Skills Development

for Inclusive Growth in the

Lebanese Agriculture Sector
Policy Brief

©FAO/Fouad Choufany

©FAO/Fouad Choufany

©FAO/Fouad Choufany

©ILO/Michel Ziadé
 Skills Development
for Inclusive Growth in the
Lebanese Agriculture Sector
Policy Brief

Beirut, 2020
ILO and FAO. 2020. Skills Development for Inclusive Growth in the Lebanese Agriculture Sector - Policy Brief. Beirut.
https://doi.org/10.4060/cb2457en

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This policy brief was developed in the framework of the FAO project “Upgrading the technical agriculture education
system in Lebanon” funded by the Kingdom of Netherlands. The project is implemented in partnership with the Ministry of
Agriculture, UNICEF, ILO, and AVSI. It works on enhancing the employability of young Lebanese and displaced Syrians and
other refugees in Lebanon. It offers them the opportunity of acquiring the necessary technical skills to access improved
career opportunities in agriculture and agribusiness in Lebanon or in Syria upon their return. The project also works on the
efficiency of the agriculture education system in Lebanon to support more youth. This is done by improving agricultural
capacity development and creating entry points into green jobs.

This brief builds on research conducted by Dr. Aurore Assaker, “Trends in the demand and supply for skills in the agriculture
sector:
the case of Lebanon”, within the joint programme between ILO and FAO “Upgrading the technical agriculture education system
in Lebanon”, funded by the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This brief was prepared by Dr Karim Eid-Sabbagh ( Think Triangle),
and reviewed by Leon Gaskin, Chief Technical Advisor Skills at ILO-ROAS; Serajul Islam Skills Development Officer at ILO-
ROAS; and Yasser Ali, former Skills Development officer at ILO-ROAS. Rania Hokayem, National TVET Programme Coordinator
at ILO-ROAS; Patrick Daru, Senior Skills and Employability Specialist at ILO ROAS; Simon Hills, former Chief Technical Advisor
and Socio-Economic Recovery Expert at ILO-ROAS; Sylwia Golawska, Junior Technical Officer at ILO; PhD Maurice Saade, FAO
representative in Lebanon; Etienne Careme, FAO Liaison and Resilience Officer; Elie Choueiry, FAO Programme Associate; and
Abir Abou El Khoudoud, FAO project manager, provided inputs.
 Skills Development for Inclusive Growth
in the Lebanese Agriculture Sector
THE PRESENT POLICY BRIEF DRAWS ON RECENT ILO HOWEVER, THE SECTOR’S ABILITY TO CONTRIBUTE
RESEARCH1 AND OTHERS TO HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANCE TO AN IMPROVEMENT OF INDIVIDUAL LIVELIHOODS,
OF ADDRESSING A PRONOUNCED SKILLS MISMATCH IN THE COMMUNITY WELL-BEING, AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
AGRICULTURAL LABOUR MARKET TO SPUR AGRICULTURE IS SEVERELY HAMPERED BY A NUMBER OF STRUCTURAL
SECTOR DEVELOPMENT. IMPEDIMENTS.

This brief examines key factors that influence The budget of the Ministry of Agriculture
the labour market demand and supply of skills, has remained well below 1 per cent of total
while providing an assessment of specific government expenditure for most years since
skills in demand, based on the ILO’s study of 1994.4 As a result, technical and vocational
supply and demand in the agriculture sector education and training as well as extension
in 2018. The brief also looks at key measures services have not been able to upgrade their
to be considered by the Ministry of Agriculture services to meet the needs of the market.
and other stakeholders to promote a market
responsive technical and vocational education THE POTENTIAL OF EXTENSION SERVICES FOR COACHING
and training (TVET) system. ON NEW TECHNICS AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT IS UNDER
UTILISED.
Background
A lack of public sector guidance and
THE AGRICULTURE SECTOR IN LEBANON HAS BEEN, AND insufficient operational budget are some of
CONTINUES TO BE, AN IMPORTANT SECTOR FOR THE the issues affecting public extension services.5
LEBANESE ECONOMY. IT IS A PRIMARY SOURCE OF INCOME An FAO assessment from 2011 suggests that
AND EMPLOYMENT, PROVIDING LIVELIHOODS TO A LARGE some 240 jobs for extension agents should be
SECTION OF THE LEBANESE POPULATION. created to meet the challenges of zero hunger
and climate change adaptation.6 That implies
Up to 25 per cent of Lebanese and between a budget increase of 725 per cent compared
75,000 and 100,000 Syrian workers draw to the 2011 budget.7 The shortcomings of the
incomes from farming and related work.2 public extension services disproportionally
Currently, the agricultural labour force affect poor farmers and contribute to sustain
accounts for 12.1 per cent of total labour force. inequalities in the sector.
The sector employs about 212,000 people, of
which only 8 per cent are formally employed. THE COOPERATIVE SYSTEM HAS A LIMITED OUTREACH AND
The agro-food industry is among the most SUFFERS FROM LOW TRUST FROM FARMERS.
important industrial sectors in the country,
and employs a workforce of approximately At present, there are some 1,250 cooperatives
21,000.3 in Lebanon serving only 4.5 per cent8 of
farmers, of which only one third are estimated
to be active.9 Cooperatives are often seen

4 MoA. 2014. Ministry of Agriculture Strategy 2015 – 2019.

5 Ghadban, E. Y. 2013. Cooperative enterprises and agricultural
development: the case of Lebanon. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of
London; MoA. 2014. Ministry of Agriculture Strategy 2015 – 2019.
1 ILO 2018. Unpublished. “Trends in the Demand and Supply for Skills in 6 FAO. 2012. Investment requirement in Agricultural Research and
the Agriculture Sector: The Case of Lebanon”. Extension (2010-2025) to achieve Zero-Hunger and adapt to climate
2 ESCWA. 2016. Strategic Review of Food and Nutrition Security in change. Available at: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/nr/
Lebanon; ILO. 2013. Assessment of the Impact of Syrian Refugees in research-extension/img/Lebanon.pdf.
Lebanon and their Employment profile. 7 Ibidem.
3 Ministry of Industry. 2010. The Lebanese Industrial Sector Facts and 8 ILO. 2018. The Cooperative Sector in Lebanon: What Role? What Future?
Findings 2007. UNIDO - ALI. 9 Ibidem.

