Chapter 2

The Modern Atomic Theory

1. All matter is composed of atoms. The atom is the smallest body
that retains the unique identity of the element.

2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another

element in a chemical reaction. Elements can only be converted
into other elements in nuclear reactions.

3. All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and

electrons, which determines the chemical behavior of the element.
Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons, and
thus in mass number. A sample of the element is treated as
though its atoms have an average mass.

4. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or

more elements in specific ratios.
 Mass Charge Charge
Particle
(g) (Coulombs (units)
)
Electron (e-) 9.1 x 10-28 -1.6 x 10-19 -1

Proton (p+) 1.67 x 10-24 +1.6 x 10-19 +1

Neutron (n) 1.67 x 10-24 0 0

mass p = mass n = 1840 x mass e-

 Electron
- Negatively charge particle.

 Proton
- Positively charge particle
- The number of proton are equal to the
number of electron if the atom is neutral.
- Proton has opposite sign of an electron
- Proton has greater mass than electron.

 Neutron
- Carries no charge particle.
- It has almost the ame mass with proton.
- The number of neutron is not
directly related to proton or
electron.
General Features of
the Atom
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) +
number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei
A Element Symbol
Mass Number Atomic Number Z X
2 3
1
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

235
92 U 238
92 U
 What are Isotopes?

 Isotopes are the elements that have the same

atomic number but the different number of mass.
2 3
1 1
H (D) 1
H (T)
H
Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium
 Exercise:

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 146 C ?

6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 116 C ?

6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons
Both C are isotopes of carbon. They have the same number of
protons but differ in number of neutrons
Sample Problem: Determining the Number of Subatomic
Particles in the Isotopes of an Element

PROBLEM: Silicon(Si) is essential to the computer industry as a major

component of semiconductor chips. It has three naturally
occurring isotopes: 28Si, 29Si, and 30Si. Determine the number of
protons, neutrons, and electrons in each silicon isotope.

PLAN: We have to use the atomic number and atomic masses.

SOLUTION: The atomic number of silicon is 14. Therefore

28Si has 14p+, 14e- and 14n0 (28-14)

29Si has 14p+, 14e- and 15n0 (29-14)

30Si has 14p+, 14e- and 16n0 (30-14)

 The periodic table is a handy tool that correlates the properties of the
elements in a systematic way and helps us to make predictions about
chemical behavior.
 Element are arranged by atomic number (shown above the element
symbol) in horizontal rows called Periods and vertical columns known as
groups or families , according to similarities in their chemicals properties
 The elements can be divided into three categories- metals, nonmetals
and metalloids
 Element are often referred to collectively by their periodic table group
number (Group 1A, Group 2A, and so on).
 However, for convenience, some elements groups have been
given
special names
Group 1A: Alkali metals
Group 2A: Alkaline earth metals
Group 7A: Halogens
Group 8A: Noble gases, or rare gases
 Noble Gas
Halogen
Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
1. Atomic Radius increases. There is an additional energy level added to
each successive atom.
2. Ionization energy decreases. It takes less energy to form an ion.
3. Electronegativity decreases. Electronegativity is the attraction an atom
has for an electron. If the outer shell (valence shell) is farther from the
nucleus there will not be as great attraction if it were closer.
4. Oxidation states (charges) remains the same because they all have the
same number of electrons in the outer shell and will therefore behave the
same.

5. Metallic properties increase.

The metallic character of an element is defined as the easiness of its atom
in losing electrons. Metallic character increases down the group, and this
happens because while moving down the group, atomic radius increases,
making it easier to lose electrons. Metals want to lose electrons, the
farther the electron is from the nucleus, the easier it will be to lose the
electron.
6. They all have similar properties.
1. Atomic Radius decreases. – from left to the right. All the elements that are on
the same period will have the same number of energy levels. The number of
protons in the nucleus increases making the nuclear charge stonger.It therefore
pulls the electrons toward it making the radius smaller as you go from one
element to the next.
2. Ionization energy increases from let to the right.. There are more electrons in
the outer shell and it is therefore harder to remove them. The electrons are also
closer to the nucleus so there is a greater force holding them there.
3. Electronegativity increases from left to the right.. These elements want to
gain electrons to complete their outer shell, so they have a greater force of
attraction. Oxidation states change (+1, +2, +3, + - 4, -3 , -2, -1)). They all have a
different number of electrons in the outer shell.
4. Metallic properties decrease.
The metallic character of an element decreases while moving from left to right
across a period. This happens due to the fact that while moving from left to right
in a period, the number of electrons and protons in an atom increases which
causes an increase in nuclear force on the electrons and hence losing electrons
becomes difficult.
5. Properties are all different
Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals
 Metals
 Left-hand side of the table
 Tendency to lose electrons
 Conduct heat and electricity
 Usually solid at room temperature
 Malleable - can be hammered into different shapes
 Ductile - can be drawn into wires
 Luster - they shine

