(V) International Relations by Sushant Verma Sir

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 (V) INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS between India and China was based on the
shared sense of anticolonialism.
BY SUSHANT VERMA SIR  It was also highlighted by India and China both
1. IMPORTANCE OF CHINA that they share the responsibility to provide
2. BRIEF HISTORY-THREE PHASES leadership to the newly emerging countries of
3. 3Cs Asia and Africa both. They also shared the
 COOPERATION feeling that they should support newly emerging
 COMPETITION countries in their quest for peace and prosperity.
 CONFLICT  In the year 1954 India and China signed the
4. MAJOR IRRITANTS IN BILATERAL TIES- treaty of friendship called as Panchsheel treaty.
a) BORDER DISPUTE The five principles of this strategy are:
b) SINO-PAK NEXUS 1. Mutual respect for each other‘s territorial
c) BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI) integrity and sovereignty.
d) GEO-POLITICAL TUSSLE IN INDO-PACIFIC- 2. Mutual non-aggression.
 STRING OF PEARLS 3. Mutual non - interference in each other‘s
 NECKLACE OF DIAMONDS, internal affairs.
 SOUTH CHINA SEA DISPUTE 4. Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit.
e) TRADE DEFICIT 5. Peaceful coexistence.
f) RIVER WATER SHARING  Panchsheel formed a basis for a principled
5. CONCLUSION approach to international relations and it was
suggested to guide the future of India China
SINO-INDIA RELATION- I relationship.
 Importance of China  Three issues led to deterioration of
1. Largest neighbor bilateral ties
2. Economic and Military Power
3. One of biggest trading partner 1. Issue of Tibet:-
4. Important factor India’s foreign policy  Political buffer b/w India and China at time of
5. At the geo-political level, China and India have Indian independence
much in common. Both are ancient civilisations  1951 China conquered Tibet:- Tibet No more
that carry the scars of past imperial conquests. buffer and India accepted Tibet as part of China
6. Both are rapidly modernising and regaining their but expected to maintain autonomy of Tibet {
status as global trading and economic Panchsheel treaty.}{TAR-Tibet Autonomous
powerhouses. Region}
7. And they are the two most populated nations—  1959 Dalai Lama head of Tibetan administration
collectively home to over one-third of the and came to India Via Arunachal and India Gave
world’s population. Political Asylum
 China Got Disappointment by action of India
BRIEF HISTORY 2. Issue of Border:-
 The history of Sino-Indian relations since 1950  1955:- China India had published their maps and their
can be divided into distinct phases discussed claims and counter claims over Aksai Chin and
Arunachal Pradesh
below
 China built road in Aksai Chin and claim Arunachal
 India and China are called “Civilizational states” (Southern Tibet)
 Why 1950:- because in 1947 India  1961:- Nehru’s Forward Policy :- Army to move
 1949 :- revolution in China and Chinese communist forward to those areas which we claim and put up
party under Mao post theirs
 India became one of the few non-socialist bloc  1962:- Forward policy some experts say is triggering
country to develop diplomatic ties with China for 0ctober 1962 war b/w India and China
 “Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai Slogan” 3. Competition for 3rd world leadership

A. PHASE I - 1950-1962: PERIOD OF India and China’s models were different as India Got
Independence Through Peace methods of Gandhi but
IDEOLOGICAL ENTHUSIASM Mao belived in Quote that “Power comes through
 This was a period of friendship and ideological barrel”
convergence around anti-imperialist foreign  However, there were also differences in the
policy objectives. Source of initial bonhomie ideology of Mao and Nehru which were as
follows-

1
1. Mao had led a militant movement that of normalization. China’s Head Deng Xiaoping
armed and mobilized the peasantry to win gave red carpet welcome
the civil war and establish People’s Republic  During the visit, Rajiv Gandhi commented that
of China. Whereas Nehru led a non-violent India- China border dispute should not be made
movement against the British. a pre-condition for the normalization of the
2. Nehru sought to consolidate the principle of relationship.
sovereignty for the newly independent  India China agreed that “we will not allow
states which was evident in his policy of border dispute to disrupt other areas like trade
NAM. Whereas Mao advocated an and commerce”
international revolution, he advocated  Following Rajiv Gandhi’s visit, an India –China
communist revolution in the newly emerging joint working Group (JWG) was established to
countries. go into the boundary dispute.
 Therefore, both nations sought to build solidarity and
gain prestige among third world countries and this C. PHASE III- END OF COLD WAR
created competition between India and China to be ONWARDS (1990 ONWARDS)
viewed as a leader of the third world. This  1991:- significant for two reasons
competition created initial cracks in the relationship. 1. Disintegration of USSR:- USSR Collapsed
 By the end of 1950s both countries got into a fierce 2. Economic crisis in India :- LPG Reforms
border struggle with each other. While the border
 In post-Cold War times India-China relations
dispute can be considered a problematic legacy left
over by history. Its more immediate antecedents lay
normalized further. Both nations were able to
in the Chinese invasion of Tibet. The year 1959 was identify mutually inclusive economic interests.
somewhat of a watershed in Sino-Indian relations. In  India brought a new economic policy and
March 1959, following an uprising against Chinese followed China’s footsteps towards higher
rule in Tibet, the Dalai lama fled to India. This caused growth rate.
bitterness in bilateral ties and added fuel to border  In this period, both countries signed five border
tensions. pacts to manage disputed border
 In November 1961, Nehru launched a more covertly
confrontational ‘forward policy’, which involved
establishing military posts north of existing Chinese
FIVE BORDER PACTS
posts in the disputed territories in an attempt to cut 1. 1993 Agreement on Maintenance of
off Chinese supply lines, and force a withdrawal.
Peace and Tranquility
Instead of withdrawing China focused its energies on
 along the Line of Actual Control in the India-China
countering India’s forward policy. China attacked
Border Areas. India formally accepted the concept of
Indian positions in both the eastern and western
the LAC.
sectors on 20th October 1962, much to the surprise
of an ill – prepared Delhi. The war had ended in 31  The agreement stipulates that the two sides should
days with a comprehensive victory for Chinese and a seek solutions to border disputes through peaceful
humiliating defeat to India. means and should not use force or threaten to use
force before the final solution to the border issue.
B. PHASE II- 1962-1990- PHASE OF 2. 1996 Agreement on Confidence
COLD PEACE Building Measures
 1962-1976 India and China did not have  in the Military Field along the LAC spelt out
diplomatic relations at level of Ambassador some measures to clarify the LAC and to work
 After 1962, Sino-Indian ties deteriorated. out limits of their respective militaries and
Diplomatic ties were cut off. Ambassador level various armaments such as tanks, infantry
ties were restored only in 1976. combat vehicles, howitzers on the LAC.
 Vajpayee’s visit to China in February 1979 ended  Combat aircraft and helicopters were barred
the chill created by the 1962 war. It was the first from flying within 10 km of the LAC.
high-level political contact between the two
countries after 17 long years. 3. 2005 Protocol on Modalities for the
 In mid 1980s when world was inching towards Implementation of the Confidence
the end of cold war, India realized that USSR will Building Measures
not be able to retain itself as a super power and  in the Military Field along the LAC. The
India would need new friends. agreement spelt out the standard operating
 Reset in Bilateral ties (First Visit):- Hence, in the procedures on what would happen when patrols
year 1988, Rajiv Gandhi made a historic visit to met each other on the territory that both
China and he was successful in initiating a phase countries claimed.
2
4. 2012 Agreement on the Establishment of Convention. LOC has legal sanctity
Working Mechanism 3. LAC:- Only a concept , not demarcated on ground
 for Consultation and Coordination on India- and map. De-facto border
China Border Affairs. This was seen as a move to  In 2003, Vajpayee visited China and both
replace the old joint working group process that countries decided to appoint special
linked the two foreign ministries. representatives to resolve the border dispute.
5. 2013 Border Defence Cooperation This mechanism of talks between special
representatives is being used till date.
Agreement-  India’s special Representative is NSA and
 even while observing the provisions of the past
from China’s side he is State councilor
agreements, they would not tail the patrols of the
other side in areas where there was no common  2003-2019 both sides met for 22 times
understanding of the LAC. Crucially, India and China Three stages of Border Dispute Resolution
had also agreed that if the two sides come face-to- When the Special Representatives were appointed in
face in areas where they have differing perceptions of 2003, the two sides set off a three-stage process-
the LAC, both sides shall exercise maximum self- 1. First stage is an agreement on the guiding
restraint and refrain from any provocative actions.
principles and setting political parameters for
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LAC AND LOC INDIA the settlement.
 China boundary is referred to as Line of Actual 2. The second stage focuses on working out a
Control (LAC). The LAC is the demarcation that framework of settlement. This would involve a
separates Indian-controlled territory from framework of technical agreements that would
Chinese-controlled territory.
translate into the final ‘border package’.
 On the other hand, the Line of Control (LOC)
3. Stage III would be the actual delineation and
emerged from the 1949 ceasefire line negotiated
by the UN after the Kashmir War. demarcation of the boundary on the map by
 It was designated as the LoC in 1972, following civil, military and survey officials
the Shimla Agreement between the two  The Manmohan Singh-Wen Jiabao summit in
countries. 2005 had more significant outcomes. India and
 It is delineated on a map signed by DGMOs of China were able to conclude the Political
both armies and has the international sanctity of Parameters and Guiding Principles for the
a legal agreement. Settlement of the India-China Boundary
 The LAC, in contrast, is only a concept – it is not Question. This agreement completed the first of
agreed upon by the two countries, neither three stages of the talks.
delineated on a map nor demarcated on the
 The most prominent area of cooperation has
ground.
been trade. Over the years, China has emerged
 India considers the LAC to be 3,488 km long,
while the Chinese consider it to be only around as one of India’s largest trading partner along
2,000 km. with USA and European Union. Thus, Sino-India
 Moreover, China is often found doing intrusions relations have normalized substantially
across LAC, for instance recent intrusion in  However, they still have profound
Galwan region. disagreements and a destabilizing border
 LAC is not the claim line for India. India’s claim dispute; this makes them fierce competitors as
line is the line seen in the official boundary well. Rise of China is seen as a threat for India,
marked on the maps as released by the Survey of especially China’s growing presence in India’s
India, including both Aksai Chin and Gilgit- neighborhood. China is also considered all
Baltistan.
weather friend of India’s hostile neighbor
 In China’s case, it corresponds mostly to its claim
Pakistan. Moreover, there are apprehensions
line, but in the eastern sector, it claims entire
Arunachal Pradesh as South Tibet.
regarding a rising nexus of Pakistan-China
 However, the claim lines come into question Russia.
when a discussion on the final international  Hence, India is compelled to follow policies to
boundaries takes place, and not when the balance China. Thus, India is attempting internal
conversation is about a working border, say the balancing by developing its conventional and
LAC non-conventional capacities. Furthermore, India
 INDIA’S BORDERS is also entering strategic partnerships with like-
1. Radcliffe Line:- with Pak except J&K and with minded countries to balance China, for instance
Bangladesh USA, Japan, New Zealand, Australia and role in
2. LOC:- J&K border with Pak based on 1949 cease
QUAD (external balancing). Policy of multiple
fire line . Official designated as LOC 1972 Shimla
alignments gives India bargaining power.
3
 There have been regular interactions between climate change and meet the Sustainable
leaders and officials of both the countries Development Goals.
including at the highest political level. Yet ✓ To celebrate the 70th year of diplomatic
despite these commonalities, China and India relations between the two nations, the year
have been unable to resolve their shared 2020 was designated as Year of India-China
boundary and other tensions. There is a Cultural and People to People Exchanges.
recurrent theme of conflict and cooperation ✓ To celebrate the Civilizational ties between
witnessed in various sides of bilateral relation the nations, two leaders decided to form a
 AREAS OF COOPERATION, CONFLICTS 'Sister-state relationship' between Tamil Nadu
and Fujian Province.
,COMPETITION SINCE 1980s:- ✓ Both leaders decided that they would
 COOPERATION prudently manage differences and not allow
1. High level political visits differences to become disputes.
2. Economic ties:- > $100bn  TOPIC:- AREAS OF CONFLICT
3. Informal summits:- b/w Chin’s President and
India’s PM AND COMPETITION
 2012 Wuhan:- agreed that we don’t  Major irritants in their bilateral ties are as
allow differences to become dispute following-
 2019 Mamallapuram (TN) A. Boundary Dispute
4. Climate change B. Sino-Pak nexus
5. WTO C. BRI
6. SCO/BRICS/AIIB etc D. Trade Deficit
E. River Water Sharing
 INFORMAL SUMMITS F. Geo-political tussle in Indo-Pacific
 Informal Summits serve as supplementary
exchanges to annual Summits and other formal  BOUNDARY DISPUTE
exchanges. The informal summit allows for 1. Colonial legacy
direct, free and candid exchange of views 2. What are three sectors India-China have
between countries which may not be possible in conflict
the formal bilateral and multilateral meetings 3. Importance of Tibet
that are agenda-driven, where specific issues are 4. 5 finger strategy
discussed, and outcomes are more concretely 5. Recent standoff :- Dokalam 2017, eastern
defined Ladakh 2020onwards (still continuing)
 Outcomes of Wuhan (2018) and 6. Efforts to resolve it
7. Visit of Chinese foreign minister march
Mamallapuram (2019) summits:
202
 Both sides were able to reach mutual
 Boundary dispute is a legacy of the failure of
understanding on various issues listed below:
British to not resolve outstanding disputes. Both
✓ Modi and Xi reinforced their commitment to
India and China share about 3488 km of land
improve trade relations. High-Level Economic
border, which can be divided into the
and Trade Dialogue mechanism will look into
1. Eastern sector
achieving enhanced trade and commercial
2. Middle sector :-HP +Ukhand
relations. It will also seek to address the trade
3. Western sector.
deficit and issues related to investment.
 Most disputed are the western and eastern
✓ Both agreed that there must be a rules-based
sectors.
and inclusive international order. They agreed
that there must be reforms that reflect the new  The Chinese have two major claims on what
realities of the 21st century. India deems its own territory-
✓ They also agreed that rules-based multilateral 1. One claim, in the western sector, is on Aksai Chin
trading systems must be supported and (covering 38000 sq kms) in the north-eastern
strengthened (WTO). Both nations also
section of Ladakh Union Territory. This is apart
reinforced their commitment to work together
for open and inclusive trade arrangements that from 5180 sq km of territory in Gilgit Baltistan
will benefit all countries. region in the Shaksgam valley of Jammu and
✓ They also made a commitment to address Kashmir which was illegally ceded by Pakistan to
global developmental challenges, including China in 1963. British had appointed two
4
commissions (Johnson 1865 and McDonald physically demarcated on the ground. As a
1893) to demarcate boundary. According to result, different perception of the LAC has led to
Johnson’s commission Aksai Chin is part of India several border skirmishes and incursion.
and according to McDonald commission Aksai
Chin is part of China. British left without
resolving this border.
2. The other claim is in the eastern sector over
Arunachal Pradesh (covering 90,000 sq Kms)
Beijing has stated that it does not recognize
Arunachal Pradesh. India accuses China of
illegally occupying Aksai Chin While China
accuses India of occupying areas in Arunachal
which it calls part of Southern Tibet.
 The middle sector is in the state of Uttrakhand
and Himachal Pradesh. The disputed area in the
middle sector is much smaller, involving only few
pockets. China also claims about 2000 sq. kms. in
the Middle Sector of the India-China boundary.  The Line of Actual Control (LAC) covers the 3,488
 The McMahon Line boundary dispute is at the km-long border between them. While China says
heart of the boundary dispute between China the border dispute is confined to 2,000
and India. In the early 20th Century Britain kilometers, mainly Arunachal Pradesh in eastern
sought to advance its line of control and sector which it claims as part of southern Tibet,
establish buffer zones around its colony in South India asserts the dispute covered the whole of
Asia. In 1913-1914 representatives of China, the LAC including the Aksai Chin occupied by
Tibet and Britain negotiated a treaty in India: the China during the 1962 war. It is to be noted that
Simla Convention. Sir Henry McMahon, the China has completely settled territorial disputes
foreign secretary of British India at the time, with 12 of the 14-land neighbors.
drew up the 550 mile (890 km) McMahon Line as
the border between British India and Tibet  What are three sectors India-China have
conflict
during the Simla Conference. The so-called
1. Western sector:- Aksai Chin 38000 sqkm,
McMahon Line, drawn primarily on the highest
2. Middle sector:- least disputed,
watershed principle, demarcated what had 3. Eastern sector:-McMohan line dispute
previously been unclaimed or undefined borders
between Britain and Tibet. The McMahon line
 FIVE FINGER STRATEGY OF CHINA
 The Five Fingers of Tibet is a Chinese foreign
moved British control substantially northwards.
policy attributed to Mao Zedong that considers
 The Tibetan and British representatives at the
Tibet to be China’s right hand palm, with five
conference agreed to the line, which ceded fingers on its periphery:
Tawang and other Tibetan areas to the imperial 1) Ladakh,
British Empire. However, the Chinese 2) Nepal,
representative refused to accept the line. Peking 3) Sikkim,
4) Bhutan, and
claimed territory in this far north down to the
5) Arunachal Pradesh, and It is China’s
border of the plain of Assam. responsibility to “liberate”(means capture) these
 Chinese government does not recognize the regions.
"illegal" McMahon Line and considers it as a  It was never discussed in official Chinese public
symbol of imperialist aggression on the country. statements but an article in a provisional
These claims and counter claims have meant mouthpiece magazine of the Chinese Communist
that the Line of Actual Control (LAC), the de- Party verified the existence of this policy in the
aftermath of the 2017 China–India border
facto boundary after the 1962 war, is yet to be
standoff. What role each of the finger will play?
5
 Ladakh: Control over this will give China full northeast India.
access to Pakistan and subsequently to Arabian  China had also started the practice of issuing stapled
sea which will connect China to the Arabia and visa to Indian residents of Jammu and Kashmir and
Arunachal Pradesh despite strong Indian protests.
west.
 Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh is one of the prominent
 Nepal: Control over Nepal will give China access religious centres for Tibetans. It serves as the
to Indian heartland. It can easily build rail or headquarters of the Karma-Kargyu sect of Tibetan
roads easily to India. Or if it deploys its armies in Buddhists.
Nepal, then states of UP, Bihar will be well  China aggressively promotes One-China policy and in
within Chinese reach militarily. Beijing's view a relevant Tawang outside Chinese
 Sikkim: Control over Sikkim will give China an control will continue to question Chinese acquisition
edge in cutting off India’s Chicken neck (i.e. of Tibet.
siliguri corridor) and cut-off North East from  China looks nervously at a free Tawang, a source of
inflammatory thoughts and ideas across the border in
Indian mainland.
India. Beijing appoints the heads of Tibet’s
 Bhutan: Control over this area will bring China monasteries, but the Dalai Lama appoints the Tawang
closer to Bangladesh through which it can reach Gompa chief. So Tawang Gompa remained beyond
Bay of Bengal. Chinese control.
 Arunachal Pradesh: Control over this area will  For now, Beijing insists that India must cede Tawang
help China capture entire North east. to China in any border settlement
 INDIA’S RECENT STAND ON DALAI
 IMPORTANCE OF TIBET LAMA ISSUE
a) Politically  Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s phone-call to the
b) Strategically Dalai Lama on his 87th birthday in July 2022 annoyed
c) Economically Beijing, prompting it to ask New Delhi to refrain from
d) religiously using the issue of Tibet to interfere in the internal
 Tibet lies at the heart of Sino-Indian border dispute. affairs of China. New Delhi responded by underlining
India harbours fears founded on Tibet’s geo-strategic that it was a consistent policy of the Government of
setting. China’s annexation of Tibet in 1951 removed India to treat the Dalai Lama as an honoured guest in
India’s ‘political buffer’. China was enraged at India’s the country.
grant of political asylum to the Dalai Lama who fled  On August 10, 2022, the 14th Dalai Lama flew
to India in 1959. onboard a Dhruv helicopter of the Indian Air Force
 Also because of China’s ‘Western Development (IAF) from Leh to a 15th-century monastery located
Strategy’, China has carried out widespread near Lingshed, one of the remotest village in Ladakh.
infrastructure development projects in Tibet The visit by the Tibetan Buddhist monk is also his first
especially highways, roads, rail links and air strips. one to Leh since the military stand-off between India
India views it as providing the logistical capability for and China started along the Line of Actual Control
a Chinese invasion across the border. Thus, Tibet’s (LAC) in eastern Ladakh in April-May 2020.
geo-strategic setting is effectively the source of the
 New Delhi released pictures of the Dalai Lama with
mutual threat perception and alignment patterns that
the IAF officials and personnel, apparently to tacitly
dominate the Sino-Indian relationship.
snub China, which in the past repeatedly conveyed its
 Geo-economics also shape the Tibetan Plateau’s
displeasure over the Government of India facilitating
strategic value. The Tibetan Plateau is estimated to
the visits of the Tibetan Buddhist monk.
hold approximately 40 per cent of China’s mineral
 The latest move by Indian government to send out a
resources, including coal, gold, lithium and copper.
subtle-but-firm message to Beijing came just days
 It is also the world’s third largest fresh water
after the Speaker of the United States House of
repository, after the polar icecaps, and is the source
Representative Nancy Pelosi visited Taipei, defying
of most of Asia’s major river systems, including the
repeated warnings from China, which responded by
Yellow, Salween, Irrawaddy, Yangtze, Mekong,
launching a weeklong military drill across the Taiwan
Brahmaputra and Indus Rivers.
Strait. Beijing considers Tibet and Taiwan as its “core
 The issue of water management (for projects such as
issues” and repeatedly stressed that its sovereignty
flood control, irrigation and hydroelectric power)
on both is non-negotiable
offers China the potential for enormous influence and
leverage over downstream riparian states, such as
India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Vietnam,
 DOKLAM STANDOFF (2017):
Burma, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand.  Doklam plateau is a strategically vital 269 square
 Moreover, China’s plan to dam the Brahmaputra kilometer patch of Bhutan’s territory that Beijing
River in Tibet features heavily in Indian security laid claim to in the1980s. The disputed area is
calculations, given that the consequences of China situated at the trijunction of Bhutan, Sikkim and
turning off the tap upstream could be disastrous for

6
China. It is located in the strategically sensitive dozen spots across different sectors of the India-
area of Chumbi valley. China border.
 A standoff occurred in 2017, when Indian troops  In April and May 2020, China repeated moves
intervened to block the path of Chinese People’s similar to those it had undertaken in Depsang in
Liberation Army soldiers engaged in building 2013, Chumar in 2014 and Pangong Tso in 2019,
road-works on the Doklam plateau. This standoff of physically occupying certain areas of the LAC
lasted almost three months and has changed the and preventing the movement of Indian patrols.
contours of already disturbed India-China  This time, China also appeared in some areas
relations. Standoff ended with both countries that were previously not disputed and the new
agreeing to mutually disengage from the Doklam tactic has involved simultaneous advances along
region. the LAC in eastern Ladakh.
 Doklam holds strong strategic and geo-political  The standoff in eastern Ladakh began on May 5,
relevance for India, which justifies India’s 2020 following a violent clash in the Pangong
aggressive stand of sending their troops to the lake area and both sides gradually enhanced
area. Analysts say that the construction of a new their deployment by rushing in tens of
road through the Chumbi valley would further thousands of soldiers as well as heavy weaponry.
endanger the ―Chicken’s Neck— the narrow Tensions had been running high in the area.
Siliguri corridor, which links the north-east with  Galwan Clash- Even though the LAC in Galwan
the rest of India. India is vulnerable in this river Valley in eastern Ladakh was never
corridor as it is the only access point to the disputed by the two sides, however the Chinese
northeast. The Corridor is about 500 km from had moved into the Indian side of the LAC.
the Chumbi Valley Negotiations had been conducted between local
 India had conveyed to the Chinese government military commanders of both the armies for a
that the latter’s construction of road in the mutually agreed disengagement process.
disputed Doklam area would represent a  As part of that process, a buffer zone had been
significant change of status quo with serious agreed to be created between the LAC and the
security implications for India and would amount junction of the Shyok and Galwan rivers to
to undermine India’s security. avoid any faceoff between the two armies. The
 In recent time, China appears to have escalated two armies were to move back by a kilometer
its pressure on Bhutan. The aim of the pressure each in that area as a first step.
is well known: To persuade Bhutan to cede  Colonel B Santosh Babu, who was monitoring
Doklam. this process, noticed that a Chinese camp still
existed in the area; he went to get it removed.
This soon led to fisticuffs and blows being
exchanged, resulting in deaths and injuries (20
Indian personnel killed).
 The seriousness of this event was underscored
by the fact that these were the first casualties
along the Line of Actual Control since 1975,
when four soldiers were killed in a Chinese
ambush 500 metres south of Tulung La.
 In 1967, in a clash in Sikkim, 80 Indian soldiers
and 400 Chinese soldiers are estimated to have
been killed.
 Initially while three-km buffer zones have been
 It Is example of “Salami Slicing” strategy of china created in the Galwan Valley (Patrolling Point
as bit by bit capturing adversary territory 14) and Hot Springs area (PP15), there has been
 Also called as “three warfare strategy of China” no change in the situation in Pangong Tso, the
\
 2020:-THE STANDOFF IN EASTERN Gogra (PP 17 and 17 A) area and, crucially, the
Depsang Plains.
LADAKH (SINCE MAY 2020)  The Patrolling Points we have referred to are not
 Face-off and stand-off situations occur along the new. They were set up in the late 1970s by the
LAC in areas where India and China have Government of India’s China Study Group.
overlapping claim lines.
 The LAC has never been demarcated. Differing
perceptions are particularly acute in around two
7
 This means Indian patrols have been going there triggers cited for the People’s Liberation Army’s
routinely all these years and the Chinese could (PLA) targeting of Indian territory along the Line
not have but known about them. of Actual Control (LAC) in eastern Ladakh was
 In turn, India is familiar with where the Chinese the construction of the 255-km long Darbuk-
patrol, and hence claim. And while there is an Shyokh-Daulat Beg Oldie (DSDBO) all-weather
overlap of claims in Depsang and Pangong Tso, road and the revocation of statehood of Jammu
there was none in Gogra, Hotsprings and and Kashmir.
Galwan river valley. b) The DSDBO road’s strategic importance is that it
connects Leh to DBO, virtually at the base of the
Karakoram Pass that separates China’s Xinjiang
Autonomous Region from Ladakh. The DSDBO
highway provides the Indian military access to
the section of the Tibet-Xinjaing highway that
passes through Aksai Chin. The road runs almost
parallel to the LAC at Aksai Chin.
c) Daulat Beg Oldie (DBO) has the world’s highest
airstrip, originally built during the 1962 war but
abandoned until 2008, when the Indian Air Force
(IAF) revived it as one of its many Advanced
Landing Grounds (ALGs). The strip is critical to
sustain Indian operations in the region,
particularly in the winter when road access gets
cut off because of heavy snowfall, particularly
along passes. The Daulat Beg Oldie airstrip also
enables Indian armed forces to speedily move in
 Perhaps the Chinese want the LAC to be at the reinforcements and weapons including artillery
estuary, because that will give them a clear view guns into the region.
of the Daulat Beg Oldi-Darbuk road. d) There are additional strategic considerations in
the area. To the west of DBO is the region where
China abuts Pakistan in the Gilgit-Baltistan area,
once a part of the erstwhile Kashmir principality.
This is also the critical region where China is
currently constructing the China-Pakistan
Economic Corridor (CPEC) in Pakistan-Occupied
Kashmir (PoK), to which India has objected. The
revocation of statehood of Jammu and Kashmir
heightened China’s fear about Indian stand on
CPEC.
e) In the wake of Galwan faceoff, India banned 59
Chinese apps and PM Modi commented that
―era of expansionism is over‖ and ―history is
witness that such forces have been wiped out, or
have been forced to turn around‖. Certainly,
Galwan faceoff has overshadowed Wuhan spirit
and Chennai connect (Mamallapuram summit
SALAMI SLICING
 Salami Slicing is a divide-and-conquer tactic used
to dominate opposition territory, piece by piece.
Such military operations are too small to result
 TRIGGER FACTOR FOR CHINA’S in a war.
ACTION  They leave a neighbouring country confused as it
a) Darbuk-shyokh-daulat beg oldie (DSDBO)+ is not able to decide how and how much should
Revocation of statehood of Jammu and it respond.
Kashmir :- In view of some experts, the possible  These small military actions also help avoid

8
international diplomatic attention. These small China’s initial handling of the corona virus
actions cumulate over a period of time and outbreak, Beijing’s diplomats have clashed with
result in a strategic advantage for the aggressive host countries in a way seldom seen in
country. peacetime
 The term was coined by dictator Mátyás Rákosi
who used the term to justify the actions of the  EFFORTS TO RESOLVE DISPUTE
Hungarian Communist party to grab complete  Since then, both countries are engaged in
power in Hungary. military and diplomatic talks to resolve the crisis

 Recently, the term has been increasingly used to and prevent further escalation. 16 rounds of
describe China’s unilateral military actions in discussion have already taken place.
India, Japan and countries in the South China Sea  As a result of a series of military and diplomatic
region. talks, the two sides completed the

 China's recent action in Doklam, experts say, was disengagement process on the north and south
an example of Salami Slicing. banks of Pangong Tso in February 2021, and in
 The tools of Salami slicing depends upon the the Gogra area in August 2021.
region. For example, in Ladakh, the People's  While troops are yet to disengage in two other
Republic of China brings in ethnic Han areas, the broader de-escalation is nowhere
pastoralists and giving them cover to use the near the horizon. The standoff remains
land across the areas of unprotected Line of unresolved with about 50,000 troops amassed
Actual Control. on either side of the LAC and still are facing each
 In the process, they drive away from the Indian other at PP 15(hot spring), Depsang And
herdsmen from their traditional pastureland, Demchok
thus opening the path for Salami slicing  Border remains tense as China is not inclined to
move back and reports say that China is
 ‘THREE WARFARE’S’ (3WS) STRATEGY
upgrading infrastructure and installing radars
 In 2003, China’s Central Military Commission
swiftly along the LAC.
(CMC) approved the guiding concepts for
 India also described China's renaming of some
“information operations for the PLA, also known
places in Arunachal Pradesh as a "ridiculous
as “Three Warfares” (san zhong zhanfa).
exercise" to support "untenable territorial"
 For the past decade, China is known to have
claims, asserting that the state has always been
actively used ‘three warfares’ (3Ws) strategy—
and will always remain an "inalienable" part of
1) Media
India.
2) psychological and
 In May 2022, both countries have agreed to hold
3) legal warfare—to weaken its adversaries in
the next (16th) round of the Senior Commanders
regions constituting what it perceives to be its
meeting at an early date to achieve the objective
‘core interests’.
of complete disengagement from all friction
 WOLF WARRIOR STRATEGY points along the LAC in the Western Sector
 It describes offensives by Chinese diplomat to  CHINA’S NEW LAND BORDER
defend China’s national interests, often in
confrontational ways.
LAW (2021)
 In view of Harsha V.Pant, China’s wolf warrior Legal warfare of China

 Recently, China has adopted a new land border
strategy has meant cultivating a diplomatic style
which is inherently undiplomatic, as it seeks to law amid the continued standoff between Indian
confront, attack, demean and even abuse other and Chinese militaries in eastern Ladakh. The
nations when Beijing is challenged. law will govern how Beijing guards its 22,000-km
 This was done at the behest of China’s top long land border that it shares with 14 countries,
leadership that wanted to showcase to the including India, Russia, North Korea and Bhutan.
 The new law stipulates that Chinese state shall
world that today’s China, rather than being
bullied, would itself become a bully. take measures to safeguard territorial integrity
and land boundaries. For this, The People's
 Wolf Warrior and Wolf Warrior II are Chinese
Liberation Army (PLA) shall carry out border
action blockbusters that highlight agents of
duties including organizing drills and resolutely
Chinese special operation forces. They have
prevent, stop and combat invasion,
boosted national pride and patriotism among
encroachment, provocation and other acts.
Chinese viewers.
Moreover, law necessitates China to take
 As international criticism has mounted about
measures to support economic and social
9
development in border areas. comment. They should note that India refrains
 Impact on India: Experts in India say that the law from public judgement of their internal issues,
would formalize some of China’s recent actions New Delhi also reminded the leadership in
in disputed territories with both India and Beijing that India refrains from public judgment
Bhutan, including the PLA‘s deployment of of their internal issues. India usually does not
troops in forward areas along the India border criticise China over its internal issues including
and multiple transgressions across the LAC. The those related to Taiwan, Tibet, Hong Kong,
passing of the law coincides with increased human rights violations and atrocities against
Chinese activity along the land borders, which Uyghurs in Xinjiang province.
have mirrored actions in disputed waters in the  Earlier India had outlined eight principles to
East and South China Sea. help repair strained relations with China-
 Worryingly, China in recent years has been 1. Agreements already reached must be adhered to
strengthening border infrastructure, including in their entirety, both in letter and spirit.
the establishment of air, rail and road networks, 2. The LAC must be strictly observed and respected,
launching bullet train in Tibet which extends up and any attempt to unilaterally change the status
to Arunachal Pradesh border, and the quo is completely unacceptable.
3. Peace and tranquillity in the border areas is the
construction of new frontier villages along the
basis for development of relations in other
border with Bhutan.
domains. If they are disturbed, so inevitably will
 VISIT OF CHINESE FOREIGN MINISTER the rest of the relationship be.
4. While both nations are committed to a multi-
WANG YI, MARCH 24, 2022 polar world, there should be a recognition that a
 Key takeaways from the meeting between multipolar Asia is one of its essential
the two Foreign Ministers constituents.
 External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar Friday told 5. Each state will have its own interests, concerns
visiting Chinese State Councilor and Foreign and priorities, but sensitivity to them cannot be
Minister Wang Yi those bilateral relations have one-sided as relationships between major states
are reciprocal in nature.
been “disturbed as a result of Chinese actions
6. As rising powers, each will have their own set of
since April 2020”. This naming of “Chinese
aspirations and their pursuit too cannot be
actions” and its impact is one of the most candid ignored.
articulations of New Delhi’s assessment, directly 7. There will always be divergences and differences
conveyed to the Chinese Foreign Minister. but their management is essential to bilateral
 Jaishankar said the presence of a large number ties
of troops there, in contravention of 1993 and 8. Civilisational states like India and China must
1996 agreements is an abnormality, so always take the long view.
restoration of normalcy will obviously require  (A civilisation state is a country that claims to
restoration of peace and tranquility. India has represent not just a historic territory or a particular
language or ethnic-group, but a distinctive
been demanding status quo ante or positions
civilisation. It is an idea that is gaining ground in
prior to April 2020. In his view, the onus of
states as diverse as China, India, Russia, Turkey etc.)
normalisation of ties lies with Beijing.
 He further argued that our relationship is best  Reasons for Beijing’s outreach
served by observing the three mutuals By reaching out with a Foreign Minister-level