5
 as acting as political tools in patronage fruit growers, gardeners, and forestry workers,
systems.10 The cooperative system is further or among livestock, dairy, poultry, and honey
hampered by a weak regulatory framework producers and regularly update curricula, to
and administrative structure. The Directorate match current practices.
General for Cooperatives is understaffed and
unable to monitor and support cooperatives. IN THIS CONTEXT, THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE’S (MOA)
The Lebanese Cooperative Federation’s ADOPTED A SECTOR STRATEGY 2021 - 2025
organizational and decision-making
structure is in need of review to make it more To create jobs, increase farmers’ income, and
democratic and increase outreach. A stronger stabilize rural demographics. With support of
and politically independent federation could FAO MoA is currently elaborating a strategy of
become an important advocate and policy the agricultural sector together with an action
voice representing farmers. To provide an plan covering the period 2021-2025.The MoA
additional venue for cheap agricultural credit Course of Action V of the Strategy committed
the National Union for Cooperative Credit the Ministry to strengthening agricultural
needs to be overhauled to allow for new services to farmers, as well as revitalizing
membership and account for the deflation of agricultural technical vocational education
the LL to set appropriate action stock prices. and training to better respond to market
needs.
FEW YOUNG PEOPLE ARE TRAINED FOR THE AGRICULTURE
SECTOR, AND THERE IS A NEED FOR MORE RESEARCH AND A Socio-Economic Overview
IMPROVED TRAINING.
of the Agricultural Sector in
Only 6.4 per cent of Lebanese and less than 1 Lebanon
per cent of Syrians at upper secondary age (15-
17) were attending TVET (regardless of level) AGRICULTURE IS IMPORTANT TO LEBANON – IN SPITE OF
in 2015.11 Enrolment in Agricultural Technical ITS LOW CONTRIBUTION TO GDP – BECAUSE OF VALUE
Schools is particularly low, a primary reason CHAIN LINKAGES, MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES,
for the lack of trained workforce. In 2016-2017, AND SOURCE OF INCOME FOR RURAL POPULATIONS.
259 students12 were enrolled in Agricultural
Technical Schools in full-time programmes Agriculture contribution to Lebanese GDP
compared to the 48,924 students enrolled has oscillated between a low three and five
in public TVET schools for the academic year percent over the last decade. The total value of
2016-2017. 13 Currently, the number of students the sector was USD 2,394 billion (3,591 billion
at technical schools is at 211 against 55,022 LL) in 2018 (see Table 1).15 That, according to
students14 at public schools (as per CRED latest the FAO, around 20–25 percent of Lebanon’s
statistics of 2018-2019). The absence of market active population is involved in the agriculture
relevant agriculture training and the lack of sector16 highlights the importance of the
agriculture research to address challenges of sector. Further, how value is realized up and
the agriculture sector, also affect negatively downstream of the agricultural production
the sector. There is also a need to include new process is not illustrated by GDP measures. An
specialization in occupations such as crop and analysis of price mark ups in the agricultural
value chains illustrates this. Costs of
10 Ghadban, E. Y. 2013. Cooperative enterprises and agricultural
development: the case of Lebanon. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of
production17 vary per crop but range between
London 10 and 30 percent of final retail price. Whole
11 UNICEF. July 2016. Household survey and preliminary findings.
12 MoA school registry. 15 Major crops are fruits, most importantly citrus, grapes, apples and
13 National Strategic Framework for Technical Vocational Education bananas; vegetables, notably potatoes and tomatoes; olives and tobacco.
and Training in Lebanon, 2018-2021. The latter includes short-term Livestock includes livestock itself such as cow, goats and sheep and
programmes of 3-9 month, data on which is not available with regards poultry, and livestock products (fresh cow milk, eggs, dairy products, etc.).
to the agricultural sector. An additional 34,244 students are enrolled in 16 FAO. LEBANON Plan of Action for Resilient Livelihoods: Food Security
private TVET programmes. Response and Stabilization of Rural Livelihoods Addressing the Impacts
14 Center for Education Research and Development. 2018-2019. Latest of the Syria Crisis, 2014 -2018.
statistics available. 17 This analysis excludes the cost of land or rent therefore.

6
 and retail sale capture roughly between 25 GDP. Yet environmental effects are undeniable,
and 35 percent if not more of final retail price for example, the overutilization of land and
each.18 Accordingly, the agricultural sector the excessive application of pesticides and
share of GDP represents only about a third fertilizers and its effects on water resources as
of the total value produced in the crop value has been noted for potato production in the
chain. Finally, the cost of pollution and soil Akkar, among others.19
degradation from agriculture has not been
quantified across Lebanon, nor in terms of

19 ILO. 2015. Potatoes and Leafy green vegetables: value chain analysis
(Akkar/Lebanon). See also Kouzayha, A. et al. 2013. Occurrence of Pesticide
18 Riachi R., Chaaban J. 2012. The Agricultural Sector in Lebanon: Residues in Lebanon›s Water Resources. Bulletin of environmental
Economical Features and Challenges. Synthesis Report Ibsar, AUB, IDRC. contamination and toxicology.

