Piecewise Defined Functions

1. FUNCTIONS

Introduction To Function
Informally, a set-theoretic function f taking a set A to a set B is a mapping that to each x ∈ A
assigns a unique y ∈ B.
For example, we could define a function

f :S→T

taking S = {0, 1, 2} to T = {0, 2} by assigning f (0) := 2, f (1) := 2, and f (2) := 0.

Alternatively
1. If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines exactly
one value of y, then we say that y is a function of x
2. A function f is a rule that associates a unique output with each input. If the input is
denoted by x, then the output will be denoted by f (x)
For a given input x, the output of a function f is called the value/image of x under f

y = f (x) (1.1)

Independent Variable and Dependent Variable

This represents the input or the argument of f . The terminology used suggests that x is free to
vary but once x has a specific value, a corresponding y is determined Dependent Variable This
represents the output variable y

Considering function in which both the dependent and independent variables are real, then f
is a real-valued function of a real variable

Domain & Range

Domain The set of all allowable input (x - values)

Range The set of outputs (y - values) that result when x varies over the domain
2 Chapter 1. FUNCTIONS

Natural Domain
This results when real-valued function is defined by a rule and no domain is specified. The
natural domain is the set of all real numbers for which the rule yields a real value.

Example

1
(a) f (x) = x3 (b) f (x) =
[(x − 1)(x − 3)]
√
(c) f (x) = tanx (d) f (x) = x2 − 5x + 6

SOLUTIONS

Solution(a). The function f has values for all real x, so its natural domain is the interval (−∞, +∞)

Solution(b). The function f has values for all real x, except x = 1 and x = 3, where devi-
sions by zero occur. Thus is the natural domain is
{x : x 6= 1 and x 6= 3}= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)
sinx
Solution(c). Since f (x) = tanx = , the fuction f has real values except where cosx = 0, and
cosx
this occur when x is an odd integer multiple of π/2 .Thus, the natural domain consists of all real
numbers except
π 3π 5π
x = ± , ± , ± , ...
2 2 2
Solution(d). The function f has values for all real x, except when the expression inside the
radical is negative. Thus the natural domain consists of all real number x such that
x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 3)(x − 2) ≥ 0

This inequality is satisfied if x ≤ 2 or x ≥ 3, so the domain of f is

(−∞, 2)(3 + ∞)

EXERCISE 1

(1)Find the domain

√ and range of
(a) f (x) = 2 + x − 1

x+1
(b) f (x) =
x−1
EXERCISE 2
Find the natural domain and determine the range of each function.
1 x
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) =
x−3 |x|
√ √
(c) g(x) = x2 − 3 (d) G(x) = x2 − 2x + 5
r
1 x2 4
(e) h(x) = (f)H(x) =
1 − sinx x−2
 3

The Absolute Value Function

Recall that the absolute value or magnitude of a real number x is defined by

x, x ≥ 0
|x| = (1.2)
−x, x < 0

The effect of taking the absolute value of a number is to strip away the minus sign if the number
is negative and to leave the number unchanged if it is nonnegative

4
|5| = 5 − |0| = 0
7

Properties
1. | − a| = |a|
2. |ab| = |a||b|
3. |a/b| = |a|/|b|, b 6= 0
4. |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (triangle inequality)

1.0.1 Piecewise Defined Functions

• A function is considered a piecewise if the rule for f changes depending on the value of x
• The absolute
 value function f = |x| is an example of a piecewise function
 √ 0, x ≤ −1
f (x) = 1 − x2 , −1 < x < 1 (1.3)
x, x≥1


Odd & Even Functions

A function f is said to be an even function if

f (−x) = f (x) (1.4)

A function f is said to be an odd function if

f (−x) = − f (x) (1.5)

Even functions are symmetric about the y-axis; odd functions are symmetric about the origin

Families of Functions
1. Power Functions

2. Polynomials
4 Chapter 1. FUNCTIONS

3. Rational Functions

4. Algebraic Functions

5. Trigonometric Functions

Power Functions
These are functions of the form

f (x) = x p (1.6)

where p is a constant;
• These are also known as single term polynomials
• For n ≥ 2 the shape of y = xn depends on whether n is even or odd
• For even values of n the power functions are even
• For odd values of n the power functions are odd
• The domain of power functions is (−∞, +∞)

More Power Functions

Power functions with negative index f (x) = x−n
• For f (x) = x p , if p is a negative integer, p = −n, then the functions have the form

1
f (x) = x−n = (1.7)
xn
• The rules of even/odd functions apply here as with power functions with positive p.
• The graph of 1/xn has a break at the origin (known as a discontinuity); as a result of
division by zero
• The domain of this set of functions is {x|x 6= 0}
More Power Functions Noninteger index f (x) = x1/n
• For f (x) = x p , if p is a noninteger , p = 1/n, then the functions have the form
√
f (x) = x1/n = n
x (1.8)
√ √
• The graph of y = n x extends over the x-axis if n is odd; for example y = 3 x therefore has
the domain (−∞, +∞)
• If n is even on the other hand, the interval [0, +∞) becomes the domain for this set of
functions