1) Mutual respect, visit, Beijing is signaling that it is keen to bring
2) Mutual sensitivity and ties back on track.
3) Mutual interest  China’s ultimate and clear objective, however,
 He raised the issue of Wang’s statement at the was to host Prime Minister Narendra Modi for
OIC conference in Islamabad which was criticised the BRICS summit held in China in June 2022.
by the Indian government. China should follow  The timing for beginning the groundwork for the
an independent policy in respect of India, and proposed BRICS summit is also significant –
not allow its policies to be influenced by other Russia is facing a global criticism for its war on
countries and other relationships — a reference Ukraine.
to Pakistan.  Despite the unresolved border standoff with
 India asserted that matters related to the Union India in eastern Ladakh, which continues to
Territory of Jammu & Kashmir are entirely the block any forward movement in bilateral ties,
internal affairs of India. Other countries, Beijing has sought to give the impression that on
including China, have no locus standi to major regional and international issues both
countries share similar positions.
10
 China has been more supportive of Russia than any way signal that relations are moving towards
India on the Ukraine issue but India too hasn’t normalisation, especially in view of the
condemned Moscow and its neutrality has been differences between New Delhi and Beijing over
taken to mean tacit support for Russia by some the military standoff in Ladakh sector, the
in the West. people said.
 What’s India’s thinking?  THE 16TH ROUND OF CORPS
 From Delhi’s calculus, Beijing’s outreach is an COMMANDER-LEVEL TALKS
opportunity since two years of strained ties has  The 16th round of corps commander-level talks
led to the slide of gains made in the last three between India and China held on July 17, 2022 at the
decades. While India has always maintained that Chushul-Moldo border meeting point on the Indian
the border situation has adversely impacted side. It built on the progress made at the last round of
bilateral ties, China has insisted that the border meeting on March 11.
dispute should be handled appropriately and the  The 16th round of talks failed to yield any significant
larger picture of bilateral ties should be kept in outcome with both sides, in a joint statement,
mind. reaffirming that resolution of the issues would help
restore peace and tranquillity in the region and
 This divergence of approach has meant that
facilitate progress in bilateral relations.
there have been no bilateral visits, although
 While an agreement for disengagement from Patrolling
there have been focused bilateral meetings Point-15 was close by in the last few rounds of talks,
between Indian and Chinese Foreign Ministers China’s refusal to discuss other friction areas, Demchok
and Defence Ministers in other countries and Depsang maintaining that they are not a part of
perceived to be neutral venues, like Russia and the current stand-off, has stalled any progress. India
Tajikistan. The two sides have also participated has been insisting on comprehensive disengagement
in several multilateral summits including virtual and de-escalation to end the ongoing standoff in
summits of BRICS, G-20, SCO among others. eastern Ladakh.
 Over 50,000 troops and heavy equipment continue to
 External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar met
be deployed on both sides close to the LAC. In the last
Chinese Foreign minister and State Councillor
two years, China has also undertaken massive
Wang Yi on July 7, 2022 in Bali for the G-20
construction of infrastructure, habitat and support
foreign ministers’ meeting, amid the ongoing structures to maintain the troops close to the LAC,
standoff between troops along the India-China altering the ground status
border. He also called for an early resolution to
the more than two-year-long standoff.  SINO-PAK NEXUS
 China’s special envoy on Afghan affairs Yue  China and Pakistan have been described as "all
Xiaoyong made a low-key visit to New Delhi on weather friends. Founded on a shared enmity
August 1, 2022 for talks with the Indian diplomat for India, the relationship has in some respects
handling matters related to Afghanistan. This run deeper than formal alliances have been
was the first visit to India by Yue, who was remarkably resilient over the dramatic economic
named the special envoy for Afghan affairs a and geopolitical shifts of the last few decades.
year ago, and follows trips by him to Pakistan  In a boundary agreement in 1963, Pakistan
and Turkey for discussions on the situation in ceded the Shaksgam Valley to China. The
Afghanistan. The Chinese side had sought the Shaksgam Valley or the Trans Karakoram Tract is
meeting and the move was being seen in New part of the Hunza-Gilgit region of Pakistan-
Delhi as an acknowledgement by Beijing of occupied Kashmir and is a territory claimed by
India’s important role in Afghanistan. India but controlled by Pakistan. The agreement
 This is also the first time that senior officials of laid the foundation of the Karakoram highway,
the two sides have discussed Afghanistan since built jointly by China and Pakistan in the 1970s.
the takeover of the country by the Taliban  India has long standing grievances against
almost a year ago. China was among a handful of China’s secret nuclear and missile technological
countries that didn’t close its embassy in Kabul help to Pakistan which enabled Pakistan to
after the Taliban grabbed power on August 15 emerge as the nuclear power. This eroded
last year, and though it has not formally conventional Indian military superiority and
recognized the regime, it has said it wants emboldened Pakistan to wage a proxy war
“friendly and cooperative” ties. against India in the state of Jammu and
 The meeting is also being seen in the context of Kashmir. This Pakistani policy of inflicting
recent one-off engagements that the two sides thousand cuts on India via state sponsored
have had on important matters and does not in
11
terrorism has been a major security challenge time under the Security Council’s procedures,
for India. effectively blocks the proposal to designate Makki as
 Chinese backing for Pakistan's nuclear, missile a terrorist until the “technical hold” is withdrawn.
and defence supply program ensured that it  Makki is the deputy chief of LeT and head of the
group’s political affairs department. Both LeT and its
could maintain its role as a balancer in South
front organisation, Jamaat-ud-Dawah (JuD) have been
Asia and continuing to keep Delhi strategically
banned as terrorist entities by the UN. Makki also
tied down by its western neighbour. served as head of LeT’s foreign relations department.
 Convergence between the two countries raises  The method adopted by China, a close ally of
the real spectre of a ‘two-front’ war. Pakistan, is identical to the steps it took to repeatedly
 India is keeping a vigilant eye on air bases in block the listing of Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) chief
Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (PoK) where there is Masood Azhar under the UN Security Council’s Al-
possibility of PLA Air Force (PLAAF) using air Qaeda and ISIL Sanctions Committee, before finally
bases in PoK. The Gwadar naval base in Pakistan relenting in May 2019 in the face of international
has emerged as an important naval base for pressure. Beijing caved in because of mounting
international pressure and its own efforts at the time
Chinese Navy with serious security implications
to improve ties with New Delhi in the wake of the
for India.
2017 border standoff at Doklam.
 Pakistan has a crucial intermediary for Beijing in  Any designation of Makki by the UN Security Council
establishing its relationship with the United would have required Pakistan to take three steps –
States, with Saudi Arabia, and with the Taliban. 1. freeze his funds and financial assets,
Its intelligence services' ties with militant groups 2. enforce a travel ban, and
in the region helped, for many years, to ensure 3. cut off access to arms and related materials.
that China was never a top-tier jihadi target  On 11th August 2022, China prevented a joint India-
Pakistan is a key partner under the China- U.S. bid to list Jaish-e-Mohammad deputy chief Rauf
proposed Belt and Road Initiative whose flagship Asghar as a UN Security Council designated terrorist
by placing a “technical hold” on the process, a move
project China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
India called “politically motivated” and evidence of
passes through Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir
China’s “doublespeak” on Pakistan-based terrorism.
(POK).  Rauf Asghar, the brother of JeM leader Masood
 During an April 2015 visit to Islamabad, Chinese Azhar, is accused of masterminding a number of
President Xi Jinping and Pakistani PM Nawaz terror attacks from the IC-814 hijacking in 1999, the
Sharif unveiled the $46 billion China-Pakistan Parliament attack in 2001, as well as a number of
Economic Corridor (CPEC). CPEC quickly attacks on security forces personnel from 2014-
ballooned to $62 billion in pledges—one-fifth of 2019.
Pakistan’s GDP—covering dozens of envisioned
high-profile projects.
 CHINA’S AMBIGUOUS STAND ON
CROSS-BORDER TERRORISM
 China has an ambiguous stand on cross-border
terrorism which profoundly affects India. Despite
suffering terrorist incidents in its Xinjiang province at
the hands of Uighur Islamists who have close ties
with terrorist groups operating in Af-Pak region,
China refuses to acknowledge the state sponsored
terrorism emanating from Pakistan into India for
strategic reasons
 On 18th June 2022, China put a last-minute block on
a joint proposal by India and the United States in the  The corridor links Xinjiang with Gwadar, and also
UN to list Pakistan-based terrorist Abdul Rehman passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK)
Makki as a 'Global Terrorist' under 1267 ISIS and Al where China is investing in a number of projects.
Qaeda Sanctions Committee of the UN Security  In total, the economic corridor project aims to
Council. add some 17,000 megawatts of electricity
 Makki is a US designated terrorist and the brother-in-
generation at a cost of around $34 billion.
law of Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) chief and 26/11
mastermind Hafiz Saeed. All decisions of the  The rest of the money will be spent on transport
committee are taken through consensus. infrastructure, including upgrading the railway
 China put a “technical hold” on the proposal. This line between the port megacity of Karachi and
measure, which can last for up to six months at a the northwest city of Peshawar.

12
 This corridor is not only passing through India’s  BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI)
territory but also posing a threat to the
sovereignty of India.  WHAT IS BRI
 It passes through Gilgit-Baltistan area of Kashmir  The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) or One Belt
which is occupied by Pakistan. India believes that One Road (OBOR) Initiative was launched by
CPEC violates the sovereignty and the territorial China in 2013.
integrity of India.  It is a broad vision of how China plans to boost
 It poses a serious security threat to India. Ever regional integration in its wider neighborhood.
since the construction of the corridor has The plan largely is to revive the old Silk Road
started, the Chinese military presence in the connections.
area has also increased.  The new Silk Road, as envisaged by China largely
 In 2017, Chinese troops marched in the parade aims at reestablishing the connections and
of Pakistan’s day in Islamabad. This was the first linkages that had been created by the ancient
time when Chinese military took part in any Silk Road and runs through three continents of
parade outside its country. Apart from the naval Asia, Europe and Africa.
vessels deployed in Pakistan, eight submarines  Estimates suggest that BRI has invested in more
are also delivered to it by China. than 2,600 projects in over 100 countries with
 China is planning to build its second a naval base an estimated cost of $3.7 trillion. This includes
in Gwadar port after Djibouti in 2017. These ports, railways, energy, digital networks etc.
activities of China are a serious security threat to  It has two components-
India since China is encircling India into the 1) The Silk Road Economic Belt (SREB) is the
Indian Ocean. continental dimension of this geo-strategic
 India has protested to China over the CPEC as it realm. It consists of a network of rail routes,
is being laid through the Pakistan-occupied overland highways, oil and gas pipelines and
Kashmir (POK). As per India, the initiatives of the other infrastructural projects, stretching from
connectivity Xian in Central China, through Central Asia and
 Must be based on the universally accepted ending at Rotterdam (NETHERLAND).
and the other recognized international 2) The Maritime Silk Road (MSR) is the maritime
norms, transparency and equality, rule of dimension and consists of a network of ports
law and and other coastal infrastructure from China’s
 Must respect the sovereignty and the eastern seaboard stretching across South East
territorial integrity Asia, South Asia, the Gulf, East Africa and the
 THIRD PARTIES JOINING CPEC IS INHERENTLY
Mediterranean, embracing Greece and Venice.
ILLEGAL , UNACCEPTABLE: INDIA
 The Joint Working Group of International
Cooperation and Coordination under CPEC met
on July 21,2022 when the Pakistani and Chinese
officials discussed bringing in a third county into
the fold.
 Soon after coming to power in Afghanistan last
year, the Taliban leadership had expressed
desire to join the infrastructure project.
 On July 26, 2022, India severely criticised China
and Pakistan for their efforts to encourage third
countries to join CPEC projects. India said such
activities are "inherently illegal, illegitimate and  Both the Road and the Belt include regional
unacceptable", and will be treated accordingly loops and branches which extend the reach of
by India. the emerging transportation networks and also
 It declared that any such actions by any party serve to tie the Road to the Belt at critical points.
directly infringe on India's sovereignty and South Asia is covered by three major
territorial integrity. India firmly and consistently undertakings—
opposes projects in the so-called CPEC, which 1) the China-Myanmar Economic Corridor (CMEC)-
are in Indian territory that has been illegally The 1,700-km corridor will run from Yunnan
occupied by Pakistan Province of China to Mandalay- Yangon, before
…………1st class ended,2nd started……. terminating at the Kyaukpyu Special Economic

13
Zone (SEZ) on the Bay of Bengal. It provides opportunity to connect with the two neighbouring
China a node to access the Bay of Bengal. continental economies of ASEAN and China.
2) the Nepal-China Trans-Himalayan Multi- 6) India may also face some difficult choices in the road
Dimensional Connectivity Network, including ahead, because as a co -founder of the Asian
Nepal-China cross-border railway. This network starts Infrastructure Investment Bank and as a member of
from Chengdu, from where it is linked to Tibet by the the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, it will be
Sichuan-Tibet Highway, or the Sichuan-Tibet Railway. asked to support many of the projects under the BRI.
It is proposed that the railway from Tibet will be  (BCIM-EC) BANGLADESH- CHINA- INDIA-
further extended to Kathmandu. Chinese planners MYANMAR ECONOMIC CORRIDOR
visualize that that railway will be eventually  It was established to create a sub-regional
connected with the Indian railway network, linking ‘cooperation zone’ or ‘growth zone’ which would link
China and India across the Himalayas. the relatively backward regions stretching from land-
3) China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) which locked areas of Southwest China to North-eastern
provides China with access to the Arabian sea. India along with the adjoining Least Developed
 The CMEC and CPEC will also reduce Beijing’s trade Countries (LDCs) of Bangladesh and Myanmar.
and energy reliance on the Malacca straits — the  At the heart of the BCIM initiative is the route
narrow passage that links the Indian Ocean with the connecting Kolkata (In India) with Kunming (in China).
Pacific. Chinese planners worry that the military  The connection between the two countries will be
domination over the Malacca straits of the United made by crossing over the countries of Bangladesh
States — a country with which it is already engaged in and Myanmar.
a trade war — can threaten one of China’s major  The aim of the corridor is facilitation of connectivity
economic lifelines. and trade linkages between the underdeveloped and
landlocked areas of India’s North-eastern region and
South-western region of China.
 A major reason for the underdeveloped nature of the
region is that of poor connectivity.
 Therefore, if the BCIM EC is able to link northeast
India with the Southeast Asian and East Asian market
then this can create lots of opportunity for the people
of the region.
 The implementation of the BCIM EC will provide the
member countries to exploit the complementarities
that exist amongst them in trade
 IMPACT ON INDIA’S INTERESTS

1) Each of India’s neighbors, with the exception of
Bhutan, has signed up for the BRI. Therefore, India is
being increasingly isolated on the issue of China’s BRI.
2) China’s BRI investments in the Indian Ocean region
are akin to China’s ―String of Pearls.
3) BRI encompasses all of South Asia minus India and
Bhutan and enhances China's strategic pull in the
same countries where India also has huge stakes
including connectivity initiatives and infrastructure
projects launched during past few years.
4) Keeping competition for African resources between
India and China in mind, OBOR could set up giant
Chinese sea lanes of communication (SLOC) in the
Indian Ocean. This will end India’s advantage of being
a maritime neighbour of Africa and hence will be
detrimental to India’s economic interests.
5) There have been arguments within India that, by
boycotting BRI, India is denying itself unending
benefits of something as big as BRI. For example, the
earlier proposed Bangladesh- China- India- Myanmar
(BCIM) Economic corridor (BCIM-EC) offers us the
opportunity to reconnect the historic waterway
linkages with Bangladesh and a concrete avenue to
“Act East”. It also offers our northeastern states the
14
Hambantota port in Sri Lanka for a lease period
of 99 years.
 That is why India says “any international
connectivity project shall be
a) Sustainable
b) Inclusive
c) transparent
 There is a lack of transparency in China’s
agenda, indicating that New Delhi believes the
BRI is not just an economic project but one that
China is promoting for political control, raising
concerns of various covert motives associated
with the proposed plan.
 There are concerns that BRI is part of a larger
―hegemonic project of China as these
upcoming corridors in future could be used for
military mobilization. For example, the railway
link in CPEC will be of strategic importance. In
the event of conflicts with India it will facilitate
Chinese supply of missiles and spare parts to
Pakistan. This might have serious consequences
 INDIA’S OBJECTIONS TO BRI on India’s power to negotiate with China on the
territory of Ladakh and further cause tensions at
 India is not a part of China’s BRI and continues to
border.
boycott BRI. India has expressed following
objections:  INDIA’S STRATEGY TO COUNTER BRI
 BRI’s flagship project is the China-Pakistan (INDIA’S ALTERNATIVES + TAKING
Economic Corridor (CPEC), which includes
CARE OF DEBT ISSUES)
projects in the Gilgit-Baltistan region in POK)
1) The Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) proposed by
ignoring India’s sovereignty and territorial India and Japan is aimed at countering China's
integrity. Accepting BRI means giving de-facto flagship Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and its influence
recognition to Pakistani occupation of POK in Africa. AAGC will essentially be a sea corridor
which India legally claims as its territory. linking Africa with India and other countries of South-
 India has been emphatic in conveying that East Asia and Oceania. It is an attempt to create a
India’s “One China” policy must be congruent to free and open Indo-Pacific region by rediscovering
China’s “One India” policy”, meaning, the ancient sea-routes and creating new sea corridors.
Chinese must be sensitive to India’s claims in 2) Japan’s contribution to the project will be its state-of-
Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir. One-China Policy is the-art technology and ability to build quality
infrastructure, while India will bring in its expertise of
the policy of acknowledging that there is only
working in Africa. The private sector of both countries
one Chinese government as opposed to separate is expected to play big role by coming together to
Chinese states. Further under this principle, form joint-ventures and consortiums, to take up
countries also consider disputed territories of infrastructure, power or agribusiness projects in
Tibet, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Xinjiang to be an Africa.
inseparable part of mainland China. 3) In the recent QUAD summit in May 2022, India, the
 BRI infrastructure project structure smacks of US, Japan and Australia have resolved to invest $50
Chinese neo-colonialism, and could cause an billion on infrastructure development in the Indo-
unsustainable debt burden for communities with Pacific region over the next five years to counter
an adverse impact on the environment in the China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Quad leaders
mentioned that the filling up of the infrastructure
partner countries.
gaps had to be in a manner that it did not result in
 BRI reflects China’s ―Debt Trap Diplomacy. This unsustainable burden and unsustainable bouquet of
type of diplomacy refers to offering projects. Instead, their projects are sustainable, they
projects/loans on terms that end up being too are demand-driven, and they meet the specific needs
difficult for countries to repay, eventually of the Indo-Pacific countries.
compelling them to accept political or economic 4) Without naming Sri Lanka, the Quad leaders also
concessions. For instance, China has acquired resolved to address debt issues of countries in the
region. They will work to strengthen capacities of the
15
countries in need to cope with debt issues under the than 25 days.
G20 Common Framework. Also, a Quad Debt  The corridor, besides improving trade with Russia,
Management Resource Portal will help countries with will also help India provide humanitarian aid to
debt issues. Afghanistan.
5) International North South Transport Corridor  The corridor will improve India’s economic
(INSTC) route proposed to connect India, Iran, and engagement with gulf countries like Iran and Iraq.
Russia through Central Asia is being widely seen in  Besides reducing time, the INSTC is also being seen as
India as having the potential to counter the Chinese a viable option for Indo-Russian trade amid the
BRI. growing geo-political challenges. In the long run, the
6) Kaladan Multi Modal Transit Transport Project in INSTC would be an alternative to the Suez Canal and
Myanmar. the Mediterranean Sea.
7) IMT trilateral highway  It will also provide an alternative to China’s Belt and
8) Indian investment in Chabahar port. Road Initiative (BRI) in the region.
9) India – Nepal petroleum product pipeline between  For India, the INSTC opens the way for trading with
Amlekhgunj and Motihari. Iran and Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan.
10) BBIN Motor vehicle agreement.  This, naturally, has implications in terms of reaching
11) It has also launched Project Mausam apparently in out to both Afghanistan and Central Asia, significant
response to China’s Belt and Road initiative. corners in our extended neighborhood. The corridor
12) India’s objections against the BRI are no doubt valid. will also provide access to potential markets in the
However, it must articulate its concerns to other wider Eurasia region.
partner countries in a more productive manner, and  The Indian government has also been pushing to
take a position as an Asian leader, not an outlier in include the INSTC with the Chabahar Port. The
the quest for more connectivity government considers it a way to connect with Russia
and Europe.
 INTERNATIONAL NORTH SOUTH  The trade volume between India and Russia has
TRANSPORT CORRIDOR (INSTC) increased in the last three months, facilitated by the
 INSTC is a transportation network offering the International North-South Corridor (INSTC). Iran
shortest connectivity route to its member states. This Shipping Lines has transported over 3,000 tones of
trade route is 7200 Km long and the transport of goods and 14 containers between May and July 2022.
freight is through a multi-mode network of roads,  Previous Year Questions
ships, and railways.  2013 Q19. What do you understand by ‘The String of
 The foundation of the north-south transport corridor Pearls’? How does it impact India? Briefly outline the
was laid on September 12, 2000 in accordance with steps taken by India to counter this. (200 words). 10
an intergovernmental agreement signed between Marks
Russia, Iran and India.
 Presently there are 13 member states of the INSTC
 2017 Q9. ‘China is using its economic relations and
positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential
project - India, Iran, Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia,
military power status in Asia’, In the light of this
Kazakhstan, Belarus, Tajikistan, Kyrgystan, Oman,
statement, discuss its impact on India as her
Turkey, Syria and Ukraine. Bulgaria is the Observer
neighbor. (150 words) 10 Marks
State.
 This route connects India and Russia through Iran and  GEO-POLITICAL TUSSLE IN INDO-
Azerbaijan.
PACIFIC:-
1. China’s two ocean strategy
2. Indian ocean
 String of pearls
 India’s counter:-
 necklace of diamond
 building ties with china’s neighbours
 modernising navy
 sagar policy
3. Pacific ocean (south-china sea)
 CHINA’S TWO-OCEAN STRATEGY
 China’s “two-ocean” strategy—referring to the
Pacific and Indian oceans— was conceived by
the Communist Party of China in the 2000s and
 The corridor is aimed at reducing the carriage cost aims to achieve the People’s Liberation Army
between India and Russia by about 30 per cent and (PLA)’s strategic objective of naval power
bringing down the transit time from 40 days to less projection. It is aimed at redistributing the
16
balance of power in the Indo-Pacific region in its Asia’, had used the term “String of Pearls” to
favor by expanding its naval operations from the describe China’s strategy to expand its naval
South China Sea and Western Pacific into the presence throughout the Indian Ocean Region
Indian Ocean, where it seeks to conduct “far (IOR) through built-up of civil maritime
seas operations”. infrastructure. Since then, there has been much
 Robert D. Kaplan suggested this idea in “China’s speculation and debate surrounding the validity,
Two-Ocean Strategy,” his famous chapter of the extent and potential intentions behind the
multi author report “China’s Arrival: A concept. At the same time, Chinese officials have
Strategic Framework for a Global consistently denounced “the so-called string of
Relationship”, published in 2009 by the Center pearls construct” as a motivated distortion of
for a New American Security. their regular economic engagements.
 Since the Indian Ocean is considered to be part  The String of Pearls is a strategy deployed by
of the “far seas”, it provides conditions for the China, by building a network of commercial and
PLA’s navy to navigate and operate in a deep- military bases and ports in many countries. This
water region. strategy has been deployed by China to protect
 The “two-ocean” strategy is a major backbone its trade interests, as a major chunk of its trade
of the power-projection plans of China. The passes through the Indian Ocean and various
countermoves by the US through its Indo-Pacific choke points like Strait of Hormuz, Strait of
strategy have compelled China to push the two- Malacca and Lombok Strait.
ocean strategy through its Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI) infrastructure projects, especially
the sea-based portion of the initiative, known as
the Maritime Silk Road.
 INDIAN OCEAN REGION- STRING OF
PEARLS AND NECKLACE OF DIAMOND
 US defence contractor Hamilton gave term in
2004 “string of pearls”
 Term given by “Lalit man Singh 2011” :-
Necklace of diamond
 It is important to note that phrases such as
China’s One Belt One Road initiative, India’s Look
East/Act East Policy and SAGAR (Security and
Growth for All in the Region) doctrine, etc., have
been officially announced/promulgated to
describe specific policies/strategies of the
respective governments.
 However, some popular phrases in strategic
discourse such as China’s ‘string of pearls ‘in the
Indian Ocean or India’ ‘necklace of diamonds’
strategy are not officially promulgated strategies
of the government, but these are the
interpretation of respective government policies
by commentators.
 The geopolitical competition for strategic
influence in the Indo-Pacific region between China has also reportedly established a maritime
India and China has progressively been reconnaissance and electronic intelligence station on
intensifying. India’s ‘Act East policy and the Myanmar’s Great Coco Island in the Bay of Bengal, about
Chinese efforts to extend its strategic influence 300 kilometers south of Myanmar’s mainland, and on
in the IOR have brought pressure and influence Little Coco Island in the Alexandra Channel between the
on each other’s traditional sphere of strategic Indian Ocean and the Andaman Islands
 China is expanding its footprint in the Indian
interest. As a result, the Indian Ocean has
emerged as a key intersection zone of Indian and Ocean through its 'Debt Trap Diplomacy' and
Chinese strategic interests. 'String of Pearls Strategy'. Ever since MSR’s
 In 2004, US defense contractor Booz Allen inception, China managed to build its first
Hamilton, in a report titled ‘Energy Futures in overseas military base in Djibouti and ports like
17
Gwadar in Pakistan, Lamu in Kenya, Maputo in despite India being its biggest backer in its worst
Mozambique, Hambantota and Colombo in Sri- economic crisis. India’s clout in the country is still not
Lanka, Chittagong in Bangladesh, Kyaukpyu in as much as that of China. This is why Chinese
Myanmar to name a few. pressure to allow the ship's visit prevailed over the
Indian prodding to not allow it. Moreover, it has also
 Apart from ports, China has managed to increase
been reported that China's international clout also
its influence by heavy investments, for example,
outdid India. Sri Lanka is looking for a bailout from
in the east African states alone, China has been the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and China
involved in nearly 600 projects. A country that reportedly threatened it if ship was not allowed.
had no substantial presence or influence in  There is also the possibility of Sri Lanka playing the
Indian Ocean Region (IOR) in the 20th century "China Card" and balancing the two regional powers
has over the last decade increased its presence — India and China. Countries such as Sri Lanka and
substantially. This is a great concern for India Nepal have often used the prospect of getting closer
since it looks at IOR as its backyard. with China —India's principal rival— to level up their
 There is rising incidence of Chinese intelligence place in their dealings with India. Chinese
Ambassador in Sri Lanka Qi Zhenhong, in an article
ship sightings in the IOR. Chinese Dongdiao class
published in the Sri Lanka Guardian, attacked India
intelligence-gathering ships – known earlier to
for Sri Lanka’s initial rejection of the Chinese request
stalk US, Australian and Japanese warships in the to dock the ship in Hambantota and linked it with
Western Pacific – are now operating in the Nancy Pelosi’s recent visit to Taiwan. The Indian High
waters of the Eastern Indian Ocean, keeping an Commission in Sri Lanka criticized remarks of Chinese
eye on India’s naval movements. Ambassador as a violation of basic diplomatic
 YUAN WANG - 5 INCIDENT etiquette which may be a personal trait or reflecting a
 The most recent controversy began with the docking larger national attitude of China.
of a Chinese research vessel, the Yuan Wang 5, at the  RESPONSES BY INDIA TO COUNTER
strategically significant Hambantota Port in southern CHINA’S RISE IN IOR
Sri Lanka on August 16, 2022. The Chinese military
 The phrase ‘necklace of diamonds’ was first
research vessel was originally supposed to arrive at
mentioned by India’s former Foreign Secretary Lalit
the Sri Lankan port on August 11 but Sri Lankan
Mansingh while speaking at a think tank in August
officials had not cleared it due to “security concerns
2011 on ‘India’s Regional Strategic Priorities‟. He had
raised by India.”. China was later granted permission
argued that “India is doing everything it is supposed
on August 13 2022 “on condition that it will keep the
to do in terms of protecting its interests. To the
Automatic Identification System (AIS) switched on
doctrine of the String of Pearls, India has its own
within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Sri Lanka
doctrine, the Necklace of Diamonds. Just as the
and no scientific research to be conducted in Sri
Chinese are building port facilities, we are tying up
Lankan waters.
naval cooperation with almost all the major powers
 The nature of the Chinese vessel added to the
of the Indian Ocean region.” Even though
controversy, with China stating that it is a research
commentators often use ‘necklace of diamonds ’to
vessel on scientific missions, whereas the U.S.
describe India’s strategic approach to counter China’s
Department of Defense said that the ship is “under
growing influence in the IOR, it has not found any
the command” of the People’s Liberation Army, with
mention in the Government of India’s official
capabilities to track satellites and missile launches.
discourse.
India suspects that its spaceport in Sriharikota, its
 In response to China’s strategy, India has started
missile test range in Odisha, as well as several other
working on the 'Necklace of Diamonds' strategy. This
sensitive facilities are within the tracking range of
strategy aims at garlanding China or in simple words,
Yuan Wang 5. It has also been noted that the ship
the counter encirclement strategy. India is expanding
could also be used to survey the ocean which would
its naval bases and is also improving relations with
help the Chinese in planning submarine operations in
strategically placed countries to counter China's
the region. The docking of the ship is being seen in
strategies. Important initiatives undertaken in this
the context of China's security challenges to India and
regard are as follows-
its neighbourhood and the competition and
 Iran -India is developing Chabahar port in Iran,
challenges it brings to the broader Indo-Pacific
opening a new land-sea route to Central Asian
region. India considers South Asia its strategic
countries by-passing Pakistan. It is strategically
backyard where China has made considerable
located close to the Chinese Gwadar Port in Pakistan
inroads. Therefore, its continued and increasing
and is close to the Strait of Hormuz. Chabahar gives
presence in the region challenges India's clout in the
India a strategic position since it overlooks the Gulf of
region. This is why the presence of a potentially
Oman, a very strategic oil supply route.
espionage vessel in the immediate neighborhood is a
 Indonesia –, India got the military access to Sabang
concern to India. In view of strategic experts this
Port which is located right at the entrance of Malacca
episode is being seen as an embarrassment of India
Strait. This strait is one of the world's famous choke
as Sri Lanka violated Indian concerns and sensitivities
18
point. A large chunk of trade and crude oil passes on Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement
to China through this region. The Strait is China’s (ACSA) will allow access to each other’s provision
strategic Achilles’ Heel – better known as its Malacca of supplies and services during the bilateral
Dilemma – through which pass over 80% of Beijing’s exercises and training, UN Peacekeeping
oil and hydrocarbon imports from West Asia. Operations, and other Humanitarian activities.
 Vietnam: India is maintaining good relations with
Vietnam. India and Vietnam had upgraded their
ties to the level of Comprehensive Strategic
Partnership (CSP) in 2016 and India's $100
million defence Line of Credit to Vietnam has
been utilised for naval equipment. India has been
training Vietnamese military personnel and also
helping them with maintenance of some defence
products. Vietnam is also interested in
purchasing the Brahmos missile jointly produced
by India and Russia.
 Philippines: In 2017, during the visit of Prime
Minister Narendra Modi to the Philippines, the
two countries had signed a Memorandum of
Understanding on defence industry and logistics
cooperation which provides a “framework for
 Myanmar – India built a deep-water port in
enhancing and strengthening cooperation in
Sittwe in 2016.
logistics support and services and in the
 Bangladesh – India would help Bangladesh development, production and procurement of
modernize Sea Port in Mongla. India can also use defence materials.” In 2022, Philippines signed a
the Chittagong port in Bangladesh. $374.96 million deal with BrahMos Aerospace
 Oman – India has signed agreements to access Pvt. Ltd. for the supply of shore based anti-ship
strategically located Naval facilities of Oman at variant of the BrahMos supersonic cruise
Duqm. This facility is close to the Strait of missiles.
Hormuz. The port facilitates India’s crude  BrahMos is a joint venture between DRDO and
imports from the Persian Gulf. In addition to Russia’s NPO Mashinostroyeniya and the missile
derives its name from Brahmaputra and Moskva
this, Indian facility is located right between the
rivers. The missile is capable of being launched from
two important Chinese pearls-- Djibouti in Africa
land, sea, sub-sea and air against surface and sea-
and Gwadar in Pakistan. based targets and has been long inducted by the
 Singapore – India has signed an agreement to Indian armed forces.
access Changi Naval Base of Singapore, which is  Central Asia: in 2015, Prime Minister Modi visited all
strategically located close to the Strait of the 5 countries of Central Asia in one go and becomes
Malacca. The agreement has provided direct the first Indian Prime Minister to do this. Since then,
access to this base to the Indian Navy. While trade with Central Asian countries has doubled after
sailing through the South China Sea, the Indian his visit. In 2022, PM Modi hosted first India – Central
Navy can refuel and rearm its ships through this Asia Summit.
 LEMOA with the United States- India and USA had
base.
signed the Logistic Exchange Memorandum of
 Assumption Island, Seychelles: In 2015, India and
Agreement (LEMOA) in 2016. LEMOA basically makes
Seychelles agreed upon the development of the countries eligible to have access to US bases across
naval base in this region. This gives the military the world for multiple purposes. Indian Navy can now
access to India. This base is of strategic have access to atolls like Diego Garcia, in the middle
importance to India as China desperately wants part of Indian Ocean, currently operating by the US
to increase its presence in the African continent Navy.
through the maritime silk route.  SAGAR- In 2015, India unveiled its strategic vision for
 Apart from getting direct access to the strategically the Indian Ocean i.e., Security and Growth for All in
placed naval bases, India is also enhancing strategic the Region (SAGAR). It is an increasing recognition of
relations with other nations to garland China: the increasing importance of maritime security,
 Mongolia: Prime Minister Modi is the first Indian maritime commons and cooperation. Through
Prime Minister to visit this country. Both the SAGAR, India seeks to deepen economic and security
countries have agreed and will collaborate to cooperation with its maritime neighbors and assist in
develop a bilateral air corridor using India's credit building their maritime security capabilities. For this,
line. India would cooperate on the exchange of
 Japan: India and Japan have jointly declared to information, coastal surveillance, building of
build the Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC). infrastructure and strengthening their capabilities.
19
Further, India seeks to safeguard its national interests  The Scarborough Shoal: claimed by
and ensure Indian Ocean region to become inclusive, Philippines, China and Taiwan.
collaborative and respect international law. SAGAR  Almost all the South China Sea, its land
provides a mechanism for India to expand strategic features, and resources: claimed by China by
partnerships with other IOR littorals in Asia and
its nine dash line
Africa.
 Modernizing India’s Naval Power: India is
modernizing its naval power it has completed its
Nuclear Triad by commissioning INS Arihant and
has inducted INS Vikramaditya, in Navy in 2013.
Further it is indigenously building another
aircraft carrier INS Vikrant.
 Thus, India is trying to balance China’s rise in IOR
through multiple policy interventions which
include building bilateral and multiple regional
alliances and Asia-Africa Growth Corridor
building, naval infrastructure and naval capacity.
 PACIFIC OCEAN- SOUTH CHINA SEA
(SCS) DISPUTE
 The territorial and maritime disputes along the
South China Sea (SCS) remain unresolved and
continue to impede the path to peace and
security in the Indo-Pacific region.
 IMPORTANCE OF SCS
 About a third of all the world’s maritime trade  This map shows the South China Sea,
goes through the South China Sea carrying surrounding nations, and the “nine dash line,”
trillions of dollars of trade which makes it a which indicates the extent of China’s claims of
significant geopolitical water body. Half of all oil control over these waters.
and gas tankers from the Middle East sail into it Previous Year Question
on their way to China, Japan, the U.S., and 2014 Q16. With respect to the South China sea,
elsewhere. maritime territorial disputes and rising tension
 The Sea itself is rich in fish, Oil and natural gas affirm the need for safeguarding maritime security
reserves which are estimated at 11 billion to ensure freedom of navigation and over flight
barrels of untapped oil and 190 trillion cubic feet throughout the region. In this context, discuss the
of natural gas. bilateral issues between India and China. (200
 The location of the Sea also makes it militarily Words) 12.5 Marks
strategic, valuable for national security.  China claims it occupied South China Sea islands
 55% of India’s trade with Indo-pacific passes in ancient times. It progressively asserted its
through south-China sea and ONGC exploring oil claim over entire SCS through following steps-
& gas in Vietnam water.  In 2009, China presented the “nine dash line” for
 COMPETING CLAIMS the first time at an international conference
 Beginning in the 1970s, these conflicts have asserting its indisputable sovereignty over the
involved China and countries of Southeast Asia, islands in the South China Sea and the adjacent
primarily Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Taiwan, waters. When connected, the dashes form a U
Brunei, and the Philippines: these countries that encloses most of the South China Sea.
claim that China has been encroaching on their  In 2012, China asserted its “nine dash line”
sovereign territories and Exclusive Economic by trying to take Scarborough Shoal as its
Zones (EEZs) with its aggressive land reclamation territory.
and island-building activities.  China added a tenth dash in 2013 to include
 China, Vietnam and the Philippines are the Taiwan.
most active claimants. These disputes include:  Earlier China drove out Vietnamese troops
 Paracels: claimed by China, Taiwan, Vietnam from the western Paracels in 1974. By the
 Spratlys: claimed by China, Taiwan, Vietnam, late 1980s, China controlled all of the
Brunei, Malaysia, Philippines Paracels . China built oil-drilling rigs in