7
 AGRICULTURE BENEFITS FROM A STRONG FOOD AND pome fruits (such as apples and pears) were
BEVERAGE SECTOR. exported than consumed locally. With the
onset of the Syrian conflict and the closure of
The agri-food sector is a major contributor to the land border, principal export routes were
the Lebanese economy. In 2018, it generated closed. As a result, agricultural GDP fell to pre-
an estimated 38 per cent of the industrial 2010 levels.
sector output and around 2.9 per cent of the
country›s GDP. The sector currently employs RECENT YEARS HAVE SEEN CHANGES IN CROP PRODUCTION
an estimated workforce of around 21,000 AND SHIFTS TO VALUE CHAINS WITH MORE PROFIT AND/
employees accounting for 25 per cent of the OR HIGHER EXPORT POTENTIAL.
total industrial sector workforce.20 There are
1,245 registered industries manufacturing The 2015-2018 export crisis has contributed to
agri-food products employing around 28 these transformations and to the rerouting of
persons (on average).21 The inter-linkages with trade routes, as well as adaptation of cropping
the agro-food industry varies by agricultural patterns and agricultural systems. In the
sub-sector and crop. Grape production for northern Lebanese region Akkar, for example,
wine and arak, for example, profits from strong a considerable number of farmers converted
linkages with the beverages industry while citrus orchards to greenhouse production,
other agricultural sub-sectors have relatively with great investment.25 Producers have also
weak linkages into the industrial sector.22 Agri- identified local niche markets as opportunities;
food exports have been growing at a CAGR of for example, higher priced organic production.
2 per cent since 2010, highlighting the sector’s Similarly, studies have shown a potential for
potential and resilience.23 high-end consumer niche markets for leafy
greens.26
THE AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SECTOR IS CHARACTERIZED
SIMULTANEOUSLY BY AN IMPORT AND EXPORT The Concentration of Land
DEPENDENCY.
Holdings: Lebanon’s Large and
Lebanon is a major food importer particularly Small Producers
of staples, such as wheat, which contribute
to the country’s import dependency: the THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR IS CHARACTERIZED BY LAND
agricultural import to export ratio stood at CONCENTRATION.
9.1 in 2015. Even though trade agreements
seem to have helped increase the value According to the 2012 agricultural census,
of agricultural exports, imports have also the top 1.8 per cent of 169,512 land-holders
produced serious competitiveness challenges own 33 per cent of all arable land (Figure 1).
for Lebanese farmers.24 Concentration of irrigated land is even higher,
with 42.6 per cent of irrigated land held by the
IMPORT DEPENDENCY IS MATCHED BY EXPORT top 0.2 per cent of landholders (Figure 2). At
DEPENDENCY AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE EXPORT CRISIS the same time, almost 94 per cent of farmers
RESULTING FROM THE CLOSURE OF THE SYRIAN work on less than four hectares (48.8 per cent of
JORDANIAN BORDER. arable land and only 39.4 per cent of irrigated
land), and 70 per cent on less than 1 hectare.
Prior to the closure of the Syrian-Jordanian Larger land holdings are concentrated in the
border in 2015 more citrus, banana, and Bekaa where the average size of a holding is
20 Lebanese National Accounts. 2018.
2.9 hectare, versus the 1.3-hectare average of
21 Ministry of Industry. 2020. the country.
22 ILO .2018. Overview of the Agriculture and Agro-food sectors in
Lebanon.
23 Investment Authority of Lebanon. 2020. Agri-Food sector in Lebanon.
202 Factbook. 25 ILO. 2016. Leafy Greens Feasibility Study Final Report. ILO. 2018.
24 ILO. 2015. Potatoes and Leafy green vegetables: value chain analysis Overview of the Agriculture and Agro-food sectors in Lebanon.
(Akkar/Lebanon). 26 Ibidem.

8
 LAND-HOLDING CONCENTRATION EXPLAINS ALSO HIGH SMALL-SCALE FARMERS ARE FURTHER DISADVANTAGED
LEVELS OF POVERTY IN AGRICULTURE. BY THE MARKET.

According to the most recent household Large farming operations are often vertically
expenditure survey, the poverty rate among integrated, generate higher profit margins
those active in agriculture in 2015 was 30 because they can shape and react to market
percent,27 and is likely higher since the onset price fluctuations. These operations have easier
of the political and economic crisis in Lebanon access to export markets, and can mobilize
post October 2019. Other data shows that technical expertise to their advantage.
poverty rates for agricultural households are Whereas small-scale farmers who represent
approximately 67 per cent.28 These figures are the majority of farmers are more exposed to
also reflected in average poverty rates in the the vagaries of market prices and depend on
governorates where agriculture is an important wholesalers.30 Small profit margins and lack of
sector, such as the South where poverty is at 42 access to capital such as bank loans (despite
per cent.29 Current rates are likely to be similar, recent efforts by the MoA to improve small-
if not higher, given the ongoing economic scale farmer financial options) leave smaller
crisis in Lebanon. Furthermore, poverty is farmers with little possibility to deploy capital
also a result of the lack of opportunities and intensive technologies, employ specialized
market imbalances, such as the concentration labour or invest time and money into acquiring
in the input market and the powerful market new skills and techniques. Input traders also
position of wholesalers. provide credit at high interest sometimes
pushing farmers in chronic indebtedness.31
The financial crisis changed the dynamics of
doing business in agriculture for all farmers
who need to cover farming expenses cash
in advance. Insecure and short-term land
rights further disincentive tenant farmers
27 Centrals Administration of Statistics and World Bank .2012. Snapshot from capital-intensive transformations and
of Poverty and Labour Market outcomes. sustainable long-term production systems,
28 Riachi, R. 2013. Institutions et régulation d›une ressource naturelle dans
une société fragmentée: Théorie et applications à une gestion durable de such as land rehabilitation, advanced irrigation
l›eau au Liban. Gestion et management. Université de Grenoble. systems, plantation of trees, or conversion
29 Extreme poverty rates were measured at 11.64%, and an astounding
17.75%. UNDP. 2008. Poverty Growth and Income Distribution in to agro-ecological farming as a promising
Lebanon. Available at: climate change adaptation strategy.
http://www.lb.undp.org/content/dam/lebanon/docs/Pover ty/
P u b l i c a t i o n s / P o v e r t y, % 2 0 G r o w t h % 2 0 a n d % 2 0 I n c o m e % 2 0 30 Riachi R., Chaaban J. 2012. The Agricultural Sector in Lebanon:
Distribution%20in%20Lebanon.pdf. Economical Features and Challenges. Synthesis Report. Ibsar, AUB, IDRC.
A 2016 UNDP report confirms the average rate but seems to indicate a 31 ILO .2018. Overview of the Agriculture and Agro-food sectors in
more even distribution of poverty. Lebanon.