 Nonmetals
 Right-hand side of the table
 Tendency to gain electrons
 Poor conductors of heat or electricity
 Not malleable or ductile (those that are solids tend to be brittle)
 Do not exhibit luster

 Metalloids (or semimetals)

 Mixture of metallic and nonmetallic properties
 Used for semiconductors
 1A (Group 1) - Alkali metals
They will all form ions with a +1 charge.
They all have one s electron in their outer
are
shell.seldom found
Thesefree in nature.
are very As a matter
active metals and of fact these
elements are not found free in nature.
 11A (Group 2)- alkaline earth metals
These are also very active elements, but not as active as those
in group 1. These group 2 elements have
each other. They
properties all to
similar have two s electrons in their outer shell and
will therefore produce a +2 ion.
 111B – 11B ( Group 3 – 12) - Transition
elements
These metals are located in the center of the periodic
table.
They make up groups 3 through 12.
 The rare earth elements (Inner transition Elements)
The rare earth elements are the two rows at the bottom of the
periodic table.
These elements are rare. Most are unstable and will have only the most
stable isotope listed. Because they are unstable many of these are
associated with radioactivity
 VIIA (Group 17)- The halogens
It is the only group on the periodic table that has a solid, liquid, and
gas. Each member of this group forms an ion, when it is the nonmetal
by itself, of -1. Fluorine is a member of this group and is considered to
be the most active nonmetal. Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room
temperature, while iodine is a liquid and bromine and astatine are solids.
 V111A (Group 18)- Inert gases
Sometimes these are called the Noble gases or the inert
gas
structures.
They have completed outer shells and are therefore stable elements.
This is called a stable octet (except He which only has 2 electrons in
it's outer shell).
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical
bonds

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na +
10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
 What are Ions?

27 3+
How many protons and electrons are in 13 Al ?

13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons

78 Se 2- ?
How many protons and electrons are in 34
34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons
A monatomic ion contains only
one atom Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+,
N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
NH4+ ammonium SO42- sulfate
carbonate sulfite
HCO3- bicarbonate NO3- nitrate
ClO3- chlorate NO2- nitrite
Cr2O72- dichromate SCN- thiocyanate
CrO42- chromate OH- hydroxide
Chemist use chemical formulas to express the composition in terms of chemical symbols
A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each
element in the smallest unit of a substance

An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of

the atoms in a substance
molecular empirical

H 2O H 2O

C6H12O6
CH2O

O3 O
NH2
N 2H 4
An ionic compounds consist of a combination of
cations and an anions
• the formula is always the same as the empirical formula
• the sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each
formula unit must equal zero

The ionic compound NaCl

Formula of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -
6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-
1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -
2
Na2CO3
Na+
CO32-
 Ionic Compounds
 often a metal + nonmetal
 anion (nonmetal), add “ide” to element name

Example:
BaCl2 barium chloride

K2O potassium oxide

Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide

KNO3 potassium nitrate

  Transition metal ionic compounds
 indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals

FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 iron(II)

chloride
FeCl 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride
3

chromium(III) sulfide
Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2)
 Molecular compounds
 nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
 common names
▪ H2O, NH3, CH4, C60
 element further left in periodic table is 1st
 element closest to bottom of group is 1st
 if more than one compound can be formed from the
same elements, use prefixes to indicate number of each
kind of atom
 last element ends in ide
 Molecular
HI Compounds
hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide TOX

IC!
dinitrogen monoxide

N2O
Sample Problem Naming Binary Molecular Compounds

PROBLEM: Name the following molecular compound:

(a) SiCI4 (b) iodine and cadmium

(c) strontium and fluorine (d) sulfur and cesium

PLAN: Use the periodic table to decide which element is the metal and
which the nonmetal. The metal (cation) is named first and we
use the -ide suffix on the nonmetal name root.