Polynomials
A polynomial in x is a function that is expressible as a sum of finitely many terms of the form
cxn , where c is a constant; Generally a polynomial of degree n is given by

Pn (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + · · · + cn xn (1.9)

• 5 + 3x – Linear
• x2 − 3x + 1 – Quadratic
• 2x3 − 7 – Cubic, etc.
• The natural domain of a polynomial in x is (−∞, +∞)
 5

Rational Functions
A function that can be expressed as a ratio of two polynomials is called a rational function
If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the domain of the rational function

P(x)
f (x) = (1.10)
Q(x)

consists of all x such that Q(x) 6= 0

1. Find the domain of
x2 + 2x
f (x) = (1.11)
x2 − 1

Algebraic Functions
These are functions that can be constructed form polynomials by applying finitely many algebraic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, root extraction);
Examples
p
f (x) = x2 − 4 (1.12)

√
f (x) = 3 3 x(2 + x) (1.13)

f (x) = x2/3 (x + 2)2 (1.14)

Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions generally are of the form

f (x) = A sin(Bx −C) (1.15)

and

f (x) = A cos(Bx −C) (1.16)

where A, B and C are nonzero constants

• Domain for sin x and cos x is (−∞, +∞) and the Range is [−1, 1]
• They are periodic functions each with a period of 2π

sin(x + 2π) = sin x and cos(x + 2π) = cos x (1.17)

π 3π
tan x is undefined at cos x = 0 i.e x = ± , , . . .
2 2

Inverse Functions
if the functions f and g satisfy the two conditions
g( f (x)) = x for every x in the domain of f
f (g(y)) = x for every y in the domain of g
then f is an inverse function of g and g is an inverse of f or that f and g are inverse functions.
6 Chapter 1. FUNCTIONS
√
• f (x) = x3 + 1 has an inverse of g(y) = 3
y − 1. Another form of representation is

f −1 (y) = 3 y − 1
p
(1.18)

• Let us show that

f −1 ( f (x)) = x for every x in the domain of f
−1
f(f (y)) = x for every y in the domain of g

Domain & Range of Inverse Functions

The following relationship exists between the domains and ranges of functions f and f −1
domain of f −1 = range of f
range of f −1 = domain of f
A procedure for Finding the Inverse of a function f
1. Write down the equation y = f (x)
2. If possible, solve this equation for x as function of y
3. The resulting equation will be x = f −1 (y), which provides a formula for f −1 with y as the
independent variable
4. If y is acceptable as the independent variable for the inverse function, then it ends there.
Otherwise if x is required as the independent variable then you need to interchange x and y
in the equation x = f −1 (y) to obtain y = f −1 (x)
Example
Find a formula for the inverse of
√
f (x) = 3x − 2
with x as the independent variable, and state the domain of f −1

Existence of Inverse Functions

Theorem A function has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one

• A function is one-to-one if and only if

f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 (1.19)

• Graphically a function is one-to-one if the graph of y = f (x) is cut at most once by any
horizontal line
• Use the horizontal line to test if

f (x) = x2 f (x) = x3 (1.20)

are invertible or not invertible

Increasing & Decreasing Functions

• A function whose graph is always rising as it is transversed from left to right is said to be
an increasing function
• If x1 and x2 are points in the domain of a function f , then f is increasing if

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 (1.21)

• A function whose graph is always falling as it is transversed from left to right is said to be
an decreasing function
 7

• If x1 and x2 are points in the domain of a function f , then f is increasing if

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 (1.22)

• Increasing or decreasing functions are invertible

Lesson 2: Limits
COMPUTING LIMIT
LIMIT AT INFINITY
LIMIT LAW FOR LIMITS AT INFINITY
LIMITS OF X n AS X → ±∞
LIMITS OF POLYNOMIALS AS X → ±∞

2. LIMITS

Introduction
2.1 Lesson 2: Limits
LIMITS
The most basic use of limits is to describe how a function behaves as the independent variable
approaches a given value. For example, let us examine the behavior of the function
f (x) = x2 − x + 2
for x values closer and closer to 2. The value of f (x) get closer and closer to 4. We describe by
saying that the "limit of x2 − x + 2 is 4 as x approaches 4 from either side"

• Consider
f (x) = x2 − x + 2 lim (x2 − 2 + 2) = 4 (2.1)
x→2

Intuitive Definition of Limits

If the values of f (x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking values of x sufficiently close
to a (but not equal to a), then we write
lim f (x) = L (2.2)
x−→a
10 Chapter 2. LIMITS

which is read "the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L" or " f (x) approaches L as x approaches a"
f (x) −→ L as x −→ a (2.3)
se to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a
• Use a numerical evidence to make a conjecture about the value of
√
t2 + 9 − 3
lim (2.4)
t→0 t2
Example

