (depends on energy
content of feed
and environment
temperatures)
Broiler 0-8 Weeks
Mortality less than 5%
Feed intake
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
(Starter, 0-5 weeks) kg/bird 1.4

(Finisher 6-8 weeks) kg/bird 3.5
Feed efficiency (kg feed/kg gain) 2.20
3.6 Important Considerations in Feed Formulation

Among such factors to be considered in making good feed formulation
are:
1 Acceptability to the birds: The ration being formulated has to

be palatable enough to stimulate intake by the birds. Any feed
refuse by the bird is worthless, since the feed has to be consumed
by birds to serve its purpose.
2 Digestibility: The nutrients in the feed have to be digested and
released into the gastrointestinal tract to be utilized by the
animals. For instance, rations with high fiber content cannot be
tolerated by poultry.
3 Cost: The requirement of the birds can be met through several
combinations of feed ingredients. However, when the costs of
these ingredients are considered, there can only be one least-cost
formulation. The least cost ration should ensure that the
requirements of the animal are met and the desired objectives are
achieved.
4 Presence of Anti-nutritional Factors and Toxins: This affects
the digestion of some nutrients by making them unavailable to
the birds. e.g. antitrypsin factor in soybean, meal. Some feed
ingredients may also contain toxic substances which may be
detrimental to the animal when given in excessive amounts,
3.7 Methods of Formulating Feed: There are several methods of

formulating rations; all of them have the same objectives of
providing the required balanced nutrients at the least possible
cost. Some of these methods are:
3.7.1 Trial and Error Method: This is the most popular method of
formulating rations for poultry. As the name implies, the
formulation is manipulated until the nutrient requirements of the
birds arrived at. Trial-and error method can be done manually on
paper or with the aid of a computer using programme like
spreadsheet e.g. Excel, Lotus123, and Quattro pro. This method
makes possible the formulation of a ration that meets all the
125
nutrient requirements of the birds. The limitation of this method is that;

it is laborious and takes more time before one will arrive at a fairly
satisfactory result.
3.7.2 Pearson Method: The Pearson square or box method of

balancing rations is a simple procedure that has been used for many
years. It is of greatest value when only two ingredients are to be mixed.
In taking a close look at the square, several numbers are in and around
the square. Probably one of the more important numbers is the number
that appears in the middle of the square. This number represents the
nutritional requirement of an animal for a specific nutrient. It may be
crude protein or TDN, amino acids, minerals or vitamins.
3.7.3 Substitution Method: A second method of ration balancing

may simply be termed substitution method. In this method, a ration is
estimated, and the nutrient content calculated. These results are then
compared to the nutrient needs of the animal for which the ration is
being balanced. Deficiencies are corrected by changing proportions of
feeds in the rations or by substituting or adding ingredients. Knowledge
of animal nutrient requirements, feeds available and their nutrient
composition are still necessary.
3.7.4 Linear Programming (LP): This is the common method of

Least Cost Feed Formulation. This method was first developed in 1947
by G.B. Dantzig to solve some U.S. Air Force planning problems but
now it is widely used in all types of fields. This is a method of
determining the least-cost combination of ingredients using a series of
mathematical equations
Example 1: Formulate a finishing diet containing 80% TDN on a DM

basis. The feeds to be used are roughage (60% TDN on a DM basis) and
a concentrate mix containing 83% TDN on a DM basis.
Place the percent TDN desired in the combination of the two feeds in the
center of a square and the percent TDN content of each feed at the left
corners as shown in the figure below.
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
Subtract diagonally across the square, the smaller number from the
larger without regard for the sign and record the difference at the right
corners.
The parts of each feed can be expressed as a % of the total.
3 part roughage x 100 = 13% Roughage

