Biological Molecules Chapter 4

Chemical Elements
 Most of the molecules in living organisms fall into three categories: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
 These all contain carbon and so are described as organic molecules
Chemical Elements Table
Large Molecules are Made from Smaller Molecules

Carbohydrates
 Long chains of simple sugars

 Glucose is a simple sugar ( a monosaccharide)
 When 2 glucose molecules join together maltose is formed (a disaccharide)
 When lots of glucose molecules join together starch, glycogen or cellulose can form (a polysaccharide)
Glycogen, cellulose and starch are all made from glucose molecules
Fats
 Most fats (lipids) in the body are made up of triglycerides

 Their basic unit is 1 glycerol molecule chemically bonded to 3 fatty acid chains
 The fatty acids vary in size and structure
 Lipids are divided into fats (solids at room temperature) and oils (liquids at room temperature)
Structure of a triglyceride
Proteins
 Long chains of amino acids

 There are about 20 different amino acids
 They all contain the same basic structure but the ‘R’ group is different for each one
 When amino acids are joined together a protein is formed
 The amino acids can be arranged in any order, resulting in hundreds of thousands of different proteins
 Even a small difference in the order of the amino acids results in a different protein being formed
General amino acid structure
Amino acids join together to form proteins
Food Tests in Biology

Test for glucose (a reducing sugar)
 Add Benedict's solution into sample solution in test tube

 Heat at 60 - 70 °c in water bath for 5 minutes
 Take test tube out of water bath and observe the colour
 A positive test will show a colour change from blue to orange or brick red
Use this image
The Benedict's test for glucose
Test for starch using iodine
 We can use iodine to test for the presence or absence of starch in a food sample.
Use this image
The iodine test for starch

 Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample
 A positive test will show a colour change from orange-brown to blue-black
Use this image
Testing a potato to prove the presence of starch
Test for protein
 Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample

 A positive test will show a colour change from blue to violet / purple
Use this image
The Biuret test for protein
Test for lipids
 Food sample is mixed with 2cm3 of ethanol and shaken

 The ethanol is added to an equal volume of cold water
 A positive test will show a cloudy emulsion forming
Use this image
The ethanol test for lipids
Test for vitamin C
 Add 1cm3 of DCPIP solution to a test tube

 Add a small amount of food sample (as a solution)
 A positive test will show the blue colour of the dye disappearing
Use this image
The DCPIP test for vitamin C
Exam Tip
When describing food tests in exam answers, make sure you give the starting colour of the solution
and the colour it changes to for a positive result.
Structure of a DNA Molecule: Extended
 DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the instructions for the growth and
development of all organisms
 It consists of two strands of DNA wound around each other in what is called a double helix
DNA, chromosomes and the nucleus
 The individual units of DNA are called nucleotides
A nucleotide
 All nucleotides contain the same phosphate and deoxyribose sugar, but differ from each other
in the base attached
 There are four different bases, Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and Guanine (G)
 The bases on each strand pair up with each other, holding the two strands of DNA in the
double helix
 The bases always pair up in the same way:
o Adenine always pairs with Thymine (A-T)
o Cytosine always pairs with Guanine (C-G)
DNA base pairs
 The phosphate and sugar section of the nucleotides form the ‘backbone’ of the DNA strand
(like the sides of a ladder) and the base pairs of each strand connect to form the rungs of the
ladder
The DNA helix is made from two strands of DNA held together by hydrogen bonds
 It is this sequence of bases that holds the code for the formation of proteins
Exam Tip
You do not need to learn the names of the bases, just their letter. Make sure you know which
bonds with which, as this is the most commonly asked question about this topic.

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Chemical Elements

Chemical Elements Table

Large Molecules are Made from Smaller Molecules

 Long chains of simple sugars

 Most fats (lipids) in the body are made up of triglycerides

 Long chains of amino acids

Amino acids join together to form proteins

Food Tests in Biology

 Add Benedict's solution into sample solution in test tube

The Benedict's test for glucose

Test for starch using iodine

Use this image

The iodine test for starch

Use this image

Testing a potato to prove the presence of starch

Test for protein

 Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample

Use this image

The Biuret test for protein

Test for lipids

 Food sample is mixed with 2cm3 of ethanol and shaken

Use this image

The ethanol test for lipids

Test for vitamin C

 Add 1cm3 of DCPIP solution to a test tube

Use this image

The DCPIP test for vitamin C

DNA, chromosomes and the nucleus

 The individual units of DNA are called nucleotides

DNA base pairs

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