• Use a numerical evidence to make a conjecture about the value of

√
t2 + 9 − 3
lim (2.5)
t→0 t2

√
t2 + 9 − 3 1
lim = (2.6)
t→0 t2 6
Example 1
Find the value of
sin x
lim (2.7)
x→0 x

sin x
lim =1 (2.8)
x→0 x
2.1 Lesson 2: Limits 11

One-Sided Limits

Example
The Heaviside function H is defined by

0 if t < 0
H(t) = (2.9)
1 if t ≥ 0

lim H(t) =? lim H(t) =? (2.10)

t→0− t→0+

One-Sided Limits

Example The Heaviside function H is defined by


0 if t < 0
H(t) = (2.11)
1 if t ≥ 0

lim H(t) = 0 lim H(t) = 1 (2.12)

t→0− t→0+

Definition of One-Sided Limits

• The left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a or limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the
left is denoted by

lim f (x) = L (2.13)

x→a−

• The right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a or limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the
right is denoted by

lim f (x) = L (2.14)

x→a+

Relationship Between One-side & Two-sided Limits

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim− f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L (2.15)
x→a x→a x→a+
12 Chapter 2. LIMITS

Exercise 2

Evaluate the following

a. lim− g(x) = b. lim+ g(x) = c. lim g(x) = (2.16)

x→2 x→2 x→2

d. lim− g(x) = e. lim+ g(x) = f . lim g(x) = (2.17)

x→5 x→5 x→5

Infinite Limits

Find
1
lim =? (2.18)
x→0 x2

1
lim =∞ (2.19)
x→0 x2

• This does not mean that ∞ is a number

Definition of an Infinite Limit Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly
at a itself. Then

lim f (x) = ∞ (2.20)

x→a

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by taking x sufficiently close to a, but
not equal to a
2.1 Lesson 2: Limits 13

• the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is infinity

• f (x) becomes infinite as x approaches a
• f (x) increases without bound as x approaches a
Vertical Asymptote
The vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of the
following statements is true:

lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ (2.21)

x→a− x→a+ x→a

lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ (2.22)

x→a− x→a+ x→a

Example
Find
2x 2x
lim+ lim− (2.23)
x→3 x−3 x→3 x−3

Example

2x 2x
lim+ =∞ lim− −∞ (2.24)
x→3 x−3 x→3 x−3
Exercise
 14 Chapter 2. LIMITS

(a) lim− g(t) = (b) lim+ g(x) = (c) lim g(x) = (2.25)
x→0 x→0 x→0

(d) lim− g(x) = (e) lim+ g(x) = ( f ) lim g(x) = (2.26)

x→2 x→2 x→2

(g) g(2) = (h) lim g(x) = (2.27)

x→4

2.1.1 COMPUTING LIMIT

SOME BASIC LIMITS

1. First we will obtain the limits of some simple functions

2. Then we will develop a repertoire of theorems that will enable us to use the limits of those
simple functions as building blocs for finding limits of more complicated functions.
We start will- the following basic results.

THEOREM

Let a and k be real numbers.

(a) lim k = k (b) lim x = x
x−→a x−→a

(c) lim − 1x = −∞ (d) lim + 1x = +∞

x−→0 x−→0

Example 1
If f (x) = k is a constant function, then the values of f (x) remain fixed at k as x varies, which
explain why f (x) → k as x → a for all values of a. For example,

lim 3 = 3 lim 3 = 3 lim 3 = 3

x−→−20 x−→0 x−→π

Example 2
If f (x) = x, then as x → a it must also be true that If f (x) → a. For example,
2.1 Lesson 2: Limits 15

lim x = 0 lim x = −2 lim x = π

x−→0 x−→−2 x−→π

THEOREM Let a and k be real numbers, and- suppose that

lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2
x−→a x−→a

That is, the limits exist and have values L1 and L2 , respectively. Then

THEOREM Let a and k be real numbers, and- suppose that

lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2
x−→a x−→a

That is, the limits exist and have values L1 and L2 , respectively. Then

(a) lim [ f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L1 + L2

x−→a x−→a x−→a

(b) lim [ f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) - lim g(x) = L1 − L2

x−→a x−→a x−→a

(c) lim [ f (x)g(x)] = ( lim f (x)) ( lim g(x)) = L1 L2

x−→a x−→a x−→a

f (x lim f (x)
x−→a L1
(d) lim = lim g(x) = L2
x−→a g(x) x−→a

p
n
q √
n
(e) lim f (x) = n lim f (x) )= L1
x−→a x−→a

Example(1)

x2 −6x+9
(a) lim x−3
x−→3

(b) lim 22x+8

x−→4 x +x−12

2 −3x−10
(a) lim − xx2 −10x+25
x−→a

Solution(a).