23 parts Total
20 part concentrate x 100 = 87% Roughage

23 parts Total
Double Pearson's Square Example
Example 2: Suppose we want a final mix with 16% CP and 72% TDN.
We have corn silage with 9% and 68%, concentrate with 24% and 79%,
and alfalfa hay with 20% and 68% CP and TDN, respectively.
127
The ration would contain 77.9% Mix 1 and 22.1% Mix 2. Corn Silage
was in both squares or mixes, so there are two calculations needed to
determine the total amount of corn silage and only one calculation each
to determine the amounts of Concentrate and Alfalfa Hay. Calculations
for individual ingredients are shown in the table below.
Example 3. Grain mix A is 40% corn and 60% soybean hulls (SBH),
whereas grain mix B is 50% dried distillers grains (DDG) and 50%
cottonseed hulls (CSH). The energy requirement being balanced for is
1.44 Mcal/d. The energy contents of the feeds are listed in the table
below.
Feed Energy (Mcal/kg)

Corn 2.01
Soyabean hull 1.37
Dried distiller grains 1.97
Cottonseed hulls 0.48
,,
First, treat grain mixes A and B as the two feeds to use in the Pearson’s
Square. This means you must calculate the amount of energy (Mcal/kg)
available in each mix. These are the steps:
1. Grain mix A
a. 40% corn at 2.01 Mcal/kg, so 2.01 x (40 ÷ 100) = 0.80
Mcal/kg
b. 60% SBH at 1.37 Mcal/kg, so 1.37 x (60 ÷ 100) = 0.82
Mcal/kg
c. 0.80 + 0.82 = 1.62 Mcal/kg
2. Grain mix B
a. 50% DDG at 1.97 Mcal/kg, so 1.97 x (50 ÷ 100) = 0.98
b. 50% CSH at 0.48 Mcal/kg, so 0.48 x (50 ÷ 100) = 0.24
c. 0.98 + 0.24 = 1.22 Mcal/kg
Second, make sure the energy requirement (1.44 Mcal/d) falls within the
range of the energy content of each grain mix (1.22 to 1.62 Mcal/kg);
Third, set up the Pearson’s Square as in Figure below.
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
Grain Mix A 0.22 part grain Mix A

(1.62 Mcal/kg)
1.44 Mcal/d
Grain mix B 0.18 parts grain mix B

(1.22 Mcal/kg) 0.4 total parts
Using Pearson's Square to formulate rations with more than two
ingredients.
Pearson’s Square calculations:

1. Subtract across the diagonal:
a. 1.44 – 1.22 = 0.22 parts grain mix A
b. 1.44 - 1.62 = 0.18 parts grain mix B
2. Sum the parts:

a. 0.22 parts grain mix A + 0.18 parts grain mix B = 0.40
total parts
3. Divide each part by the total to calculate the percent of each feed to
include. This step varies from the first example, because more than
two ingredients are being used. Before dividing, multiply the parts
of each grain mix by the proportions of each ingredient in the mix
(this should sum to the total parts). The total ration will be 55%
grain mix A (40% corn and 60% SBH) and 45% grain mix B (50%
DDG and 50% CSH).:
a. 0.22 x (40 ÷ 100) = 0.09 parts corn

b. 0.22 x (60 ÷ 100) = 0.13 parts SBH
c. 0.18 x (50 ÷ 100) = 0.09 parts DDG
d. 0.18 x (50 ÷ 100) = 0.09 parts CSH
4. For grain mix A:0.09 parts corn ÷ 0.4 total parts = 0.225
0.13 parts SBH ÷ 0.4 total parts = 0.325
5. For grain mix B: 0.09 parts DDG ÷ 0.4 total parts = 0.225
0.09 parts CSH ÷ 0.4 total parts = 0.225
Finally, go back and check the math as follows:
0.225% corn x 2.01 Mcal/kg = 0.45 Mcal/d
0.325% SBH x 1.37 Mcal/kg = 0.44 Mcal/d
129
0.225% DDG x 1.97 Mcal/kg = 0.44 Mcal/d