20
waters near the Paracels that Vietnam still  The Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) is an
claimed. In the Spratlys, intergovernmental organization based at the Hague.
 China won the 1988 Battle of Johnson Reef It was the first permanent intergovernmental entity
where about 70 Vietnamese were killed. to provide a forum for the peaceful resolution of
international issues through arbitration and other
 China began building artificial islands in the
means.
1990s and initially claimed these were for
 Bombay High is an offshore oilfield 176 km off the
civilian (non-military) purposes. As the west coast of Mumbai, India, in about 75 m of
reclamation of land speeded up, China has water. The oil operations are run by India's Oil and
constructed ports, military installations, and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)
airstrips—particularly in the Paracel and
Spratly Islands. China has militarized Woody
 CHANGING INDIAN POSITION
Island by deploying fighter jets, cruise 1. India, while not a South China Sea littoral state,
missiles, and a radar system. has always emphasized the need to ensure
 China maintains that these territories are an freedom of navigation and over flight in the
integral part of its “core interests”, taking an South China Sea. India has economic, diplomatic
uncompromising stance on the question of and strategic interests in the vital waters of the
sovereignty and its determination to protect the SCS which are as follows-
a) Nearly 55 percent of India’s trade with the
domain militarily.
 The disputes draw China and the U.S. into a Indo-Pacific region pass through these
potential confrontation. The chief U.S. national waters
b) For India, its economic security rests on
interest is freedom of navigation: the
unrestricted passage of commercial ships as well assured supply of energy and safe and
as military ships and aircraft through and over secure trading routes in the region, including
the South China Sea and securing sea lines of the Straits of Malacca. It has high stakes in
communication (SLOCs), The U.S. totally rejects keeping the sea lanes open in the SCS.
c) India also has stakes in the region’s natural
China’s “nine dash line” as a threat to freedom
of navigation. resources particularly in the oil-rich
 The U.S. has been challenging China’s claims of continental shelf of the coast of Vietnam.
sovereignty over the South China Sea by India’s Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
“freedom of navigation operations” (FONOPS). (ONGC) has signed several agreements with
The U.S. flies surveillance aircraft over Chinese Hanoi to explore fossil fuels in the region.
artificial islands and sails Navy warships close to While China has always objected to India’s
Chinese occupied islands and reefs. The Chinese oil exploration activities in the Vietnamese
complain that the U.S. is using FONOPS as a waters in the SCS, India reaffirmed its intent
pretext to curb China’s rise as a great power. to pursue such activities.
 In 2013, the Philippines took China to the 2. For long, New Delhi had a neutral stance in the
Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) at The SCS disputes, refraining from even making
Hague authorized by the UN Convention on the official statements that could provoke China’s
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). In its judgment in anger. What India has done is to encourage the
2016, the court ruled that China’s “nine dash competing nations to establish a code of
line” was illegal under the Convention on the conduct that would ensure “freedom of
Law of the Sea. The Philippines won the navigation” and “access to resources”.
decision, but the Convention provides no way to 3. Analysts say it was the Galwan clash in the
enforce it. Himalayas that led New Delhi to shift from a
 The Chinese called the court decision defensive strategic posture towards greater
“illegitimate.” and ignored it. After the maritime assertiveness. After the Galwan clash,
arbitration-court ruling, China speeded up India shifted gears with a renewed sense of
building and militarizing its seven artificial purpose by devoting additional military assets to
islands in the Spratlys. Mischief Reef and two the maritime sphere and deepening robust
others have airbases. relationships with strategic partners to meet the
 A negotiated settlement of the South China Sea Chinese challenge – not just in the Indian Ocean
dispute is not likely in the near future. A draft of but further away in the South China Sea and the
the “Code of Conduct” was recently approved. Western Pacific.
But it did not mention the arbitration-court 4. In view of experts, the traditional clear
decision. distinctions between the Indian Ocean and the
Pacific are beginning to blur. India is now looking
21
beyond the Strait of Malacca to include the play a serious role in such a containment
South China Sea in its national security calculus. strategy west of Malacca.
Today India is taking a more vocal stand,  In the recent QUAD summit in May 2022, Quad
declaring the South China Sea as a global joint statement emphasized on-
common wherein all disputes should be settled a) Free, open and inclusive Indo-Pacific region,”
in accordance with international law. b) the maintenance of freedom of navigation
5. India’s step to send a warship to the South China and over flight
Sea (SCS) following the clash in the Galwan c) Their strong resolve to maintain the peace
Valley in the middle of 2020 proved a point — and stability in the region.
that it is prepared to link security in the d) the centerpiece of the international order is
Himalayas to the SCS, which it had erstwhile international law, including the UN Charter,
regarded as a secondary area of interest. The UNCLOS, respect for sovereignty and
Indian Navy’s intention in buzzing the Chinese territorial integrity of all states.
was to simply convey the uncertainty of the e) to meet challenges to the maritime rules-
latter’s position in the SCS and to leverage it for based order, including in the East and South
negotiations on the border. The incident China Seas.
highlights how India’s Himalayan border f) all countries must seek peaceful resolution
tensions with China could have big repercussions of disputes in accordance with international
thousands of kilometers away in the seas of Asia. law
STEPS TAKEN BY INDIA g) strongly opposed any coercive, provocative
or unilateral actions that seek to change the
 STRENGTHENING NAVY status quo and increase tensions
 India is planning to strengthen maritime h) the dangerous use of coast guard vessels
infrastructure in its Andaman and Nicobar and maritime militia, and efforts to disrupt
Islands, as well as building a $1.3bn deep-water other countries’ offshore resource
port on Great Nicobar Island. exploitation activities.”
 It is also strengthening defense cooperation with  All these are clear references to Beijing’s
Washington. India is modernizing its naval aggressive behaviour in the Indo-Pacific.
power it has completed its Nuclear Triad by  Quad leaders also launched a major new
commissioning INS Arihant and has inducted INS initiative for the Indo-Pacific that allows partner
Vikramaditya, in Navy in 2013. countries to monitor the waters on their shores
 Further it is indigenously building another and help ensure peace and stability in the
aircraft carrier INS Vikrant. region. The Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain
 REVIVING QUAD Awareness (IPMDA) is a satellite-based maritime
 India has promoted alliance system in the Indo- security system which will build a faster, wider,
Pacific via the “Quad” group of nations – and more accurate maritime picture of near-
Australia, India, Japan, and the United States – real-time activities in the waters of its partners.
all of whom perceive Chinese naval expansion It will allow tracking of 'dark shipping' and other
and a possible Sino-centric world order with tactical-level activities as well as improve
alarm. The high seas are seen as legitimate areas partners' ability to respond to climate and
for the Indian Navy to be interoperable and humanitarian events and to protect their
integrated with navies of foreign partners to roll fisheries, which are vital to many Indo-Pacific
back the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Navy economies
(PLAN).  "Dark ships" are vessels with their Automatic
 In view of experts, Quad has raised China's fears Identification System (AIS) - a transponder
of a larger encirclement from maritime system - switched off so as not to be detectable.
democracies in the Indo-Pacific. The Quad’s IPMDA will enable these countries to monitor
prospective containment of China is both illegal fishing even when the boats have turned
diplomatic and physical. China may have off the transponders which are typically used to
converted the SCS into a Chinese lake, but it track vessels. Several countries in the Indo-
remains surrounded by oceans dominated by Pacific region have complained about China's
the navies of the Quad members. The Quad’s vast fishing fleet, saying its vessels often violate
greatest threat to China is the containment of their exclusive economic zones and cause
the PLA-Navy in the SCS. The Indian Navy can environmental damage and economic losses.
Chinese trawler fleets are seen as responsible

22
for most of Illegal, unreported, and unregulated on the cards, is a promising trend that overlaps
fishing (IUUF) in the Indo-Pacific region. with the Quad but also makes the “Quad plus” a
 The Indian Navy’s Information Fusion Centre- practical reality.
Indian Ocean Region (IFC- IOR) was established  ACT EAST POLICY
as part of the government's SAGAR Framework  India’s Act East Policy aimed at balancing China’s
for maritime co-operation. It will play a key role growing influence over the South East Asian
in a Quad initiative against illegal fishing. region. China’s rise has created economic and
 NECKLACE OF DIAMOND STRATEGY military pressure on the smaller states in the
 (Explained above) IndoPacific. India has provided economic,
 MARITIME DIPLOMACY & NAVAL military, and diplomatic support to the ASEAN
states.
EXERCISES  India conducts extensive military exercises in the
 Malabar exercises, which began in 1992 as a region especially with the navies of Vietnam,
bilateral affair between India and the U.S, were Indonesia, Singapore, and Thailand. India has
expanded into a quadrilateral format by making launched trilateral naval games called SITMEX with
Japan a permanent participant in 2015 and Singapore and Thailand since 2019, wherein all
inviting Australia on board in 2020. Its location three navies have carried out drills in the Andaman
alternate yearly between the Indian Ocean and Sea, which is adjacent to the Malacca Straits. The
the Pacific Ocean. Paralleling the revival in 2017 Indian Navy is also enhancing bilateral exercises with
of the Quad as a diplomatic forum, the four Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines – all of whom
member countries, which share serious security are struggling to ward off China’s relentless
concerns about Chinese behavior, have also aggression over maritime territorial disputes.
 To Vietnam and Myanmar, India has provided military
regularized the military dimension of
training and equipment; Singapore’s armed forces
interoperability and preparedness for naval
regularly train in India. India maintains intense
combat through Malabar. diplomatic engagement at the level of the ASEAN+6
 The 25th edition of the Malabar joint military forum, the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), and the
exercises among navies of the Quad off the U.S. ASEAN Defence Ministers Meeting (ADMM).
territory of Guam from August 26 to 29, 2021  Analysis
was one manifestation of the intensifying Indian
a) The fact that India has shed past inhibitions
agenda of halting China in the Indo-Pacific and
and taken co-ownership of the Indo-Pacific
placing counterbalancing limits on Chinese
(despite Beijing’s strong criticism of it as an
expansionism.
American plot to divide Asians and stoke
 In view of experts, Malabar exercises were
geopolitical competition and alliance
India’s most visible ‘show of flag’ naval presence
confrontation) shows how far India has
east of the Malacca Strait.” If China is come as a result of the ferocious Chinese
penetrating the Indian Ocean with frigates and assertiveness against it. By ramping up
submarines, India is signaling it can do a tit-for- maritime diplomacy in the Indo-Pacific, India
tat in China’s maritime backyard, not singly but
is demonstrating that it can neutralize
in concert with the Quad and other partners.
Chinese pressure on land at the LAC and
 In April 2021, India and its Quad partners tag-
apply countervailing pressure in the high
teamed with France in a five-nation La Perouse
seas.
naval exercise in the Bay of Bengal. Rattled by
b) In the long run, how well India wards off
the prospect of losing control over its far-flung China in the oceans will be a key
oceanic territories in Asia to the fast-
determinant of how successful New Delhi is
approaching Chinese juggernaut, Paris has in defending its land borders.
engaged in defense diplomacy with New Delhi
and Canberra, in particular, with a clear cut  TRADE DEFICIT
“Indo-Pacific outlook.”  India and China enjoy robust economic ties
 In June 2021, the Indian Navy joined a trilateral which have progressively increased over the
naval exercise of France, Italy, and Spain in the years. China is among the top five trading
Gulf of Aden with the aim of upholding “shared partners of India. It has been hailed as among
values as partner navies in ensuring freedom of the biggest positive drivers of a relationship that
seas and commitment to an open, inclusive and is often beset with difficult political problems.
a rules-based international order.”  The different comparative advantages of the two
 The announcement of a formal France-Australia- countries provide grounds for strong economic
India trilateral format, with defense cooperation exchange. Although China’s economy is three
23
times as large as India’s, its manufacturing level of dependence of several key sectors like
sector is five times that of India’s. pharmaceuticals and electronics on the “factory
 Chinese exports to India thus consist primarily of of the world”.
manufactured goods, especially various types of f) In its wider responses to reducing strategic
machinery, API (68% import by India Active economic dependence on China, India is
pharmaceutical ingredients) collaborating with Japan and Australia in
 Conversely, India has some of the world’s largest promoting the Resilient Supply Chain Initiative
reserves of iron ore, bauxite, and manganese, (RSCI) for reshoring production away from China.
and its exports to China consist primarily of raw It is also a part of a 5G club along with several
materials to feed that country’s expanding steel major global democracies working on
and automotive sectors alternatives to Chinese 5G telecom technology.
 MEASURES TAKEN AFTER STANDOFF g) The motivation behind these efforts is New
Delhi’s desire to demonstrate to Beijing that
IN EASTERN LADAKH economic dependence is not going to get in the
a) After standoff in Eastern Ladakh, the
way of India’s responses to China’s provocations
Government of India strongly responded to
on the border. India is not the only country wary
these developments by taking firm steps to
of an assertive China. Its decision to take
downsize the country’s economic relationship
economic actions to curb China’s alleged
with its largest trade partner. India’s refused to
belligerence has resonated with the U.S., Japan,
join the China-dominated Regional
Australia, the U.K., and several countries from
Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP).
Europe.
b) Chinese companies have been blocked from
participating in road and highway construction  LATEST TRADE DATA
projects in India, supplying equipment to Indian  However, less than a year and a half following
telecom service providers, and participating in the announcements and the initiatives of the
5G telecom trials. The Union Power Ministry government to decouple from China, India’s
imposed a de facto ban on the import of power trade links with its northern neighbour have
equipment from China citing Cybersecurity increased like never before. China emerged as
concerns. The government also asked BSNL and India’s second largest trading partner after USA
MTNL, to exclude Chinese telecom equipment in the year 2021-22.
firms including Huawei and ZTE from its network  India’s total trade with China was $115.42 billion
upgrading process in the 2021. India’s imports from China rose to
c) The government also modified FDI rules making $94.16 billion in calendar year 2021, up from
the Centre’s approval a must for any FDI in imports worth $86.4 billion in 2020-21.
Indian firms from neighbouring countries. This  The sharp uptick in imports has pushed India’s
step was aimed at preventing opportunistic trade deficit with China to $69.4 billion in 2021,
takeovers of domestic firms by Chinese up from $45.9 billion in 2020 and $56.8 billion in
companies during the pandemic. In December 2019.
2021 India imposed antidumping duties on five  India’s exports to China grew to $21.25 billion in
Chinese products, including certain aluminum calendar year 2021, marginally up from exports
goods and chemicals. Antidumping duties have worth $21.18 billion in 2020-21 (Covid year).
been imposed for five years to protect local Raw material exports constitute a significant
manufacturers. portion of India’s outbound trade with China.
d) The Centre also blocked social media app TikTok Among raw materials iron ore, organic chemicals
and 58 other Chinese apps in India, calling them and cotton figure significantly. Other key exports
“prejudicial” to India’s sovereignty, integrity and to China include iron and steel, seafood and
national security. Other apps that were banned engineering good
include We Chat, Alibaba’s UC Browser, Club  The widening trade deficit was $72.91 billion in
Factory, and PUBG mobile. 2021-22. India’s imports from China is now
e) Citizens’ groups complemented the nearly four times its exports in value terms, is a
government’s efforts by calling for a boycott of cause for concern, too, alongside the fact that
Chinese products. All these developments India’s export basket comprises mainly primary
seemed to resonate well with Atmanirbhar goods while imports from China are dominated
Bharat Abhiyan and the call “vocal for local”. The by value added items.
government initiated several measures aimed at  Despite India’s efforts to reduce dependence on
decoupling from China and reducing the high Chinese imports amid an increased policy
24
emphasis on self-reliance and the continuing easily discriminate against Chinese companies
tension along the border, the country’s bilateral without violating the rules of these institutions.
trade with China has grown. c) Also shutting out competitive Chinese
 Some of India’s key imports from China include companies from infrastructure projects may
a) Smartphones, components for smartphones result in pushing up the price of investments and
and automobiles, telecom equipment, hurting the Indian economy rather than giving it
plastic and metallic goods. real advantages
b) Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), d) The level of bilateral trade in 2021 highlights the
and other chemicals point that India now has a two-way dependence
 (APIS) ACTIVE PHARMACEUTICAL on its neighbour; China is the largest source of
India’s imports and the third largest destination
INGREDIENTS of its exports, only a notch below the UAE.
 Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients are the active
e) Boosting India’s imports from China were two
ingredients contained in a medicine. API is the
major product groups, namely electronic goods,
most important raw material in the production
including consumer electronics and
of medicines. It is that part of the medicine that
telecommunication products, and active
produces the intended therapeutic effects. For
pharmaceutical ingredients. This implies that
example, in a painkiller, the active ingredient
India’s dependence on China in two strategic
relieves pain. In the drug Crocin, the API is
areas has continued unabated.
paracetamol. Only a small amount of the API is
f) Over the past two years, the Government of
required to produce the effect and so the India has initiated significant measures to shore
medicine contains only the required amount of
up the country’s manufacturing sector. With
the API. Despite being a major provider of drugs
imports from China increasing to record levels,
globally, Indian companies today are increasingly
the government and industry would have to
reliant on Chinese imports for APIs. In the early
carefully consider next steps that they must take
90s, the country was self-reliant on APIs, but the
in unison to address India’s China-dependence
Chinese have been able to capture the API
syndrome.
market in the country owing to their cheaper
g) So, India should seek a greater access to the
products. Indian manufacturers have gradually
Chinese market and there has to be an
stopped manufacturing APIs because of this. “evenness and balancing” of the country’s huge
China’s Hubei province is the hub of the API trade deficit with China for the two nations to be
manufacturing industry. Currently, around 68% able to move together on the path of progress.
of the Indian API demand is met by Chinese
Another solution is the need to increase India's
imports. During the COVID-19 pandemic, India’s
domestic competitiveness by removing
ability to meet the global demand for medicines
infrastructure bottlenecks through accelerated
was affected because of the inability to import
infrastructural development. India has launched
APIs from China.
its Sagarmala project to speed up modernization
 Analysis of its ports along with their better connectivity
a) In view of experts, China’s deeply embedded with hinterland
global supply chains, its undeniable economic
recovery after the shock of COVID-19, its
 RIVER WATER SHARING
 Trans-border Rivers flowing from China to India
significance for global economic recovery, and
fall into two main groups:
its presence in the Indian infrastructure,
a) The Brahmaputra River System on the
manufacturing, digital and real estate sectors
Eastern side consisting of river Siang
indicate that decoupling may not be an easy
(mainstream of river Brahmaputra) and its
option, despite fears over China’s weaponisation
tributaries i.e., Subansiri and Lohit..
of commercial relations.
b) The Indus River System on the Western side
b) Despite the Indian government’s restrictions on
consists of river Indus and the river Sutlej.
Chinese companies last year, the exemptions
 There are no institutionalized mechanisms
given to multilateral agencies like the Asian
(water sharing agreements) on water
Development Bank (ADB), the Asian
cooperation between India and China, both
Infrastructure and Investment Bank and the
countries have signed only MoU‘s for sharing
World Bank from procurement restrictions still
Hydrological Information of the River
provide Chinese companies access to
Brahmaputra and River Sutlej / Langqen Zangbo.
infrastructure projects in India. As a member of
multilateral financial institutions, India cannot
25
 Moreover, both countries have developed ELM in the North-Eastern region and increase the
(Expert Level Mechanism) to cooperate in siltation levels. (Run-of-the-river hydroelectric
emergency management (e.g., flood), trans- systems are hydroelectric systems that harvest
border Rivers issues etc. Besides above the energy from ﬂowing water to generate
measures, continuous diplomatic engagement electricity). More worrying than China’s
plays a key role in sustained communication for construction of hydropower dams on the
data sharing and other developments in the river Brahmaputra is the proposed northward
systems. diversion of its waters at the Great Bend. This
 Beijing’s plans for the Brahmaputra include two diversion would result in a significant drop in the
kinds of projects- river’s water level as it enters India. It will have a
a) The first involves the construction of hydro- serious impact on agriculture and fishing in the
electric power projects on the river and downstream areas as the salinity of water will
b) the other, more ambitious project, envisages increase.
the diversion of its waters to the arid north.  Absence of transparency in developments:
 The $1.5 billion Zangmu Hydropower Station Chinese infrastructural developments in the
project, China maintains, maintains is run-of-the- Tibetan region have not been transparent. E.g. -
river projects that involve no storage or Road developments near the India-Tibet border
diversion and that they will not affect the river’s etc. In fact, China has been damming most
downstream flow into northeast India. Besides international rivers flowing out of Tibet, whose
the Zangmu power station, the Chinese fragile ecosystem is already threatened by global
government has approved other hydropower warming. Brahmaputra is not the only river that
projects along the Brahmaputra including at has contentious projects being built on it by
Dagu, Jiacha and Jiexu. These projects are in the China: Salween (involving Myanmar and
upper and middle reaches of the river. Thailand) and Mekong (involving Cambodia and
 Recently China has given the go-ahead for the Vietnam) are two other big rivers where similar
construction of the first downstream dam on the disputes exist.
lower reaches of the river Yarlung Zangbo in  Potential use as political leverage in border
Tibet at the Great Bend in Medog county. Here, disputes: The control over joint water resources
the river falls spectacularly over a 2,000 metre- can be used as a political tool by China. For
drop and turns sharply to flow across the border example, China stopped sharing of hydrological
into the Indian State of Arunachal Pradesh. It is data on Brahmaputra during the Doklam
30 km away from the India-China border along standoff. (But it was sharing the same with
the Arunachal Pradesh. The new dam could help Bangladesh.)
generate up to 60 gigawatts of power, three  National Security implication: The question of
times that of central China’s Three Gorges Dam, availability of water can turn into a National
which has the largest installed hydropower Security issue as it directly affects the existence
capacity in the world now of a large section of people.
 Environmental Impact: Several concerns emerge
such as increased pollution in the river (Siang,
which is Brahmaputra’s main artery recently
turned blackish grey as it entered India),
potential impact of climate change, threat to
biodiversity in the region and altering the
monsoonal patterns of the region. The
Brahmaputra is a veritable lifeline of India’s
northeast and in Bangladesh and a core part of
the cultural life here. Due to these projects,
Brahmaputra may lose much of the silt which
makes the soil of northeastern India fertile.
 Increased disaster vulnerability: Artificially
 INDIA’S CONCERNS OVER RIVER controlling and consequent sudden releases of
BRAHMAPUTRA the flow of water increases the probability of
 Volume and quality of water: Experts have floods especially in lower riparian areas of India
highlighted that even Run-of-the-river projects and Bangladesh.
will significantly reduce the availability of water

26
 Seismological impact- All of the hydro power submit the dispute to arbitration or to the
stations mentioned above, particularly the area International Court of Justice.
surrounding the Great Bend, are situated in an  China’s hydro-engineering projects and plans are
earthquake prone region and very close to the a reminder that Tibet is at the heart of the
geological fault line where the Indian Plate IndiaChina divide. Tibet ceased to be a political
collides with the Eurasian Plate. In event of any buffer when China annexed it nearly six decades
major earthquake in the region, any damage to ago. But Tibet can still become a political bridge
the proposed dams would result in unimaginable between China and India. For that to happen,
devastation in downstream areas. Moreover, water has to become a source of cooperation,
China plans to build this infrastructure by using and not conflict
small nuclear explosions, which will not only  CONCLUSION: RELATIONSHIP 3 C ‘S
impact the seismic balance of the region but also  India and China have multiple disagreements
will have radioactive fallout (affecting agriculture and conflicts, but there are also many areas of
and water quality). cooperation. Unlike India-Pakistan, Sino-India
 WHAT SHOULD INDIA DO? relations have not been a zero-sum game.
 Despite calls for greater transparency and Competition and cooperation has moved on
consultation, India is also racing to construct parallel tracks as reflected in recent informal
hydropower dams on the Brahmaputra River. summits and destabilizing border conflicts. India
Under this legal concept of the doctrine of prior and China ties have been oscillating between 3
appropriation, the first country to use these Cs of conflict, cooperation and competition.
resources has a claim over them before any  It is evident that both countries are cooperating
other country. In practice, however, this idea is a in many ways, for instance BRICS, SCO, AIIB,
non-starter in India. Of these 25 projects, only a terrorism, resisting protectionism, globalization
single one has been completed so far. On an and WTO crisis, climate change, one of India ‘s
average, it takes India 10 years to build a dam of largest trading partner. However, there are
even a modest size; China takes roughly three profound disagreements as well, for instance
years. India is also considering building a 10 India’s alignment with USA and Quad, India ‘s
gigawatts (GW) hydropower project in the boycott of BRI, destabilizing border dispute,
Dibang valley in Arunachal Pradesh, to mitigate China-Pakistan nexus, China not supporting
the adverse impact of the Chinese dam. India‘s demand to become members of UNSC
 So, India must adopt a robust approach to and NSG, huge trade deficit of around 69.5
secure its interest, as China pursues aggressive billion dollars.
projects on river Brahmaputra. India should try  Therefore, China is both a challenge and an
and build international consensus against opportunity. India must follow a Policy of
Chinese activities. India can bank on its image as Congagement (containment + engagement).
a responsible Upper riparian state and try to Engage wherever possible and contain China
persuade other lower riparian states like wherever necessary.
Bangladesh, ASEAN countries etc. to build a  Indian Foreign Minister S.Jaishankar recently
regional consensus for countering potential remarked that the Asian century will be difficult
excesses from China. if India and China don’t come together. The
 For China and India, the UN Convention on the expression "Asian Century" was coined by
Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of former Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping when he
International Watercourses provides a good met with then Indian prime minister Rajiv
opening for dialogue. The UN Convention on the Gandhi in 1988. China backed S Jaishankar’s
Law of the NonNavigational Uses of ‘Asian century’ remark and called for improved
International Watercourses provides for ties with India.
establishment of joint mechanisms or
commissions, adopting measures like regular
INDIA- RUSSIA RELATION
exchange of data and information, laying down 1. IMPORTANCE OF RUSSIA
emphasis on prior notification of planned 2. BRIEF HISTORY
measures etc. In respect to dispute settlement, 3. BILATERAL TIES
state parties under this Convention can opt for a) DEFENCE COOPERATION
negotiation, or jointly seek request mediation or b) ECONOMIC TIES
conciliation by a third party, or make use of c) NUCLEAR AND SPACE COOPERATION
institutions established by them, or agree to 4. SINO-RUSSIA TIES

27
5. RUSSIA-PAK TIES Though Russia, successor state of USSR remained a
6. RUSSIA-UKRAINE WAR military power, it lost its erstwhile dominance in
7. CONCLUSION matters of economy and politics. It was no longer a
super power.
 Russia is India’s all-weather friend and time-
 Besides, it was the year when India also embraced
tested partner. Development of India-Russia
neo-liberal economic reforms. Hence, due to greater
relations has been a key pillar of India's foreign emphasis on improving relations with the
policy. In view of some analysts, Russia could industrialized countries of the West for both India
perhaps be seen as India’s only definitive and Russia, bilateral ties got low priority. With the
“strategic” partner in its truest form, and this emergence of independent Central Asian Republics,
unique relationship has developed over decades Russia’s borders fell further apart.
 India and Russia would be celebrating the 75th  The first major political initiative, since the collapse of
Anniversary of establishment of diplomatic the Soviet Union, between India and Russia began
relations between India and the erstwhile USSR with the Strategic Partnership signed between the
two countries in October 2000 during visit of Russian
(now Russian Federation) in 2022.
President Vladimir Putin. This visit gave a great boost
 India aspiring permanent seas in UNSC and it is
to bilateral relations.
possible with support of Russia  Since the signing of Strategic Partnership in October
 One of the top oil suppliers of India. 2000, India-Russia ties have acquired a qualitatively
new character with enhanced levels of cooperation in
THE BRIEF HISTORY:- almost all areas of the bilateral relationship including
 Diplomatic relations commenced between USSR and political, security, trade and economy, defence,
India in 1947. Even though Nehru expressed science and technology and culture.
appreciation for the USSR’s swift economic  During the visit of the Russian President to India in
development, India was still viewed as a “tool of December 2010, the Strategic Partnership was
Anglo-American imperialism”. elevated to the level of a “Special and Privileged
 After Nehru visited the USSR in June 1955 and Soviet Strategic Partnership.” This partnership is an anchor
Leader Khrushchev visited India later the same year, of peace and stability in the region and the world.
things started to happen. The USSR commenced  Under the Strategic Partnership, several
aiding India in all aspects of development. The Soviet institutionalized dialogue mechanisms operate at
Union gave India substantial economic and military both political and official levels to ensure regular
assistance during the Khrushchev period, and by 1960 interaction and follow up on cooperation activities.
India had received more Soviet assistance than China Annual Summit meeting between the Prime Minister
had. of India and the President of the Russian Federation
 The Soviet Union declared its neutrality during the is the highest institutionalized dialogue mechanism
Sino-Indian war of October 1962. In 1965 the Soviet under the Strategic Partnership.
Union served successfully as peace broker between  The Indo-Russian Inter-Governmental Commission
India and Pakistan after an Indian-Pakistani border (IRIGC) is the main body that conducts affairs at the
war. (The Tashkent Agreement). governmental level between both countries. Some
 The year 1971 was a turning Point in bilateral have described it as the steering committee of Indo-
relation. India signed with the Soviet Union the Indo- Russia relations. It is divided into two part
Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in August a) the first covering Trade, Economic, Scientific,
1971. This was a guarantee against possible Chinese Technological and Cultural Co-operation. This is
entrance into the conflict on the side of West normally co-chaired by the Russian Deputy Prime
Pakistan. During the 1980s, India maintained a close Minister and the Indian External Affairs Minister.
relationship with the Soviet Union. b) The second part of the Commission covers
 Soviet Union had vetoed a number of resolutions on Military Technical Co-operation this is co-chaired
Kashmir in UNSC during the Cold War period, and by the two countries respective Defence
blocked internationalisation of what is essentially a Ministers. Both parts of IRIGC meet annually
bilateral issue. In the UN Security Council Resolutions ………2nd class ended,3rd started……….
in 1957, 1962 and 1971, Russia was the only country
which vetoed resolutions seeking UN interventions in  VISIT OF PRESIDENT PUTIN,
Kashmir. Thus, during the Cold War India was
considered a close partner of Soviet Union. DECEMBER 2021
 In the post-Cold War era, 90s was the decade of  In December 2021, President Vladimir Putin
transition for both India and Russia. The year 1991 visited Delhi for the 21st India-Russia summit.
saw numerous changes with the collapse of the The visit was significant in part because Putin
Soviet Union. Democratic governments were installed
has not traveled abroad to attend recent
one after the other in most of the east European
countries. The disintegration of the Soviet Union had
summits in person
altered the power equations in international politics.  The following are the major outcomes

28
a) Signed a 10-year defence cooperation pact  The defence trade between India and Russia has
in the background of ongoing deliveries of crossed $15 billion since 2018, in the backdrop
the S400 air defence systems of some big deals including the $5.43 billion S-
b) Both countries signed an agreement to 400 long range air defence systems. Other major
achieve joint production of more than contracts currently under implementation are
600,000 AK-203 assault rifles to advance construction of
self-reliance in the defence manufacturing a) four additional stealth frigates in Russia and
sector. India,
c) In order to promote greater economic b) licensed production of the Mango Armor-
cooperation, both adopted targets to piercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot
increase bilateral trade to $30b and bilateral (APFSDS) rounds for the T-90S tanks as also
investments to $50b by 2025. c) additional T-90S tanks,
d) Reserve Bank of India and Bank of Russia to d) AK-203 assault rifles among others
cooperate to jointly respond against cyber  While India continues to remain Russia’s largest
attacks. arms buyer with a major chunk of legacy
e) Both nations agreed to jointly fight against hardware from Russia and the Soviet Union, the
terrorist organizations like ISIS-Al Qaeda- volume of imports has reduced in the last
LeT, drug trafficking and organised crime etc decade
f) First 2+2 dialogue of Foreign and Defence  The recent major defence agreements include
Ministers was also held to exchange views in acquisition of
global and regional political-security a) five S-400 Triumf advanced air defence
developments. So far, India has 2+2 missile system,
ministerial formats with only the Quad b) 1.5 billion USD leases of 12,000-tonne Akula-
countries — US, Japan and Australia class nuclear submarine nuclear powered
 In view of some analysts, the Russian president submarine, a IL-78 multi-role tanker
appears to have wanted to establish that transport by India and
Moscow can handle the India and China c) the joint upgrading of the SU30MKI and
relationships independently of each other. Kamov 28.
Putin’s visit is seen as an effort to repair the d) Recently, India has decided to purchase new
damage done to the relationship over the last fighter aircrafts from Russia (21 MiG-29 and
couple of years, as Russia and India drifted apart. 12 Su-30MKI).
Going by the optics and the number of  S-400 DEAL AND CAATSA
memoranda of understanding (MoUs) and
 In October 2018, India inked the historic agreement
agreements signed by the two countries, Putin’s worth US$5.43 billion with Russia to procure five
India visit has attempted to bring back some S400 Triumf surface-to-air missile defence system,
balance in the relationship. one of the most powerful missile defence system in
DEFENCE TIES IND-RUSSIA the world.