The numerator and the denominator both have a zero at x = 3, so there is a common factor of
x − 3. Then
16 Chapter 2. LIMITS

x2 − 6x + 9
⇒ lim
x−→3 x−3

(x − 3)2
= lim
x−→3 x − 3

= lim x − 3
x−→3

= 0
Solution(b).
The numerator and the denominator both have a zero at x = −4, so there is a common factor of
x + 4. Then

2x + 8
⇒ lim
x−→−4 x2 + x − 12

2(x + 4)
= lim
x−→−4 (x + 4)(x − 3)
2
= lim
x−→−4 (x + 4)(x − 3)

2
= −
7
Solution(c).
The numerator and the denominator both have a zero at x = 5, so there is a common factor of
x − 5. Then

x2 − 3x − 10
⇒ lim
x−→5 x2 − 10x + 25

2(x + 4)
= lim
x−→5 (x + 4)(x − 3)
(x − 5)(x + 2)
= lim
x−→5 (x − 5)(x − 5)

x+2
= lim
x−→5 (x − 5)

However,

lim (x + 2) = 7 6= 0 and lim (x − 5) = 0

x−→5 x−→5
 2.1 Lesson 2: Limits 17

x2 − 3x − 10 x+2
⇒ lim = lim
x−→5 x2 − 10x + 25 x−→5 (x − 5)

does not exit, implies that

x2 − 3x − 10 x+2
⇒ lim + = lim = +∞
x−→5 x2 − 10x + 25 x−→5+ (x − 5)

x2 − 3x − 10 x+2
⇒ lim − 2
= lim − = −∞
x−→5 x − 10x + 25 x−→5 (x − 5)

2.1.2 LIMIT AT INFINITY

LIMITS AT INFINITY AND HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES
If the values of a variabl x increase without bound, then we write x → +∞, and if the values f a
variabl x decrease without bound, then we write x → −∞ The behavior of a function f (x) as x
increases without bound or descreaase without bound is sometimes called the end behavior of
the function. Fr example,

1 1
lim =0 and lim =0
x−→−∞ x x−→+∞ x

LIMITS AT INFINITY(AN INFORMAL VIEW) If the values of f (x) eventually get as close
as we like to a number L s x increases without bound, then we write

lim f (x) = L or f (x) → L as x → +∞

x−→+∞

similarly, if the values of f (x) eventually get as close as we like to a number L as x decreases
without bound, then we write

lim f (x) = L or f (x) → L as x → −∞

x−→−∞

2.1.3 LIMIT LAW FOR LIMITS AT INFINITY

It can be shown that the limit laws in the previous theorems carry over without change to limits
at +∞ and ∞. Moreover, it follows by the same argument used in section that if n is a positive
integer, then

lim ( f (x))n = ( lim f (x))n lim ( f (x))n = ( lim f (x))n

x−→+∞ x−→−∞ x−→+∞ x−→−∞

provided the indicated limit of f (x) exists. it also follows that constants can be moved throught
the limit symbols for limits at infinity:

lim k f (x) = k lim f (x) lim k f (x) = k lim f (x)

x−→+∞ x−→−∞ x−→+∞ x−→−∞
 18 Chapter 2. LIMITS

provided the indicated limit of f (x) exists.

Finally, if f (x) = k is a constant function, then the values of f do not change as x → +∞ or as
x → +∞, so

lim k = k lim k = k
x−→+∞ x−→+∞

Example 1

Find
1 1
lim n
= ( lim )n
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

SOLUTION

1 1 1 1
lim n
= ( lim )n = 0 and lim n
= ( lim )n = 0
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→−∞ x

Limits at infinity, like limits at a real number a, can fail to exist for various reasons. One
such possibility is that the values of f (x) increase ordecrease without bound as x → +∞ or as
x → −∞. We will use the following notations to describe this situation.

2.1.4 LIMITS OF X n AS X → ±∞
These are special cases of the following general results:

lim xn = +∞, n = 1, 2, 3, ... lim xn = ...

x→+∞ x→+∞

Example 1

lim 2x5 = +∞ lim 2x5 = −∞

x→+∞ x→−∞

lim −7x6 = −∞ lim −7x6 = −∞

x→+∞ x→−∞

2.1.5 LIMITS OF POLYNOMIALS AS X → ±∞

The end hehavior of a polynomials which, the end behavior of its highest degree term.

More precisely, if cn 6= 0, then

lim (c0 + c1 x + ... + cn xn ) = lim cn xn (2.28)

x→−∞ x→−∞

lim (c0 + c1 x + ... + cn xn ) = lim cn xn (2.29)

x→+∞ x→∞

We can motivate these results by factoring out the highest powerof x from the polynomial and
examining the limit of the factored expression. Thus.
2.1 Lesson 2: Limits 19

c0 c1
c0 + c1 x + ... + cn xn = xn ( + + ... + cn )
xn xn
As x → −∞ or x → +∞, it follows from Example 2 that all terms with positive power of x in the
denominator approaches 0 so (7) and(8) are certainly plausible. Example 1

lim (7x5 − 4x3 + 2x − 9) = lim 7x5 = −∞

x→−∞ x→−∞

lim (−4x8 + 17x3 − 5x + 1) = lim −4x8 = −∞

x→−∞ x→−∞

LIMITS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS AS X → ±∞

One technique for determining the end behavior of a rational function is to divide each term in
the numerator by the highest power of x that occurs in the denominator, after which the limiting
behavior can be determined using results we have already established. Here are some examples.
Example 5 Find
3x + 5
lim
x−→+∞ 6x − 8