0.225% CSH x 0.48 Mcal/kg = 0.11 Mcal/d
0.45 + 0.44 + 0.44 + 0.11 = 1.44 Mcal/d
3.8 Merits of Formulated Rations - Using Computer
1. Least cost minimizes the cost of ration, given a certain set of

ingredients and their nutritional content which is done in real time
using a computer.
2. It is convenient and saves manpower.
3. It allows ‘least cost’ diet formulation using the specific
information fed into them.
4. It eliminates human error both in calculation and in speed.
i. Write short notes on the different methods of feed formulation

ii. Highlight 3 factors to be considered in formulating a good ration
5.0 SUMMARY
The management of chicks called brooding and the response of birds to

brooding temperature were highlighted in the lecture. The management
and feeding of growers and layers were also discussed. The difference
between ration (the total amount of feed given to the animals on daily
basis) and Feed formulation (the process of quantifying the amounts of
feed ingredients that need to be put together, to form a single uniform
mixture (diet) for animal that supplies all of their nutrient requirements)
was explained in this unit. Before any farmer can make a good feed,
some factors like, acceptability of the feed, cost, digestibility of the feed
and presence of antinutritional factors and toxins needs to be considered.
Trial and error, Pearson square, Substitution method and Linear-
programming are some of the methods of feed formulation.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Proper management and care of chicks during their first week of arrival
(brooding period) will determine their survivability. Techniques such as
forced molting, debeaking and adequate lighting programme are used in
every layer production. Ration formulation is one of the central
operations of the animal industry, in view of its role in ensuring good
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
nutrition. Therefore, efficient ration formulation should be done by

farmers so as to meet the nutrient requirement of the type of animal to
be fed with such ration to ensure optimal production at a reasonable
cost.
1. To reduce birds mortality, how will you manage chicks at the

brooding stage.
2. Provide short notes for debeaking and forced-moulting in
management of layers.
3. You have been requested by a stall feeder to help formulate a
15% CP and 75% TDN ration for steers. The farmer would like
to include 5% wheat, 5%GNC and 1 % slack space for minerals.
How much of each available feed ingredient is required in the
ration
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER RAEDING
Sonaiya, E.B. (2007). Family Poultry, Food security and the impact of
HPAI. World Poultry,science Journal 63:132-138
CTA. 1990. Small-Holder Rural Poultry Production - Requirements of

Research and Development. Thessaloniki, Greece, 9–13 October
1990
Valerie Brewer (2007). An Introduction to Chicken Production; A brief

insight into the modern chicken and egg industries.National
Chicken Council.Pg 1-14
131
UNIT 3 POULTRY BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Deep Litter or Built-up Litter System
3.1.1 Advantages of the Deep Litter System
3.1.2 Management of the Deep Litter System
3.2 The Cage or Battery (or battery cage) System
3.2.1 Advantages of the Cage System
3.3 Poultry Equipment and Appliances
3.3.1 Feeders
3.3.1.1Trough Feeders
3.3.1.2Tube Feeders or Hanging Feeders
3.3.2 Drinkers
4.0 Summary
5.0 Conclusion
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The housing systems collectively known as the intensive system are the
deep litter, the wire or slatted floor, the straw yard and the cage systems.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the types of intensive system of poultry production and

their advantages
 identify the various poultry equipment and appliances.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Deep Litter or Built-up Litter System
The deep litter system consists of a fixed building having suitable litter
material spread on the floor (Fig 28).
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ANP 501 MODULE 4
A windowless house, with provision for environmental control is used in

temperate regions but an open-sided house is used in the tropics.
The deep litter house is variable in size depending on the ages of the
birds; larger sizes may be used with skilled management.
Poultry houses are usually rectangular in plan. Square and round designs
are rare.
Large deep litter units can function efficiently only if the width of the
house does not exceed 7.2-10m and internal fixtures are at a minimum to
permit straight-through ventilation of the house. The length of the house
is determined by the gradient of the ground.
The roof of a poultry house may be full-span (gable) or lean-to. The