 Triumf has the capability to protect against almost all
A. NATURE sorts of aerial attacks, including drones, missiles,
 Defence ties constitute the core of Indo-Russian rockets and even fighter jets. The system, intended to
act as a shield over a particular area, is a long-range
ties where India has longstanding and wide-
surface-to-air missile system.
ranging cooperation with Russia in the field of
 What concerns India is that China placed an order in
defense. March 2014, and the delivery began in 2018. During
 Russia has been biggest supplier of defence the standoff in eastern Ladakh, which began in May
equipment to India. 2020 and remains unresolved, China had reportedly
 India-Russia military technical cooperation has deployed its S-400 along the Line of Actual Control
evolved from a simple buyer - seller framework  India signed this deal ignoring America’s CAATSA act.
to one involving joint research, development  CAATSA Act, also known as Countering America’s
and production of advanced defence Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, was enacted by
technologies and systems. USA in 2017 to impose sanctions on three nations,
i.e., Russia, Iran, and North Korea. Apart from
 BrahMos Missile System, as well as the licensed
sanctions on the three nations, the act also imposes
production in India of SU-30 aircraft (by HAL
sanctions on countries who deal with these nations.
Bangalore) and T-90 tanks, are examples of such  This brings the current S-400 deal between India and
flagship cooperation. Russia under this orbit. The United States threatened
India with sanctions over India’s decision to buy the

29
S-400 missile defense system from Russia. to China and Pakistan with significant defence
 Turkey came under CAATSA sanctions for its purchase deals has not gone unnoticed in India. Experts
of a batch of S-400 missile defence systems from argue that Russia’s waning influence in India’s
Russia. But US cannot afford to alienate a strategic defence market may result in further alienation
ally and a defence market like India
of Russia from India’s strategic plans. Russia’s
 On July 14, 2022, a National Defense Authorization
arms sales offer to Pakistan has been cited as
Act (NDAA) amendment was accepted by the US
House of Representatives, proposing a waiver for the fallout of this policy.
CAATSA Act that would apply specifically to India.  Although in absolute terms Russia is still the
The amendment calls for the US government to largest supplier of defence equipment to India,
exercise its authority to grant India a CAATSA waiver its share in overall imports has progressively
in order to counter China and other aggressors. declined. Most recently, India’s decision to sign
 As a result, the US lawmakers have introduced a bill the three foundational defence Agreements with
for sanction waiver to avoid retaliatory US actions on USA has surfaced as a cause of serious concern
India. for Russia-
 According to the Stockholm International Peace a) the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of
Research Institute’s (SIPRI) report 2021, India Agreement (LEMOA signed in 2016),
was the biggest arms importer during the period b) the Communications Compatibility and
between 2017 and 2021, accounting for 11 Security Agreement (COMCASA signed in
percent of the total global arms imports. Most of 2018)
those arms come from Russia. While India’s c) Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement
share of arms imports from Russia have dropped for geo-spatial cooperation. (BECA, signed in
from 69 percent during the period between 2020)
2012 and 2016 to 46 percent in 2017-2021,  Russia feels that India is virtually entering into a
Russia still remains the biggest arms supplier to military alliance with USA, which will severely
India. The drop in share of imports from Russia restrict Russia's ability to share sophisticated
corresponds to a simultaneous rise of defense defence technology with it. Indians on their part
imports from France, the United States, and were frustrated by the Russian failure to meet
Israel. delivery schedules, quality control, tendency to
 Constant security threats from China and increase costs, and reluctance to transfer
Pakistan imply that it would take time for India technology and supply spares. The late delivery
to diversify its defense imports and also increase of INS Vikramaditya was a case in point.
indigenous production of arms. Indeed, recently  In 2018 India also withdrew from the project to
India received the delivery of the second jointly develop 5th generation fighter aircraft.
regiment of the S-400 air defense missile system Experts point out the reason being
from Russia disagreements over cost sharing plans,
 The two countries also hold exchanges and technology transfers, and the aircraft’s
training exercises between their armed forces technological capabilities.
annually. The joint military exercise is called  The proposal for India and Russia to jointly
Indra. 2021 was held at Volgograd, Russia from develop an advanced fighter — the eponymous
01 to 13 August 2021. Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft (FGFA) — has
B. IRRITANTS been formally buried
 Like price issue, quality of spare parts, delay etc  In April 2022, the Indian Air Force has cancelled
 India first aircraft carrier was INS Vikramaditya plans to buy 48 Mi-17 V5 helicopters from
(earlier called Admiral Gorshkov) and India gave Russia, though this move is said to be taken to
it to Russia to refurbish it and Russia mid way boost the Make in India initiative. Also last
increased the Price. Delay was also there. month, India announced a phased import ban on
 Some major issues of disagreements have 107 defense items which include several Russian
appeared between the two countries over the defense parts. These developments drive home
last few years. The first concerns the rapidly the fact that India’s indigenization drive,
expanding ties between India and USA especially regardless of its motivations, will inevitably have
the growing defense relationship between India the end result of lessening India’s dependence
and USA. That the United States has emerged as on Russia arms.
one of the largest suppliers of arms and  While complete detachment from Russia is
equipment to India could not have gone impossible, India has certainly prioritized those
unnoticed in Russia, just as Russia’s reaching out

30
of its strategic interests that require closer submarines, Swedish Bofors Guns etc. In past
cooperation with the Western countries. several international sanctions and its inability to
 As the Russia-Ukraine conflict stretches on with pay hard cash for defence purchases tilted
no clear endgame, there are apprehensions on balance in Russia’s favour.
Russia’s ability to adhere to the timelines for  The fact that India went along with the S-400s
both spares and hardware. The Indian Army is from Russia, despite the threat of CAATSA
dependent on certain weapon systems specially sanctions, must have been welcoming to Putin
in the area of air defence, rockets, missiles and and brought some reassurance about the
certain tanks from Russia and Ukraine. The endurance of the India-Russia relationship.
immediate impact of the Russia-Ukraine war was  It should be emphasized that “Make in India”
on the supply chain of certain spares and also aims at having India emerge as an essential
ammunition. Russia has assured India that it player in the global defense market. India is
would adhere to delivery timelines forecast to spend $250 billion over the next
 India is also looking at certain alternative decade upgrading its military and Russia wants
mitigation measures and identifying alternate to seize the opportunity to become a major part
sources from friendly foreign countries while in of this mission, expressing its readiness to work
the long term, this is also an opportunity for the jointly with India on defense manufacturing. The
private industry to step up production and meet boost to defense engagement will also help India
the requirements. contain the growing engagement between
 With Russia being shut out of the SWIFT system, Russia and Pakistan.
India and Russia have agreed to conduct  Both countries have rich experience of
payments through the Rupee-Rouble collaboration in production of military
arrangement. equipment in India such as MiG-21, MiG-27,
 However, there is some delay. For instance, the Sukhoi Su-30MKI, Brahmos, naval ships etc. In
delivery of the second regiment of the S-400 is fact, the international competition in this
delayed by a few months as also the segment is low due to the transfer of technology
operationalisation of the agreement for the clauses where Russia is more than ready as
manufacture of 6.1 lakh AK203 rifles at Korwa, compared to other countries and thus has a
Amethi in Uttar Pradesh natural edge over other country. So, both
 There are also several big-ticket deals currently countries need to tap over this rich legacy of
under negotiation but several of the lays bam cooperation to iron out differences over such
deferred by the Defence Ministry a part of the projects.
review of all diet import deals Thus efforts to  Besides, India can also be a hub for service of
push the Make in India' scheme in defence. Russian built aircrafts and submarines which
Russian deals have also been deemed the one are in service with various other countries and
for also supplying spares to these machines with
a) 21 MiG-29 fighter jets for the Indian Air joint venture projects in India.
Force (IAF)
b) the upgradation of 39 exiting Mig-29
 ECONOMIC TIES IND-RUSSIA
 IND-RUSSIA economic ties are under-developed as it
c) the manufacture of 12 SU-30 MKI aircraft by
is just $8.1 Billion.
Hindustan Aromatic Limited  Target:- $30 billion by 2025, by collaborating into
d) the mature of 200 K-226T utility, helicopters Hydro-carbon sector.
in India  One of the biggest handicaps in bilateral ties is the
e) deal for six Ka-31 early warning helicopters limited and stagnant trade between the two
and countries. Despite being close partners for decades,
f) a deal for Igla-S very short range sir defence the underdeveloped economic ties are a stark
systems contrast.
 As per Indian figures, bilateral trade during 2020-
C. POTENTIAL 2021 amounted USD 8.1 billion. Indian exports
 Globally no other pair of countries –apart from amounted USD 2.6 billion while imports from Russia
USA-Israel- has enjoyed this type of defence amounted USD 5.48 billion.
relationship.  Major items of import from Russia include pearls,
 It should be remembered that India has opted precious and semi-precious stones & metals, nuclear
for diversification of its arms import basket since power equipment, electrical machinery and
long. It has sourced British Aircraft carrier, equipment, mineral oil & products, iron &steels, and
French Jaguar and Mirage aircrafts, German optical, precision and surgical equipment.

31
 Clearly, for India and Russia, the challenge is to shift by offering oil at a discounted price. Russia rose to
from largely defence oriented ties to promoting become India's third biggest supplier of oil in recent
greater economic and trade partnership for long term months after Iraq and Saudi Arabia. India has taken
interests. Making economic partnership as strong a advantage of discounted prices to increase oil
pillar as other pillars of the strategic partnership imports from Russia at a time when global energy
between India and Russia is a key priority for the two prices have been rising. Russian oil accounted for
governments. This is clear by the revised targets of about 16% for India's overall imports in April-August,
increasing bilateral investment to US $ 50 billion and the first five months of this fiscal year, compared to a
bilateral trade to US $ 30 billion by 2025. year earlier at 0.5% share. India has also become
 Both the Governments have undertaken initiatives to Russia's No. 2 oil buyer after China as others have cut
promote bilateral investments, primarily through purchases following Moscow's invasion of Ukraine in
facilitating high-level Government to business and late February.
Business to Business contacts apart from the ongoing  Russia is also the largest supplier of di-ammonium
investment process in strategic sectors in both the phosphate (DAP) fertilizer to India. Supplies of
countries. fertilisers from Russia to India increased by more
 Some of the other major investments by Indian than eight times in recent times. The main reason
companies include why India has bought huge consignment of the
a) ONGC Videsh Ltd. in Sakhalin-I Project (US $ 2.2 fertilizer from Russia is the cost advantage. Since
bn); Russia’s war with Ukraine has invited western
b) India bought Russian company “Imperial Energy sanctions, the country has been compelled to find
(US $ 2.1 bn); newer markets for its produce. The landing price of
c) Commercial Bank of India Ltd. (JV of SBI and Russian DAP in India is said to much below the prices
Canara Bank); charged by countries like Jordan, Morocco, China and
d) ICICI Bank in its subsidiary ICICI Bank Eurasia; Saudi Arabia
KGK Group (US $ 50 mn);  India is also contemplating a Free Trade Agreement
e) Advance Pharma (1.5 bn Ru). 24. with the Eurasian Economic Union. The Eurasian
 Hydrocarbons is an active area for exploring Economic Union is one of the important emerging
cooperation between the two countries. In 2016, economic blocks, and India is keen to engage more
Indian companies invested close to US$ 5.5 billion in closely with Russia and the CIS countries to further
Russia’s Oil and Gas sector, which included intensify our trade and economic cooperation with
acquisition of 23.9% stake in Vankorneft and 29.9% in this region The EAEU is a free trade agreement that
Taas-Yuryakh by an Indian Consortium of Indian Oil came into being in 2015 to increase economic
Corporation Limited (IOCL), Indian Oil Corporation cooperation and raise the standard of living of its
Limited (OIL) and Bharat Petro Resources Limited member countries, including Russia, Armenia,
(BPRL); and acquisition of 15% and 11% stake by Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.
ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL) in Vankorneft from  THE EASTERN ECONOMIC FORUM
Rosneft Oil Company of Russia.
 Russian company Rosneft acquired (bought) ESSAR’s AND INDIA’S BALANCING ACT
Vadinar refinery in India by concluding a deal in  The Eastern Economic Forum was established in
2017. This deal was USD 12.9 billion, is one of the 2015. The primary objective of the EEF is to
biggest Russian investments in India in recent times. increase the Foreign Direct Investments in the
 Other major investments from Russia in India are by Russian Far East (RFE).
a) AFK Sistema in Sistema Shyam Telelink Services;  The Russian Far East comprises the Russian part
b) planned India- Russia JV for production of
of the Far East, the easternmost territory of
titanium products in Odisha;
Russia, between Lake Baikal in Eastern Siberia
c) branches by VTB and Sber bank;
d) Joint 11 Ventures automotive company between and the Pacific Ocean.
Russian KamazInc and Vectra Group  The region encompasses one-third of Russia’s
 1st India-Russia Strategic Economic Dialogue (IRSED) territory and is rich with natural resources such
was held in St. Petersburg on November 26, 2018, led as fish, oil, natural gas, wood, diamonds and
by Vice-Chairman NITI Aayog and Russian Minister of other minerals. The sparse population living in
Economic Development. It focused on five core areas the region is another factor for encouraging
– people to move and work in the Far East
a) Transport Infrastructure,  The RFE is geographically placed at a strategic
b) Agriculture and agro-processing sector,
location; acting as a gateway into Asia as well as
c) Small & Medium Business support,
the Arctic region. In the last seven years, more
d) Digital Transformation & Frontier technologies
and than 16 countries have invested in the Far East.
e) Industrial & Trade Cooperation. These include regional and global heavyweights
 Fearing international isolation over Ukraine war, like China, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New
Russia has tried to expand its energy ties with India Zealand, and Vietnam.
32
 China is the biggest investor in the region as it a) It will open up investment opportunities for
sees potential in promoting the Chinese Belt and India in the region. India is keen to deepen
Road Initiative and the Polar Sea Route in the its cooperation in energy, pharmaceuticals,
RFE. China’s investments in the region account maritime connectivity, healthcare, tourism,
for 90% of the total investments. As of 2022, the diamond industry and the Arctic.
almost 2,729 investment projects are being Through the EEF, India aims to establish a
planned in the region. The agreements focus on strong inter-state interaction with Russia.
infrastructure, transportation projects, mineral b) India has a talented and dedicated
excavations, construction, industry and workforce, while the Far East is rich in
agriculture resources. So, there is tremendous scope for
Indian talent to contribute to the
development of the Russian Far East.
c) Along with a boost in the maritime trade
with the Russians, this policy would also
facilitate India to grow its maritime trade
with other European countries via the Arctic
route.
d) It can reduce India’s dependency on the
West Asian countries for its energy needs.
The Far East region is rich in energy and
minerals.
e) Along with this region, this policy will also
help India to access the Arctic region via the
Far East route, which is again rich in energy
resources.
f) The policy will be significant for Russia as
well. There has been an increasing presence
of China in the Far East region. Russia is also
worried about the demographic change.
With this policy, Russia will get an
opportunity to diversify its trade relations
not only with India but also with Japan.
g) The Indian government is also keen for
coordination with Japan and South Korea for
developing infrastructure and bringing
investments in Russian Far East.
h) With the increasing significance of the Indo-
Pacific geopolitics, the interest that India is
showing in keeping its historical friend close
will prove to be of significant for the two
countries at the time of the ongoing U.S.-
China trade war.
 ACT FAR EAST POLICY OF INDIA  At this session, PM Modi also announced that
 India seeks to expand its influence in the RFE. At
India would extend a $1 billion line of credit
plenary session of the 5th Eastern Economic
towards the development of the Russian Far
Forum (EEF) in Vladivostok in 2019, Indian Prime
East. The two countries are also looking at the
Minister Narendra Modi unveiled the ‘Act Far
feasibility of Chennai- Vladivostok Sea route that
East’ policy for Russia. He became the first
would allow India access to Russia’s Far East in
Indian prime minister to visit the Russian Far
24 days, compared to the 40 days taken by the
East Region. It is an extension to India’s Act East
current route via Suez Canal and Europe. In his
policy, Act East Plus- as it includes Russia's Far
virtual address to 7th Eastern Economic Forum
East.
(EEF) Summit in Vladivostok on September 5
 This policy is an important part of India’s Special
2022, Prime Minister Narendra Modi said that
and Privileged Strategic Partnership with Russia.
the friendship between India and Russia has
There are several strategic implications of Act
stood the test of time. It was seen in their robust
Far East Policy-
33
cooperation during the Covid-19 pandemic, e) During PM Modi’s visit to Russia in 2015, both
including in the area of vaccines. PM Modi also countries agreed to manufacture nuclear plants parts
pointed out that energy is another major pillar in India under Make in India Scheme. Apart from
of the strategic partnership between the two saving forex, it will also be able to cut down
timeframe for construction of atomic reactors.
countries. He also remarked that Vladivostok is
f) Russia has also proposed to involve India in building
truly a sangam (confluence) of Eurasia and the Russian-designed power plants in third countries
Pacific. including training of personnel in other countries like
 The U.S.-led Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Bangladesh, Vietnam and Sri Lanka. This is in
Prosperity (IPEF) and the EEF are incomparable based particular due to logistical issues where New Delhi is
on its geographic coverage and the partnership with much closer to these countries than Moscow. This
the host-countries. India has vested interests in both cooperation is to be extended to joint extraction of
the forums and has worked towards balancing its natural uranium and production of nuclear fuel and
involvement. India has not shied away from investing atomic waste elimination. Since India has generated
in the Russia-initiated EEF despite the current lot of goodwill among IOR countries, it is in better
international conditions. At the same time, India has position to market the nuclear power plants of
given its confirmation and acceptance to three of the Rosatom- the state-owned Russian Nuclear utility.
four pillars in the IPEF. The country understands the g) During the annual Russia-India Summit in December
benefits of being involved in the development in the 2021, the two sides highlighted the achievements of
RFE but it also perceives the IPEF as a vital platform Indian and Russian collaboration in the field of
to strengthen its presence in the Indo-Pacific region. nuclear energy, laying down the roadmap for further
The IPEF also presents an ideal opportunity for India cooperation to launch the serial construction of the
to act in the region, without being part of the China- state-of-the-art Generation III+ Russian-designed
led Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership or nuclear power units at a new site in India using
other regional groupings. Rosatom’s advanced nuclear power technologies.
 NUCLEAR & SPACE COOPERATION During the Summit, India and Russia also agreed to
form a third country partnership based on the
 NUCLEAR COOPERATION success of their participation in Bangladesh's first
a) Nuclear cooperation between India and Russia can nuclear power plant at Rooppur (RNPP).
also be traced back to the 1960s. Like the United h) The India-Russia cooperation on RNPP demonstrates
States, during that decade Moscow extended the capabilities of such collaboration and opens up
scientific and technical nuclear assistance to India. new opportunities for both the countries, particularly
However, despite the 1974 nuclear tests, the Soviet in the developing countries. This cooperation opens
Union agreed to supply heavy water to India for door for Indian companies to work in the nuclear
Canadian-built reactors, and throughout the 1980s energy space in other countries since India cannot
and 1990s Moscow remained crucial for the survival participate directly in constructing atomic power
of India’s nuclear program by supplying fuel during reactors because it is not a member of Nuclear
the country’s global nuclear isolation (1974 to 2008 = Suppliers Group.
nuclear apartheid was pursued against India) i) Expanding their cooperation in civil nuclear energy,
b) Russia has now become the first one to start India and Russia are collaborating to set up 25
construction of a nuclear plant that is fully compliant integrated irradiation centres in India to reduce
with Nuclear Liability Act. India-Russia ties reached a agricultural losses. A bilateral agreement in this
new landmark in nuclear energy cooperation with the regard was signed on the sidelines of the BRICS
dedication of Unit 1 of the Kudankulam nuclear Business Forum in the national capital in October
power project jointly inaugurated by Prime Minister 2016.
Narendra Modi and President Vladimir Putin through j) According to estimates, post-harvest losses in food
video conference in August 2016. and food grains are around 40-50 per cent, primarily
c) Both sides also agreed to work together on the due to insect infestation, microbiological
remaining stages of the recently agreed 4 more contamination, physiological changes due to
reactors at Kudankulam, 3, 4, 5 and 6. The other 8 sprouting and ripening, and poor shelf life. The
reactors will be set up at alternative site in Karnataka wastage of fruits and vegetables alone is about Rs.
or Andhra Pradesh. 60,000 crores annually. Including cereals, meat,
d) Unlike other bilateral civilian nuclear deals signed by pulses and flowers, the annual loss is estimated to be
India, Russian-Indian collaboration in nuclear sphere Rs. 2, 50,000 crores. Irradiation centres will help
is multi-pronged and is not limited to NPP reduce this wastage.
construction. There are joint projects in nuclear
science and on other aspects of nuclear fuel cycle.
 SPACE COOPERATION
Russian and Indian scientists effectively cooperate in  India-Russia cooperation in the field of peaceful
research at the Russian Joint Institute of Nuclear uses of outer space dates back to about four
Research in Dubna and within framework of such decades. India has historically been able to
international projects like ITER. harness much needed know-how and
34
technology for its space industry by closely co- d) the trade relations between Moscow and
operating with Russia. India - Russia space Islamabad see a growing trend over the last
cooperation in the past includes the USSR decade and they hope for further
launching India’s first few satellites including collaborations in the fields of energy and
Arybhatta-I and Bhaskara-I, Rakesh Sharma’s transit of goods, consultations, and closer
inclusion in a manned Soviet mission, and political and security interactions.
Russia’s sale of cryogenic engines for India’s e) In July 2021, Pakistan and Russia signed an
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicles. agreement for the construction of about
Currently, India-Russia space cooperation is 1,100km gas pipeline from Port Qasim in
largely limited to NavIC-GLONASS ground Karachi to Lahore at an estimated cost of
stations and Global Navigation Satellite Systems $2.5-3 billion by the end of 2023.
(GNSS)–Indian Regional Navigation Satellite f) In February 2022, the then PM Imran Khan
System (IRNSS) augmentation. Pakistan’s Prime Minister (PM) continued his
 India’s dependence on Russian space technology two-day official visit to Moscow, amidst
has reduced over the past few decades, but the Russian military deployment in eastern
two countries continue to collaborate through Ukraine and escalating regional tension. He
the Indian space agency, ISRO, and its Russian was the first Pakistani leader to visit Russia
counterpart, Roscosmos. ISRO’s first group of in over two decades since the landmark visit
four astronaut candidates for the planned by Nawaz Sharifin1999. He was also the first
crewed Gaganyaan mission completed their Head of State to be in Moscow after
training for spaceflight in Russia in March last President Putin recognised the separatist
year.The contract for the training of Indian regions of Donetsk and Luhansk
candidates for space flight between the  IMPERATIVES FOR RUSSIA-PAKISTAN
Glavkosmos company (part of the Roscosmos
State Corporation) and the Manned Space Flight
COOPERATION
 Several factors are responsible for this
Center of the Indian Space Research
rapprochement between Russia and Pakistan-
Organisation was signed on June 27, 2019.
1) Shared security interests are drawing Pakistan
 In annual summit held in December 2021, they
and Russia closer together, as evidenced by
agreed to study the prospects of the
Russia’s announcement that joint military
development of mutually beneficial cooperation
exercises and security cooperation will become a
in the development of launch vehicles and the
routine feature of their bilateral relationship.
use of outer space for peaceful purposes,
The main purpose of these exercises is to share
including planetary exploration
experience in counter terrorism, counter
 RUSSIA- PAKISTAN RELATION narcotics and anti-piracy.
 After decades of frosty ties, Russia finally begun 2) Russia muslim angle in his province Chechnya
to reach out to Pakistan. Economic, political and 3) Russia viewing Pakistan as critical to the stability
even defense ties are growing between the two in its backyard especially with Taliban in power
countries that were on opposing camps during in Afghanistan which has backing of Russia’s
the Cold War. strategic ally China. Islamabad is also keen to
 Some important events in this blossoming have Moscow’s and Beijing’s involvement in
relation were- Afghanistan. The three have met several times
a) Russian Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu to discuss conditions in Afghanistan
visited Islamabad in 2014, the first Russian 4) India’s growing proximity with USA and
defense minister to visit Pakistan since1969. displacement of Russia as biggest supplier of
This trip saw both countries sign defense weapons by USA.
agreements including the sale of Mi-35 5) Post Ukranian crisis sanctions have forced
attack helicopters resource export dependent Russian economy to
b) Both countries signed an agreement on explore new markets to tide over economic
military technical cooperation in 2014. recession.
c) In September 2016, after the Jaish-e- 6) Lucrative defence market of Pakistan offers
Mohammed attack in Uri, Russia went ahead Russia an opportunity to diversify its arms export
with a joint military exercise with Pakistan, basket the same way India is diversifying its arms
ignoring New Delhi’s appeal against it. In import basket. Besides, it also offers huge
2017, with Indo-Pak elations at their lowest, opportunity to Pakistan to reduce its
Russia sold more helicopters to Pakistan.
35
dependence over US for getting sophisticated far Moscow has supported India by voting for
weapons. New Delhi at the UNSC.
7) Another key concern for Moscow is the drug- 6) Counter viewpoint-Russia has the sovereign right
trafficking emanating from Afghanistan and to choose its friends. Nor should Delhi assume
illegal substances ending up in Russia – a threat that Russia’s current orientation — warmth to
that’s leading the Russians to team up with China and hostility to the West — is a
Beijing and Pakistan to control drug production permanent one. At a moment of great
in Afghanistan turbulence in great power relations, Russia is
 ANALYSIS rightly jockeying for position. India must focus
1) This visit by the Pakistani Prime Minister comes on reconstituting the partnership with Russia- a
at a period of speculations of an Indo-Russian country that will remain a powerful force in
drift owing to changing global dynamics which Eurasia, on its own merits.
have driven India to forge a close nexus with the 7) The Indo-Russian dynamic is concretely based on
US and Russia to form a relationship with India’s the ideals of pragmatism. Both India and Russia
most threatening regional rival, China, on look at their relationship independent of their
account of their common and expanding rivalry equations with other powers. So, it is unlikely
with the US. that at this current moment based on the status
2) In April 2021, Russia described India as a of this Russia-Pakistan relationship, India would
"trusted partner", and emphasized that there feel threatened or concerned. If US military aid
were no divergences or misunderstandings to Pakistan for more than six decades did not
between the two countries and that it has come in the way of the current upswing in
"limited cooperation" with Pakistan based on defence trade between India and the United
"independent" relations. It said that all issues States, there is no reason why Russia’s strategic
between the two countries should be resolved benevolence towards China and Pakistan should
bilaterally under the Shimla and Lahore pacts. be a serious factor influencing India’s defence
3) Some Indian experts regard it as a Moscow tactic trade with Russia.
to ‘arm twist’ India and stop it from diversifying 8) India and Russia have great mutual dependency.
its defence procurement sources. That Russia Russian-origin tanks, armoured vehicles,
has sought a normal relationship with Pakistan missiles, submarines, aircraft, helicopters,
since the end of Cold War has not been a secret. aircraft carrier, ammunition, and other assorted
So is the fact that Indian diplomacy often systems, constitute the backbone of India’s
prevailed over Moscow to limit Russian ties with military capability. Going by the past experience,
Pakistan. Moscow’s reluctance to defer to Indian these will remain in service for the next several
sensitivities this time suggests that a new phase decades. If nothing else, Russian support will be
in India-Russia relations is finally with us. crucial for ensuring operational serviceability of
4) That a sovereign has no permanent friends or the equipment, including repair, refit and
enemies is part of traditional wisdom around the upgrades. Even Russia cannot afford to consider
world. Nothing illustrates this more than the scaling down its defense trade with India. Russia
evolution of Russia’s ties with China and needs to sustain its huge military industrial base.
Pakistan. Few countries in the non-Western India isn’t only its largest defense customer;
world have done more damage to Russian Moscow also sees the sub-continent as a
interests. The Chinese alignment with the West potential energy export destination. India is the
from the 1970s and the Pakistani jihad against fourth largest energy consumer in the world in
Moscow in the 1980s were central to the defeat coal, oil and natural gas. Therefore, Russia is
of the Soviet Union in the Cold War. unlikely to jeopardize relations with New Delhi
5) The possibility that Russia will get closer to for Pakistan.
Pakistan under China's influence and the 9) As its support for the designation of Pakistan-
possibility of transfer of Russian technology to based terrorist groups, including those targeting
Pakistan via China cannot be ruled out. Russia India such as the JeM and its leader, and the
has allowed China to export aircraft, for instance Lashkar-e-Taiba, have shown, Russia has clear
the 50 JF-17 “Thunder fighter” planes that use views against Pakistan’s patronage of terrorists.
Russian engines— something which it would not Also in August 2019, Russia became the first P-5
have allowed earlier. India is also apprehensive country to describe India's move on Kashmir
of Russia transforming its stance on Kashmir. So (scrapping Article 370 & bifurcation of the State)
as purely an internal matter and called for

36
resolution under the Shimla Agreement of 1972 navigation in international shipping lanes
and Lahore Declaration of 1999. Ever since this including South China Sea.
position has been reiterated by the Russian  Even in the defence domain, where Russia once
foreign minister and senior officials. privileged relations with India, China is rapidly
 RUSSIA’S GROWING PROXIMITY becoming an important partner for Moscow. It
now looks to be a strategic choice to align with
WITH CHINA Beijing amidst Western attempts to isolate and
 The significant expansion of Russia’s economic, punish Russia over Ukraine. Russia's decision to
security and political ties with China, begin to pose a sell sophisticated weaponry to China has
problem for India. The Sino-Russian partnership is resulted from its view of its own national
becoming a lot deeper than that between India and
interests of the time as well as its overall
Russia.
 Russia described China as its most important strategic
economic and geopolitical compulsions. China
partner and said their partnership has “no limits”. seems to have benefited by intensifying
 The two sides have firmly supported each other economic and political ties with Russia. China
in defending their core interests, strengthened has incorporated Russia as integral component
political and strategic trust, and achieved a new of its OBOR policy which aims at increasing
high in two-way trade. They share the desire to Chinese influence over the Eurasian Region.
curb the United States’ power and challenge its  China has bailed Russia out through a series of
hegemony. big energy deals. This has also helped Russia
 The Sino-Russian quasi-alliance has been significantly by offsetting its reliance on the
possible due to- European market. China has gained increased
a) The West’s approach towards Russia after access to Russia’s vast natural resources
the annexation of Crimea in 2014. including the much publicised 30-year gas
b) Anti-Chinese rhetoric from Washington contract worth $400 billion between them.
c) Collapse of oil prices  Militarily, the two are already part of the
d) Russia’s growing dependence on Chinese Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), which
consumption is taking over the mantle of regional security in
 In case of Ukraine War, Chinese officials have Central Asia, and specifically in Afghanistan
refused to condemn Putin for the war, and have following the departure of the United States and
blamed the United States and the North Atlantic NATO.
Treaty Organization (NATO) for provoking  IMPLICATIONS FOR INDIA
Russia. Just as China supports Russian objectives 1) As Russia and China draw closer, they are bound to
with regard to NATO expansion, Russia supports put more pressure on India to back their positions at
China’s view of the Indo-Pacific and the multilateral forums like the BRICS and the United
illegitimacy of the U.S. role there. Nations on a range of global issues. Delhi also knows
 Russia has criticized the Indo-Pacific strategy by that Beijing is now the senior partner to Moscow, and
the western countries describing it as that the alliance with Russia will end up improving
"dangerous" and an effort to revive the cold war China’s bargaining power with the US.
mentality. They remain highly vigilant about the 2) New Delhi’s main concern is not really Sino-Russian
trade - much higher than Indo-Russian business - but
negative impact of the United States’ Indo-
the nature of defence cooperation between Moscow
Pacific strategy on peace and stability in the and Beijing. While most of the weapons China
region. China and Russia sent another high- purchased from Russia – Amur submarines and S 400
profile signal of their strategic partnership in air defense systems - will seemingly be used in the
May 2022, flying bombers near Japan while U.S. East and South China Sea, there’s a growing
President Joe Biden and other leaders of Quad apprehension that the deployments may be changed
countries were visiting Tokyo. It was their first in a way that’s detrimental to Indian security.
joint military drill since the start of the war in 3) Some experts have argued that a Moscow that is
Ukraine. more beholden to Beijing would be particularly
 Russia has not cautioned China from being problematic at this moment when India is dependent
on Russian military supplies and Sino-Indian border
belligerent either in South China Sea region or
tensions could flare up again.If Russia becomes more
stopping incursions in Indian side. This implies reliant on Chinese support, Moscow would be
tacit Russian endorsement of China’s claim in coerced to oblige China if it asked Russia to stall
South China Sea which is at variance with India’s supplies to India during a crisis. They cite the example
stated position of unhindered freedom of of the 1962 Sino-Indian war to remind us that Soviet

37
backing was crucial in Mao Zedong’s plans to wage continued close Indian-Russian engagement into the
war against India. foreseeable future,
4) However other experts disagree. They instead point 2) India has done commendably at the highly
out that India and Russia have both shown the
complicated job of navigating the complexities of its
willingness and ability to navigate complex
geopolitical realities historically and have so far relationship with Russia while building a robust one
managed to isolate the dynamics of bilateral ties from with the US in a period of unprecedented turbulence
being overridden by third-party preferences. Russia’s in US-Russia relations. In the face of Russia’s
defense commitments to India are not unshakable, disapproval, India has been working closely with the
but they will depend on dynamics specific to the US within and outside the QUAD to shape the future
bilateral relationship and not on how far China-India of the Indo-Pacific. At the same time, India has also
ties fall.
been able to re-affirm the value of what Russia
5) The COVID-19 pandemic and Western sanctions
imposed in the aftermath of Russia’s annexation of means to it by various diplomatic engagements and
Crimea in 2014 had already forced Russia to seek gestures like establishing a 2+2 Ministerial
deeper economic ties with China. For instance, mechanism—which it only had with its QUAD
China’s share in Russia’s trade turnover had increased partners before—signing deals for more arms
from 10.5 percent ($88.8 billion) in 2013 to 15.7 supplies, despite the looming threat of US sanctions.
percent ($108.3 billion) in 2019.Faced with harsher New Delhi also took a diplomatic stance towards the
sanctions after its ongoing war in Ukraine and with
crisis in Ukraine through abstention at the UNSC and
the volatility in Ruble, Russia’s dependence on
Chinese markets, capital, goods, and services, as well calling for a peaceful settlement of the issue via
as general political backing, will only surge further. diplomacy. New Delhi has not yet allowed its close
Bilateral trade is now projected to reach US$250 ties with the US to tilt its delicate balance on the
billion by 2025. Ukraine issue. To India’s credit, the US also said that
6) Russia has also agreed to sell its frontline fighter jet their relationship with India stands on its own merit
Su-35 to China overcoming its inhibition of Chinese
despite India’s controversial decision to abstain from
mastery at copying advanced Russian technology by
reverse engineering which may help China’s a UNSC vote on the Ukraine-Russia conflict.
ambitious J-31 programme which is facing teething
troubles. Russia has also ignored China’s boosting up
 RUSSIA-UKRAINE CRISIS:-
Pakistan’s nuclear programme by rerouting some of  “War as a Continuation of Policy by Other
the Russian Supplies. Means”–Clausewitz
7) India fears growing Western alienation will result in 1. Introduction
Russia getting closer to China. So New Delhi will 2. Why Ukraine is Imp for Russia
continue to project its support for Russia 3. Russia’s grievances with west
multilaterally, such as abstaining from voting at the 4. What has been response of the international
UN over Ukraine or ‘not supporting’ Western community as far as Russia is concerned
sanctions on Russia. In turn Russia – also trying to 5. Impact of this war
avoid over dependence on Beijing – will try to secure
6. What is India’s stand and why it is so
a greater role for India at the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization (SCO) and close alignment with the  INTRODUCTION
BRICS countries. 1) The Russia-Ukraine war started on February 24, 2022
8) India needs to work on gaining some more influence when Russian troops launched invasion of Ukraine
with Russia in order to stop it giving too much under what it referred as “special military operation”
leverage to China. It must also work for normalization to de-Nazify Ukraine and to de-militarize Ukraine as a
of Russia-USA relation as Russia will become more response to the alleged act of genocide of the
reliant on China is its relation with US led block Russian speaking people (8million people) in the
continues to deteriorate. territories of Donetsk and Luhansk in the Donbass
 CONCLUSION region of Ukraine. Russia's invasion has sent more
than 2.5 million people fleeing across Ukraine's
1) In fact, in this fast-changing multipolar world, both
borders and trapped hundreds of thousands in
countries need each other more than ever. For besieged cities with rising civilian and military
instance, India provided crucial diplomatic support to causalities. It is considered as the biggest military
Russia over Ukraine, Crimea and Syria where it was mobilization in Europe since WW-II.
internationally isolated. Russia still provides India 2) Despite continuing for nearly six months, the end of
with crucial cutting-edge technology in defense, the war is nowhere in sight. The Russian army was
nuclear and dual use technology without any strings able to conquer major parts of the Donbass region
including the city of Mariupol (which would allow
attached like US.These imperatives will drive
Russia to build a land bridge linking the two pro-
Russian separatist regions of Donetsk and Luhansk