9
Current and Emerging Trends LARGER ESTABLISHMENTS IN THE LIVESTOCK SUB-SECTOR
HAVE INTRODUCED NEW PRODUCTION METHODS AND
in Agricultural Practices and INTERNATIONAL BEST PRACTICES.
Techniques
For example, large dairy farms have successfully
ADVANCED IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGIES ARE USED introduced livestock management techniques
RELATIVELY MORE BY LARGE FARMING OPERATIONS, using cow ID for milking parlours, automated
WHEREAS SMALLER FARMING OPERATIONS TEND TO RELY techniques for feeding, and for cleaning and
MORE ON GRAVITY IRRIGATION AS WELL AS RAIN-FED detecting diseases. Similarly, a large section of
AGRICULTURE. agro-food industries are currently using new
methods of production and adopting higher
Modes of irrigation by farm holding size are a standards (e.g. Good Manufacturing Practices
good proxy for an understanding of farming (GMP) or Good Handling Practices (GHP) etc.).32
methods (see Figure 3). The larger the farm
holding, the more mechanized and input LARGE FARM HOLDINGS AS WELL AS SMALL AND MEDIUM
intensive the operation; the smaller the farm SIZED FARMS WITH ACCESS TO CAPITAL ARE IN FACT MORE
holding, the more likely it is to rely on less LIKELY TO EMPLOY NEW TECHNIQUES SUCH AS THE ONES
sophisticated technology. MENTIONED BELOW.
Permaculture Agro-ecological techniques improve
farming systems by mimicking
natural processes and encouraging
synergies of plants, soils, insects,
bacteria etc. to increase yields per
farmed area over the whole year
without industrial inputs. It include
practices such as building soil
structure; improving soil health;
recycling nutrients and ensuring
local sourcing; conserving and using
water efficiently; and sustaining and
improving functional diversity.
Aquaponics A combination of aquaculture and
hydroponics, which produces a
system of raising fish and growing
non-soiled plants together. The
aquaponics cycle uses microbes to
convert fish waste to plant fertilizer,
QUALITY OF PRODUCT AND YIELDS AS WELL AS THE LOCAL which then grow the plants. In turn,
the plants that are grown, naturally
ECOSYSTEMS ARE NEGATIVELY INFLUENCED BY PREVALENT
filter the water that the fish are raised
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES. in.
Conservation A system of soil management
The over-application of pesticides and Agriculture practices that aim to minimize soil
fertilizers negatively affects the quality of disturbance, maintain permanent
ground water, human health and product soil cover, and crop rotation to
quality and safety – which in turn is affected by improve soils.
the application of highly polluted waters for Climate-Smart Agricultural practices that aim to
Agriculture sustainably increase productivity,
irrigation. A study of value chains across sub-
(CSA) and adapt and build resilience
sectors identifies numerous factors negatively towards climate change, and reduce
affecting yields and quality, including lack greenhouse gas emissions.
of knowledge of sustainable practices and Grafting A technique where plants are joined
limited extension services available to farmers. together to continue growth.
32 ILO 2018. Unpublished. “Trends in the demand and supply for skills in
the agriculture sector: the case of Lebanon”.

10
 Hydroponics Plants that are grown in a water- The Agricultural Labour Market
based nutrient solution, rather than
in soil. in Lebanon
Integrated Pest An ecosystem approach to crop
Management production and protection, which THE AGRICULTURAL LABOUR MARKET IN LEBANON IS
combines different management LARGELY INFORMAL AND LOW-SKILLED. S
strategies and practices to grow
healthy crops and minimize the use kills development is hampered by the lack
of pesticides.
of labour market information; data on
Nutrient Film A hydroponic technique wherein
labour demand in the agricultural/agro-food
Technique a very shallow stream of water
(NFT) containing all the dissolved industry, productivity levels, available skills,
nutrients required for plant growth as well as market demand for skills is largely
is recirculated past the bare roots missing. Indeed, the most comprehensive data
of plants in a watertight gully, also concerning labour in agriculture is more than
known as channels.
a decade old, dating to the 2010 Agricultural
Organic Farming that avoids, or largely Census. A large number of agencies produces
Farming excludes the use of synthetic inputs
(fertilizers, pesticides, hormones,
labour market analysis focused on limited
feed additives etc.) and relies on areas / products / value chains.
crop rotations, crop residues, animal
manure, biological nutrients and THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR PRESENTS A SEGMENTED
plant protection. WORKFORCE.
Agroecology A socio-political and technical
program that is drawing on The workforce in the agriculture sector can be
permaculture and other input less
estimated at between 287,000 and 312,000,
agricultural techniques combined
with a set if ethics focused on social including Syrian agricultural workers (see Table
justice and principles to integrate 2). The workforce is comprised of permanent
people, food, shelter, and medicine and seasonal agricultural workers and farm
in a holistic approach to agricultural holders (111,457) who work on owned or
production.33
rented land. Wages for Lebanese in permanent
Precision A modern farming concept, which employment are reportedly higher than for
Agriculture observes, measures, and responds
to crop or livestock behaviour
Syrians (USD 500-550 per month for Lebanese
using a combination of information male worker vs USD 450-470 for Syrian male
technologies such as GPS, sensors, worker). The discriminatory patterns are
robotics, and control systems. more pronounced for semi-skilled/limited
Trellis A structure that is used to support skilled seasonal workers: while a Lebanese
plants. male unskilled labourer daily rate is USD 20-
Vetch Vine plants that are used as cover $25, Syrian male unskilled labourers earn an
crops to protect soil from the effects average $10-$15/day, while Syrian women
of weather, as well as improve soil
and children earn as little as USD 7$ and 4$
structure and fertility.
respectively.34
Source: ILO 2018. Unpublished. “Trends in the demand
and supply for skills in the agriculture sector: the case of
Lebanon”

33 Rosset, P. M., Altieri, M. A. 2017. Agroecology: science and politics. 34 ILO .2013. Assessment of the Impact of Syrian Refugees in Lebanon
Practical Action Publishing. and their Employment profile.