height of the ridge is related to the width of the house, the difference
between the ridge and eave heights is about one quarter of the width of
the house for houses of 7.2 m or less in width. Wider houses have a
lower ratio of ridge height to width, so that the house will not be too
high. Lean-to roofs may create the problem of rain drifting into the
house. -With all types of roofs, the eaves should be long enough to
check rain.
The floor of the deep litter house should be cemented and strong to
prevent entry of rats and mice. A cemented floor also improves the
efficiency of washing the floor clean of old litter material. A floor that is
poorly cemented is worse than one not cemented.
Suitable litter materials in the tropics are wood shavings, crushed cobs
of maize (after removing the grains), crushed dry kenaf stems, and
peanut shells. Dry sawdust is not a suitable material as it may easily
block the nostrils of the birds when they peck the litter, or irritate the
nasal passages and the throat-a stress factor contributing to respiratory
infection. Litter material must be water absorbent. In temperate regions,
materials that are used include peat moss and chopped straw.
133
3.1.1 Advantages of the Deep Litter System
The advantages unique to the deep litter system, and associated with
litter materials, are as follows:
(1) The litter converts the poultry droppings into a drier material
which is easier to remove, and the frequency of removing the
droppings is reduced.
(2) The litter is useful in controlling disease infections, largely
because the system reduces the concentration of pathogens. The
presence of litter material and droppings with their moisture
provides a suitable environment for the pro-liferation and action
of pathogens;
(3) This action generates heat and ammonia, both of which are lethal
to and thereby control the population of pathogenic organisms
themselves, thus providing a sort of natural population control.
Under good management, whereby the litter material is
constantly mixed with the droppings, the pathogens are thinly
spread out. In effect, the birds on litter arc exposed to a
subclinical level of infection which not only fails to produce
clinical symptoms but also produces natural immunity in the
birds.
(4) Also related to disease prevention, the litter appears to alleviate
temperature effects by acting as an insulator.
(5) The action of micro-organisms on litter and on droppings
produces "animal protein factors' (A.P.F.) which notably include
vitamin B12. This is essential for the development of chick
embryos and hence for the hatchability of chicken eggs.
(6) There may be an economic advantage in that litter materials arc
sometimes obtained more cheaply than any other materials that
may be used to prevent direct contact between the birds and their
droppings on the floor.
3.1.2 Management of the Deep Litter System
Well-managed litter is friable, has a crumbly consistency, a low

concentration of pathogens, and is practically free from ammonia. It is
difficult to form a ball of it with the hand, as it constantly breaks down.
It is thoroughly mixed with the droppings. Poorly managed litter
manifests opposite characteristics, and in extreme cases, it may be wet
or mucky producing a pungent odour of ammonia that may affect the
eyes of the birds. It increases disease risk partly by acting as a
favourable medium for the development of pathogens that can resist the
destructive effect of ammonia. The accumulation of ammonia in litter
134
ANP 501 MODULE 4
due to poor management is injurious to the birds and is incompatible

with a high level of performance.
Satisfactory management of litter should start with the initial provision

of enough quantities of the materials. Otherwise it is practically
impossible to obtain the right ratio of litter to droppings, or litter of the
right consistency. As soon as there is an excess of droppings, more litter
should be added.
The litter should be turned with the rake daily, or at least three times a
week, to ensure that the droppings are thoroughly mixed with litter.
Wet litter is undesirable, as discussed above, and it should be minimized

by placing drinkers on droppings-pits or wired sections of the floor, and
on low platforms. The wet litter under the platform and droppings in the
pits are outside the reach of the birds. However, the wet litter should be
removed frequently or mixed with dry litter. Water drinkers should not
be overfilled, and should be stable, well-constructed and of the right size
and number for the birds.
Fig. 28: Deep Litter Housing System for Layers
3.2 The Cage or Battery (or battery cage) System
This system appears structurally closer to the wire floor than any other
of the intensive systems. In the cage system, the birds are housed in
individual compartments, each accommodating a limited number of
birds, mostly one or two (Fig 29). This individual cage compartment is
the basic component unit of the cage system and it is essentially a laying
nest with a sloping floor, and feed and water troughs.
It is constructed to permit ventilation from all sides. Usually the sides,
135
top and floor are constructed of heavily galvanised iron. While the
sloping floor extends forward and folds gently to form the cradle from
which the eggs are collected. The hardness of the material and the slope
of the floor are disadvantages, often causing breakage of eggs.
3.2.1 Advantages of the Cage System
1. The birds are free from the various problems associated with
mutual contact or social friction resulting in vice habits and
stress. Significantly, pecking which may predispose birds to fowl
pox are avoided. Birds suffering from infectious diseases are
automatically confined and the spread of disease is controlled.
2. The birds are less exposed to disease organisms since practically