SOLUTION

Divide each term in the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x that occurs in the
denominator, namely, x1 = x

3x + 5 3 + 5x
lim = lim
x−→+∞ 6x − 8 x−→+∞ 6 − 8x

lim 3 + 5x
x−→+∞
=
lim 6 − 8x
x−→+∞
5
lim 3 + lim
x−→+∞ x−→+∞ x
=
lim 6 − lim 8x
x−→+∞ x−→+∞
1
3 + 5 lim
x−→+∞ x
=
6 − 8 lim 1x
x−→+∞

3+0 1
= =
6−0 2
 3. Mathematical Induction

Introduction To Mathematical Induction

The vocabulary necessary for development Mathematical Analysis to which this entire material
is devoted is developed based on Set Theory and Theory of Functions. This should be familiar
concepts to the reader at this level in the course, but an overhauling review will be considered
in this chapter. This sounds like a good idea that will warm the reader up for the concepts in
Mathematical Analysis and provide the platform for us to establish some standard agreed upon
notations. We therefore will consider Sets, Functions, Logic & Proofs, Mathematical Induction
& Number Systems

Mathematical Induction
This is a type of reasoning by which conclusion can be drawn by proving or disproving statements.
Formally defined, mathematical induction is a method of mathematical proof typically used to
establish a given statement for all natural numbers, N. It is performed using the following steps;
1. Base Step: The verification of the proposed formula or theorem for some positive integral
value of n, usually the smallest.(Of course, we would not attempt to prove an unknown
theorem by mathematical induction without first verifying it for several values of n.)
2. Inductive Step: The proof that if the proposed formula or theorem is true for n = k; some
positive integer, it is true also for n = k + 1.
3. Conclusion: The conclusion that the proposed formula or theorem is true for all values of
n greater than the one for which verification was made in Step 1.
The following analogy is helpful: If one can climb to the first step of a ladder, and if for
every step one reaches, one can reach the next step, then one can reach every step of the ladder,
no matter how many steps there are.

Examples
 Example 3.1 Prove: 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 .
1. The formula is true for n = 1 since 1 = 12 (this is the first step of the ladder)
2. Let us assume the formula is true for n = k, any positive integer; that is, let us assume that

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) = k2 (for every step you reach) (3.1)

22 Chapter 3. Mathematical Induction

We wish to show that when Equation (3.1) is true, the proposed formula is then true for
n = k + 1; that is, that

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 (you can reach the next) (3.2)

Note: Statements (3.1) and (3.2) are obtained by replacing n in the proposed formula by
k and k + 1 , respectively. Now it is clear that the left member of (3.2) can be obtained
from the left member of (3.1) by adding (2k + 1). At this point the proposed formula is
true or false according as we do or do not obtain the right member of (3.2) when (2k + 1)
is added to the right member of (3.1)
Adding (2k + 1) to both members of (3.1), we have

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) = k2 + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 (3.3)

Now (3.3) is identical with (3.2); thus, if the proposed formula is true for any positive
integer n = k, it is true for the next positive integer n = k + 1.
3. Since the formula is true for n = k = 1 (Step 1), it is true for n = k + 1 = 2; being true for
n = k = 2, it is true for n = k + 1 = 3; and so on. Hence the formula is true for all positive
integral values of n


Problems
Prove by Mathematical Induction, n being a positive integer
1
1. 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)
2
1
2. 1 + 4 + 7 + · · · + (3n − 2) = n(3n + 1)
2
1
2 2 2 2
3. 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2 − 1) n = (4n2 − 1)
3
2 2 2 2 1
4. 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
1 2
5. 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n (n + 1)2
3 3 3 3
4
1
6. 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n2 + 3n + 1)
4 4 4 4
30
1
7. 1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + · · · + n(n + 1) = n(n + 1)(n + 2)
2
2 3 3
8. 1 · 3 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 3 + · · · + n3 = [(2n − 1)3n + 1]
n
4
9.
1 1 1 1 n
+ + +···+ =
1·3 3·5 5·7 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2n + 1

Number Systems
One of the greatest inventions in the history of civilization is the creation of numbers. Different
types of numbers are used in many cases as as we will find out later, it becomes necessary to
classify these different numbers. Number systems or The Numeral System is the classification of
numbers in sets. We will discuss the different classes of number in Real Analysis. The include
Natural Numbers, Integers, Rational & Irrational Numbers, Complex Numbers & Quaternions.
Let us start by considering Natural Numbers.
 23