38
with Crimea, which Russia occupied and annexed in andBelarus all claim their cultural ancestry to
2014). Kievan Rus -- a mediaeval principality that was
3) However, Ukraine has given stiff resistance to Russia. located in the KievanRus' region.In 1783,
In September 2022, Ukraine has inflicted a major Ukraine was annexed by Imperial Russia in a
operational blow against the Russian military,
largely bloodless event.In the 19th century, the
recapturing a swath of territory in eastern Ukraine
including the city of Izyum. This is Ukraine’s most
Russian Empire started to suppress Ukrainian
significant military success since the Battle of Kyiv in culture and language. This was done in an
March. In a first since the war began, Russia attempt to assimilate Ukrainians into Russian
acknowledged its defeat in the region. culture. The Russian Empire began moving
4) Russian efforts to seize the Donbas region in its ethnic Russians into present-day Ukraine in the
entirety have been thwarted by the precision efforts 18th century.
of Ukrainian forces, with Kupiansk and Izyum – both b) Ukraine joined hands with Russia to become the
significant logistical hubs for Russian forces – being founding member of the Soviet Union in 1922. It
reclaimed by Kyiv in recent days. became the bread basket of Soviet Russia
5) In this era of inter-connected world, the impact of
because it had rich soil that was perfect for
this war is not confined to the parties to the war, but
rather it is global in scope. It has adversely impacted
farming. The population of Ukraine voted
world economy which is still reeling under the impact overwhelmingly for independence in the
of covid pandemic. This war has profoundly impacted referendum of December 1, 1991.
geo-strategic calculations especially in the European c) After the Soviet collapse, many Russian
continent. This war has deepened a geopolitical rift politicians viewed the divorce with Ukraine as a
between the West and Russia. mistake of history and a threat to Russia’s
6) Despite hectic diplomatic negotiations, an amicable standing as a great power. Losing a permanent
solution to the dispute has not elusive so far. Efforts hold on Ukraine, and letting it fall into the
have discussed expanding exchanges of prisoners of Western orbit, was seen by many as a major
war and arranging for UN atomic energy experts to
blow to Russia’s international prestige. Russian
visit and help secure Europe's biggest nuclear power
plant- the Zaporizhzhia nuclear plant in southern
President Putin has persisted in calling Ukraine
Ukraine, which is in the middle of fierce fighting that "Little Russia" .For many in Russia and in the
has raised fears of catastrophe. ethnically Russian parts of Ukraine, the shared
heritage of the countries is an emotional issue
that has been exploited for electoral and military
purposes
d) Budapest Memorandum (1994)- In 1991,
Ukraine was one of the three non-Russian
former Soviet states, including Belarus and
Kazakhstan, that emerged from the Soviet
collapse with nuclear weapons on its territory.
Under the terms of the memorandum, Ukraine
agreed to give its nuclear arsenal and transfer all
nuclear warheads to Russia for
decommissioning. In return, the United States,
Russia, and Britain committed “to respect the
independence and sovereignty and the existing
borders of Ukraine” and “to refrain from the
threat or use of force” against the country.
 RUSSIAN DIASPORA
 RUSSIA’S INTEREST IN UKRAINE  Among Russia’s top concerns is the welfare of
the approximately eight million ethnic Russians
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND living in Ukraine, according to a 2001 census,
a) Russia and Ukraine share deep cultural, mostly in the south and east. Moscow claimed a
linguistic, economic and political bonds with duty to protect these people as a pretext for its
each other. In many ways Ukraine is central to actions in Ukraine.
Russia’s identity and vision for itself in the world.
Russia and Ukraine have shared a troubled past
 BALANCE OF POWER
that stretches all the way back to the 10th a) Ever since Ukraine split from the Soviet Union,
century.The modern nations of Russia, Ukraine both Russia and the West have vied for greater

39
influence in the country in order to keep the is a threat to the authoritarian regime in Russia.
balance of power in the region in their favour. it may trigger demand for similar rights and
accountability by the Russian population.
 EXPANSION OF NATO
 NATO was formed as a collective defence
organisation on 4 April 1949 by 12 founding members
led by USA. Later Greece and Turkey (1952), West
Germany (1955), Spain (1982) and reunified Germany
(October 1990) became members of NATO.
 The Soviet Union formed Warsaw Pacton May 14,
1955composed originally of 8 nations in response to
expansion of NATO. After the democratic revolutions
of 1989 in eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact was
formally declared “non-existent” on July 1, 1991.
 Against informal understanding among USA and
Russia that NATO would not be expanded into ex-
b) NATO’s support to Ukraine: Russia is not happy Soviet territories, 5 waves of expansion of NATO were
carried out after 1991-
with efforts by the US and European Union to
a) 1999: Accession of the Czech Republic, Hungary
induct Ukraine into the US-led military alliance and Poland
of NATO and keep it out of Russian control. b) 2004: Accession of Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia,
Ukraine acts a crucial buffer between Russia and Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia.
West.Russia views the growing support for c) 2009: Accession of Albania and Croatia
Ukraine from NATO - in terms of weaponry, d) 2017: Accession of Montenegro
training and personnel - as a threat to its own e) 2020: Accession of the Republic of North
security. Ukraine is a red line for Moscow, Macedonia
equivalent to what Cuba was to USA in 1962  Russia views NATO as a vestige of the cold war,
Cuban missile crisis.Russia is worried about the inherently directed against it. Russia points out that it
has disbanded the Warsaw Pact, its military alliance,
consequences of the US-led military alliances
and reasons why the west should not do the same.
expanding right up to its doorstep Russia considers post-soviet space its traditional
 RUSSIAN INTEREST IN THE BLACK SEA sphere of influence, in the so called ‘Near Abroad’.
 The unique geography of the Black Sea region  In March 2007, in the Munich Security Conference,
confers several geopolitical advantages to Russia Putin complained that NATO expansion represented a
a) Firstly, it is an important crossroads and serious provocation that reduces the level of mutual
strategic intersection for the entire region. trust and asked against whom was this expansion
intended.
Access to the Black Sea is vital for all littoral and
neighboring states, and greatly enhances the  RUSSIA’S GRIEVANCES WITH WEST
projection of power into several adjacent a) EXPANSION OF NATO
regions.  COLOUR REVOLUTION:- Political interference by west
b) Secondly, the region is an important transit in Ex-Soviet Countries to install a Pro-West Regime.
Example 2004-05 there was a Tulip revolution in
corridor for goods and energy.
Kyrgyzstan and 2004 orange revolution in Ukraine
c) The Black Sea is bordered by countries which are
either NATO members or aspiring to be one. Due  BACKGROUND OF THE LATEST CRISIS
to this faceoff between NATO countries and a) The conflict has been developing since a long
Russia, the Black Seais a region of strategic time.
importance & a potential maritime flashpoint. b) May 2002: President Leonid Kuchma announces
d) Thirdly, Russia needs warm water ports on Black Ukraine’s goal of eventual NATO membership.
Sea coast. Its northern ports are ice-bound for c) 2004- Orange Revolution in Ukraine- Pro-
much parts of the year. Its black sea fleet was Russian Viktor Yanukovych’s presidential win
also based in Sevastapol. It also provides Russia was cancelled following widespread protests –
access to the Mediterranean Sea and its bases at known as the Orange Revolution—against
Latakia and Tartus in Syria. electoral fraud. This protest was instigated by
CIA (of USA)
 CONCERN OVER AN ECONOMICALLY d) 2008- NATO agrees that Georgia and Ukraine will
RESURGENT, DEMOCRATIC UKRAINE become members in future.
 In view of Some experts, emergence of an
economically resurgent and democratic Ukraine
40
e) 2010:- Viktor Yanukovych’s was got selected of goods and services, and visa-free travel to the
president as in legitimate manner EU for Ukrainians
f) 2013- The Obama administration’s interference
in Ukraine’s internal political affairs in 2013 and
2014 to help demonstrators overthrow Ukraine’s
elected, pro‐Russia president Viktor
Yanukovych’s was the single most brazen
provocation, and it caused tensions to spike. The
trigger factor was his decision to reject the
European Union’s terms for an association
agreement in late 2013, in favour of a Russian
offer. It resulted Euromaidan Protests in which
he had to flee Ukraine and later he was removed
from office and he fled to Russia.
g) 2014- Moscow immediately responded by seizing and
annexing Crimea, and a new cold war was underway.
A disputed and internationally rejected referendum
was held on March 16, 2014, in which Moscow claims
96.77 per cent of Crimeans voted to become part of
Russia. Despite international outcry, Russia formally
incorporated Crimea as two Russian federal subjects
– the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of
Sevastopol – on 18 March 2014.Russia seized Crimea
from Ukraine in what was the first time a European
country annexed territory from another country since
World War II.
 President Vladimir Putin had insisted Russia annexed  BUILT UP OF WAR
Crimea to protect ethnic Russians from “far right  Jan. 2021: Zelenskiy appeals to U.S. president
extremists” whom Russia claimed overthrown Joe Biden to let Ukraine join NATO. In February,
President Yanukovych. his government freezes the assets of opposition
 The Donbass region (the Donetsk and Luhansk leader Viktor Medvedchuk, the Kremlin's most
regions) of eastern Ukraine has been facing a pro-
prominent ally in Ukraine.
Russian separatist movement since 2014. Almost 40%
of the people in these two areas are ethnic Russians,
 Dec. 17 2021: Russia presented security
forming the largest minority in the Donbass region. demands to West. Washington later responded
According to the Ukrainian government, the to Russia's security demands, repeating a
movement is actively supported by the Russian commitment to NATO's "open-door" policy
government and Russian paramilitaries make up while offering a "pragmatic evaluation" of
between 15% to 80% of the separatists fighting Moscow's concerns. Two days later Russia says
against the Ukraine government. its demands not addressed.
h) 2015- Minsk I and II agreements: France and  On Feb. 21, 2022, Putin ordered what he called
Germany initiated talks between Ukraine and peacekeeping forces into two breakaway regions
Russia under the Normandy format leading to in eastern Ukraine after recognising them as
the Minsk agreements, in 2014 and 2015. The independent- the Luhansk “People's Republic”
first was for a ceasefire between Ukraine and and Donetsk “People's Republic”. Three days
the Russian-backed separatists. The second was later Putin authorized "special military
between Ukraine, Russia, the two separatist operations" in Ukraine. Russian forces begin
regions of Luhansk and Donetsk and the missile and artillery attacks, striking major
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Ukrainian cities including Kiev. As per Russian
Europe (OSCE). It set out military and political President, the military action announced by
steps that remain unimplemented. It was more Russia will seek to demilitarize Ukraine and
elaborate than the first on ceasefire, and the came in response to threats from Ukraine.
holding of elections for local governance. A Russia has sought to justify its “special military
major blockage has been Russia’s insistence that operation” as a response to the alleged act of
it is not a party to the conflict and therefore is genocide of the Russian speaking people in the
not bound by its terms. territories of Donetsk and Luhansk. Russia's
i) 2017: An association agreement between invasion has sent more than 2.5 million people
Ukraine and the EU opens markets for free trade
41
fleeing across Ukraine's borders and trapped direct intervention, such as imposing no-fly zone
hundreds of thousands in besieged cities over Ukraine for fear of being dragged into a war
with Russia.
 WHAT ARE RUSSIA’S DEMANDS?
4. The West has sanctioned Russian business,
 Russia wants a guarantee that Ukraine can never
frozen state assets and cut off much of the
join NATO Russia's main demand is a
Russian corporate sector from the global
commitment from NATO to end its further
economy in an attempt to force Putin to change
expansion into former Soviet republics —
course. Following the invasion of Ukraine, Russia
especially Ukraine. Russia wants NATO to rescind
was partially banned from SWIFT. French
a 2008 promise that Ukraine could someday join
Finance Minister Bruno Le Maire had described
the defence alliance. It wants Ukraine to amend
the measure as a “financial nuclear weapon”.
the country’s Constitution to drop attempts to
join any bloc (NATO) and reinstate its neutrality.  WHAT IS SWIFT?
 Russia wants NATO arms out of Eastern Europe  The SWIFT system stands for the Society for
Russia wants NATO to stop deploying its Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication
weapons and forces in countries in Central and and is a secure platform for financial institutions
Eastern Europe that joined the alliance after to exchange information about global monetary
1997.Russia has nervously watched as NATO has transactions such as money transfers. It operates
demonstrated it can deepen its involvement in as a middleman to verify information of
Ukraine — providing weapons and training. transactions by providing secure financial
NATO missiles on Ukrainian soil might pose messaging services to more than 11,000 banks in
serious threat to Russia’s security. over 200 countries.
 Russia’s demands in Ukraine’s territory It wants  Based in Belgium, it is overseen by the central
Kyiv banks from eleven industrial countries. Cutting
a) to accept Crimea as a Russian territory, off a country from SWIFT in the financial world is
b) to recognize Donetsk and Luhansk as equivalent to restricting Internet access of a
independent republics nation. Prior to this, only one country had been
cut off from SWIFT — Iran. It resulted in it losing
 RESPONSE OF INTERNATIONAL a third of its foreign trade.
COMMUNITY  The Western countries have said that cutting
1. Several rounds of talks have been held between Russian banks out of Swift will ensure they are
Russian and Ukrainian officials to discuss the disconnected from the international financial
opening of humanitarian corridors for the system and harm their ability to operate
evacuation of civilians, resuming export of globally. The aim is for Russian companies to
foodgrains via Black Sea port, etc .The Ukrainian lose access to the normal smooth and instant
President, Volodymyr Zelensky, is reported to transactions provided by Swift, disrupting
have said that he is prepared not to insist on his payments for its valuable energy and agricultural
country’s North Atlantic Treaty Organization exports.
(NATO) membership and he is ready to discuss 5. US announced a total ban on American imports
the status of the eastern region of Donbas. of Russian oil and gas and gold etc. while EU
2. NATO strongly condemned Russia’s invasion of announced a plan for gradual reduction in its
Ukraine, which is entirely unjustified and dependence on Russian energy supply and
unprovoked. It considered it as a grave violation diversification of its energy imports basket.
of international law and a serious threat to Euro- 6. Sports and cultural bans—the FIFA World Cup
Atlantic security. NATO Allies call on President (both men’s and women’s), International Ice
Putin to immediately stop the war, withdraw all Hockey Federation, Formula 1, and Eurovision
his forces from Ukraine, and engage in good Song Contest—tried to foster a sense of isolation
faith in diplomatic efforts. Furthermore, NATO for the average Russian.
calls on Russia to fully respect international 7. The West's withering set of sanctions on Russia
humanitarian law and to allow safe and has taken a dramatic toll, the country defaulted
unhindered humanitarian access and assistance on its foreign debt for the first time since the
to all persons in need. Bolshevik revolution more than a century ago. At
3. The Western countries led by the US, have the same time, the sanctions have inflicted pain
offered Ukraine financing, military equipment on Americans and Europeans who are suffering
and training and have applied increasingly strict high gas prices. Due to adverse impact of
sanctions on Russia. But they have ruled out any sanctions, a deep recession is expected and
42
Russia's economy is expected to shrink by 10% in push it back toward its traditional role of
2022. Moscow is still reaping massive revenues protecting Europe and, by extension, North
from its oil exports -- due in part to the America.
skyrocketing prices.  Europe’s strategic geography is changing – to
8. On September 2, 2022, Finance Ministers of all NATO’s advantage. Sweden and Finland shed
G7 countries as well as the European Union their policy of neutrality between Russia and the
announced their plan to impose a ‘PRICE CAP’ West and applied for NATO membership. The
on Russian Oil exports. It would mean simply addition of Finland and Sweden to NATO means
not buying Russian oil unless the price is reduced that all of the Baltic Sea’s littoral states except
to where the cap is determined. For countries Russia will be NATO members. Their
that don’t join the coalition, or buy oil higher membership will double the length of NATO's
than the cap price, they would lose access to all border with Russia and make the Baltic states
services provided by the coalition countries easier to defend. The inclusion of the two will
including for example, insurance, currency give NATO a whole new range of ports and air
payment, facilitation and vessel clearances for bases, and the ability to reinforce the Baltic
their shipments. States more easily.
9. G7 countries say they are aiming to reduce the  Putin’s decision to invade is in direct violation of the
price of oil, but not the quantity of oil that Russia Budapest Memorandum, a key instrument assuring
sells, so as to control inflation globally while Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial integrity. This
hurting the Russian economy and its ability to may have far-reaching consequences for the future of
nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament. Russia’s
fund the war in Ukraine
actions will weaken
 As far as global institutions is concerned:- In UN a) The credibility of major power security
general assembly ,UN security council, UN assurances,
Human rights commission , in IAEA , all have b) Undermine the nuclear non-proliferation regime
passed resolutions against Russia. and
 RUSSIAN RESPONSE TO WESTERN c) Dampen prospects for future disarmament.
 In light of Ukraine’s experience, the pursuance of
SANCTIONS nuclear weapons to safeguard one’s sovereignty and
 Russia has resorted to three main sanctions defense independence may be seen as more legitimate. It
strategies to contain those costs: may trigger a resurgent interest in nuclear weapons.
a) alternative trade partners,
b) sanctions busting, and 2) ECONOMIC IMPACT
c) domestic offsets.  In an increasingly interconnected world, the impact
 Russia has banned exports of more than 200 of war do not confine to Ukraine and Russia, it has far
products, including telecoms, medical, vehicle, more effect on other economies.
agricultural, electrical equipment and timber. The a) Rising energy costs and disruptions to supply chains
SWIFT threat did prompt Russia to develop its own, caused by the fighting and sanctions have fuelled
very fledgling, cross-border transfer system called the inflationary pressures worldwide, thereby sapping
System for Transfer of Financial Messages (SPFS) as growth world-wide. Most of the world can be
an alternative to Swift. Separately, Moscow is counted as economic losers from the conflict, with
working with Beijing to connect to China's Cross- rising food and energy prices set to push up inflation
Border Interbank Payment System (CIPS) - another from Asia to Europe and the U.S. squeezing
alternative to Swift which processes payments in household budgets just as economies were beginning
Chinese yuan. to put the worst of the pandemic behind them. Prices
 Russia has diversified its energy exports by selling oil have surged as investors judge those Western
at steep discounts to different countries including sanctions and logistical disruptions could choke off
India and China. Russia’s abundant supplies of oil, gas, grains, metals
 US announced to provide another $4.5bn to Ukraine. and fertilizers, while the war has disrupted Ukrainian
Moscow suspended nuclear arms inspections under and Russian exports of food staples such as wheat
2010 new START treaty with Washington. and sunflower seeds.
b) Supply of semiconductors, which decreased as a
 IMPACT OF RUSSIAN INVASION result of Covid-related disruptions but started picking
1) GEO-STRATEGIC IMPACT up as manufacturing chains normalized, is now being
threatened once again by the Ukraine War. This is on
 Shift NATO focus to Europe again from China-
account of supply of two key raw materials — neon
An escalating crisis in Ukraine threatens to
and palladium — that are at a risk of being
overturn recent efforts by the United States and constrained. Russia supplies over 40 per cent of
NATO to shift the alliance’s attention to the world’s palladium and Ukraine produces 70 per cent
security challenge posed by China, and would of neon.
43
c) Energy politics- the politics around energy has EU feared deliberate disruption in Russian gas
been a subtext to the Ukraine crisis. Soon, and oil supplies- driving energy prices up.
thereafter, Germany halted the Nord Stream 2 Russian countersanctions, most significantly
— a 1,230- km-long gas pipeline — that would cutting natural gas supplies to the European
have dramatically increased availability of Union, are having a bite of their own.
Russian gas in Germany. Sanctions prevent  On September 5, 2022, in response to ‘price cap’
Russia from pumping Russian gas through the plan of G 7, Russia also announced a halt on all
newly built Nord Stream 2 pipeline to Germany. supplies via the Nord Stream 1 pipeline to
Nord Stream 2 is one of two pipelines that Europe due to “maintenance issues” arising from
Russia has laid underwater in the Baltic Sea in the EU sanctions already in place, raising fears of
addition to its traditional land-based pipeline a very difficult winter for European countries.
network that runs through Eastern Europe,  Gas shortages are already causing major
including Ukraine industries to cut back production. Conservation
as well as fuel- and supplier-switching measures
have helped but only somewhat. The EU’s recent
gas-sharing agreement has enough loopholes to
still leave the specter of winter rationing
looming. Indeed, some rationing has already
started. Amid one of the hottest summers on
record,
a) Spain is requiring commercial air
conditioning to be set no lower than 27
degrees Celsius
b) The Netherlands is encouraging 5-minute
limits on showers, and
c) In France, “urban guerrillas” are shutting off
storefront lights.
4) GLOBAL PEACE:
 The conflict has heightened tensions in Russia’s
relations with both the United States and
Europe, complicating the prospects for
cooperation elsewhere including on issues of
terrorism, arms control, and a political solution
in Syria.
 INDIA’S STAND RUSS-UKR CRISIS
 India has been neutral in this matter
 The Volodymyr Zelenskyy-led government
requested India to intervene and hold talks with
Russian President Vladimir Putin. After the
conflict began, Modi has held many telephonic
conversations with Russian President Vladimir
Putin and spoke to Ukrainian President
Volodymyr Zelenskyy twice. Indian PM Modi
appealed for an immediate cessation of violence
in his phone call to Russian President Putin. He
expressed his long-standing conviction that the
differences between Russia and Ukraine can only
be resolved through honest and sincere
dialogue.
 Since the start of the Russia-Ukraine war India
has abstained from voting more than 11 times
3) ENERGY CRISIS whenever this issue has come up – be it the
 In any conflict- Europe worries Russia will use United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), the
energy as a weapon to pressurize Europe which United Nations Security Council (UNSC), the
is heavily dependent on Russian energy supplies. United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC),
44
or the International Atomic Energy Agency the three other Quad member countries have
(IAEA). It was justified on the ground of national been severely critical of Russia for its military
interest. aggression against Ukraine.
 However, India has unequivocally condemned  India’s stand is criticized by Western Countries.
the violence and called for the resolution of the The West views India’s stand as condoning
conflict through dialogue and diplomacy. India Russia’s actions and applying double standards.
called for urgent de-escalation of tensions and As per them, India raises the issue of “territorial
expressed deep concern over the developments. integrity and sovereignty” when it comes to
Russia had welcomed India’s balanced, China. However, it chose to remain neutral on
principled and independent approach after the Ukrainian issue.
India’s statement at UNSC. Further India has  U.S. President Joe Biden said India’s position was
called for respecting the sovereignty and “somewhat shaky”. His Deputy National Security
territorial integrity of all countries. India also Adviser for International Economics warned
sent humanitarian aid to Ukraine and expressed India of “consequences” if it conducts trade with
its outrage at the civilian killings in Ukraine’s Russia circumventing American sanctions.
Bucha, calling for an independent probe into this  India and the West may have their own
incident. India has explained its abstentions as perspectives about the Russia-Ukraine conflict,
taking a neutral approach since this is not India’s but India is making an effort to work around the
war. differences, while maintaining its focus on the
 In his meeting with President Putin on the Indo-Pacific Region. In the past two months,
sidelines of SCO summit in Samarand on 17 India has had a hectic diplomatic schedule with a
September 2022, PM Modi told Putin that this flurry of high profile meetings. These
was not an “era” of war and “dialogue” was the engagements with the United States, Japan,
only way forward. This indicated India’s Australia, the U.K., and the EU indicate India is
discomfort with Russia’s attack on Ukraine for maintaining its focus on the Indo-Pacific Region.
the first time in public, although New Delhi has  REASONS FOR INDIA’S DIPLOMATIC
not criticized Russia for its action so far. The
conversation between the leaders also revolved DILEMMA:-
around major food, energy security crisis the 1. TO MAINTAIN BALANCE BETWEEN RUSSIA
world is facing. AND US
 Earlier in 2014, India had not joined the Western a) India has good relations with its strategic
powers’ condemnation of Russia’s intervention partners Russia and the US and siding with
in Crimea and kept a low profile on the issue. one of these countries could cost India its
Also in November 2020, India had voted against relationship with the other. India’s position
a Ukraine-sponsored resolution in the UN that on the ongoing Ukraine crisis is guided by
condemned alleged human rights violations in the desire to keep clear of the crosshairs of
Crimea thereby backing old ally Russia on the big power rivalry and is reminiscent of its
issue. In times of the previous three crises – quintessential ‘strategic autonomy’.
a) the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, b) Like any other country, India also retains the
b) the Prague Spring of 1968, and right to take policies based on pragmatic
c) the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in 1979 realism and its core national interests. And
– India chose not to use condemnatory India thinks that a neutral position anchored
language against Russian foreign policy. in strategic autonomy which keeps channels
Russia, for its part, was seen as a steadfast open with both sides is what serves its
supporter of India in the United Nations interests.
Security Council, particularly with respect to c) India has maintained its neutrality from
the Kashmir dispute and India’s nuclear distant conflict in Eastern Europe.
ambitions. Strategically, this is the most important
 At the recent Quad meeting in Australia, India global crisis since the end of the Cold War.
did not publicly express concern about Russia’s India has improved its strategic partnership
military build-up. Australia, Japan came out with the U.S., and the West in general, over
more explicitly on the American side during the the last 30 years, while at the same time
Quad meeting. Australia said that the Quad retaining warm ties with Russia. This
member countries have accepted India's balancing was not tested in the recent past.
position on the crisis in Ukraine Except for India, But with the Russian attack on Ukraine and
the near-total breakdown in ties between
45
Russia and the West, countries such as India b) The new sanctions could exclude Russia
are now faced with a difficult choice of from the Swift payments system.
picking a side.  IMPACT ON INDIA
d) Given the transformation of India’s
1) The external sector shocks and tremors quickly
partnership with the U.S., which also sees
overwhelm the domestic stock markets.
India as a counterweight to China in the
Investors have lost millions of wealth due to the
Indo-Pacific region, many expected India to
market fluctuations arising out of brewing
give up its strategic autonomy and take a
conflict that started in early February and
stand that aligns with that of the West. It did
culminated in invasion on February 24. With
not happen.
razing levels of invasion without any sign of
2. THE INDIA’S OWN VULNERABILITY IN abatement, the losses could be deeper.
NEIGHBORHOOD 2) Weak rupee against US $ is another major
a) Given its experiences in its own macroeconomic concern leading to widening
neighborhood, with China and Pakistan, current account deficit (CAD). Rating agency
India is also wary of the implications of not ICRA expects CAD to widen to 3.2 percent in
condemning one country unilaterally FY23 if the crude prices continue to stay
attempting to change the borders it shares elevated at a threatening level. The continued
with another. fall of rupee is pushing exporters into new
b) India urges that all member States dimensions of exchange rate risk. It has touched
demonstrate their commitment to the a low of Rs.80 to dollar at its all-time low. There
principles of the UN Charter, to international are indications that if Russia does not sell crude
law and respect for sovereignty and oil and OPEC does not increase supply, there is a
territorial integrity of all states. hovering further upside risks to inflation.
3. INCREASING SINO-RUSSIA PROXIMITY 3) Exports to Russia account for less than 1% of
a) India is worried about the Russia-China axis India’s total exports, but exports of
too. India is also conscious that the hostility pharmaceuticals and tea could face some
between the West and Russia is likely to challenges, as will shipments to CIS countries.
push Moscow further in the direction of Freight rate hikes could make overall exports
Beijing. The West not only failed to deter less competitive, too.
Russia, but its limited responses to war are 4) In June 2022, Russia has overtaken Saudi Arabia
also pushing Russia deeper into the Chinese to become India's second-biggest supplier of oil
embrace. The crisis will make Moscow more behind Iraq as refiners buy Russian crude
dependent on friends like China and build a available at a deep discount following the war in
regional bloc of sorts that India is not a part Ukraine. The pressure on India to stop purchase
of. of Russian oil and gas has increased in the
b) Russia is already averse to the Indo-Pacific backdrop of intensifying attacks on Ukraine.
concept and the Quad as a revival of Cold Similar geopolitical crises in the past, relating to
War bloc politics and views them as being Iran and Venezuela, had forced India to opt for
against its Asia-Pacific interests. Any Ukraine alternative sources of energy, which came “at a
conflict and a resulting breakdown of Russia- higher cost.
West ties will strengthen Russian opposition 5) The assertion of India’s position came as
to these concepts and forums which are international demand increased on India to stop
binding us to the US. India’s relation with buying Russian energy. The Indian side argued
the Beijing is at an abysmal low since the that a large number of Western and European
Galwan clash of June 2020. India can’t afford countries, in particular, were purchasing energy
to alienate Russia particularly when Indian from Russia even though Moscow was carrying
and Chinese troops remain in a border out an aggressive military operation across
stand-off. Ukraine. Among the top buyers of Russian oil
4. INDIA’S INVESTMENT IN RUSSIA and gas are Germany, Italy, France, and the
a) India’s plans in Russia’s energy sector and in Netherlands. The source pointed out that apart
the development of its Far East, in general, from the major countries of Europe, even
would become problematic, especially by frontline states such as Poland, Lithuania,
the reluctance of the private sector due to Romania and Finland were importing vast
the complex US sanctions. quantity of oil.

46
6) India has rejected any “moral” duty to join the states. International organizations are
price cap coalition of G7 countries. India has characterized by rules that seek to regulate the
asserted that its duty was to providing relations amongst member states and by a
affordable oil to Indian consumers. At the EEF formal structure that implements and enforces
2022, PM Modi said he wanted to “strengthen” these rules.
ties with Russia in the energy field and boost  The United Nations is, without doubt, the most
India’s $16 billion investment in Russian oilfields. important international organization created to
It also remains to be seen whether India will date. Established though the San Francisco
bargain with the U.S. to set aside sanctions Conference (April–June 1945), it is the only truly
against Iran and Venezuela, from which it global organization ever to be constructed,
cancelled oil imports under pressure from the having a membership of 193 states. The principal
U.S. in 2017-18, in exchange for joining the price aims of the UN, as spelled out by its founding
cap coalition. Charter, are as follows:
 WAY OUT a) To safeguard peace and security in order ‘to
1) For many analysts, the conflict marked a clear shift in
save succeeding generations from the
the global security environment from a unipolar scourge of war’
period of U.S. dominance to one defined by renewed b) To ‘reaffirm faith in fundamental human
competition between great powers. However, a rights’
solution to the conflict is at hand, in the form of the c) To uphold respect for international law
Minsk II agreement of 2015 calling for autonomy for a d) To ‘promote social progress and better
demilitarized Donbas within Ukraine, under standards of life’
international guarantees.
2) No one is a winner in a war. Destruction of life,  PRINCIPLES OF UN
livelihood and property is inevitable in armed  Article 2 of UN charter contains the principles on
conflicts and its economic impact will linger on for a which UN is based. The Organization and its Members
long time to come making people poor and destitute. shall act in accordance with the following Principles-
We are still experiencing the wrath of Covid19. a) UN is based on the principle of the sovereign
3) World leaders should come together not for equality of all its Members.
discussing scale of sanctions but to work out ways to b) All Members shall fulfil the obligations in
resolve the issue and put an end to the mayhem. accordance with the UN Charter
Diplomatic channels should be used to have dialogue, c) All Members shall settle their international
negotiate, convince and arrive at amicable solutions disputes by peaceful means
to end the conflicts. The increased spate of sanctions d) All Members shall refrain in their international
on one country is a pain to other dependent relations from the threat or use of force
countries and it disrupts the world order. Prolonged e) All Members shall give the United Nations every
armed conflicts will worsen the plight of innocent assistance in any action it takes in accordance
countries and its people. with the present Charter, and
f) They shall refrain from giving assistance to any
………3nd class ended,4rd started……….
state against which the United Nations is taking
 UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION preventive or enforcement action.
(U.N.O):- g) The UN shall ensure that states which are not
Members of the United Nations act in
 STRUCTURE OF LECTURE OF UNO accordance with these Principles.
1. Origin and purpose of UNO h) the UN shall not intervene in matters which are
2. Structure of UNO essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any
a) Principal organs state but this principle shall not prejudice the
b) Specialized agencies application of enforcement measures under
3. Assessment of UNO Chapter VII.
a) Criticism  However, the UN was not the first organization
b) Significance that was constructed to guarantee world peace;
4. Reforms of UNO its predecessor, the League of Nations, had been
5. India and UN founded at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919
a) Contribution with very similar goals, namely to enable
b) Claim for permanent membership of UNSC collective security, to arbitrate over
 An international organization (sometimes called international disputes and to bring about
international governmental organizations or disarmament. The League of Nations was
IGOs) is an institution with formal procedures inspired by US President Woodrow Wilson’s
and a membership comprising three or more Fourteen Points, established as the basis for
47
long-term peace in post-WWI Europe. The c) the World Health Organization (WHO)
League, nevertheless, suffered from major d) the UN Human Rights Council
defects, which the later architects of the UN e) the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural
tried to take fully into account Organization (UNESCO) and the
 COLLECTIVE SECURITY f) UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) etc.
 Collective security is the theory or practice of 1. THE SECURITY COUNCIL
states pledging to defend one another in order  The Security Council is the most significant UN
to deter aggression or to punish a transgressor if body. It is headquartered at the UN
international order has been breached. Its key headquarters in New York City. This is charged
idea is that aggression can best be resisted by with the maintenance of international peace and
united action taken by a number of states. This is security, and so is responsible for the UN’s role
the only alternative to the insecurity and as negotiator, observer, peacekeeper and,
uncertainty of power politics. In other words, it ultimately, peace enforcer. The Council has the
is the idea or practice of common defence, in power to pass legally-binding resolutions to
which a number of states pledge themselves to  suspend or expel members,
defend each other, based on the principle of ‘all  impose economic sanctions and
for one and one for all’.  take military action to maintain or restore
 The basic blueprint for the new international peace and security.
organization was drawn up in August 1944 at  The Security Council has 15 members. The Big
Dumbarton Oaks, Washington DC, by delegates from Five (or P-5) – the USA, Russia, China, the UK and
the USA, the Soviet Union, China and the UK. The
France – are permanent ‘veto powers. The
United Nations was established as the successor to
the League of Nations when 50 states met in San
non‑permanent members are elected on a
Francisco to agree the terms of the UN Charter. The regional basis for a two‑year term by the
UN Charter was signed in San Francisco on 26 June General Assembly by a two-thirds vote. It is not
1945, with the UN officially coming into existence on possible to be re‑elected immediately after
24 October (since known as UN Day). holding a seat. The council's presidency rotates
THE STRUCTURE OF UNO 
every month among its 15 members.
When the Charter of the United Nations was
 The UN has six major organs adopted in 1945, the Security Council had only
1) The General Assembly. five permanent and six non‑permanent
2) The Security Council. members, a total of eleven in all. In 1963, the
3) The Secretariat. General Assembly decided to expand the
4) The International Court of Justice. Security Council by creating four additional
5) The Economic and Social Council. non‑permanent seats; this reform came into
6) The Trusteeship Council force in 1965. The Security Council has existed in
its present format since 1966.
 VOTING PROCESS IN UNSC
 Article 27 of UN Charter states that:
a) Each member of the Security Council shall have one
vote.
b) Decisions of the Security Council on procedural
matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine
members.
c) 3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other
matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine
members including the concurring votes of the
permanent members. However, any member,
whether permanent or nonpermanent, must abstain
from voting in any decision concerning the peaceful
settlement of a dispute to which it is a party.
The five permanent members enjoy the luxury of