11
 35
41
42

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ARE SUBJECT TO DIFFICULT AND In the case of wageworkers, their training and
HAZARDOUS WORKING CONDITIONS. educational choices are primarily linked to
labour market opportunities and wage levels.
Long hours, low wages and negative
agricultural practices such as uncontrolled THE AGRICULTURE SECTOR IS FACING THE BURDEN OF
pesticide use and lack of protective equipment COMPOUNDED CRISIS AS THE NATIONAL ECONOMY IS
for workers is widespread. Studies suggests EXPERIENCING FINANCIAL STRESSES, SOCIAL UNREST AND
that exposure to toxic chemicals and pesticides COVID-19 PANDEMIC.
have serious health effects in the long term.36
Syrian refugees are often more vulnerable These crises add another layer to the existing
because of their precarious legal situation, structural problems the economy and the
with women and children being the most agricultural sector are facing. It has been
vulnerable. Women have increased risk factors estimated that nearly one out of every three
for a range of diseases, and typical multi-stress Lebanese was pushed into unemployment,43
disorders from, among others, stooped work, while over 50 per cent of the population in
repetitive motion, awkward body postures Lebanon might be at risk of food insecurity
and prolonged kneeling.37 Child labour in by the end of 2020.44 Input supply companies
agriculture is prevalent.38 In some cases, have been facing 50 percent reduction in their
families are kept in bonded labour to pay for business turnover.45 Following the restriction
makeshift dwellings provided by landowners.39 on transfers of hard currency and limited
availability of US dollar‑denominated cash,
THE DEMAND FOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT DEPENDS ON importing companies in all sectors, including
THE TRAINEE’S STATUS. agriculture, lacked the hard currency needed
to fulfil their import requirements. Some have
Farmers have different incentives and needs closed down and other resorted to salaries
than wageworkers when acquiring knowledge cut down to their employees or decreasing
and skills. Small-scale farmers balance their working hours. With the depreciation of the
priorities between accessing competencies Lebanese Pound (LBP) by 83 per cent (July
and procuring equipment, depending on 2020)46 and cash flow problems, importers
access to land, mode of land tenure, family even stopped importing certain products. For
size, upstream and downstream value chains.40 producers, the cost of production increased by
35 Seasonal family workers are enumerated as 239 007 individuals more than 50 per cent for various agricultural
whereby the number of workdays is not specified and can vary widely.
36 Habib, R. R., F.A. Fathallah. 2012. Migrant Women Farm Workers in 41 The MoA considers 150 workdays equivalent to a permanent position
the Occupational Health Literature. Work 2012;41 Suppl 1:4356-4362. for a total equivalent of 44 666 permanent worker equivalent for the
Available at: https://content.iospress.com/articles/work/wor0101 6.686 million seasonal workdays.
37 Ibidem. 42 Based on the ILO employment profile of Syrian refugees (2013), some
38 ILO. 2012. Action against child labour in Lebanon: a mapping of policy 100 000 are estimated to work in agriculture.
and normative initiatives. ILO and FAO. 2017. Child labour in agriculture in 43 WFP. 2020. Web Assessment Survey.
Lebanon. A guide for practitioners. 44 ESCWA. 2020. Mitigating the impact of the Economic and COVID-19
39 ILAB. 2018 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. crises on Food Security in Lebanon.
https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/resources/reports/child-labor/ 45 FAO, 2020. Special report. FAP mission to assess the impact of financial
lebanon crisis on agriculture in Lebanon, April 2020.
40 Douwe Van der Ploeg, J. 2013. Peasants and the Art of Farming. (Rugby, 46 ESCWA. 2020. Mitigating the impact of the Economic and COVID-19
UK: Practical Action Publishing). crises on Food Security in Lebanon

12
 systems, while the cost of basic agriculture ready graduates but instead had to train them
inputs rose by 400 per cent.47 The financial on the job. Half of the employers stated that it
crisis changed the dynamics of doing business took more than a year of work-based training
in agriculture for all farmers who need to cover for graduates to achieve a satisfactory level
farming expenses cash in advance. This is of efficiency and productivity, while 86 per
expected to reduce the land under production cent stated that it took more than 6 months.
by 30 per cent in the coming winter season Around 60 per cent of BT graduates remained
(2020).48 The rise in cost of production and without employment, and of those employed,
the sharply inflated food prices caused by the almost 40 per cent do not work in agriculture.
currency depreciation have further deepened In addition, the fact that about 34 per cent
the current socioeconomic and food crises. of interviewed graduates work for the MoA
further confirms that market demand for BT
Skills mismatch as a defining graduates at current skill levels is limited.52