Natural Numbers N
These constitute the most familiar set of numbers. Also known as counting numbers, they start
out as {1, 2, 3, . . .}. These are numbers which we use in our day-to-day life.
There is no greatest natural number. The common difference between successive natural
numbers is one (1); if one (1) is added to any natural number, we the next higher natural number,
called its successor. Natural numbers are denoted by N. Below are properties of natural numbers.
• Closure for addition and multiplication, if a and b are natural numbers then a + b = results
in a natural number and a · b results in a natural number
• Associative property of multiplication and addition - grouping of the numbers does not
matter
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (3.4)
• Commutative property of multiplication and addition - order of the numbers does not
matter a · b = b · a and a + b = b + a
• Identity property - additive identity is 0, multiplicative identity is 1 a + 0 = a and a · 1 = a
and they are contained in the set of natural numbers
• Distributive property - multiplication distributes through addition/subtraction

Whole Numbers W
This constitutes an extension of natural numbers by the addition of zero (0). With reference to
natural numbers, if a natural number is subtracted from itself, we cannot define the result under
R. To remove this difficulty, the natural numbers were extended by zero (0). Thus the whole
numbers are defined by {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Below are properties of whole numbers.
• Closure property - any two whole numbers added or multiplied together will produce
another whole number
• Commutative property for addition and multiplication - order of the numbers does not
matter a · b = b · a and a + b = b + a
• Associative property - grouping does not matter
• Identity property - additive identity is 0, multiplicative identity is 1, and both are contained
in the set of whole numbers

Integers Z
The set of integers denoted by Z is defined by negative and nonnegative counting numbers
including zero (0). The negative of a positive integer is defined as a number that produces 0
when it is added to the corresponding positive integer. Negative numbers are usually written with
a negative (minus sign). The set of integers is given by
Z = {. . . , −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .} (3.5)
Below are properties of integers.
• Closure property - any two integers added, subtracted or multiplied together will produce
another integer
• Commutative property – only for addition and multiplication the order of the integers does
not matter
• Associative property - grouping does not matter for multiplication and addition
• Identity property - additive identity is 0, multiplicative identity is 1, and they are contained
in the set of integers
• Inverses - additive inverses are contained in the set of integers: if a is in Z, then so is −a
• Distributive property - a(b + c) = ab + ac
24 Chapter 3. Mathematical Induction

Rational Numbers R
A rational number is a number that can be expressed with an integer numerator and an non-zero
integer denominator. Fractions are written as two number the numerator and the denominator,
with a diving bar between them. In terms of a quotient, a rational number is a number that can be
m
expressed as where m, n are integers and n 6= 0. The set of rational numbers are denoted by Q
n
(for quotient). Rational numbers include terminating or repeating decimals.
Below are properties of rational numbers.
• Commutative property - the order of the rational numbers does not matter with addition
and multiplication
• Associative – grouping does not matter with addition and multiplication
• Closure - addition, subtraction and multiplication of two rational numbers will produce a
rational number
• Identity property - additive identity is 0, multiplicative identity is 1, and both are contained
in the set of rational numbers
• Inverses - additive and multiplicative inverses are contained in the set of rational numbers:
if a is in Q, then so is −a and so is 1/a (for all nonzero a)
• Distributive property - a(b + c) = ab + ac

Irrational Numbers I
An irrational number is a number that cannot be expressed as a fraction m/n for any integers m
and n. Irrational numbers have decimal expansions that neither terminate no become periodic.
Every transcendental number is irrational. There is no standard notation for the set of irrational
numbers, but the notations Q, R − Q, R/Q where the bar, minus sign, or backslash indicates the
set complement of rational numbers Q over the real set of numbers, R, could all be used.
Examples
√ √ of irrational numbers include nonterminating or non-repeating decimals. These
include 2, 3, e, π, etc. Below are properties of irrational numbers.
• Closure - irrational numbers are not closed under any arithmetic operation
• Associative property - the grouping of irrational numbers in addition and multiplication
does not matter
• Identity property - there is no additive or multiplicative identity in the set of irrational
numbers
• Inverses - additive and multiplicative inverses are contained in the set of irrational numbers

Real Numbers R
The real numbers denoted by R includes all of the measuring numbers. Real numbers are usually
written using decimal numerals; e.g. 123.456. Real numbers, R is considered as the union of
Rational and Irrational numbers, therefore corresponds to a point on the number line. The set of
real numbers also have an important but highly technical property called the least upper bound
property.
Below are properties of real numbers.
• Closure - closed under addition, subtraction and multiplication
• Commutative property - the order of the real numbers does not matter in addition and
multiplication
• Associative property - the grouping of the real numbers in addition and multiplication
does not matter
• Distributive property - a(b + c) = ab + ac
• Identity property - additive identity is 0, multiplicative identity is 1, and both are contained
in the set of real numbers
 25

• Inverses - additive and multiplicative inverses are contained in the set of real numbers: if a
is in R, then so is −a and 1/a (for all nonzero a)
– Note: Division by zero: for all non-zero real number a,
a
a÷ == = undefined (3.6)
0
Division by zero is always undefined. For example
−12
17 ÷ 0 = undefined and = undefined (3.7)
0