no contact exists between them and their droppings. They are also
less predisposed to infection because the exposure of the birds to
litter, ammonia and their mutual contacts is minimal.
3. The birds are easier to manage. Feed or water condition is

checked in the more comfortable position of standing or bending
slightly. Keeping the birds in separate compartments simplifies
the identification of the birds. It is less easy for birds to feed on
eggs and thereby develop egg eating habits.
The only disadvantages that used to be associated with this system is the
assumed high initial capital outlay, largely on account of the cage, but it
may cost about the same to house a bird in the cage or on deep litter.
Fig. 29: Cage System of Housing for Layer
136
ANP 501 MODULE 4
3.3 Poultry Equipment and Appliances
Poultry houses cannot function satisfactorily unless they are properly

equipped and supplied with appliances. These are the basic requirements
for the successful management of fowls.
Poultry equipment and appliances vary from the simple to the complex,
from the most elementary makes to the most advanced electronic
devices. The temptation is usually to go in for the complicated item, but
it is worth realising that if an aluminium cup can be used satisfactorily
for a purpose, it is wasteful to buy the gold cup.
3.3.1 Feeders
Feeders and drinkers are the appliances used to supply feed and water
respectively to the birds. Feeders and drinkers are components of the
cage system. The construction of feeders should be such as to avoid
waste, to prevent fouling of feed with droppings and litter, easy to clean
or wash, and constructed of durable material. If timber is used for the
construction, preservatives like solignum should be used to prevent
fungal or insect damage. Automatic feeders may become important with
the increasing cost of labour in many tropical areas. One form
distributes feed from the feed-hopper through a chain electrically driven
and operated by a time switch. It activates feed and reduces crowding
but it is expensive.
3.3.1.1Trough Feeders
Apart from flat feeders like the Keyes-type trays for feeding chicks,
feeders are mostly troughs or hoppers. The main part of the trough
feeder is the feed container, with either the top and base widths equal or
the top wider than the base so that the sides slope or may even gave a V-
shape in cross-section. The latter shape brings every particle of feed
within reach of the birds and makes it easy to clean.
The top of each of the long sides is curved in to form a ‘lip’ as a means
of limiting feed waste. A spinner mounted on top of the feeder gives
sufficient access to feed and prevents fouling and wastage of feed by the
bird.
137
The trough feeder comes in a variety of sizes; the length can be about
0.6m to 1.6m. The base width of a sloping sided trough is about 8cm
when the trough is for 8-week-old birds and 20-25cm for adults. The
feeders have legs which lift them above the litter. Some feeders are
placed on stands which have perches.
3.3.1.2 Tube Feeders or Hanging Feeders
These are metal feeders which are cylindrical in shape, and with a pan
into which feed flows from the main body in which reserve feed is
contained. Another type of tube feeder has sloping sides, wider at the
base than at the top. They vary from about 6kg to 14kg in the quantities
of feed that they can hold. The lower pan may be detached and used as a
chick feeder. Some of them have covers at the top end.
3.3.2 Drinkers
The commonest form of drinker in Nigeria is the water fountain, which

may be made of galvanised iron, alummium or plastic. The latter is not
durable, while iron becomes rusty, in contrast to alummium which is
rust-resistant, durable but expensive. They are usually conical or partly
cylindrical. They vary in capacity from, say, 2 to 6 or 8 litres. The shape
should facilitate quick and thorough washing.
Some drinkers are trough-shaped, like feeders and made of galvanized