feature of this sector THE REPORTED SKILL MISMATCHES SUGGEST THAT

AGRICULTURAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS (ATS) TRAINING
EMPLOYERS HAVE DIFFICULTIES RECRUITING WORKERS. DOES NOT MEET MARKET DEMAND AND THAT ON-THE
JOB TRAINING PROVIDED AS PART OF ATS TRAINING
The research on trends in the demand and PROGRAMMES IS INSUFFICIENT.53
supply for skills in the agriculture sector
conducted by ILO in 201849 revealed A comparison of employers’ skills expectations
recruitment difficulties that employers face and the BT curriculum for general agriculture
in finding workers with the skills required shows a mismatch: the curriculum is laid out
to perform their jobs at a price that they to provide broad-based instruction across
were willing and able to pay. These findings sectors, rather than meeting employer
confirm previous studies on the labour market increasingly specialised needs. A 2016 study
in various sectors of the food chain that showed that 59 per cent of BT graduates did
emphasized the lack of a trained workforce, not find employment and close to 60 per
especially among technical baccalaureate (BT) cent of graduates did not believe that their
graduates and workers with higher levels of education equipped them with the proper
training.50 skills for the job market. In addition, 90 per cent
of graduates expressed the need to reinforce
SKILL MISMATCHES WERE REPORTED IN ALL SUB-SECTORS. practical training within the BT program.54 With
support from FAO, ILO, AVSI, and WARD, the
Employers also indicated several technical Ministry of Agriculture has instituted a work-
and life skills that BT graduates lacked, which based learning (WBL) programme as part of the
include a number of crop and animal farming curriculum for its BT and short-term courses in
skills as well as some craft-related skills. A agriculture in order to provide students with
study assessing the educational levels of BT adequate and hands-on experience. A group
graduates found 40 out of 50 employers were of 21 employers/companies has agreed to
willing to employ graduates but that only 30 provide support to the trainees of the MoA. In
per cent actually employed them.51 The same June 2020, a memorandum of understanding
study found that employers expected job (MoU) was signed between the Ministry and
47 Ibidem.
employers, establishing the basis for mutual
48 Ibidem. understanding between the MoA and the
49 ILO. Unpublished. “Trends in the demand and supply for skills in the
agriculture sector: the case of Lebanon”.
companies in the implementation of WBL
50 Avsi. 2016. Labour market study, agriculture labour market study (including apprenticeships, internships,
and educational level of the agricultural vocational schools in Lebanon.
Ghneim, O. 2017. Skills Forecasting for the Agro-Food Sector in Lebanon. 52 ILO. Unpublished. “Trends in the demand and supply for skills in the
UNESCO – WARD. Hamade, K. et al. 2017. The Agro-Food Sector in agriculture sector: the case of Lebanon”.
Lebanon: Challenges and prospects A skill-need based analysis. ILO. 53 Avsi 2016, Labour Market study, agriculture labour market study and
51 Avsi. 2016. Labour Market study, agriculture labour market study and educational level of the agricultural vocational schools in Lebanon.
educational level of the agricultural vocational schools in Lebanon. 54 Ibidem.

13
 traineeships) for students enrolled in WBL shown that youth harness negative perception
programmes approved by the MoA. towards agriculture as a way of life.61

VERY FEW STUDENTS ENGAGE IN AN AGRICULTURE THE SKILLS MISMATCH IDENTIFIED BY EMPLOYERS IS ALSO
TRAINING. EMBEDDED WITHIN THE WIDER CONTEXT OF A COMPLEX
LABOUR MARKET.
There were 282 students enrolled in BT courses
at seven Agricultural Technical Schools (ATS) in The poor quality of BT training programme
2015-2016,55 while in 2016-2017 there were 259 could not alone answer the question of the
in addition to 643 students in agriculture short- skills mismatch in the agriculture sector.
term courses provided by FAO.56 Meanwhile, Recruitment practices that are not always
according to the Lebanese Center for Research competency based, low wages and harsh
Education and Development (CRDP), the work conditions also play a crucial role.62 Low
number of students enrolled at university wages are explained by the over-supply of the
in an “agriculture, fisheries and veterinary workforce. Employers in the crop production-
sciences” specialization for the year 2015– sub sector for instance often prefer Syrian
2016 reached 2,810 students in a Bachelor of workers because they are considered serious,
Science programme, 309 students in a Master willing to accept lower wages, and difficult
of Science programme and 9 students in a working conditions.63 At the root of poor
doctorate programme.57 The negative social working conditions is also the weakness of
perceptions of ATS programmes in Lebanon agricultural unions, inadequate collective
were found to discourage enrolment. While action targeting improvements in working
a monthly stipend program encouraged conditions, as well as the limited incomes for
some students to enrol in ATSs, more broadly, the majority of farmers.
ATS education programmes are considered
institutions of last resort for students who COVID-19 PANDEMIC PUTS GREATER PRESSURE TO
could not complete other forms of education.58 INCREASE INVESTMENT IN TVET AND IMPROVE ITS
QUALITY.
STILL, THE AGRICULTURAL TECHNICAL EDUCATION
OFFERED BY THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE SUFFERS In the TVET skills sector, the global pandemic
FROM INSUFFICIENT FUNDING. has caused the closure of schools and training
centres in Lebanon, disrupting teaching
The budget of the MoA does not include and learning and delaying examinations
sufficient allocations for agriculture technical and assessments. In order to continue the
education or other specialized short-term provision of learning and skills development,
training courses. Consequently, schools and the Ministry of Agriculture and FAO launched
training programmes lack practical training a distance online learning for all students
facilities/plots,59 while maintaining outdated enrolled in the baccalaureate programmes (BT)
curricula, and thus are unable to meet in the agricultural technical schools. However,
emerging demand for skills in agribusiness TVET managers, teachers and trainers are
and farm management.60 Earlier studies have facing various challenges in the provision
55 MoA. 2015–2016. Education and extension services, annual report
of learning remotely, including in terms of
2015–2016. level of the agricultural vocational schools in Lebanon.
56 Other organizations also provide short-term course but numbers are 61 Bennell, P. 2010. Investing in the future, creating opportunities for
not available. young rural people. IFAD (http://www.youtheconomicopportunities.org/
57 CRDP. 2015–2016. Statistical bulletin for the year 2015–2016. sites/default/files/uploads/resource/invest_future_IFAD.pdf ) ; FAO, CTA
58 ILO .Unpublished. “Trends in the demand and supply for skills in the and IFAD (2014) Youth and Agriculture: Key Challenges and Concrete
agriculture sector: the case of Lebanon”. Solutions. (Rome: FAO www.fao.org/3/a-i3947e.pdf; Leavy, J. and
59 Support to furnish seven ATS with laboratory equipment and school Smith, S. (2010) Future Farmers? Exploring Youth Aspirations for African
materials is underway with support from FAO and funding from the Agriculture, Future Agricultures Consortium Policy Brief 037. www.future-
Kingdom of Netherlands. This includes support for rehabilitation of the agricultures.org/publications/research-and-analysis/945-future-farmers-
school buildings, through a partnership agreement between FAO and exploring-youthaspirations-for-african-agriculture/file .
UNICEF. 62 ILO. Unpublished. “Trends in the demand and supply for skills in the
60 MoA. 2014. Ministry of Agriculture Strategy 2015 – 2019; Avsi .2016. agriculture sector: the case of Lebanon”.
Labour Market study, agriculture labour market study and educational 63 Ibidem.