Complex Numbers C
The set of complex numbers denoted by C is an extension of the set of real numbers. This
set of numbers arose, historically, from trying to find closed formulas for the roots of cubic or
quartic polynomials. This led to expressions involving the square roots of negative numbers
and eventually to the definition of the new number; the square root of -1, denoted by i a symbol
assigned by Leonard Euler, and called the imaginary unit. The general representation of
complex numbers is a + bi where a and b are real numbers. Under the given representation, the
real number a is called the real part and b is called the imaginary part.
If the real part of a complex number is 0, then the number is called an imaginary number or
is referred to as purely imaginary; if the imaginary part is 0, then the number is a real number.
Thus the real numbers are a subset of the complex numbers. If the real and imaginary parts of a
complex number are both integers, then the number is called a Gaussian integer.
Each of the number systems mentioned above is a proper subset of the next number system.
Symbolically

N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R⊂C (3.8)

Quaternions
These represent a set of 4-dimensional division algebra discovered by Hamilton on October 16th,
1843 while walking his wife to a meeting of the Royal Society of Dublin. He later carved these
equations onto the Brougham Bridge.

That is to say, I then and there felt the galvanic circuit of thought close; and the
sparks which fell from it were the fundamental equations between i, j, k; exactly
such as I have used them ever since:

i2 = j2 = k2 = i jk = −1 (3.9)
The quaternions are defined by

H = {a + bi + c j + dk : a, b, c, d ∈ R} (3.10)

Below are properties of quaternions.

• i, j and k are all square roots of −1
• i j = k = − ji, jk = i = −k j, ki = j = −ik
26 Chapter 3. Mathematical Induction

Introduction
A sequence (or an infinite sequence) in relation to real numbers is a real valued function defined
on the set of integers {n ≥ k}. A sequence can be thought of as a list of numbers written in a
definite order with the domain being the list of integers:

a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . , an , . . . (3.11)

with the terms defined as follows

a1 − first term
a2 − second term
.. .. ..
. . .
an − nth term

Note here that we usually write an instead of the function notation f (n) for the value of the
function at the number n.
We denote a sequence by listing its terms in order; thus the sequence {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .} is also
denoted by

{an } or {an }∞
n=1

Let us consider some examples of sequences. Some sequences can be defined by giving a
formula for the nth term
1. Using the defined notation {an }∞
n=1
2. Using a defining formula an
3. Writing out the terms of the sequence
Note that n does not necessarily have to start at 1. Consider some examples given below
 ∞  
n n 1 2 3 n
an = , , ,··· , ,... (3.12)
n + 1 n=1 n+1 2 3 4 n+1

∞
(−1)n (n + 1) (−1)n (n + 1) (−1)n (n + 1)
  
2 3 4
an = − , ,− ,··· , ,...
3n n=1 3n 3 9 27 3n

{(−1)n }∞
n=0 an = (−1)n , n ≥ 0 {1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . . , } (3.13)

n√ o∞ √ n √ √ √ o
n−3 an = n − 3, n ≥ 3 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · , n − 3, . . . (3.14)
n=3

In this material, if n is not indicated, we take n to start from 0 or 1 unless an is given by a rule
that is invalid for some nonnegative integer, n in which case n is understood to be the smallest
positive integer such that an is defined for all n ≥ k. For example if

1
an = (3.15)
(n − 1)(n − 5)

Then k = 6 will be an appropriate starting point which means that n starts from 6.
 27

Figure 3.1: Illustration of a limit

Example
Find a formula for the general term an of the sequence
 
3 4 5 6 7
,− , ,− , (3.16)
5 25 125 625 3125
assuming that the pattern of the first few terms continues
Using the nth terms
3 4 5 6 7
a1 = a2 = − a3 = a4 = − a5 = (3.17)
5 25 125 625 3125
1. Notice that the numerators of these fractions start with 3 and increase by 1 whenever we
go to the next term.
2. The second term has numerator 4, the third term has numerator 5; in general, the nth term
will have numerator n + 2.
3. The denominators are the powers of 5, so a n has denominator 5n .
4. The signs of the terms are alternately positive and negative, so we need to multiply by a
power of −1 . We can either use (−1)n−1 or (−1)n+1 . Therefore
n+2
an = (−1)n−1 (3.18)
5n

Limit of a Sequence
A sequence {an } has a limit L and we denote that by
lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞ (3.19)
n→∞
if we take the terms an as close to L as we like by taking n sufficiently large. If limn→∞ exists, we
say that the sequence converges ( or is convergent). Otherwise the sequence is said to diverge
(or is divergent).
Otherwise defined A sequence {an } has a limit L and we denote that by
lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞ (3.20)
n→∞
if for every ε > 0 there exists a corresponding integer N such that
|an − L| < ε whenever n > N (3.21)
An illustration is given in the Figure ?? in which a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . are plotted on a number line.
No mater how small an interval (L − ε, L + ε) is chosen, there exists an integer N such that all
terms of the sequence from aN+1 onwards must lie in that interval.
Another illustration is given by considering the points on the graph of {an } must lie between
the horizontal lines y = L + ε and y = L − ε if n > N. If this picture is valid no matter how small
ε is chosen (this requires a larger N) then the sequence has a limit.
We can also consider limits from the functional point of view. Note that the only difference
between limn→∞ an = L and limx→∞ f (x) = L is that n is required to be an integer. Thus we can
conclude the following theorem that utilizes the familiar definition of limits of functions.
28 Chapter 3. Mathematical Induction

Theorem 3.0.1 If limx→∞ f (x) = L and f (n) = an when n is an integer then

lim an = L (3.22)
x→∞

Consider for example limx→∞ (1/xr ) = 0. This is conditionally dependent on r > 0.