angle iron. Bars spaced at 7.5cm prevent fouling of the water. The
trough is placed on a slatted or wired platform over a drain, running
along one side of the house. The trough may be filled manually or by an
automatic device based on a spring-loaded ball-valve attached to the
supply pipe. This permits storage of water in a reserve tank from which
water is supplied to the drinker.
Fig. 30: Flat Tray Feeder Fig. 31: Fountain Drinker
138
ANP 501 MODULE 4
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt the type of intensive system of poultry

housing and their advantages. The various equipment used in poultry
house was also highlighted.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The poultry house must be constructed in such a manner that it takes

into account the ease of operations, the prevailing winds and rain to
enhance drying of manure or litter, also various diseases and infections
that can cause damage to the health of the birds. The poultry equipment
should be such that it avoids waste, prevent fouling of feed with
droppings and litter, easy to clean or wash, and constructed of durable
material.
1. Explain 3 advantages of deep litter system and cage system?

2. List the various equipment used in poultry house?
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
Oluyemi, J.A and Robert, F.A (2000). Poultry Production in Warm West
Climate. Revised Ed, Macmillan Press Ltd, London 88: 54-69
https://pubs.ext.vt.edu/2902/2902-1092/2902-1092_pdf.
http://articles.extension.org/pages/66243/small-scale-poultry-
housing
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COURSE

Course Team Dr. O. A. Adebiyi (Course Writer) -UI

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

© 2020 by NOUN Press

Module 1 Poultry Production in the Nigerian

Unit 1 Poultry Industry in Nigeria……………................... 1

Module 2 Poultry Egg Production……………………….… 20

Unit 1 Hatchery Management……………………………. 20

Module 3 Poultry Meat Production…………………………… 48

Unit 1 Broiler Chicken Production and Marketing……… 48

Module 4 Egg Formation and Morphology………………... 107

Unit 1 Egg Science and Technology……………………… 107

MODULE 1 POULTRY PRODUCTION IN THE

Unit 1 Poultry Industry in Nigeria

UNIT 1 POULTRY INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA

Poultry sector has tremendous employment potential and would go a

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 define the term ‘Poultry’

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 History of Poultry Production in Nigeria

The poultry sub-sector is the most commercialised (capitalised) of all

Since the onset of the poultry industry in 1956, commercial production

management, disease and marketing. Despite these problems, the rapid

3.2 Prospects and Problems of Poultry Production in Nigeria

The livestock industry sub-sector is an important component of the

However, some of the highlighted problems still being faced are:

1. Scarcity and high cost of day-old chicks (DOC), poults, ducklings

increase requirement. Indigenous breeds are also broody in nature

Poultry keeping is ubiquitous in Nigeria’s rural areas and is increasingly

In this course, we have learnt about poultry industry. The various

remain the fastest means of bridging the protein- deficiency gap

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define poultry and explain the various challenges faced by

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

David, A. M. (2002). Nigeria Poultry and Products Update.United

Odeh, O. (2010). ‘Nigeria: Ban on Chicken Import Creates 20m Jobs’.

Sonaya, E., & Swan, S. (2004). Small-Scale Poultry Production

Adene, D.F. &Oguntade,A.E.(2006). TheStructure and Importance of

UNIT 2 POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 state types of poultry production systems

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Free-Range Extensive Systems

In Africa, Asia and Latin America, 80 percent of farmers keep poultry in

Fig. 1.1: Free Range Birds

3.2 Backyard Extensive Systems

3.3 Semi-Intensive Systems

These are a combination of the extensive and intensive systems where

3.4 Concept of Rural Poultry

The term ‘rural poultry’ or ‘family poultry’ (FP), as used in most

The rural poultry or family poultry production serves as an important

also play an important socio-cultural role in many societies. Poultry

3.5 Types of Family/Rural Poultry

The rural poultry production is practiced either as free range or semi-

Fig. 1.2: Raffia Cages

3.6 Intensive Systems

These systems are used by medium to large-scale commercial

 Slatted floor system: wire or wooden slatted floors are used

3.7 Housing in Intensive Systems