14
 capacity to develop and deliver new teaching II. Extension services should be strengthened to become
materials and insufficient financial and human a tool for the introduction of new techniques and skills
resources to shift programmes online. The shift among farmers.
to distance learning also revealed unequal
access to digital equipment and infrastructure The overhaul of the legal and regulatory
(stable internet connection), potentially framework for the cooperative sector and
leading to exacerbating inequalities for those related efforts will allow cooperatives to
who already face disadvantages in access to contribute to the dissemination of new
learning (e.g. Syrian and Palestinian refugees). agricultural techniques. Extension work has
Furthermore, while the transition from face-to- the potential to benefit small farm holders and
face to online learning enabled the provision should be an important tool to take practical
of theoretical knowledge, the closure of steps towards climate change adaptation. It
training institutions and workshops severely should also be an important tool for lifelong
limited the provision of work-based learning learning, helping farmers access advice and
and practical skills training. training throughout their working lives.

Recommendations III. Labour market information and analysis will

provide the evidence to all stakeholders to make sound
I. The next Agriculture Strategy should focus on decisions.
innovative practices for small-scale farmers, and
budget allocation should be commensurable with the There is a need for enhancing the Labour
tasks ahead. Market Information System in Lebanon at
national level. In the short term, the MoA
Inter-sectoral linkages through various value should conduct market studies using mixed
chains64 as well as the sector’s centrality to methodologies, as well as tracer studies and
natural resource management and the many value chain specific analysis. Skills anticipation
livelihoods contingent on agriculture should should identify both technical and non-
cement the sector as a key government technical skills to ensure market needs for
priority for human development. The focus labour and products are met; aside from
on market-led export oriented growth has yet the necessary technical skills, marketing,
to prove that it is able to improve smallholder entrepreneurial and business management
livelihoods. The contradictions arising from skills have become more and more crucial
this focus on market-led export oriented elements for a successful agriculture project.
growth and its failure to produce broad based Collaboration with the private sector under
social development in rural areas need to be a dedicated skills council should also serve
addressed in the Strategy.65 A costed Action to generate additional analysis. Improving
Plan should ensure resourcing requirements demand-side information will also improve
are laid out that are commensurate to these employment services and career guidance,
tasks, including sufficient staffing with clear reducing the heavy reliance on personal
job descriptions and performance measures. networks for recruitment. The increased
understanding of the sector demands
will therefore improve policies, training
programmes and career orientation.

IV. The restructuring of value chains will open

64 Ranging from inputs and material on the upstream side to whole and
opportunities for socially balanced growth.
retail sales as well as agro-food industry on the downstream side.
65 Bush, R. 2016. “Family farming in the Near East and North Africa”.
International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth (IPC-IG) Working Paper
The tremendous imbalance of imports over
No. 151. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6537e.pdf; Patnaik, U. exports suggest that production aimed at
1996. “Export-Oriented Agriculture and Food Security in Developing
Countries and India”. Economic and Political Weekly, 31(35/37), 2429-
import substitution is an interesting alternative
2449. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4404563.

15
 to valorise agricultural work and agro-food testing which measure trainees’ ability to
industries, for sub-sectors with comparative perform occupation-specific duties and tasks
market advantage such as leafy greens in to an acceptable standard. The importance of
the Akkar region for example.66 Additionally, instructors in this process is critical; investment
more stringent regulation of wholesale in a professional development program
markets to limit value capture and shortening ensures instructors’ technical knowledge
of the market supply chain are possibilities to and pedagogical practices are up-to-date. In
optimize value chains and increase producer parallel, the job descriptions of agricultural
profit margins. TVET teachers should be reviewed and
updated, to facilitate merit-based recruitment
V. A strengthened food supply system with upskilling and the implementation of improved
of all stakeholders in the value chain will contribute performance management practices.
to prevent food security crisis, but also create jobs for
marginal farmers. VII. Improved quality of ATS programmes needs to be
matched by enhanced skills use in the sector
Establishing a legal framework and standards
for e-commerce of perishable products and Exposure to work-based learning and on
encouraging direct sales from local producers the job training has been shown to increase
to local consumers through digital platforms students’ immediate employment prospects,
will lead to reduced food prices and job creation. and employer satisfaction with graduate
The legal framework for wholesale market skill levels.68 Employers can complement
licensing should also be revised to enforce the training at ATSs with specialised on the
conditioning standards (cooling, controlled job modules that are validated through
atmosphere) as a core measure for reducing certificates, and to value the competencies of
food waste.67 Replacement production could workers through decent wages and working
also be encouraged for imports of agricultural conditions.
products that stopped, by facilitating access to
seeds and arable land. Targeted interventions VIII. An apprenticeship framework for MoA should be
and training programmes for upskilling and developed.
reskilling of actors across the supply chain will
be needed for a successful implementation of The recently updated agricultural curricula,
these measures. which includes on-the-job training as part of
competency-based teaching and learning,
VI. A competency-based approach to teaching, learning, could be expanded to meet the standards of
testing and certification is the basis for improved quality apprenticeship in agriculture seen in
quality within the agricultural TVET system. other countries. The MoA should stimulate the
interest of the private sector and government
Strengthening of ATSs to provide broad in agricultural apprenticeship by highlighting
based training required by the market and its benefits and the return on investment
specialised know-how is possible through it presents for national economies, labour
increased collaboration between the ATS and markets and private sector development.69 The
farmers federated in the sector skills councils, signature of the MoU between the Ministry and
and through regular updates of curricula with employers on the implementation of work-
new specializations, training of instructors, based learning is a step in the right direction
structured apprenticeship, and through short and the initiative should be scaled up.
courses for life-long learning. Competency
standards determined in partnership with
the private sector enable instruction and
66 ILO. 2015. Potatoes and Leafy green vegetables: value chain analysis.
(Akkar/Lebanon) 68 ILO. Forthcoming. Brief of the Dual System Tracer Study.
67 ESCWA. 2020. Mitigating the impact of the Economic and COVID-19 69 ILO. Unpublished. Quality Apprenticeship for Lebanon, a proposal for
crises on Food Security in Lebanon. the agriculture sector.