SOLUTION: (a) Silicon Tetrachloride

(b) cadmium iodide

(c) strontium fluoride

(d) cesium sulfide

• An acid can be defined as a substance that
yields hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in
water.
HCl
•Pure substance, hydrogen chloride
•Dissolved in water (H+ Cl-), hydrochloric acid

• All acids begin with H.

• Two types of acids:
Oxyacids
Non-oxyacids
(axoanion)
 oxoacid
An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element (The central
element).

Usually written with the H first, followed by the

central element and then O, as illustrated by the
following example :
HNO3 nitric acid

H2CO3 carbonic acid

H2SO4 sulfuric acid

chloric acid
HCIO3
 Addition of one O atom to the “-ic” acid: the acid called
“per…-ic” acid. Thus Adding an O atom to HCIO3 changes
chloric acid to perchloric acid (HCIO4)

 Removal of one O atom to the “-ic” acid: the acid called “-ous
” acid. Thus Removal of one O atom to HNO3changes nitric
acid to nitrous acid (HNO2)
 Removal of two O atom to the “-ic” acid: the acid called
“hypo
-ous ” acid. Thus when Removal of two O atom to HBrO3
Bromic acid or (Hydogen Bromate) changes to
hypobromous acid (HBrO)
 When all the H ions was removed from “-ic” acid, the anions
name ends with “-ate”.

Example:
Chloric acid (HCIO3 ) changes to chlorate (CIO3)


When all the H atoms from the “-ous” acid, -the anions
name ends with “-ite”.

Example:
Chlorous acid(HCIO2) changes to chlorite (CIO2 )
Oxoacid names are similar to those of the oxoanions, except for two suffix
changes:

• Anion “-ate” suffix becomes an “-ic” suffix in the acid. Anion “-ite”
suffix becomes an “-ous” suffix in the acid.
• The oxoanion prefixes “hypo-” and “per-” are retained.

• Example :

Thus, BrO4- is perbromate, and HBrO4 is perbromic acid; IO2- is iodite,

and
HIO2 is iodous acid.

A base can be defined as a substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH-)

when dissolved in water.
NaOH
sodium hydroxide

KOH
potassium hydroxide

Ba(OH)2
barium hydroxide
 The “-ide” Nomenclature of some common
monatomic anions according to their positions in
the periodic table

Group 4A Group 5A Group 6A Group 7A

C carbide (C4-) N nitride (N3-) O oxide (O2-) F fluoride (F-)
Si silicide (Si4-) P phosphide (P3-) S sulfide (S2-) Cl Chloride (Cl-)
Se selenide (Se2-) Br Bromide (Br-)
Te telluride (Te2-) I iodide (I-)
 Names and formulas of some common inorganic
cations and anions
Cation Anion
Aluminium (Al3+) Bromide (Br-)
Ammonium (NH4+) Carbonate (CO32-)
Barium (Ba2+) Chlorate (CLO3-)
Cadmium (Cd2+) Chloride (Cl-)
Calcium (Ca2+) Chromate (CrO42-)
Cesium (Cs+) Cyanide (CN-)
Chromium (III) or Chromic (Cr3+) Dichromate ( Cr2O72-)
Cobalt (II) or cobaltous (Co2+) Dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-)
Copper (I) or cuprous (Cu+) Fluoride (F-)
Copper (II) or cupric (Cu2+) Hydride (H-)
Hydogen (H+) Hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate
(HCO3-)
Iron (II) or ferrous (Fe2+) Hydrogen phosphate (HPO42-)
Iron (III) or ferric (Fe3+) Hydrogen sulphate or bisulfate (HSO4-)
Lead (II) or plumbous (Pb2+) Hydroxide (OH-)
Lithium (Li+) Iodide (I-)
Magnesium (Mg2+) Nitrate (NO3-)
Manganese (II) or manganous (Mn2+) Nitride (N3-)
Mercury (I) or mercurous (Hg22+) Nitrite (NO2-)
 Names and formulas of some common inorganic
cations and anions cont…

Cation Anion
Mercury (II) or mercuric (Hg2+) Oxide (O2-)
Potassium (K+) Permanganate (MnO4-)
Rubidium (Rb+) Peroxide (O22-)
Silver (Ag+) Phosphate (PO43-)
Sodium (Na+) Sulfate (SO42-)
Strontium (Sr2+) Sulfide (S2-)
Tin (Ii) or stannous (Sn2+) Sulfite (SO32-)
Zinc (Zn2+) Thiocyanate (SCN-)