 The UN family also includes a range of veto power; meaning that they can block
specialized agencies, funds and programmes, decisions made by other members of the
including Council. When a permanent member vetoes a
a) the IMF, vote, the Council resolution cannot be adopted,
b) the World Bank regardless of international support. Even if the
48
other fourteen nations vote yes, a single veto  elect, in conjunction with the Security
will beat this overwhelming show of support. Council, the UN Secretary-General and the
 If a permanent member does not fully agree judges of the International Court of Justice.
with a proposed resolution but does not wish to  The General Assembly is made up of all UN
cast a veto, it may choose to abstain, thus member states, with one vote each. A two-thirds
allowing the resolution to be adopted if it majority in the General Assembly is required for
obtains the required number of nine favourable decisions on key issues such as
votes. Abstention of a permanent member does  international peace and security,
not amount to veto.  the admission of new members, and
 Although, the veto can elicit paralysis, it also  the UN budget.
serves a useful function. This function is known  A simple majority is required for other matters.
as the concert function. By instituting the veto, The decisions reached by the General Assembly
the UN was virtually ensuring the participation have the status of recommendations, rather
of all the Great Powers. The veto allows the than binding decisions, so they cannot force
permanent members to manage their action by any state. One of the few exceptions is
interactions in regard to their interests. When the General Assembly’s Fifth Committee, which
they all agree, action can be taken. When they makes decisions on the budget that are binding
disagree, action can be blocked. Areas of on members. The General Assembly can
contention are therefore avoided and the Great consider any matter within the scope of the UN
Powers are separated, effectively averting direct Charter.
confrontation.  The Assembly neither has a legislative role nor
 When the Security Council considers a threat to does it oversee or scrutinize, in any meaningful
international peace, it first explores ways to sense, the Security Council or the Secretariat.
settle the dispute peacefully under the terms of  In other words, the UN General Assembly
Chapter VI of the UN Charter. It can do so by (UNGA) can only make non-binding
negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, recommendations, which is another reason for
arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional ineffectiveness of the UN and another important
agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful issue of UN reform.
means.  NON-MEMBER STATES OF UN
 The responsibilities and powers enshrined in  Two countries are not members of the U.N.:
Chapter VII of the Charter are central to the a) -Palestine and
Security Council’s ability to uphold international b) -the Holy See (Vatican City)
stability and peace by averting or ending  Both, however, are considered non-member States of
conflicts. In the event of fighting, the Security the United Nations, which means they have
Council tries to secure a ceasefire and may send permanent invitations to participate as observers of
a peacekeeping mission. The Council can also the General Assembly and are provided free access to
take measures to enforce its decisions under documents of the United Nations.
Chapter VII of the Charter, for instance through  Non-member permanent observer status has been
the imposition of economic sanctions, arms recognized as a matter of practice in the U.N. since
1946 when the Swiss Government was given the
embargoes, or collective military action.
status by the Secretary-General. More often than not,
 The Council also makes recommendations to the permanent observers later join the United Nations as
General Assembly on the appointment of a new full members when their independence has been
secretary- general and on the admission of new recognized by more members and their governments
members to the UN. and economy have stabilized
2. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY 3. THE SECRETARIAT
 This is the main deliberative organ of the UN,  This services the other principal organs of the
sometimes dubbed the ‘parliament of nations. UN and administers the programmes and
The Assembly consists of all members of the UN, policies laid down by them. Although its main
each of which has a single vote. The Assembly activities are located in the UN’s headquarters in
can do the following- New York, it has offices all over the world and a
 debate and pass resolutions on any matter total staff of about 40,000.
covered by the Charter, and  At its head is the Secretary-General, who
 has a specific responsibility to examine and functions as the public face of the UN as well as
approve the UN’s budget, its chief administrative officer. He is appointed
 determine the members’ contributions, and by the Assembly on the recommendation of the
49
Security Council for a five-year, renewable term. bodies include Functional Commissions, such as
The Secretary-General deals with a multifaceted the Commission on the Status of Women;
bureaucracy staffed by civil servants from Regional Commissions, such as the Economic
various states and cultures. It tries to maintain Commission for Africa; and other bodies.
the UN’s independence, often in a context of  The Economic and Social Council has been
rivalry amongst P-5 states. Nevertheless, criticized, as it has become overshadowed by
Secretaries-General have some capacity to institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank
influence the status and policy direction of the which are lacking democratic processes,
organization. transparency, and accountability.
 António Guterres from Portugal was sworn in as 5. THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF
the ninth secretary-general in January 2017. On
the recommendation of the other bodies, the JUSTICE
Secretariat also carries out a number of research  The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the
functions and some quasi-management principal judicial organ of the United Nations
functions. Yet the role of the Secretariat remains (UN).It also known as the World Court. It was
primarily bureaucratic. The only exception is the established in June 1945 by the Charter of the
power of the secretary-general, under Article 99 United Nations and began work in April 1946.m
of the Charter, to bring situations that are likely  The seat of the Court is at the Peace Palace in
to lead to a breakdown of international peace The Hague (Netherlands). Of the six principal
and security to the attention of the Security organs of the United Nations, it is the only one
Council. This article was the legal basis for the not located in New York (United States of
remarkable expansion of the diplomatic role of America).
the secretary-general, compared with its League  The International Court of Justice is composed of
predecessor. 15 judges elected to nine-year terms of office by
the United Nations General Assembly and the
4. ECONOMIC & SOCIAL COUNCIL Security Council. The Court may not include
 This consists of 54 members elected by the
more than one national of the same State.
General Assembly. Its chief role is to coordinate
Moreover, the Court as a whole must represent
the economic and social work of the UN and the
the main forms of civilization and the principal
UN family of organizations. This involves
legal systems of the world. These organs vote
overseeing the activities of a large number of
simultaneously but separately. In order to be
programmes, funds and specialized agencies.
elected, a candidate must receive an absolute
These include the socalled ‘three sisters’
majority of the votes in both bodies.
 the World Bank,
 In order to ensure a measure of continuity, one
 -the IMF and
third of the Court is elected every three years.
 -the WTO –
Judges are eligible for re-election. It is assisted
 This supervision also bodies such as the – -
by a Registry, its administrative organ. Its official
 International Labour Organization (ILO),
languages are English and French.
 -the World Health Organization (WHO),
 Presently Justice Dalveer Bhandari is an Indian
 -the United Nations Educational, Scientific
judge serving in the ICJ. He is the fourth judge to
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and
serve the ICJ after B.N Rau, Nagendra Singh and
 -the United Nations Children’s Fund
R.S.Pathak.
(UNICEF).
 The Court decides disputes between countries.
 The expansion of the UN’s economic and social
Participation by states in a proceeding is
institutions occurred largely along functionalist
voluntary, but if a state agrees to participate, it
lines, bodies being created or further developed
is obligated to comply with the Court’s decision.
as specific economic and social problems
The Court also provides advisory opinions to
emerged.
other UN organs and specialized agencies on
 The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC),
request.
under the overall authority of the General
 The court’s judgment is final and without appeal.
Assembly, coordinates the economic and social
The court itself has no powers of enforcement,
work of the United Nations and the UN family of
but according to article 94 of the UN Charter, if
organizations. It also consults with non-
any party to a case fails to perform the
governmental organizations (NGOs), thereby
obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment
maintaining a vital link between the United
rendered by the Court, the other party may have
Nations and civil society. ECOSOC’s subsidiary
recourse to the Security Council. The Security
50
Council, if it deems necessary, make about non- grant of consular access to Kulbhushan
recommendations or decide upon measures to Jadhav was a violation of the Vienna Convention. On
be taken to give effect to the judgment. In 17 July 2019 the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
general, however, enforcement is made possible delivered its final verdict on the Kulbhushan Jadhav
because the court’s decisions are viewed as case. With a 15-1 majority decision in India’s favour,
legitimate by the international community. the court found that Pakistan had breached its
 COMPULSORY JURISDICTION OF ICJ obligations under the 1963 Vienna Convention on
Each State which has recognized the compulsory Consular Relations (VCCR). The ICJ ruled that
jurisdiction of the Court has in principle the right to Pakistan must undertake an "effective review and
bring any one or more other States, which have reconsideration" of the conviction and sentence of
accepted the same obligation, before the Court, by Mr, Jadhav and also to grant consular access to India
filing an application instituting proceeding with the without further delay.
Court. Conversely, it undertakes to appear before 6. THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
the Court should proceedings be instituted against it  It was established to provide international
by one or more other such States. The nature of supervision for 11 Trust Territories administered
legal disputes in relation to which such compulsory by seven member states, and to ensure that
jurisdiction may be recognized are listed in Article adequate steps were taken to prepare the
36, paragraphs 2-5, of the Statute, which are as territories for selfgovernment or independence.
follows- By 1994, all the Trust Territories had attained
a) the interpretation of a treaty; self-government or independence, either as
b) any question of international law;
separate states or by joining neighbouring
c) the existence of any fact which, if established,
independent countries. The last to do so was the
would constitute a breach of an international
obligation; Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Palau,
d) the nature or extent of the reparation to be which had previously been administered by the
made for the breach of an international United States.
obligation.  SPECIALIZED AGENCIES OF UNO
Kulbhushan Jadhav case  Specialized Agencies are legally independent
India was involved in a case at the ICJ on six different international organizations with their own rules,
occasions including ‘Kulbhushan Jadhav case’. membership, organs and financial resources,
Pakistan was the opposite party on four of these six were brought into relationship with the United
occasions. The Vienna Convention on Consular Nations through negotiated agreements.
Relations is an international treaty that defines  Some of the agencies existed before the First
consular relations between independent states. World War, some were associated with the
Article 36 of the Vienna Convention states that League of Nations, others were created almost
foreign nationals who are arrested or detained in the simultaneously with the United Nations and yet
host country must be given notice without delay of others were created by the United Nations itself
their right to have their embassy or consulate to meet emerging needs.
notified of that arrest. India and Pakistan are  Given the diversity of their respective fields of
signatories to Optional Protocol to Vienna action, history and experience, each agency has
Convention on Consular Relations concerning the its own needs and concerns, not to speak of
Compulsory Settlement of Disputes’. According to corporate culture. Some of these specialized
this protocol, all disputes relating to interpretation agencies are as follows
or application of this convention falls under  International Labour Organization (ILO)
compulsory jurisdiction of the ICJ.  The International Labour Organization (ILO) was
Kulbhushan Jadhav, an Indian national, was founded in 1919, its Constitution forming part of
sentenced to death by a Pakistani military court on the Treaty of Versailles. The ILO became the first
charges of espionage and terrorism in April 2017. specialized agency of the UN in 1946.
India had challenged the verdict in the International  Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Court of Justice (ICJ), the top UN court. It accused  The aim of the Food and Agriculture
Pakistan of violating Vienna Convention on Consular Organization, as defined in its Constitution, is to:
Relations 1963 by failing to provide Jadhav with  raise levels of nutrition and standards of
consular access despite repeated Indian requests. In living;
its interim order in May 2017, the ICJ stayed  secure improvements in food production
Jadhav’s death sentence until the ICJ’s final and distribution;
judgment in the case. The Court upheld India’s stand
51
 better the conditions of rural people and; existence in 1950 and became a UN specialised
 contribute toward an expanding world agency in 1951.
economy and ensure freedom from hunger.  International Maritime Organization (IMO)
 United Nations Educational, Scientific and  The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) the UN specialised agency responsible for the
 The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural safety of life at sea, maritime security and the
Organization (UNESCO) was established in 1945 protection of the marine environment through
to promote the aims set out in article 1, para. 3 prevention of sea pollution caused by ships. It
of the UN Charter. Its purpose, as stated in facilitates cooperation among governments to
article 1 of its Constitution, is to contribute to achieve the highest practicable standards of
peace and security by promoting collaboration maritime safety and security, and efficiency in
among nations through education, science and navigation.
culture.  World Intellectual Property Organization
 International Civil Aviation Organization (WIPO)
(ICAO)  The World Intellectual Property Organization
 The Convention on International Civil Aviation, (WIPO) is dedicated to developing a balanced
which provided for the establishment of the and accessible international intellectual property
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), (IP) system that rewards creativity, stimulates
was signed in Chicago in 1944. The Organization innovation and contributes to economic
came into existence on 4 April 1947 after 26 development while safeguarding the public
states had ratified the Convention. Under article interest.
44 of the Convention, the ICAO is charged with  World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
developing the principles and techniques of  UNWTO is the UN's specialised agency in the
international air navigation, and fostering the field of tourism. It provides leadership and
planning and development of international air support to the tourism sector in the
transport to ensure the safe and orderly growth advancement of sustainable policies, practices
of international civil aviation throughout the and actions. Through the promotion and
world. development of responsible, sustainable and
 World Health Organization (WHO) universally accessible tourism, UNWTO
 Representatives of 61 states adopted the World endeavors to maximise tourism's contribution to
Health Organization (WHO) Constitution in 1946. socio-economic growth, job creation,
The Organization formally came into existence development, environmental conservation,
on 7 April 1948 and became a UN specialized cultural enrichment and international
agency on 10 July 1948. Article 1 of the understanding, while minimizing negative social
Constitution defines the WHO's objective as "the or environmental impacts. It pays particular
attainment by all peoples of the highest possible attention to the interests of developing
level of health". The detailed functions are set countries.
out in article 2 of the Constitution.
 International Telecommunication Union
 THE ASSESSMENT OF UNO
(ITU) A. CRITICISM OF UNO
 The International Telecommunication Union a) The principal aim of the UN is ‘to maintain
(ITU) was founded in 1865 in Paris as the international peace and security’ (Article 1), with
International Telegraph Union. The 1932 Madrid responsibility for this being vested in the
Plenipotentiary Conference decided the current Security Council. Indeed, the performance of the
name, which came into force on 1 January 1934. UN can largely be judged in terms of the extent
The ITU is an inter-governmental organization to which it has saved humankind from deadly
that brings together governments and industry military conflict.
to coordinate the establishment and operation b) This, nevertheless, is difficult to judge. On the
of global telecommunication networks and one hand, the fact that the two world wars of
services. the twentieth century have not been followed
 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) by World War III has sometimes been seen as
 The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) the supreme achievement of the UN. It is as well
is the successor to the International as demonstrating a clear advance on the
Meteorological Organization, which was performance of the League of Nations). On the
established in 1873. It formally came into other hand, critics have argued that the absence
52
of global war since 1945 has had little to do with (1968) and Afghanistan (1979), or to curtail the
the UN. It is more a consequence of the ‘balance USA’s escalating military involvement in Vietnam
of terror’ that developed during the Cold War as during the 1960s and 1970s. Similarly, the UN
a nuclear stalemate developed between the USA had only a very limited influence on the
and the Soviet Union. Ultimately, how global and succession of Arab–Israeli wars.
regional conflict would have developed and i) A further difficulty was that the UN was never
whether ‘cold’ wars would have become ‘hot’ able to develop an armed force of its own, so
ones in the absence of the UN, is an that it has always had to rely on troops supplied
unanswerable question. by individual member states. This has meant
c) The UN is fundamentally flawed because it was that when the UN has authorized military action
designed as a supranational body whose role is it has either been subcontracted, for example, to
to police the international system. The UN  US-led forces (Korean War and Gulf War) or
therefore has all the drawbacks of a would-be  to regional bodies such as NATO (Kosovo) or
world government – the African Union (Darfur), or
 a lack of legitimacy,  it has been carried out by a multinational
 accountability and force of so-called ‘blue helmets’ or ‘blue
 democratic credentials. berets’ contributed by member states.
d) Not only does the UN interfere in the affairs of j) Thus, one of the key conditions for an effective
nation-states (as is demonstrated by its declining collective security system – the availability of
support for state sovereignty), but it also permanent UN troops to enforce its will – has
disrupts the workings of the balance-of-power remained unfulfilled. Its impact on matters of
system, thereby endangering peace and stability. peace and security was therefore strictly limited.
e) It is, nevertheless, evident that the UN has only k) Whereas the Council is criticized for being poorly
had limited and intermittent success in representative and dominated by great powers,
establishing a system of collective security that the Assembly, in a sense, is over-representative,
can displace a reliance on violent self-help. a highly decentralized body that often serves as
f) The capacity of the UN to enforce a system of little more than a propaganda arena. This
collective security is severely limited by the fact division between the two bodies became
that it is essentially a creature of its members: it increasingly clear from the 1960s onwards as a
can do no more than its member states, and result of the growing influence of newly
particularly the permanent members of the independent, developing countries in the
Security Council, permit. As a result, its role has Assembly, and the effective retreat of the P-5 to
been confined essentially to providing the Council.
mechanisms that facilitate the peaceful l) The end of the Cold War, however, produced
resolution of international conflicts. Even in this optimism about the capacity of an activist UN to
respect, however, its record has been patchy. preside over a ‘new world order’. The UN’s
g) During the Cold War, the UN was routinely intervention in the Gulf War of 1991, being only
paralyzed by superpower rivalry that led to the second time (after Korea) that the UN
deadlock in the Security Council, a consequence authorized large-scale military action, seemed to
of the veto powers of its permanent members. demonstrate a renewed capacity to fulfil its
The Cold War ensured that, on most issues, the obligation of deterring aggression and
USA and the Soviet Union (the P-2) adopted maintaining peace.
opposing positions, which prevented the m) Also in a few short years, the number of UN
Security Council from taking decisive action. The peacekeeping operations had doubled, and the
only occasion on which the Security Council annual budget for peacekeeping had
agreed on measures of military enforcement quadrupled. Since 1990, the Security Council has
was in relation to the Korean War in 1950, but approved non-military enforcement measures
the circumstances surrounding this were on numerous occasions – for instance, in
exceptional. UN intervention in Korea was only relation to Afghanistan, Angola, Ethiopia and
possible because the Soviet Union had Eritrea, Haiti, Iraq, Rwanda, Somalia, the former
temporarily withdrawn from the Council, in Yugoslavia and so on – and measures of military
protest against the exclusion of ‘Red China’ (the enforcement, usually linked to peacekeeping
People’s Republic of China). operations have become much more common.
h) It was also unable to prevent the Soviet n) The term ‘peacekeeping’ is not found in the UN
invasions of Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia Charter. Nevertheless, over the years,

53
peacekeeping has come to be the most economists, police officers and legal experts,
significant way in which the UN has fulfilled its deminers and electoral observers, and human rights
responsibility to maintain international peace monitors and specialists incivil affairs and
and security. Falling somewhere between the governance.
UN’s commitment to resolve disputes peacefully p) Hopes for a more effective UN in the post-Cold
through means such as negotiation and War period were also dashed, largely by a
mediation (Chapter Six) and more forceful declining willingness of states, freed from East–
actions to maintain security (Chapter Seven), West tensions, to accept neutral, multilateral
peacekeeping was described by the second UN intervention, and by the eroding support, both
Secretary-General, Dag Hammarskjöld, as financial and military, of the USA.
belonging to ‘Chapter Six and a Half’. q) Despite some genuine successes in
o) However, early hopes for a UN-dominated ‘new peacekeeping (such as in Mozambique and El
world order’ were quickly disappointed. This was Salvador) and in peace-building (East Timor), the
evident not only in sometimes high-profile UN’s reputation was badly damaged by its
peacekeeping failures, as in Rwanda and the failure to prevent largescale slaughter in Rwanda
former Yugoslavia. But most significantly it was and Bosnia in the mid-1990s.
in the USA’s decision to go ahead with the r) The USA led ‘coalition of the willing’ invaded Iraq
invasion of Iraq in 2003, despite opposition from in March 2003 bypassing UNSC. The then UN
leading members of the Security Council. Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, declared
Peacekeeping explicitly that the invasion had not been
Peacekeeping is defined by the UN as ‘a way to help sanctioned by the Security Council, and was not
countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable in accordance with the principles of the UN
peace’. It is therefore essentially a technique designed to Charter. It was a clear breach of international
preserve the peace, however fragile, where fighting has law. The Iraq War demonstrated how the UN
been halted, and to assist in implementing agreements could be reduced to the role of a bystander in a
achieved by the peacemakers. ‘Traditional’ or classical
world dominated by a hegemonic USA.
peacekeeping amounts to monitoring and observing the
peace process in postconflict situations, with Nevertheless, although the bypassing of the UN
peacekeepers being deployed after a ceasefire has been dealt the organization a significant blow to its
negotiated. It has no expectation of fighting except in the standing. Unilateral US action taken without UN
case of self-defence. authorization and against the opposition of key
Peace-building P-5 states undoubtedly weakened the USA’s
Peace-building is a long-term process of creating the ‘soft’ power.
necessary conditions for sustainable peace by s) The UN has also been subject to a variety of
addressing the deep-rooted, structural causes of other criticisms-
violent conflict in a comprehensive manner. Strictly  It can be said that the UN has a lot to do but
speaking, peacebuilding is a phase in the peace it has too little money, as it is in a
process that occurs after peace making and permanent financial crisis due to the
peacekeeping have been completed. However, these unwillingness of many members to pay their
activities invariably overlap to a greater or lesser contributions on time. As long as the UN’s
degree, meaning that peace-building resembles budget remains tightly constrained, it cannot
what is often called multi-dimensional be effective.
peacekeeping. Peacebuilding as long-term conflict  Others claim that it is little more than a
resolution involves a wide range of strategies, debating society, due to the fact that it can
economic, political and social as well as military. do no more than its member states, and
These include the following: particularly the P-5, allow it to do.
 economic reconstruction,  Further criticisms focus on the complex and
 repairing or improving the economic and social deeply bureaucratic nature of the
infrastructure, organization itself, and its tendency towards
 de-mining, inefficiency and mismanagement. This was
 the demobilization and retraining of former exposed not least by the 2003 Oil-for-Food
combatants,
scandal.
 the reintegration of displaced peoples,
 establishing community organizations etc. B. SIGNIFICANCE OF UN
Although the military remain the backbone of most a) The United Nations will celebrate its 77th
peacekeeping operations, the many faces of anniversary this year. Its survival is its biggest
peacekeeping now include administrators and success.
54
b) The United Nations is a genuinely global body act in a robust way. The much-criticized
that has a unique international character. On the Commission on Human Rights may have been
basis of its founding Charter, the organization replaced by the Human Rights Council. But its
can take action, in theory, in an unlimited range unwillingness to criticize Sri Lanka in 2009 for
of areas. The main achievements of the United the conduct of its civil war against the Tamil
Nations have been in the economic and social Tigers demonstrated, serious human rights
sectors. violations can still escape sanction.
c) However, its key role is widely accepted to be h) The UN nevertheless continues to exert
the maintenance of international peace and significant ‘soft’ power, particularly in the
security, particularly as carried out through the developing world, where it is viewed as the
Security Council’s ability to issue binding leading institution providing support for
resolutions. This is backed up, at least in theory, economic and social development. The UN
by the ability to impose non-military and military remains the only international organization that
sanctions in the event of non-compliance. This approximates to a form of global governance,
makes the UN the primary source of providing, at minimum, a framework through
international law. which the international community can address
d) For all its flaws and failures, one central fact concerns ranging from
must be borne in mind: the world is a safer place ✓ peace and security,
with the UN than it would be without it. ✓ disarmament and non-proliferation
Although the UN will never be able to prevent all ✓ to environmental protection,
wars and resolve all conflicts, it provides an ✓ poverty reduction,
indispensable framework for cooperation, ✓ gender equality and
should the international community choose to
✓ emergency relief.
use it. The UN serves, however imperfectly, to
i) The principal vehicle responsible for global
increase the chances that international conflict
development policy is the UN Development
can be resolved without the resort to war and, if
Programme (UNDP), created in 1965. The UNDP
war breaks out, that military conflict will quickly
has a presence in some 166 countries, working
lead to peace making and peace-building.
with them on their own solutions to global and
e) Most studies show that UN peacekeeping
national development challenges. It also helps
operations are more often successful than
developing countries attract and use aid
unsuccessful. At an operational level, there are
effectively. Annual Human Development Reports
clearly functions that the UN is better at
(HDRs) focus the global debate on key
performing than any other body, including small-
development issues, providing new
scale peacekeeping, the provision of
measurement tools (such as the Human
humanitarian aid and the monitoring of
Development Index or HDI). By focusing on the
elections. The shift towards multidimensional
notions of ‘human development’, the UNDP has
peacekeeping has also been beneficial.
also promoted innovative thinking about poverty
f) The UN did not fossilize around its initial
and deprivation, moving away from a narrowly
mission, but it has, rather, succeeded in adapting
economic definition of poverty. The desire to
and redefining itself in the light of new global
reinvigorate the UN’s Development Programme
challenges. Not only has the UN developed into
led to the unveiling in 2000 of the Millennium
the leading organization promoting economic
Development Goals (MDGs) and subsequently to
and social development worldwide, but it has
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015.
also helped to shape the agenda as far as new
The UN has done more than any other
global issues are concerned, ranging from
organization or single state to alleviate the
climate change and gender equality to
economic and social problems of developing
population control and dealing with pandemics.
countries.
g) In relation to human rights, the UN has been
highly successful in creating a detailed body of
 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
international human rights legislation, and also
adopted by all United Nations Member States in
in producing bodies that can observe and
2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace and
authoritatively report on adherence to global
prosperity for people and the planet, now and into
human rights norms. However, given the range
the future. At its heart are the 17 Sustainable
of interests that operate in and through the UN,
Development Goals (SDGs), which are an urgent call
it has been less easy to ensure that these bodies
for action by all countries - developed and
55
developing - in a global partnership. They recognize f) Certainly, the existing membership reflects a
that ending poverty and other deprivations must go regional imbalance, with no representation for
hand-in-hand with strategies that improve health Africa or for Latin America among its permanent
and education, reduce inequality, and spur economic members. The case for a revised membership is
growth – all while tackling climate change and that a more representative and up-to-date
working to preserve our oceans and forests. Some of Council would enjoy wider support and
these goals are- influence, helping to make the UN a more
 End poverty and hunger in all forms and effective peacemaker and peacekeeper.
ensure dignity and equality g) However, the prospect of the reform of the
 Protect our planet’s natural resources and Security Council is remote, with the veto being
climate for future generations the major obstacle standing in the way. Veto
 Ensure prosperous and fulfilling lives in status could not be removed without the
harmony with nature unanimous agreement of the P-5 states, and it is
 Foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies unlikely that any of them would voluntarily
 Build resilient infrastructure, promote abandon their privileged position. Moreover,
inclusive and sustainable industrialization the continued existence of permanent veto
and foster innovation powers is, anyway, a (possibly vital) way of
 In view of the UN’s unique role and moral ensuring that the UN retains the support of the
authority, few would disagree with the view that world’s leading states.
if it did not exist it would need to be invented. h) The enlargement or change in membership of
the P-5 is also difficult to bring about because-
 Despite its imperfections, it is absurd to suggest
 In the first place, it is highly likely to be
that the UN is unreformable.
opposed, and blocked, by existing P-5 states,
 Reforming the UN Security Council especially the most vulnerable ones, France
a) Calls for the reform of the Security Council focus and the UK.
on two keys, if interrelated, issues:  Other P-5 members may also fear the
 1) the veto powers of its permanent members,
different configuration of interests and
and influences that a reformed Council might
 2) their identity
bring about.
b) Permanent membership and the power to veto  Furthermore, there is significant resistance
Council decisions means that the UN is outside the P-5 to the candidacy of
dominated, as far as the core issue of peace and particular wouldbe members. For example,
security is concerned, by great power politics.  many European states oppose the
Some UN members are clearly more equal than inclusion of Germany;
others.  South Africa opposes the inclusion of
c) The requirement of unanimity amongst P-5 Nigeria and vice versa;
states has also effectively neutered the UN as  Argentina opposes the inclusion of
the basis for collective security, apart from Brazil,
exceptional circumstances (Korea and the Gulf  China opposes candidature of Japan
War).  Pakistan opposes inclusion of India and
d) Moreover, the membership of P-5 is widely seen so on.
to be outdated, reflecting the great powers of  Finally, a revised membership may require
the immediate post-1945 period. If the Council is the introduction of regular membership
to have permanent members, few would reviews, as the distribution of global power
challenge the right of the USA, China or Russia is always changing.
(at least in terms of its nuclear capability) to be
among them, but France and the UK have long  G4 GROUP
ceased to be states of first-ranking status. a) The G4 is a grouping of Brazil, Germany, India
e) At different times, cases have been made out for and Japan which are supporting each other’s
the inclusion of Japan and Germany, in view of bids for permanent membership of the UNSC.
their economic strength, and, more recently, for Each of these four countries have figured among
emerging powers such as India, Brazil, Nigeria, the elected non-permanent members of the
Egypt and South Africa. The Council’s present council since the UN’s establishment.
composition is no longer representative of a b) The G4 nations traditionally meet on the
world that has seen 142 new countries join the sidelines of the annual high-level UN General
United Nations since 1945. Assembly session.

56
c) In 2005, G4 drew a draft resolution for Security  THE L.69 GROUP
Council reform which included the following  Group is a group of developing countries from
elements: Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia
 Adding six new permanent members to the and the Pacific. They form a major bloc that is
Security Council (two seats each for Asia and united by the common cause of achieving the
Africa and one seat for the Western lasting and comprehensive reform of the United
European and Others Group and the Latin Nations Security Council. The group currently
American and Caribbean Group respectively) has 42 countries as its members.
 Adding four or five non-permanent  THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL NEGOTIATIONS
members to the Security Council (one seat
FRAMEWORK (IGN)
each for Asia, Latin America and the
 This is composed of groups, working for reforms
Caribbean, eastern Europe and one or two
in the UN system. It articulates positions of
seats for Africa)
different organisations vis-a-vis each other. The
 Support Africa’s goal to be fully represented
groups include G-4, CARICOM, African Union,
in all decision-making organs of the UN
Arab League, Ufc (Uniting for Consensus, also
particularly the Security Council.
known as Coffee Club)
 Reforming working methods.
i) The efforts for expansion of the UNSC and
 to work towards launching text-based
reforms were also made in the form of The
negotiations without further delay in the
General Assembly Task Force on Security Council
Inter-Governmental Negotiations (IGN), on
Reform and 2005 Kofi Annan’s Plan to expand to
the basis of a single document, with a view
24member UNSC, with various combinations for
to its adoption in the General Assembly.
equitable representation, but none of the
d) G4’s bids are often opposed by Uniting for
initiatives has worked so far.
Consensus movement or the Coffee Club
j) Other important areas of reform are in peace
 UNITING FOR CONSENSUS operations, development and human rights. The
a) Uniting for Consensus (UfC) is a movement, operational and strategic approach to
nicknamed the Coffee Club, that developed in peacekeeping and the provision of humanitarian
the 1990s in opposition to the possible aid have both improved significantly in recent
expansion of the United Nations Security years, and further reforms could undoubtedly be
Council. Under the leadership of Italy, it aims to introduced. For example,
counter the bids for permanent seats proposed  UN agencies could be better coordinated;
by G4 nations. It is calling for a consensus before  the UN could confer legitimacy on
any decision is reached on the form and size of international action, rather than always
the Security Council implementing action itself; and
b) The prime movers of the club include Italy,  relationships with regional organizations
Spain, Australia, Canada, South Korea, Argentina could be strengthened.
and Pakistan.  The 2000 Brahimi Report on Peacekeeping
c) Most members of the club oppose bigger made a major contribution to reviewing UN
regional powers grabbing permanent seats in peace operations, and provided the
the UN Security Council- backdrop for the creation of the UN
 Italy and Spain are opposed to Germany's Peacebuilding Commission in 2005.
bid  An area of particular concern has been the
 Pakistan is opposed to India's bid need for the UN to have a ‘rapid deployment
 Argentina is against Brazil's bid capacity’, the ability to send peacekeepers
 Australia opposes Japan's. to different corners of the globe at short
 Canada and South Korea are opposed to notice with the resources to act swiftly and
developing countries, often dependent on effectively. The absence of such a capacity
their aid, wielding more power than them at has often meant that UN peacekeepers are
the UN. deployed late and are called upon to police
d) The Group Uniting for Consensus” (UFC) highly difficult situations.
supports an extended Council of 25 members,  The chief reform challenge facing the UN’s
with the addition at the level of non-permanent development activities continues to be how
members and /or the introduction of a new to improve coordination and reduce
category of members, the semi-permanent overlaps and duplication amongst the
members. L.69 Group several development-orientated bodies
57
within the UN’s ‘dysfunctional family’. The guiding principles of the General Assembly and
goal of ‘delivering as one’ has been opened new vistas for the United Nations.
recognized within the UN, but the task of  India was one of the first countries to raise its
translating this into practice, in order to voice against European colonialism and made
increase efficiency and reduce the UN the platform for its campaign. In 1960, by
administrative costs has yet to be achieved. which time there were sufficient numbers of
 The Member States should pay their countries from Asia and Africa, the UN General
contributions, in full and on time, as delays Assembly adopted a resolution on
in payments have caused an unprecedented decolonisation, the ‘Declaration on the Granting
financial crisis in the UN system. Financial of Independence to Colonial Countries and
reforms hold the key to the future of the Peoples’. The resolution declared that subjecting
world body. Without sufficient resources, people to alien subjugation constitutes denial of
the UN's activities and role would suffer. human rights and is an impediment to attaining
k) India has the distinction of being a founder world peace
member of the United Nations. It was not  India campaigned energetically for banning
independent at that time but was allowed by the nuclear testing and the elimination of nuclear
United Kingdom to participate in the weapons.
proceedings at San Francisco in 1945. The Indian  India’s other big campaign in the United Nations
delegation participated enthusiastically in the was against apartheid. It launched this even
deliberations and became an active member of before becoming independent. In 1946, it got
the new organization even when it was still a the General Assembly to adopt a resolution
British colony against racial discrimination in South Africa.
THE ROLE OF INDIA IN UN India continued the opposition to apartheid,

leading to the imposition of sanctions against
 As a founding member of the United Nations, South Africa and Southern Rhodesia (now,
India strongly supports the purposes and Zimbabwe).
principles of the UN and has made significant  India’s status as a founding member of the Non-
contributions to implementing the goals of the Aligned Movement and the Group of 77 cemented its
Charter, and the evolution of the UN’s position within the UN system as a leading advocate
specialized programmes and agencies. India’s of the concerns and aspirations of developing
deepening engagement with the United Nations countries and the creation of a more equitable
is based on its steadfast commitment to international economic and political order. India was
in the forefront of the UN taking the lead in
multilateralism and dialogue as the key for
reforming the global economic order and making
achieving shared goals and addressing common development one of its goals. It was instrumental in
challenges. the setting up of UNCTAD in 1964 for promoting
 India was instrumental in reorienting the UN trade and development. A declaration on setting up a
from a security organization to a developmental new international economic order was adopted by
and promotional body. India stayed away from the UNGA in 1974.
the cold war polarizing politics of power and  Peacekeeping was a later innovation for the United
activated the General Assembly by the sheer Nations and India played a key role in its evolution,
force of its ideas. India’s foreign policy in the especially in the Congo mission from 1960 to 1964.
early years of the United Nations took up India has been the largest troop contributor to UN
missions since inception. It has provided about
challenges like
240,000 personnel in 49 of the 71 UN peacekeeping
 decolonisation, operations so far. Currently, Indian personnel are
 apartheid, participating in 9 out of 14 peacekeeping missions.
 human rights,
 nuclear disarmament,
 equity in the international economic order
and
 in North-South relations,
 nonalignment,
 South-South cooperation and democracy.
 It gave these ideas to the United Nations at a
 India has been cautious in endorsing this
time when the Security Council was stuck in
aggressive concept of intervention in other
sterile debates and inaction. These became the
countries to protect human rights, referred to