16
 IX. Improved access to and support for distance learning technologies are key factors that
learning will enable continuation of learning and skills needs to be addressed to enable continued
development in times of crisis. provision of learning and skills building. TVET
managers, teachers and trainers should be
The Covid-19 pandemic has been driving the provided with training and support to plan
demand for digital skills to learn and to work and deliver online learning activities, including
remotely. Investing in digital technologies the revision of teaching and learning models
and related skills across TVET is critical for to make the best use of digital resources and
the resilience of the TVET system. In addition, tools, while learners also need to be provided
universal access to digital infrastructure (basic with support to engage in distance courses,
digital equipment and sufficiently strong ensuring the participation and learning of
internet connection), tools and modern disadvantaged students.

BOX 1 List of occupations and skills in demand70

Occupation Occupations in Examples on the skills in demand
Group demand
Labourer & Crop and fruit ■ installing irrigation systems
Skilled workers tree growers ■ cultivating soil,
(crops, (ISCO 6111, ■ transplanting, pruning, thinning and mulching;
gardens, and 6112, 6114) ■ weed and pest control;
forestry) ■ producing bulbs, seeds and saplings;
■ harvesting;
■ composting;
Gardeners (ISCO ■ preparing garden sites and plots;
6113, 9211, ■ assisting with planting and transplanting flowers, shrub, and
9214) trees;
■ maintaining gardens by watering, weeding, cleaning
Forestry worker ■ assessing sites for reforestation,
(ISCO 6210) ■ selecting, seeding and planting trees;
■ assessing forest growth conditions (forest regeneration);
■ assessing forest health;
■ thinning and clearing undergrowth;
■ trimming and removing major branches and trees;
■ fire protection, detection I equipment maintenance.
Packers (ISCO ■ operate packaging of the final product, by hand or machine
9321) ■ ensuring optimum quality, hygiene and technical standards
Skilled worker Livestock & Dairy ■ monitoring and reporting on livestock conditions;
(animal producer (ISCO ■ herding, milking;
product) 6121) ■ growing and purchasing feed and other supplies,
■ ensure proper storage, maintain appropriate nutritional
levels;
■ detect diseases and disorders,
■ treatment of dairy cattle, breeding and artificial insemination;
■ monitoring and assisting calving;
■ processing, storing animal products;
■ pest control (parasites and insects);
■ practice routine biosecurity measures;
■ reporting to engineer/veterinarian when an incident occurs
(odour, sick animal, etc.);
70 Ibidem.

17
 ■ monitoring the ammonia level in the farm to improve
ventilation;
Poultry Producer ■ growing and purchasing feed;
(ISCO 6122) ■ identifying and reporting on sick birds;
■ controlling humidity, temperature and ventilation;
Apiarist and ■ preparing necessary equipment;
Sericulturists ■ monitoring hives, adding frames and checking honey, pollen
(ISCO 6123) in hives;
■ honey harvesting, extraction and filtration;
■ checking queen›s activity and replacing when needed;
■ queen breeding;
■ monitoring bee health, diagnose diseases, identify
treatments;
■ bee feeding during off-season periods;
Skilled worker Aquaculture ■ monitoring and maintaining optimum conditions for
(fishery) worker (ISCO aquatic life (oxygen level and other water quality parameters
6221) (ammonia, pH and nitrite);
■ disease and pest control;
■ good sanitation practices;
■ environmental, production and growth data collection and
recording;
Fisher worker ■ fishing activities from shores and shallow water;
(ISCO 6222) ■ using traditional methods such as (a) bottom stationary gear
(trammel nets and longlines), (b) purse seine nets (lampara),
and (c) beach seines while assuring the use of legal size of
mesh nets;
■ prepare and repair nets and other fishing gear and equipment;
■ sorting and storing catch in holds with salt and ice.
Craft related Bakers, ■ preparing flour products,
workers (food Pastry and ■ confectionary using hand tools and machinery;
processing) confectionery
makers (ISCO
7512)
Butchers, ■ slaughtering animals;
fishmongers, ■ cutting, dressing meat and fish;
and related food ■ preparing ingredients and making processed food;
preparer (ISCO ■ cooking, preparing related food products.
7511)
Other craft Flower arranger ■ arranging flowers for display
workers (ISCO 7549) ■ maintaining continuous care of flowers;
■ arranging special occasions;
■ preparing bouquet.
Technician Veterinary ■ Producing radiographs, collecting samples and performing
(health) assistant (ISCO other laboratory tests to assist in diagnosis of animal health
3240 )71
problems;

71 The title of this occupation was listed as ‘agriculture pharmacy assistant’ in 2018 study, ‘Trends in the demand and supply for skills in the agriculture
sector: the case of Lebanon’. The title was updated to ‘agricultural technician’ in this brief to match the ISCO title, which covers the same skills as those
mentioned for agriculture pharmacy assistant’ in the 2018 study.

18
 ■ assisting vaccination and surgery;
■ basic treatments (ex. Deworming)
■ Preparing the feed mixture; animal grooming,
Agricultural ■ nutritional advice and help selecting fertilizers;
Technician (ISCO ■ diagnosing and treating crop pests and diseases;
3142) ■ advising on crop selections;
■ calculating pesticide dilution and dosages;
Food Inspectors ■ testing of quality of raw materials according to standards;
(ISCO 3257) ■ performing food microbiology and chemical tests;
■ controlling wastewater management;
Technician Chemical & ■ collecting water and soil samples;
(physical Physical Science ■ performing soil and water tests to determine nutrient levels
science) Technician (ISCO and pH;
3111) ■ preparing material for experiments.
Professional Vocational ■ developing curricula and planning course content,
(teaching) education ■ evaluating training effectiveness and assess competency;
teacher (ISCO ■ establishing relations between students and the private
2320) sector.
Professional Cooperative ■ leading the cooperative;
(manager) Manager (1311, ■ giving guidance to farmers;
1312) ■ Ensuring membership rights and responsibilities;
■ Evaluating financial budget of the cooperative

19
For more information:

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