Therefore we have
1
lim =0 if r > 0 (3.23)
x→∞ nr

If an becomes large as n becomes large, we use the notation limx→∞ an = ∞. Let us consider the
formation definition.
The limx→∞ an = ∞ means that for every positive integer M there is an integer N such that

an > M whenever n > N (3.24)

If limx→∞ an = ∞, then the sequence {an } is divergent but very specifically, we will say that
{an } diverges to ∞
The Limit Laws for functions also applies for the limits of sequences and their proofs are
similar.
If {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences and c is a constant, then
1.
lim (an ± bn ) = lim an + lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

2.
lim can = c lim an lim c = c
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

3.
lim (an bn ) = lim an · lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

4.
an limn→∞ an
lim = if lim bn 6= 0
n→∞ bn limn→∞ bn n→∞

5. h ip
lim anp = lim an if p>0 and an > 0
n→∞ n→∞

Also certain theorems such the squeeze theorem is applicable

Theorem 3.0.2 Squeeze Theorem If an ≤ bn ≤ cn for n ≥ n0 and

lim an = lim cn = L (3.25)

n→∞ n→∞

then

lim bn = L (3.26)
n→∞

Also if limn→∞ |an | = 0 then it implies that limn→∞ an = 0

 Example 3.2 

Find
n
lim
n→∞ n+1
 29

Notice here that both numerator and denominator approach infinity as n → ∞. This leads to
an indefinite solution. We therefore divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power
of n and use the limit laws
n 1
lim = lim
n→∞ n+1 n→∞ 1 + n1
limn→∞ 1
=
limn→∞ 1 + limn→∞ n1
1
= =1
1+0
 Example 3.3 

Calculate
ln n
lim (3.27)
n→∞ n
Notice here that both numerator and denominator approach infinity as n → ∞. We can’t apply
L’Hopital’s Rule directly because it applies not to sequences but to functions of real variables.
However we can apply L’Hopital’s Rule to the related function f (x) = (ln x)/x and obtain

ln x 1/x
lim = lim =0 (3.28)
x→∞ x →∞ 1
Therefore we obtain
ln n
lim =0 (3.29)
n→∞ n

 Example 3.4 

Determine whether the sequence an = (−1)n is convergent or divergent

If we write out the terms of the sequence we obtain

{−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . .} (3.30)

Graphically, the sequence oscillates between 1 and -1 infinitely often, an therefore does not
approach any number. Thus the limn→∞ (−1)n does not exist; that is the sequence {(−1)n } is
divergent.
 Example 3.5 

Evaluate

(−1)n
lim (3.31)
n→∞ n

if it exists

(−1)n 1
lim = lim = 0 (3.32)
n→∞ n n→∞ n

 Example 3.6 
30 Chapter 3. Mathematical Induction

Discuss the convergence of the sequence

n!
an =
nn
where n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · n
Both numerator and denominator approach infinity as n → ∞ but here we have no corre-
sponding function with L’Hopital. x! is not defined when x is not an integer. Let us write out the
terms to get a feeling of what happens to an as n gets large
1·2 1·2·3
a1 = 1 a2 = a3 =
2·2 3·3·3
1·2·3···n
⇒ an =
n·n·n···n
It appears from the terms from the expression that terms are decreasing and perhaps approach 0.
To confirm, we rewrite an as  
1 2·3···n
=
n n·n···n
Notice that the expression in parenthesis is at most 1 because the numerator is less than (or equal
1 1
to) the denominator. So 0 < an ≤ . We know that → 0 as n → ∞. Therefore an → 0 as n → ∞
n n
using the Squeeze Theorem
 Example 3.7 

Verify that  
2n + 1
an =
2n − 1
then the limn→∞ an = 2
Using the definition of limits

2n + 1 2n + 2 1
|an − L| = − =
n+1 n+1 n+1

hence if ε > 0, then the definition holds with L = 2 if N ≥ 1/ε.

Note here that the definition does not require that there be an integer such that

|an − L| < ε for n > N

holds for all ε, rather it requires that for each positive ε, there should be an integer N that
satisfies the relation given for that particular ε. Usually, N depends on ε and must increase if ε is
increased. Constant sequences are essentially the only ones for which N does not depend on ε
We say that the terms of a sequence {an }∞ n=1 satisfies a given condition for all n ≥ k for
large n if there exists an integer N > k such that an satisfies the condition whenever n ≥ N. For
7 ∞
example, the terms of {1/n}∞ n=1 are all positive for all n, while those of {1 − }n=1 are positive
n
for large n (take N = 8)