58
variously as the Responsibility to Protect and  civilizational legacy,
humanitarian intervention. They went well  cultural diversity,
beyond the security mechanism envisaged for  political system- India is the biggest
the Security Council. India had strong democracy in the world
reservations on these military interventions  past and ongoing contributions to the
because of their intrusive nature and the resort activities of the UN—especially to UN
to force. peacekeeping operations.
 India has served in the UN Security Council eight  India’s rising economic status has boosted Indian
times (1950-51, 1967-68, 1972-73, 1977-78, claims as well. India has been one of the fastest
198485, 1991-92 and 2011-12 and 2021-22). growing major economies in the world, and
Mahatma Gandhi’s ideas especially non-violence currently stands among the top 5 global
has deeply influenced the United Nations at the economies. Besides, India’s status as de-facto
time of its inception. In 2007, the United Nations Nuclear Weapons State also makes India a
declared 2 October, Mahatma’s Gandhi’s natural claimant as a permanent member. India
birthday, as the International day of non- has also developed a credible image as a
violence. In 2014, the UN General Assembly responsible nuclear power based on its no first
adopted a resolution commemorating 21 June as use policy.
the International Yoga Day. It recognizes the  India sees itself carrying the necessary abilities,
holistic benefits of this timeless practice and its actual and potential, which entitles it to a
inherent compatibility with the principles and permanent seat at the Council. It would provide
values of the United Nations. India the much-needed leverage to expand its
 Terrorism has become an important concern of geopolitical and geo-economic clout globally. It
the United Nations and India is in the forefront would serve as a suitable counter-weight to
of this activity. India has been pressing for the increasing Chinese influence - an ever increasing
adoption of a Comprehensive Convention on strategic and security concern in India’s
International Terrorism that can increase immediate neighborhood and beyond. Also, with
international cooperation and the effectiveness regard to geo-political leadership role in Asia,
of the UN in combating cross border terrorism. India has always considered itself as a
 India is also keen on the UN exercising democratic alternative to authoritarian China.
responsibility in meeting the global challenges of  STEPS TAKEN BY INDIA
development, especially poverty eradication and a) India has adopted a multi-pronged strategy.
climate change. India is supportive of the UN Towards this end, GOI has undertaken various
efforts to promote the Sustainable Development initiatives aimed at building international
Goals, as it was of the Millennium Development support for India. The matter is consistently
Goals earlier. taken up during bilateral and multilateral
 INDIA AND REFORM OF UNSC meetings at all levels, including at the highest
 India strongly advocates the process of reform levels.
and restructuring of the UN to make it better b) Four out of the five permanent members
equipped to effectively respond to the evolving (excluding China) of the United Nations Security
needs of its membership, particularly developing Council (UNSC) have bilaterally expressed official
countries. The expansion of the Security Council affirmations of support for India’s candidature to
and improvement of its working methods must a permanent seat in an expanded UN Security
be integral part of Security Council Reform. Council.
Being a permanent member of the Security c) China has not openly supported India’s bid for
Council, India would assume the responsibility of UNSC membership. China’s stand is ambiguous
international peace and security decision- and has always said that the decisions should be
making. taken through “comprehensive consensus”.
 India is eminently suited for permanent India has been consistently taking up the issue of
membership of the UN Security Council by any UNSC reforms with China.
objective criteria, such as d) India has called for the abolition of veto,
 Population- India constitutes 17% of the however, till it exists, it needs to be provided to
world's population all members of the permanent category of the
 territorial size, Security Council.
 GDP, e) India is also working alongside other reform-
 economic potential, oriented countries through its membership in G-

59
4 and the L.69 Group for building support among b) US-Iran Rivalry
the UN Member States for expansion in both c) Israel-Palestine rivalry
permanent and non-permanent categories. India 3. Bilateral ties
hopes that its continued leadership of various a) UAE
Global South forums such as G 77 and NAM b) Israel
would garner much needed numbers in the c) Saudi Arabia
UNGA. d) Iran
 CHALLENGES TO INDIA’S BID 4. Ties with regional grouping I2U2
 The status quo bias among P5 remains the 5. Analysis of India’s west Asia Policy
overriding obstacle to adding permanent seats.  Being at the intersection of major continents
Whilst all permanent members accept the and civilizations, West Asia holds a critical
reform in principle, they have often fought centrality in global geopolitical affairs. For quite
popular reform proposals. Articles 108 and 109 some time, geostrategic disruptions emerging
of the UN Charter grant the P5 members veto from the region have deeply impacted the global
over any amendments to the Charter, requiring peace and security. The West Asian region is
them to approve any modifications to the UNSC witnessing a tectonic shift, new regional
veto power that they themselves hold. So even if alliances are taking shape and situation has
one member of P5 doesn’t agree, the UNSC further been compounded with the
cannot go ahead. humanitarian crisis in Syria and Yemen.
 China is the only P5 member which has not
outrightly supported India’s UNSC bid. Given
India’s bitter experience in the past when India’s
NSG membership was blocked by China, there is
very little reason to believe that China will agree
to India becoming a veto-wielding permanent
member of UNSC and thus rival China in global
stature.
 An informal "coffee club", comprising 40-odd
members states, has been instrumental in
holding back reforms to the United Nations
Security Council over the past several years. It
includes India’s regional rival Pakistan.
 Also, India lacks resources for multilateral
diplomacy. India had one of the smallest
missions among all of the major powers in UNSC.  India has ties to West Asia since millennia. The
In 2019-21, India is only the 21st largest Indus Valley civilization had trade links with
contributor to the UN regular budget behind Dilmun (modern Bahrain). In the 6th century
Germany, Japan, Brazil and Italy. BCE, Punjab was part of the Persian empire. In
 CONCLUSION the 3rd century BCE, Egypt’s Ptolemy II and the
 The lack of reforms can push the credibility crisis Mauryan emperors Chandragupta Maurya and
of the UN to a degree that it becomes Asoka exchanged ambassadors. Persian was the
unsustainable for the UN to function, or language of the Mughal court, and India’s official
incidences of sidelining the UN increase language until 1835. This connection continues.
 Historically, India’s West Asia policy has been bi-
manifold. Former UN Secretary General Kofi
Annan (2015) aptly said: “If the UN Security directional. During the Cold War years, India
Council does not appoint new permanent maintained close economic cooperation with
members, then its primacy may be challenged by both Saudi Arabia and Iran, the regional rivals.
 The bi-directional approach has been expanded
some of the new emerging countries.”
to a tri-directional foreign policy to
………4th class ended,5th started……….
accommodate the three key pillars of West Asia
 INDIA-WEST ASIA RELATION — Saudi Arabia, Iran and Israel. In recent years,
 Road map :- United Arab Emirates (UAE) has also emerged as
1. Importance of west Asia a close ally of India in the Gulf region. Ties with
2. Brief discussion on major rivalries Iran, however, took a beating during the
a) Iran –Saudi Arabia Rivalry sanctions years when New Delhi cut its energy

60
cooperation significantly despite its vitality and three religious followers namely Christians,
huge energy potential. It was during the same Muslims and Jews. Temple Mount is said to be
time that India deepened cooperation with the the holiest place in Judaism. The Temple Mount
Saudis. is considered to be the third holiest site in Islam.
 India has traditionally followed a low key and It contains the shrine of the Dome of Rock and
non-intrusive policy and consequently enjoyed the al-Aqsa Mosque on a plateau called the
good relations with the countries in the region. It Haram al-Sharif, or the Noble Sanctuary. Here is
has also consistently opposed any military where Muslims believe their Prophet
actions to solve the political problems. Despite Muhammad ascended to heaven. The Church of
being the largest democracy in the world, India the Holy Sepulchre was constructed in 335 A.D.
has refrained from promoting any particular It is the site believed by Christians where Jesus
form of government in the region was crucified and later had resurrected.
 SAUDI ARABIA -IRAN RIVALRY  Post-World War-I: In the post-war settlement,
 Saudi Arabia and Iran have often behaved as Britain was given the mandate for Palestine and
serious rivals for influence in the Middle East, TransJordan (areas including Israel, West Bank
especially the Gulf area, since at least Iran’s and Gaza). Upon the start of the mandate, the
1979 Islamic Revolution and the 1980-88 Iran- British began to facilitate the immigration of
Iraq War. In most respects, Saudi Arabia is a European Jews to Palestine. Between 1922 and
regional status quo power, while Iran often 1935, the Jewish population rose from nine
seeks revolutionary change throughout the Gulf percent to nearly 27 percent of the total
area and the wider Middle East with varying population. Defeat of Germany in the war (1914-
degrees of intensity. 19) saw the rise of Adolf Hitler, who blamed
 Saudi Arabia also has strong ties with Western Jews for the country’s defeat. He expanded
nations, while Iran views the United States as its Germany and Jews were persecuted in areas he
most dangerous enemy. Perhaps the most controlled. Jewish immigration to Israel gained
important difference between the two nations is pace.
that Saudi Arabia is a conservative Sunni Muslim  Post-World War-II (1939-45): With the support
Arab state, while Iran is a Shi’ite state with from the US and the UK, Jews created the state
senior politicians who often view their country of Israel in 1948. The declaration came after
as the defender and natural leader of Shi’ites Jews failed to sign a deal with Arabs for carving
throughout the region. The rivalry between out a separate state from Palestine.
Riyadh and Tehran has been reflected in the  1947- the United Nations adopted Resolution
politics of a number of regional states where 181, known as the Partition Plan, which sought
these two powers exercise influence. to divide the British Mandate of Palestine into
 Iran seeks to expand its power in the Gulf, which Arab and Jewish states. The move is accepted by
is a key area of competition between the two Jewish leaders but rejected by the Arab side and
states. Saudi Arabia and to varying extents other never implemented.
Gulf Arab states often seek to contain Iran’s  1948- Unable to solve the problem, British rulers
quest for dominance. In the struggle for Gulf leave the region. On May 14, 1948, the State of
influence, Saudi Arabia has consistently Israel was created, sparking the first Arab-Israeli
maintained a vastly higher level of political clout War. The war ended in 1949 with Israel’s victory,
with local states than Iran. but 750,000 Palestinians were displaced and the
territory was divided into 3 parts: the State of
 ISRAEL- PALESTINE DISPUTE: A BRIEF Israel, the West Bank (of the Jordan River), and
TIME LINE the Gaza Strip.
 1917- The Balfour Declaration was a public  1956: Second Israel-Arab war began after Egypt
pledge by Britain in 1917 declaring its aim to announced nationalisation of the Suez Canal, an
establish “a national home for the Jewish important trade route. Israel invaded Egypt, got
people” in Palestine. The statement came in the support from Britain and France. The US and
form of a letter from Britain’s then-foreign erstwhile USSR brokered a deal to end the war.
secretary, Arthur Balfour, addressed to Lionel  1964: Palestinians organised themselves under
Walter Rothschild, a figurehead of the British the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) for
Jewish community. struggle against Israel.
 Importance of Jerusalem  1967: Six-Day War took place in which Israel
 Jerusalem or the Holy City is the sacred site for defeated Egypt, Jordan and Syria. After the war,

61
Israel gained territorial control over the Sinai Justice.
Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt; the West  2002: Palestinian militant group Hamas launched
Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan; and the first major suicide attack killing at least 30
Golan Heights from Syria. Israelis. Israel later conducted an operation to
 1973: Arab nations formed a coalition to attack took control of much of the West Bank.
Israel. It suffered losses but recovered after  2006: Hamas won election in Gaza emerging as a
receiving supplies from the US. The war led to political challenger to Fatah party that was
massive oil crisis. moderate and had won in the West Bank.
 1978: The US brokered a peace deal between  2008: Palestinian militants fired rockets into
Israel and Egypt. Settling the question of Israel, which responded by pummelling missiles
Palestine was part of the deal what came to be into the Palestinian territory. More than 1,100
known as Camp David Accord. It was never Palestinians lost their lives, 13 Israeli soldiers
implemented. were killed.
 1987: First Palestinian Intifada was launched.  2014: A seven-week fight ensued after Hamas
Intifada means uprising or rebellion. Protests allegedly kidnapped three Israeli girls from a
and clashes continued for years in Gaza, the Jewish settlement in the West Bank and killed
West Bank and inside Israel. Many people died them. More than 2,000 Palestinians lost their
and scores injured during the Intifada. lives. Israel reported 73 deaths including civilian
 1991: Israel begins peace talks with Palestinian casualties.
leaders, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan in Spain —  2015: Seeking re-election, Israeli Prime Minister
Madrid Conference. Benjamin Netanyahu declared that there would
be no twostate solution to Israel-Palestine
question.
 2017: The Donald Trump administration of the
US recognised Jerusalem as the capital of Israel
and announced shifting of its embassy from Tel
Aviv to this city. The decision saw fresh protests
and clashes in the West Bank and Gaza. Israel
considers the “complete and united Jerusalem”
its capital, while Palestinians claims East
Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian
state.
 2021: Israel barricades Damascus Gate Plaza in
the East Jerusalem on April 12. It is a popular
gathering place for Palestinians during Ramzan.
 1993: First major breakthrough was achieved.
Protests broke out. On April 16, Israel limits the
Israel and the PLO signed what is called the Oslo
number of people who can prayer at Al-Aqsa
Peace Accord. It was backed by the United
Mosque — in East Jerusalem to 10,000 people.
Nations.
Clashes erupt and spreads to Gaza and the West
 1994: A follow-up deal was signed, called the
Bank. On May 21, Israel and Hamas agreed to a
Cairo Agreement between Israel and the PLO.
cease-fire brokered by Egypt, with both sides
The agreements created the Palestinian
claiming victory and no reported violations.
Authority which was given the charge of
administrative affairs in the West Bank and  ABRAHAM ACCORDS
Gaza. Question of Israeli settlements in the West  The Abraham Accords saw several Arab
Bank, and status of Jerusalem remained countries such as the UAE, Bahrain, Sudan and
unresolved. Both Israel and Palestine view Morocco establishing diplomatic ties with Israel
Jerusalem as their future capital. in 2020. This normalization process was
 2000: Second Palestinian Intifada was launched. facilitated by the US. The accords are named
Clashes erupted after Israeli hardliner Ariel after the patriarch Abraham regards as a
Sharon visited the compound that houses both prophet in both Judaism and Islam. The rise of
the Temple Mount and Al-Aqsa, the site of Iran’s clout in the region has played a significant
current violence. In response, the Israeli role in signing of the accords. The ending of
government approved construction of a barrier animosity between Israel and at least some Arab
wall around the West Bank in 2002, despite countries has paved way for greater regional and
opposition from the International Court of multilateral cooperation.

62
 NEGEV FORUM Extremist and terrorist groups tend to get
 Negev Summit took place in Israel March 2022 support, funding and ideological legitimacy
and brought together Secretary of State Tony from states and organisations in West Asia.
Blinken and the foreign ministers of Israel, UAE, The rise of ISIS and its attempts at
Bahrain, Morocco and Egypt. Senior diplomats radicalising Indian youths presents a serious
from these countries met in Manama, Bahrain, challenge to Indian Security establishment.
in June 2022 to push forward with the Consequently, the region is an important
establishment of the Negev Forum, a new partner for India in counter-terrorism,
framework for cooperation in the region. intelligence sharing, homeland security,
 On September 18 2022, the Israeli government combating money laundering, small arms
approved a proposal calling to establish the trafficking and smuggling.
Negev Forum as a mechanism for regional e) Maritime Security- The increase in piracy
cooperation. the regional cooperation under the activities off the Gulf of Aden in the Indian
newly-established forum is set to prioritize food Ocean has affected both India and the Gulf
and water security, energy, education, health, countries. So maritime security is one of
tourism, security, and climate. India’s primary concerns and cooperation
with these countries is vital for
 IMPORTANCE OF WEST ASIA strengthening Indian presence in the
 Adoption of ‘Look West Policy’ in 2005 reflects strategic waters of the Indian Ocean Region.
India’s increased desire for engagement with its The demand for increased involvement in
‘extended neighbourhood’. The Gulf region is the region is ever growing and given the
important for India due to a combination of USA’s reluctance and withdrawal from the
several factors – region, it provides an opening for greater
a) Energy security- Securing long term energy Indian role.
supply for its burgeoning economy is of vital f) Forging strategic ties- India looks forward for
importance for India. West Asian region enhanced strategic ties with the region. The
accounts for 2/3rd of Indian energy supply. ensuing geopolitics and regional and great
As such, ensuring energy security has power rivalry in the region as reflected in
undoubtedly dictated India’s initiative of chaos in Iraq, Syria, Yemen, Egypt, Turkey
building up a strategic energy partnership and Palestine-Israel along with the rise of
with this region. ISIS has intensely complicated the
b) Protecting Interests of Diaspora- There is a geopolitical landscape. If India needs a
huge Indian Diaspora of more than 6 million sustained high growth, a peaceful extended
working and living in this region. India territory from Suez to South Asia is an
receives valuable remittances in excess of imperative.
$70 billion annually from the region. Also, g) Access to Central Asia and Beyond- For India,
India has to engage Gulf countries to secure West Asia represents an access to Central
a safe and exploitation free working Asia, Russia and potentially, overland to
conditions for these people. Europe. In order to secure these vital
c) Trade and Investment- The Gulf Region communication links, India needs to
remains the largest trading partner for India expedite Chabahar, INSTC and other
with top trading partner in the region being connectivity projects along with help of
UAE, Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Besides, the these countries.
region is also a potential source of sizeable
 TIES DURING MODI REGIME
investment in different sectors of Indian
 In recent years, India has taken initiatives to
economy especially infrastructure.
engage with other countries of the region and
Investments have included a $44 billion oil
has opened multiple fronts of engagement with
refinery in India by Saudi Aramco and the
them. The declaration of strategic partnerships
Abu Dhabi National Oil Company in
with Saudi Arabia in 2010 and with Oman in
partnership with an Indian consortium.
2008 and the agreement on defence and
d) Internal Security- India’s internal security is
security cooperation with Qatar in 2008 are
more linked to West Asia than ever before.
some of the high points in India’s engagement
The rise of religious extremism and its use
with the region.
for political and terrorist purposes in West
 With the coming of the Narendra Modi-led BJP
Asia as well as India has acted as force
government in 2014, India’s relations with West
multiplier for cross border terrorism.
63
Asia have clearly moved towards active balanced, non-partisan policy, India has to a
diplomatic engagement with all the major great extent been able to protect and secure its
players in the region, with the Prime minister growing stakes and vital interests in the region
himself leading the initiative. India’s increasing that range from energy, maritime trade, security
diplomatic activism towards the region is and the safety of its 8 million strong diasporas.
indicative of the Modi government’s shift in its  According to some experts, New Delhi needs to
effort to build stronger economic and security pay attention to two major trends that are
ties with West Asian countries. Predicting the changing the big picture in the Middle East-
future course of India’s policy towards the a) The first is about the nature of confrontation
region, the then Foreign Secretary S. Jaishankar between the US and Iran. The sanctions
observed in early March 2016 that “‘Act East’ regime against Iran, according to the US’s
would be matched with ‘Think West’. official claims, is one of the toughest the
 PM Modi’s visits to Riyadh, UAE, Iran and Qatar world has known. Even many of Iran’s Arab
should be seen against this background. His neighbours, including Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi
government appears to be following the regional Arabia and Egypt, support the US
policy set by its predecessor government. This Administration’s steps against Tehran. For
approach, while not entirely giving up the tri- they fear Iran’s growing power and the
directional framework, is tilted more towards assertion is threatening to undermine their
the Saudi camp and Israel. national coherence and security.
 Expatriates and energy components are the b) The second trend is the unfolding
strengths of India’s engagement with the Persian normalisation of relations between Israel
Gulf Region. But they are also its weaknesses and the Gulf countries after signing of
and prevent India from fully exploiting its Abraham Accords.
potential.  However other experts also argue that despite
 In 2020-21, the top oil exporter to India was Iraq Modi’s efforts to cultivate ties with the Arab
(more than 22%), followed by Saudi Arabia Gulf, Israel and Iran, each presents potential
(18%). From 2017 through 2021, Iran and the challenges and risks.
GCC member states accounted for a 15.3% share a) First, Israel’s improving status with the Arab
of India’s cumulative two-way merchandise world may not endure. Another intifada or
trade. Out of that, the UAE contributed the lion’s revival of support for the Palestinians by the
share of almost 7%, followed by Saudi Arabia. wider Arab public could put pressure on Gulf
regimes to reverse their current rapprochement
UAE is the third largest trading country with
with Israel. If that should happen, India could
India in recent times after the US and China. find its position exposed as well, given its own
 It is too early for India to get involved in any growing closeness with Israel. Amid competing
regional security arrangement as it would have demands from West Asian powers for India to
to deal with two basic issues- security for whom take sides, India might find it difficult to maintain
and against whom. Most regimes feel a “balancing” approach even if it wanted to.
threatened internally and any involvement b) Second, India’s engagement with Iran over
would entail India taking sides between rival Chabahar is unlikely to eliminate the
factions. Pakistan/China opion. One reason is the more
 In the broader sense, combating ISIS, religious modest scale of India’s efforts in Central Asia and
the Middle East, especially when compared to
extremism and indoctrination, terror financing
China’s Belt and Road. Another is that Indian
and cyber security would be the prime areas of ambitions may become redundant, especially if
cooperation. In recent years, Israel dominated Iran and Pakistan are able to overcome
India’s security cooperation. Now, fighting ISIS differences between themselves to cooperate
entails enhanced cooperation with countries like and link their ports as they have claimed
Jordan, Saudi Arabia and the UAE. Religious
extremism poses an existential threat to these
 INDIA’S BILATERAL TIES WITH
countries and cooperating with them makes MAJOR REGIONAL PLAYERS

good common sense for India.
Perhaps, the key to India’s diplomatic success
 INDIA – UAE TIES
 India-UAE relations has become a pivot of India’s
lies in its de-hyphenation of relations with
countries locked in zero-sum rivalries and its Extended Neighborhood and Look West Policy in
focus on forging bilateral win-win relations with the region. UAE is one of India’s important
each country individually. By pursuing a highly partners in the Gulf region. The India-UAE
relationship has continued to grow with a
64
number of crucial connections such as trade, c) Security is another potential area of cooperation
energy, Diaspora and culture. between India and UAE, which have treaties and
 In the contemporary era, changing geopolitics agreements on extradition, mutual legal
and growing security challenges in the region assistance in criminal and civil matters,
have drawn the two countries even closer. combating trafficking in narcotics, and
 IMPERATIVES FOR BETTER TIES information cooperation apart from maritime
interaction.
A. Economic imperative
d) India and UAE had signed a defence cooperation
a) The Indian community in the UAE is 35 percent
agreement in 2003, with the aim of providing
of the UAE’s 10 million population, making it the
military training, arms import and export,
largest expatriate community in the country.
peacekeeping operations, military medical
They remit more than $13 billion annually,
services, security and defence policy and joint
accounting for 20 percent of India’s total
scientific research on defence, among other
remittances.
issues.
b) Economic and commercial cooperation is a key
e) Regional security in the Gulf region is an
aspect of overall bilateral relationship between
important concern for both India and the UAE. It
the two countries. The traditionally close and
directly affects the physical security of the UAE
friendly India-UAE ties have evolved into a
while India’s interests are affected by the
significant partnership in the economic and
turbulence in the region.
commercial sphere.
f) India and UAE have a common issue in
c) For India, the UAE’s most critical importance lies
countering terrorism and radicalisation.
in the field of trade and business. UAE is India’s
Cooperation in this regard will further enhance
third largest trade partner (after China and the
bilateral ties. The rise of ISIS and its efforts at
USA) and second-largest export destination, with
promoting radicalisation among youths is a
bilateral trade standing at over USD 72 billion in
common threat to their peace and stability. In
2021-22. The UAE is also India’s second largest
fact, Cooperation in this regard will further
export destination.
enhance bilateral ties.
d) Indians have emerged as important investors
g) With the rise of the IS, the UAE took a strong
within the UAE and India as a major export
stand against terror — and has, till date,
destination for goods manufactured there.
deported about more than a dozen Indian
India’s major imports from UAE include
citizens suspected of IS links including Indian
petroleum and petroleum products, precious
Mujahideen terrorist Faizan Ahmed and other
metals, stones, gems and jewellery, minerals and
wanted criminals. India and the UAE had decided
chemicals.
to call on all countries to dismantle terrorism
e) However, what has not been satisfactory is the
infrastructure where they exist and bring
investment scenario.
perpetrators of terrorism to justice. They
f) UAE’s FDI into India stands at more than US $12
decided to coordinate efforts to counter
billion. This is far below the UAE’s investment
radicalization and misuse of religion by groups.
potential considering its enormous Sovereign h) Similarly, both India and UAE have been victims of
Wealth Fund (SWF) of about USD 773 billion, piracy in the Arabian Sea. The importance of
which India intends to attract. The investment maritime security for both countries can be
climate in India should be made appealing for understood from the fact that around 95 per cent of
foreign investors else it would remain a major India’s trade by volume and 68 per cent by value is
impediment for attracting greater investments transported through the sea route and Dubai is an
from the UAE. international transit hub.
B. Strategic Imperative i) Since 2008, India has continuously deployed ships in
the Gulf of Aden to prevent pirate attacks. UAE has
a) UAE also plays an important role in fulfilling
called for robust coordination and cooperation by the
India’s energy needs. India imported around 16 international navies against piracy. UAE’s reiteration
million tonnes of crude oil from UAE in the year of its commitment to join hands with India in the
2014-15. It is the sixth largest supplier of crude fight against terrorism and piracy brings it even closer
oil to India. towards India.
b) India believes that the UAE can be an important C. PM Modi’s visit to UAE, June 2022
partner in developing its strategic petroleum a) After attending G-7 meeting in Germany, on his
reserves keeping in mind its growing demand of way back, PM Narendra Modi stopped in the
energy and concerns about disruptions in United Arab Emirates. It was Modi’s fourth visit
production and supply. to the country after visits in August 2015,
65
February 2018, and August 2019. PM Modi was widening the scope of India’s engagement with
in the UAE to offer his personal condolences on the Gulf region. Besides boosting bilateral
the passing of Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al relations with the UAE, it would provide further
Nahyan, the former UAE president and Abu impetus to India’s engagement with the Gulf
Dhabi ruler. The visit also offered an opportunity region.
for Modi to congratulate the new president of D. CEPA with UAE
the UAE and the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Mohamed a) India and the United Arab Emirates have signed
bin Zayed Al Nahyan. a Comprehensive Economic Partnership
b) The UAE leader received Modi at the airport, Agreement (CEPA) on 18th February 2022,
reflecting the personal ties between the two during the India-UAE virtual Summit. It provides
leaders. As UAE Crown Prince Sheikh Mohamed for an institutional mechanism to encourage and
bin Zayed Al Nahyan had paid his first state visit improve trade between the two countries.
to India from in 2016. b) The CEPA was the first of its kind signed by India
c) Earlier Vice President Shri Venkaiah Naidu had in the Middle East and North Africa region, and
gone to Abu Dhabi on 15 May 2022 to offer the the first by the UAE with any country of the
Indian government’s condolences to the world. It is remarkable that negotiations for this
leadership of the UAE and in an unusual gesture, historic agreement took a mere 88 days, and
the External Affairs Minister, Dr S. Jaishankar, that they were made possible only through
had personally visited the UAE embassy in New mutual trust and commitment.
Delhi to sign the condolence book. c) As per the CEPA signed between India and the
d) The visit comes weeks after the controversial UAE, 90% of India’s exports will have duty-free
remarks by two BJP officials about Prophet access to the Emirates. It covers goods, services
Muhammad that created much anger and and digital trade. The bilateral trade pact is
protests all across the Gulf including in the UAE. India’s first in the region and the first
Like many other Muslim-majority countries, the comprehensive trade agreement with any
UAE’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and country in a decade.
International Cooperation condemned the d) India will benefit from preferential market
controversial statements. access provided by the UAE, especially for all
e) Modi’s visit, therefore, offered an opportunity to labourintensive sectors such as Gems and
soften the anger expressed against India. Even Jewellery, Textiles, leather, footwear, sports
though it was a one-day visit, it appeared to goods, plastics etc.
have been an important one in cementing ties e) The CEPA is likely to benefit about $26 billion
that may been adversely impacted by the recent worth of Indian products that are currently
developments, and an opportunity for a face-to- subjected to 5% import duty by the UAE. The
face interaction with the new leadership. deal will open up to 10 lakh jobs for the young
f) Earlier when PM Modi visited UAE in 2015, it people in the country.
was the first visit by an Indian Prime Minister in f) It is expected that the CEPA will lead to an
34 years. Both countries decided to take the increase in bilateral trade from the current $60
bilateral relationship to the level of a bn to $100 bn in the next 5 years. Through the
‘comprehensive strategic partnership’. The pact, Indian exporters will also get access to the
strategic partnership of India-UAE is a much larger Arab and African markets.
multidimensional strategic partnership including g) Given that the UAE is keen on transforming itself
different areas such as defense, security, from an oil-dependent economy to a
environment, education, health, commerce, and knowledgebased economy, the India-UAE
investment. UAE has supported India in her bid relationship has the potential to expand to
for a permanent seat for the UN Security critical areas in the science, technology,
Council. The UAE government allotted a land for innovation (STI) domain. With India’s strong
a temple – as a gesture to reach out to the new science and technology base including in STEM
Modi government. The two sides were able to education, space and nuclear fields, the two
establish the UAE-India Infrastructure countries have the potential to transform the
Investment Fund, with the aim of reaching a nature and scale of their engagement. The
target of USD 75 billion to support investment in Indian decision to establish the first foreign
India’s plans. branch of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
g) Modi’s latest visit to UAE needs to be seen in the in the UAE fits well with this goal. The decision
larger context of strengthening ties and further

66
on the IIT’s UAE branch in Dubai is part of the b) (b) By 1992, with the end of cold war and
CEPA agreement. collapse of Soviet Union, there was an urgent
h) India and the UAE are also becoming more need for better relations with the sole
comfortable with the changing geopolitics of the superpower USA. Developing relations with
region. Their partnership in ‘Middle East Quad’ Israel would be an important gesture for closer
U2I2 is a case in point. economic cooperation with Washington.
i) With Modi wooing the UAE’s investors for the c) (c) There were big advantages in developing
infrastructure projects and opportunities upto a closer ties with Israel which included
trilliondollar potential, for rapid expansion of cooperation in the spheres of agriculture,
next generation infrastructure, especially in industry, trade, science and technology and
railways, ports, roads, airports and industrial defence.
corridors and parks.  Imperatives for closer cooperation
j) On January 30 2022, India and Israel marked 30  Israel can be described as India’s natural ally.
years of full diplomatic relations.  The common threat to national security
k) India-Israel relations have been sensitive and emanating from their neighbourhood in form of
controversial in much of their relationship cross-border terrorism especially in the era of
history. India had recognised Israel as far back as globalisation of jihadi politics necessitates a
1950 but normalisation took another four closer cooperation between them. Both
decades. India was reticent about its ties with countries have been victims of terrorist violence
Israel as it balanced this with its historical for decades and have fostered closer
support for the Palestinian cause, its cooperation to counter this threat.
dependence on the Arab world for oil, and the  Israel is a reliable ally of India especially as seen
pro-Palestinian sentiments of the country’s in regional dynamics of South Asian geopolitics.
Muslim citizens. Unlike major powers’ ties with Pakistan (like
 REASONS FOR SHIFT IN INDIA’S USA, China and even Russia), Indo-Israel ties will
never be hyphenated with Indo-Pakistan
ATTITUDE TOWARDS ISRAEL:- relations. India is assured of strong Israeli
 India’s attitude towards Israel has been guided support in this region including vis-à-vis China.
more by diplomatic prudence rather than moral  As a rising power with a growing economy, India
basis. There were several reasons for this change offers immense opportunities for mutually
of policy by India- beneficial ties for Israel ranging from a huge
a) Soured Relations with Arab world- market, innovation, science and technology,
 India’s largely proArab stance in the Middle East agriculture and attractive investment
had not beenadequately reciprocated and destination. Conversely, Israel’s technical
rewarded by the Arab world. expertise in defence, dual use high technology,
 India had received no worthwhile backing from dry land agriculture, water management,
Arab countries in the resolution of problems it technical education etc. make it an indispensible
faces in its neighborhood, especially Kashmir. partner for accelerating India’s economic
there had been no serious attempts by the Arab development and security. Israel is thus also
world to put pressure on Pakistan to reign in the important for food security.
cross-border insurgency in Kashmir. On the  India offers crucial diplomatic support to Israel in
contrary, Arab nations have firmly stood by international arena where it is often isolated
Pakistan, using the Organization of Islamic over many issues. Also, India’s geopolitical
Cooperation (OIC) to build support for Islamabad position makes it a gateway for Israel to South
and jihadi groups in Kashmir. Asia, SouthEast Asia and East Asia where India’s
 In the wake of the first Gulf War, equations in standing as a responsible power is of great
West Asia underwent big shifts. Arab support for benefit for Israel.
the Palestinian cause began to weaken due to  GROWTH OF TIES
PLO’s backing for Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. If
 Since then, India-Israel relations have blossomed
Arab nations, such as Jordan, have been able to
in the short period of three decades into close
keep their traditional ties with Palestine intact
military, economic and strategic ties. Both
while building a new relationship with Israel,
countries took a fresh look at each other and
there is no reason for India not to take a similar
found substantial interaction in various fields
route, which might give it more room for
ranging from economic, agricultural, scientific to
diplomatic maneuvering in the region
defence.
67
 At crucial times, when India needed Israeli help, Palestinian state. When Modi visited Israel, his
it got it unreservedly. Israel was willing to itinerary did not include Ramallah, as had been
continue and even step up its arms sales to India the practice by other visiting dignitaries.
after other major states curbed their  But the balancing act continued. Modi made a
technological exports following India’s May 1998 separate visit to Ramallah in February 2018, and
nuclear tests. Israel provided India with much called for an independent Palestinian state. Even
needed imagery about Pakistani positions using as it abstained at UNESCO in December 2017,
its UAVs during the Kargil War with Pakistan in India voted in favour of a resolution in the
1999. That was ultimately instrumental in General Assembly opposing the Trump
turning the war around for India. When India administration’s recognition of Jerusalem as the
was planning to undertake a limited military Israeli capital.
strike against Pakistan in June 2002 as part of  At the UNHRC’s 46th session in Geneva earlier in
“Operation Parakram,” Israel supplied hardware 2021, India voted against Israel in three
through special planes. resolutions
 The first high-level bilateral visits took place only  on the right of self-determination of the
when the NDA-1 under Prime Minister Atal Palestinian people;
Bihari Vajpayee took office. In 2000, L K Advani  on Israeli settlement policy; and
became the first Indian minister to visit Israel.  on the human rights situation in the Golan
The same year, Jaswant Singh visited as Foreign Heights. It abstained on a fourth, which
Minister. That year, the two countries set up a asked for an UNHRC report on the human
joint anti-terror commission. And in 2003, Ariel rights situation in Palestine, including East
Sharon became the first Israeli Prime Minister to Jerusalem.
visit India  In its statement in the UN Security Council on
 INDIA & THE PALESTINIAN CAUSE the Israel-Palestine violence last year, India
 Keeping India’s wider strategic interests in expressed India’s “strong” support to the “just
perspective, successive Indian governments Palestinian cause” and “unwavering” support for
since the early 1990s have walked nuanced line the two-state solution.
between expressing genuine concern for the  India believes that the peaceful resolution of the
Palestinian cause and expanding its commercial Israel-Palestine conflict would bring lasting
and defense ties with Israel. peace and stability to the region and reiterated
 Over the years, the Indian government has the need for an early resumption of the political
toned down its reactions to Israel’s treatment of course by launching credible direct negotiations
Palestinians. India has also begun denouncing on all final status issues. India has consistently
Palestinian suicide bombings and other terrorist called for direct peace negotiations between
acts in Israel, something that was seen earlier as Israel and Palestine taking into account the
rather justified in light of the Israeli policies legitimate aspirations of the Palestinian people
against the Palestinians. India is no longer for statehood and Israel’s legitimate security
initiating anti-Israel resolutions at the United concerns
Nations.  TIES DURING MODI REGIME
 During the UPA’s 10 years in office, Mahmoud a) Political ties
Abbas, head of the Palestinian Authority that  Israeli policy makers and analysts have often
administers the West Bank, visited four times — expressed displeasure at the lack of high-level
in 2005, 2008, 2010 and 2012. India voted for political interactions with Indian leaders, despite
Palestine to become a full member of UNESCO in the robust strategic engagement between the
2011, and a year later, co-sponsored the UN two countries. During Modi Regime, high level
General Assembly resolution that enabled bilateral visits have been a remarkable feature of
Palestine to become a “non-member” observer bilateral ties.
state at the UN without voting rights. India also  PM Modi’s meeting with Prime Minister
supported the installation of the Palestinian flag Benjamin Netanyahu on September 28, 2014, at
on the UN premises in September 2015, a year the side lines of the 69th UNGA sessions was the
after Modi was voted to power. first interaction between the Indian and Israeli
 The first big shift in India’s policy came during Prime Ministers since the September 2003 visit
the visit of Mahmoud Abbas in 2017 when India of Ariel Sharon to India. PM Netanyahu had
in a statement dropped the customary line in remarked that “sky is the limit” that can be
support of East Jerusalem as the capital of a

68
achieved between the two sides with “limitless”  Deputy Prime Minister and Defence Minister of
potential. Israel Lt Gen (Res) Benjamin Gantz, visited India
 The first-ever Indian President’s visit to Israel on June 2, 2022. Both countries reviewed the
and Palestine between October 12 and October rapid growth in defence cooperation between
15 in 2015 was a marked departure from New India and Israel over the past few years. They
Delhi’s standpoint. For the last two decades, acknowledged mutual security challenges and
India has been shy about its relationship with their convergences on a number of strategic and
Israel and the NDA government seemed defence issues, and expressed their commitment
determined to break those preconceived to work together to enhance cooperation in all
notions. For long, India had avoided a bilateral forums.
visit at the highest level. So, it has successfully b) Defence ties
come out of the hyphenation between Israel and  Defence continues to be a “central pillar” of the
Palestine in its relationship with the two nations. bilateral relationship. Next to Russia and the
 Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Israel United States, Israel is one of the largest arms
from July 4-6 was a significant milestone. It was suppliers to India with annual sales worth over
the first-ever historic visit of an Indian Prime $1 billion. India is the largest buyer of military
Minister after Israeli PM Ariel Sharon came to equipment from Israel.
India during Vajpayee regime in 2003, and takes  Indeed, under the Modi government, India and
place as the two countries marked 25 years of Israel have ramped up their cooperation on
establishment of diplomatic relations. security and defense matters. The Indian armed
 PM Modi had already undertaken visits to the forces have inducted a wide array of Israeli
United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and weapon systems over the years, which range
Iran before embarking on his trip to Israel. from
Receiving Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas  Phalcon AWACS (Airborne Warning And
in Delhi in May eased the politics of skipping a Control Systems) and
visit to Ramallah while visiting Israel.  Heron, Searcher-II and Harop drones
 India has finally de-hyphenated its relationship  Barak anti-missile defence systems and
with Israel and Palestine, engaging with the two  Spyder quick-reaction anti-aircraft missile
arch-rivals separately and on mutually beneficial systems.
terms.PM Modi had already made a political  a host of Israeli missiles and precision-
statement by choosing to stay in Jerusalem, on guided munitions, from Python and Derby
which Palestine has claims, for all the three days air-to-air missiles to Crystal Maze and Spice-
and only going to Tel Aviv for the Indian 2000 bombs.
community event. The political message of the  At the 15th Joint Working Group (JWG 2021)
trip was clear – New Delhi is no longer uneasy in meeting on Bilateral Defence Cooperation,
dealing with Israel as was the case in the past. countries agreed to form a Task Force to
 He visited Yad Vesham, the Holocaust Memorial. formulate a comprehensive Ten-Year Roadmap
He paid homage to the soldiers in Haifa to identify new areas of cooperation.
cemetery that contains the graves of Indian  Israel has sold radar and surveillance systems as
soldiers who had died during the First World well as electronic components for military
War. He also unveiled a plaque commemorating aircraft and India has already deployed Israeli
Major Dalpat Singh, known as the ‘Hero of Haifa’ unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) along the
for his critical role in the liberation of the city rugged mountains of Kashmir for surveillance, as
during World War I. well as on the disputed border with China.
 The outcome of the visit was an impressive joint  Israel also wants to be a key player in the “Make
statement which elevated the relationship to a in India” initiative, especially in defence
‘strategic partnership’. Indian and Israeli manufacturing through technology transfers and
companies entered into agreements to bid joint research, technology start-ups and
jointly for defence contracts for the Indian cybersecurity. Indian and Israeli warships
military and locally build the systems under successfully tested the jointly developed Barak 8
“Make in India”. long-range surface-to-air missile system during
 This was followed by PM Netanyahu’s visit to November-December 2015, which will now
India in January 2018, the second such visit by an serve as a missile defence shield for warships
Israeli PM. and key facilities such as offshore oil platforms.

69
It was joint venture of DRDO and Israeli presence in Israel through mergers and
aerospace Industry (IAI). acquisitions and by opening branch offices.
c) Counter-terrorism  During April 2000 – - March 2022, Israel’s direct
 Israel has helped India defense itself through FDI into India was US $270.91 million. There are
training in counterterrorism methods. Israel has over 300 investments from Israel in India mainly
been cooperating with India in the areas of in the high-tech domain and in agriculture.
border management, internal security and public These investments are varied in nature -
safety, police modernization and capacity manufacturing plants; R&D centers; subsidiaries
building for combating crime, crime prevention etc. There is a growing preference for Israeli
and cybercrime. companies in sectors such as renewable energy,
 The two countries have signed an Extradition water technologies, homeland security and real
Treaty and a pact on Transfer of Sentenced estate in addition to traditional areas such as
Prisoners. Both countries signed an intelligence- agriculture, chemicals etc.
sharing agreement in July 2014, hoping to fight  India-Israel Industrial R&D and Technological
radical Islamic extremism in the region together. Innovation Fund (I4F) setup for affordable
 Joint working Group on counter-terrorism meets technological innovations in focus areas of
periodically mutual interest such as water, agriculture,
 India eyes advanced Israeli foliage penetrating energy and digital technologies. I4F is a
radar capable of detecting human, and vehicular cooperation between the two countries to
activity in dense forests. In the Indian use case, promote, facilitate and support joint industrial
the radar would be a handy monitoring tool for R&D projects between companies from India
the porous Line of Control with Pakistan, the de and Israel to address the challenges in the
facto boundary in the disputed territory of agreed Focus Sectors
Kashmir. Israeli radars could considerably e) The agriculture and water management
improve intelligence, surveillance, and  Agriculture:
reconnaissance of the difficult terrain.  An Indo-Israel agriculture action plan for 2015-
 This would help India plug leakages in LOC to 18 was operational, and 15 of the proposed 26
prevent infiltration and incidents like Pathankot centres of excellence in agriculture are being
and Uri attack. There is thus immense scope for developed in India with Israel's help to showcase
collaboration on border security sphere. the latest technology to Indian farmers.
d) Trade & investment  India has benefited from Israeli technologies in
 The trade and investment relationship has horticulture mechanisation, protected
grown impressively in the last few years. From cultivation, orchard and canopy management,
US$ 200 million in 1992 (comprising primarily of nursery management, micro-irrigation and
diamonds), merchandise trade diversified and postharvest management, particularly in
reached US$ 7.86billion (excluding defense) Haryana and Maharashtra.
during the period 2021 –2022 with the balance  Every year, more than 20,000 farmers visit the
of trade being in India’s favor. Agricultural Centre of Excellence at Gharaunda
 India is Israel’s second-largest trading partner in in Karnal, Haryana, where a nursery produces
Asia and the ninth largest globally. Though hybrid seedlings -- including tomatoes, cherry-
bilateral trade is dominated mainly by diamonds tomato, colored capsicum, cucumbers, eggplant
and chemicals, recent years have witnessed an and chilli pepper-grown in small, individual cells,
increase in trade in areas such as electronic ready to be transplanted into containers or a
machinery and high-tech products; field. There was a five-to 10-fold increase in crop
communications systems; medical equipment yields with an accompanying 65 per cent
etc. reduction in use of water and noticeable
 India continues to be a 'focus' country for the Israeli decrease in the use of pesticides and fertilisers,
Government’s increased trade efforts. India and Israel according to a December 2014 report on the
have restarted negotiations for the Free Trade Indo-Israel Agriculture Project.
Agreement (FTA) with an aim to conclude it in  Undoubtedly, agriculture is at least one of the
2022.The success of Indian and Israeli information
two main pillars in India-Israel relations –
technology companies has particularly led to interest
in collaboration in that sector.
definitely the main pillar from the civilian angle.”
 Indian Investments in Israel: Cumulative ODI
The contribution of Israel to the agricultural
from India as on June 2022 was US $ 131.85 growth in different parts of our country over the
million. Indian companies are marking their last two decades is immense- From the

70
blossoming mango orchards of Haryana to the to offend these countries. This regional power
drip-irrigated vegetable nurseries of Gujarat play dynamics circumscribes India’s choice vis-à-
state, Israeli agricultural know-how has become vis Israel.
a staple resource of farms across the Indian  Israel’s ultra-aggressive style of military action in
subcontinent. which it uses disproportionate force against
 Indian officials have been receiving training in weak adversaries and the consequent collateral
Israel from time to time. Indian officials and damages including high civilian causalities makes
business delegations regularly attend Israel’s it untenable for India. Besides, Israel’s isolation
triennial international agricultural exhibition at the international stage where it is part of few
event Agritech, which showcases Israel’s international groupings also constraints India’s
achievements in agriculture. Union Minister of policy options
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare Shri Narendra  Poor Connectivity between two countries has
Singh Tomar visited Israel in May 2022 and held resulted in limited People to People ties.
bilateral discussions with his counterpart.  Israel’s close ties with China: China is attracted
 Cooperation in water conservation, waste-water to Israel‘s technology sector, and Israel
treatment and its reuse for agriculture, welcomes China‘s investments and potential as a
desalination, water utility reforms, and the research collaborator.
cleaning of the Ganges and other rivers using h) Potential for deeper engagement
advanced water technologies. Israel ‘s expertise  Israeli companies, with their acknowledged
in drip irrigation will help India meet its target of strengths in technology and products, would
doubling farmer ‘s income. clearly benefit from Indian partnership as they
 A Plan of Cooperation between Israel and the sought to scale up for markets or production.
Government of Uttar Pradesh for addressing Israeli companies have invested in India in
water issues in Bundelkhand region was signed renewable energy, telecom, water technologies,
in August 2020 following which an Israeli and R&D. Indian companies have invested in
company is working on a feasibility study in Israel in drip irrigation, pharmaceuticals, and
water management in Bundelkhand region. In waste water treatment.
June 2022 Israel signed a joint declaration with  As a water-challenged state, Israel recycles 90%
Haryana government in the field of integrated of its water, and 95% of sewage is processed for
water resource management and capacity agricultural use, making it virtually a closed
building. Israeli company IDE has built several water cycle.
desalination plants in India.  Given Israel’s strengths in innovation and it
f) People to People Contact having, despite its small population base, the
 There are approximately 80,000 Jews of Indian origin second largest number of start ups in the world
in Israel. The majority is from Maharashtra (Bene (after US), Indian companies have also taken
Israelis) and relatively small numbers from Kerala stake in such ventures and in R&D. The two
(Cochini Jews), Kolkata (Baghadadi Jews) and North governments have worked to finance and
East (Bnei Menache).
promote scientific collaborations, and Indian
 The Indian Embassy in Israel facilitated the first ever
National Convention of Indian Jews in Israel held on
companies are now beginning to partner with
September 2013 in Ramla. Besides, there are about Israeli universities and scientific institutes for
10,000 Indian citizens of whom about 8000 are care development and commercialization of
givers while others are diamond graders, IT technologies.
professionals, students and unskilled workers.  Defence and homeland security have also been
 India is a popular tourist destination of Israelis. Every among the critical pillars of the relationship. The
year, over 40,000 Israelis visit India for tourism and regular exchanges of senior leadership in this
business. field, the purchase of critical equipment and
 Both governments also encourage collaboration
codevelopment of technology are a reflection of
among Universities and Educational institutions
high-level mutual confidence. Israel is seen as a
involving faculty and student exchange programmes,
joint academic research, fellowships, Industrial R & D
reliable partner.
in IT and electronics, promoting innovation etc.  Every country pursues its foreign policy to
g) Constraints to bilateral ties maximise its own national interests. Egypt and
 India’s huge reliance on Arab countries and Iran
Jordan have peace treaties with Israel. Abraham
for energy security, diaspora interests, security accords have normalized relations between
and connectivity issues force it to have a several Arab countries and Israel. The Palestinian
nuanced approach for ties with Israel so as not leadership, despite disagreements and

71
disappointments, also engages periodically in making significant contributions to energy, food
talks. It is clear, therefore, that India’s interests security and economic growth in the region and
lie, while maintaining its principles, in securing South Asia.PM Modi said the grouping has
bilateral cooperation for its own interests. established a positive agenda and its framework
is a good model for practical cooperation in the
 I2U2 :- GROUP:- face of increasing global uncertainties.
 I2U2 stands for India, Israel, the UAE, and the US, and
 The I2U2 group met on September 20, 2022 on
was also referred to as the ‘West Asian Quad’ by
Ahmed Albanna, Ambassador of the UAE to India. The
the sidelines of the United Nations General
I2U2 Grouping was conceptualized during the Assembly Meeting. The I2U2 grouping of India,
meeting of the foreign ministers of the four countries Israel, UAE and the US have expressed
held in October 2021 as part of External Affairs commitment to deepening their economic
Minister S. Jaishankar's visit to Israel. At that time, partnership and has taken stock of current
the grouping was called the ‘International Forum for projects in agriculture and clean energy and
Economic Cooperation’. reviewed potential projects to help the group’s
 In a virtual conference, the four foreign ministers objectives. The group looks forward to building
agreed to utilise complementary capabilities to fulfil on the success of the Leaders’ Summit in July
overlapping interests, thus bolstering cooperation
2022 Q19. How will I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE and USA)
and strengthening the strategic partnership between
the new Quad partners. grouping transform India’s position in global politics?
 Aim- Its stated aim is to discuss “common areas of (Answer in 250 words) 15 marks
mutual interest, to strengthen the economic  Analysis
partnership in trade and investment in our respective  The I2U2 is an outcome and a reflection of the
regions and beyond”. Six areas of cooperation have resets that the West Asian region has been going
been identified by the countries mutually, and the through. The formation of the I2U2 is considered
aim is to encourage joint investments in as a direct outcome of the Abraham Accords.
1) water,
The I2U2 is an attempt towards forging
2) energy,
cooperation between regional powers Israel and
3) transportation,
4) space, the UAE and their extra regional close partners
5) health, and India and the US in the wake of changing
6) food security. equations in the region.
 With the help of private sector capital and expertise,  The new Quad can be termed as a result of
the countries will look to modernise infrastructure, converging interests between India, the UAE,
explore low carbon development avenues for and Israel amidst Turkish president Recep Tayyip
industries, improve public health, and promote the Erdogan‘s assertive claims for the leadership of
development of critical emerging and green the Islamic world.
technologies.
 The grouping also points to India’s growing  BENEFITS FOR INDIA
engagement with countries in West Asia including 1) Deepen India’s ties with West Asia
Israel, with whom India has developed closer ties  The I2U2 provides an additional avenue for India
under PM Modi in the last few years. Two weeks ago, to expand its multilateral engagements but it
PM Modi also made a short visit to the UAE after
also offers an opportunity for India to play a
attending the G7 Summit, soon after Vice-President
M.V. Naidu’ s trip in May this year.
prominent role in the geopolitics of West Asia.
 The Abraham Accords of 2020 had led to Israel  According to a former Israeli national security
formally normalizing diplomatic ties with the UAE and adviser, the I2U2 Summit’s first high-level
two other countries in the region, marking an meeting is a significant development in which
important shift in the stance of West Asian countries India’s partnership can prove to be a “game
on Israel. changer”. Additionally, American National
 I2U2 Summit Security Advisor Jacob Sullivan noted that just as
 Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Prime Minister the United States can play an important role in
of Israel Yair Lapid, President of the UAE Sheikh deepening Israel’s integration into the region,
Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan and US President India has a role to play as well.
Joe Biden participated in the first Leaders’  India can also help to enhance and expand the
Summit of I2U2, held virtually in July 14 this scope of Abraham accords bringing in new
year. countries. It has the ability to push others by
 India said it has vital stakes in peace and saying that it is in the interest of the world.
prosperity in the Middle East and through the Experts believe that it has the potential to build
newly-formed I2U2 grouping it is confident of on the Abraham accords to expand regional
72
partnership beyond the Middle East, specifically year strategic partnership agreement in March
on energy, tech and economic issues. 2021 with Iran which will give Beijing a military
 Since India is a massive market and a producer foothold in the region. Many experts see the
of high-tech and highly sought-after goods, the alliance as an effort to counter China's growing
four countries can work together on several influence and foil Iran's nuclear ambitions. India
areas, including technology, trade, climate, and cannot be a part of a security alliance given its
Covid-19. US has also hinted that security traditional ties with Iran, but it does not stop it
cooperation might be possible in the future. from being a strong economic partner.
 The grouping helps India in positioning itself as a  A small group of this kind may push for one of
reliable, strategic and developmental partner in the critical economic corridors, the Arab
the West Asian region. The I2U2 can provide Mediterranean corridor, which will maximize the
India with an excellent foothold for an even potential and profit of any country taking part in
greater role in West Asia. It can lead to the it. For India it is a net profit, mainly because of
emergence of a stronger and more multifaceted the complexity and instability presented by the
strategic partnership between India and 12 West INSTC path. The momentum of such a corridor
Asian countries. strengthens India against China in competition
2) Bridge with Iran for connectivity and is a strategic advantage for
 I2U2 members need to work around their Washington. And today it is very clear that a
different approaches towards Iran. Iran could strong India is ideal for America.
prove to a challenge in functioning of the I2U2. 5) Boost to clean energy and food security
Israel considers Iran a security threat even as the  By working together these countries could have
western countries are attempting to salvage the the potential to prevent the global food crisis,
nuclear deal. The UAE is taking steps towards affect food prices, keep inflation low and
improving ties with Iran. India is the only country stabilise economies.
that enjoys cordial relations with Iran. India has  An analysis of the joint statement from the first
deep economic and strategic engagements with summit demonstrates the grouping’s resolve to
Iran. With Chabahar Port under development address the various areas that are crucial not
and INSTC under trial run, India could prove to just for India but the larger Global South. With a
be a vital link between Iran and its adversaries. focus on the food security crisis and clean
3) A ‘natural partner’ for the US in its efforts energy, the grouping has announced a 300-
to revitalize its alliances in the region megawatt (MW) hybrid renewable energy
 I2U2 is a step to strengthen the United States' project in Gujarat, supplemented by a battery
strategic alliances in the region. It is a direct energy storage system. The joint statement
continuation of what previous Presidents like notes that the project has the potential to make
Mr. Obama and Mr. Trump did. The I2U2 is one India a global hub for alternate supply chains in
of many strategies designed to demonstrate the the renewable energy sector.
return of the American leadership to the global  While the food parks have the potential to
arena by connecting countries with common sustainably increase India’s food yields threefold
interests. in just five years, the hybrid renewable energy
 Since India enjoys friendly relations with the project with battery storage system was going to
countries in the region, as well as deep cultural help India reach its climate and energy goal of
and historical links and vibrant economic ties, it 500 megawatts of non-fossil fuel capacity by
can be called a ‘natural partner’ for the US in its 2030.
efforts to revitalise its alliances in the region. It  A series of integrated food parks will be
also presents an opportunity to expand ties with developed across India with $2 billion in UAE
the US beyond Asia. funding that will incorporate state-of-the-art
 USA believes that I2U2 can become a feature of climate-smart technologies to reduce food waste
the broader region, just as the Quad has become and spoilage and conserve fresh water. The
a central pillar of the Indo-Pacific strategy of the recently announced initiative will bring
United States ✓ a big technological boost,
4) Tackling China’s influence ✓ help maximise crop yields,
 The US administration sees China as a rival and ✓ tackle food insecurity, and
tries to deal with its activities in various ways. ✓ enhance our capabilities even further.
The U.S. is concerned with the growing Chinese  The focus on food and energy security has
presence in the Middle East. China signed a 25- acquired urgency in the backdrop of the current
73
military situation in Ukraine that has unleashed  India also believes that strategic energy
cascading negative effects on food, energy and cooperation with its largest oil supplier will help
other sectors. achieve its objective of maintaining a strategic
 Some experts argue that India's participation in crude oil reserve of five million metric tons
the I2U2 forum as a "final verdict" on the (MMT) to meet any future exigencies.
doubters who do not see much of a change in  Besides, India is the largest recipient of foreign
India's policy towards Israel and in the Middle remittances from the kingdom. Of the 11 million
East in general. It marks a transition in India's Indians working in West Asia, nearly three
policy in the Middle East. million are in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, stability in
 CHALLENGES the region, and particularly in Saudi Arabia, is
 In view of some experts, the parallels drawn high on India’s core agenda.
with QUAD are questionable given the differing  But bilateral relations have gone beyond the
foreign policy stances witnessed with respect to economic realm in recent years, acquiring a
Russia. Barring the US, no other country in the strategic sense and pushing both countries to
I2U2 — Israel, India, or the UAE — has followed beef up their security partnership.
the Western lead of imposing sanctions on  India would also not prefer to sit on the margins
Russia. at a time when China is raising its profile in West
 Furthermore, while the Indo-Pacific Quad was Asia. Chinese President Xi Jinping recently visited
primarily focused on defence and security, the Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Iran and the relationship
West Asia Quad seems to focus more on between Beijing and Tehran is particularly going
economic cooperation, and not security strong especially with rising tensions between
cooperation USA and Iran.
 Even on the issue of China, the grouping doesn’t  For Saudi Arabia
seem to have converging interests. The UAE is  Enhanced ties with India are important for Saudi
already a signatory to China’s Belt and Road Arabia as well. The kingdom is facing economic
Initiative (BRI) and Israel is expected to gain strain in the wake of persistently weak oil prices.
from the initiative due to its strategic The U.S. is no longer as dependent on the region
geographical positioning as a transit country, for energy as it used to be, due to the shale
connecting Europe, Asia and Africa. The BRI gives boom. Demand from China is also receding in
greater scope and reach to Israeli technology, the wake of a slowdown. In this context, India is
and it also helps in boosting tourism. Maybe this a vital market for Saudi Arabia.
is why, while Beijing has often attacked the Indo-  There is believed to be friction between
Pacific Quad grouping as ‘Asian NATO’, it has Islamabad and Riyadh over the former warming
avoided being overly critical of the I2U2 yet. up to Tehran and their growing energy
 CONCLUSION cooperation. Pakistan had refused to join Saudi
Arabia’s war coalition that has been bombing
 I2U2 is an ideal example of how ‘minilaterals’
Yemen for the past couple of years in the name
can reshape West Asia’s geopolitical landscape,
of fighting the Iran-backed Shia rebels. So
enabling India to establish both economic
growing ties with India enables Saudi Arabia to
relations and long-term security cooperation
have a more balanced South Asia policy
through a comprehensive engagement strategy.
especially with the world’s emerging economy –
In recent years, India’s footprint in the region
Indian economy
has grown substantially, making the I2U2
alliance natural next step for India to further  Recent Steps taken
consolidate those ties.  For decades, India was a passive player in West
Asia — a beneficiary of good relationships with
 INDIA –SAUDI ARABIA TIES multiple actors. Despite the growing economic
 IMPERATIVES FOR BETTER TIES ties, political contacts between Saudi Arabia and
 For India India were at minimum till the Manmohan Singh
 There’s a consensus in India’s foreign policy government took office in 2004.
establishment that maintaining vibrant ties with  The broader framework for reactivating India’s
Saudi Arabia is imperative to its national Saudi ties was set in the post-9/11 world where
interest. Today, Saudi Arabia is India’s second counter-terror cooperation became a new
largest supplier of crude oil which makes Riyadh diplomatic norm between terror-affected
a vital player in the country’s quest for energy countries. Dr. Singh found it an opportunity to
security.
74
deepen security ties with Sunni Muslim joint statement, issued had during first visit had
countries. indirect references to Pakistan’s dual policy
 West Asia acquired great significance in Dr. towards terrorism. In view of some experts, it is
Singh’s world view; he even appointed a special clear that Mr. Modi is giving a Pakistan spin to
envoy for the whole region. the ‘Act West Asia’ policy of his predecessor.
 The January 2006 visit of the late King, Abdullah India’s objective appears to be to build a
bin Abdulaziz, to Delhi set a new tone for “counter-terror narrative” in diplomatic
bilateral ties. Dr. Singh reciprocated the visit in engagements with Pakistan’s close allies which
2010 — the first Indian Prime Minister visiting could complicate the latter’s foreign policy.
Saudi Arabia in nearly 30 years — and signed the  The Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman
Riyadh Declaration, which set the framework for visited India in February 2019, giving a further
enhanced cooperation in the security, defence boost to the bilateral ties. Prince Salman
and economic spheres. declared his country’s intention to invest up to
 Since then, there has been marked improvement $100 in India over the next few years, including a
in security cooperation and intelligence sharing plan by the Saudi Basic Industries Corp. to
between India and Saudi Arabia. Riyadh also acquire two LNG plants.
extradited several terror suspects to India in a  During his second visit to Riyadh in October
clear departure from its established policy 2019, Prime Minister Modi delivered a keynote
towards New Delhi. address at the high-profile Future Investment
 Saudi Arabia is India’s fourth largest trade Initiative (FII), dubbed as 'Davos in the desert'.
partner. The bilateral trade was valued at US  Under its vision 2030, Riyadh has termed India
$42.8 billion during FY 2021-22. India also as its strategic partner, making India fourth
intends to further promote bilateral trade and country after France, the UK and China to earn
widen its scope particularly in the non-oil such a significant status in Riyadh.
sectors.  Also, Strategic Partnership Council was
 PM Modi’s visits to Saudi Arabia- April 2016 established to coordinate on important issues.
and October 2019 This is a major development since Saudi Arabia is
 PM Modi’s visits have further accelerated this now only the fourth country with whom India
movement with the two countries agreeing to has an intergovernmental mechanism headed by
deepen ties in energy infrastructure and the Prime minister. Germany, Russia and Japan
undertake joint ventures in the energy sector. are the other three.
This is a significant step forward towards  This was PM Modi’s 1st visit to Riyadh after
building a strategic energy partnership with the removal of J&K’s special status. Pakistanis were
Kingdom. told by the Saudi that they consider Kashmir as
 PM Modi, during his visit to Riyadh, encouraged India’s internal matter in which they do not want
more investments from Saudi Arabia into India. to interfere.
According to the Sovereign Wealth Fund  The two sides stressed on energy security and
Institute, Saudi Arabia holds the world’s fourth "Strategic Petroleum Reserves" (SPRs). ISPRL
largest sovereign wealth fund with the present (Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited)
holding standing at USD 632.3 billion. India signed an agreement with Saudi Aramco to lease
intends to tap into this huge fund by inviting part of the 2.5 million-tonne Padur storage in
investments from the Kingdom. Saudi southern Karnataka state and Indian Oil Corp
investments in India during the last 15 years signed a preliminary deal with Saudi Arabia’s’ Al
have totalled only USD 53.37 million, which is far Jeri company for cooperation in the downstream
below the potential. Both sides signed an sector, including setting up fuel stations in the
agreement to promote investment and Saudi kingdom.
Arabia has shown interest in investing in India’s  India’s influence in the Gulf region was starkly
infrastructure sector. visible when India was invited to the Foreign
 Both countries have an MoU concerning Ministers’ meeting of the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation in the Exchange of Intelligence Cooperation (OIC) States in Abu Dhabi in 2019.
related to Money Laundering, Terrorism  In 2020, Pakistan was constantly requesting
Financing and Related Crimes. Saudi Arabia to convene a meeting on Kashmir
 The main focus of PM Modi’s first trip to Saudi at the 57member council of Organisation of
Arabia was counter-terrorism. Both Abu Dhabi Islamic Cooperation (OIC) but Riyadh continued
and Riyadh are Pakistan’s historical allies. The to refuse. Experts believe that Pakistan’s

75
growing ties with Turkey is another factor in sector to be occupied only by Saudi nationals.
Saudi Arabia’s changing behaviour towards Nitaqat applies to all entities that have 6
Islamabad. Riyadh perceived a challenge to its employees and above.
leadership in the Muslim world by Turkey,  Many workers, sometimes, are detained even
Malaysia and Pakistan. after their work documents expire. They are
 In 2021, Saudi Gazette lauded Prime Minister usually paid very less or no salary for months
Narendra Modi's government for undertaking together. The crux of the problem is the ‘kafala’
various development and public welfare system. Under the system, migrant workers’
programmes, in the aftermath of the abrogation visas are tied to the employers so that they
of Article 370 in J&K cannot change jobs without the consent of their
 Challenges employers. A migrant worker in the countries
 The real question, however, is whether the joint that practise this sponsorship system is legally
statements will be translated into actual policies. bound to his employer. Without Kafeel’s
The Saudis may like to use their growing permission, the migrant worker cannot enter or
relations with India to put pressure on Pakistan, leave the country; nor transfer his/her
but a structural overhaul of Riyadh’s South Asia employment. To enter a country, a migrant gets
policy is not on the cards. Pakistan, after all, is tied to one sponsor who coordinates with the
the country with an “Islamic bomb”, a “historic immigration authorities about the former’s
ally” of the Saudis. So, if India, while reactivating arrival and departure as per the contractual
its West Asia policy, looks only through the agreement.
Pakistan prism, it might end up making strategic
mistakes.
 THE INDIA-IRAN TIES
 Another sore point is the growing Saudi-Iran  Iran has been a key country for India in the Gulf
rivalry, which has always influenced West Asian region.

geopolitics. By skewing its West Asia policy  In the recent past, India has struggled to sustain
towards the Saudis, even though it might help its strategic and economic ties with Iran under
meet its short-term goals, New Delhi also runs the shadow of Western-led sanctions. America’s
the risk of antagonizing Iran which is still a CAATSA Sanctions on Iran are a big challenge for
stronger player in West Asia post despite India to balance ties between US and Iran. India
imposition of sanctions. So, India needs to do a stopped importing oil from Iran in mid-2019
fine balancing act between two regional following sanctions on Iran by the Trump
heavyweights. administration. India plan to resume buying
 Then there’s the ideological problem. While crude oil from Iran the moment U.S. sanctions
Saudi Arabia denounces all forms of terrorism, are eased.
Saudi money is funding Wahhabi Islamic groups  Despite that, New Delhi made efforts to work
around the world. Many extremist outfits are through various mechanisms to enhance its
inspired by the Wahhabi branch of Islam. Saudi cooperation with Iran, supplemented by many
Arabia’s aggressive foreign policy in West Asia in important visits by business delegations, high
Yemen and Syria under King Salman bin level officials and Ministers. These visits
Abdulaziz al Saud is doing great damage to reflected not only New Delhi’s desire to
regional stability, which is India’s most reinvigorate bilateral cooperation.
important goal in the region.  India’s ties with Iran are actually largely
 The poor treatment of Indian workers in Saudi underdeveloped as compared to its much more
Arabia is one of the irritants. The blue collared substantive engagement with the Arab States in
workers always complain about harsh working the Persian Gulf and Israel. Hence India-Iran
conditions and poor treatment. The much relations can be best described as developing
controversial Nitaqat law has already reduced relations.
opportunities for Indian Workers in high paying  IMPERATIVES FOR COOPERATION
jobs. Nitaqat is an initiative launched by the  Iran with its substantial energy reserves can
Saudi Ministry of Human Resources and Social contribute substantially in ensuring India’s
Development(“HRSD”) to encourage the private energy security as well as to get access to oil and
sector to hire Saudi Nationals, thus, decreasing gas-rich Central Asian nations. On the other
Saudi unemployment and increasing the share of hand, India can provide investment to further
their participation in the labour market. The develop Iranian petrochemical sector, both
initiative restricts certain positions in the private

76
upstream and downstream projects. India and including financing to the tune of $1.6 billion, for
Iran could establish joint refineries. the Chabahar-Zahedan railway line — a line that
 In addition, being littoral states, a focus on the is also part of the trilateral agreement between
Indian Ocean would be good for regional India, Iran and Afghanistan on a transit and trade
security from piracy. In this regard, the corridor signed during this visit.
Association of Indian Ocean Rim countries  From the Chahbahar port, the existing Iranian
(AIOR) could be a good mechanism of road network can link up to Zaranj in
cooperation. Afghanistan, about 883 kilometres from the
 Similarly, in the security arena, Iran believes that port. The Zaranj-Delaram road constructed by
it is facing challenges on both the eastern and India in 2009 can give access to Afghanistan's
western fronts of its borders and it is therefore garland highway, thereby establishing road
looking for partners who could help deal with access to four major cities — AfghanistanHerat,
these security challenges. India and Iran both Kandahar, Kabul and Mazar-e-Sharif.
face the threat of terrorism by outfits like Al-  Vowing to jointly combat terrorism and
Qaeda amd Islamic State. Hence counter extremism, India and Iran agreed to share
terrorism is an important area of cooperation. intelligence in a bid to fight the menace that is
Moreover, India realizes importance of Iran in “rife and rampant” in the region.
the wake of return of Taliban in Afghanistan.  Indian investment in and development of the
NSA of Iran was invited to Delhi for the Delhi Farzad B block in the Farsi gas field as long been
regional security dialogue on Afghanistan. India a stalled area of cooperation between the two
and Iran can be constructive contributors in sides, primarily due to the previous international
dealing with the problem of terrorism in the sanctions. Modi and Rouhani addressed the
region. issue and the joint statement noted that the
 Economic cooperation is the most significant leaders anticipate further developments
element in this list. In fact, India is viewed as a including commercial contract for Farzad B.
country with a capacity to invest not only in the  The real challenge for India is in delivery. It has
Chabahar port but also in other projects. Indian’s taken us nearly 13 years since the idea was first
involvement in the Chabahar port project is mooted. The proposal was mired in three sets of
termed as a “peace port” and “transit problems. First, the Finance Ministry initially
diplomacy”. questioned rationale of development of the
 PM Modi’s visit to Iran- May 2016 port, insisting that there had to be a certain
 Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Iran assured return on investment for the project.
marked a new beginning in bilateral relations The strategic import of the project, especially by
and beyond. The last time an Indian prime way of providing access to Afghanistan, did not
minister visited Iran for a bilateral state visit was figure in their calculations. Secondly, the United
15 years ago, when the then PM Vajpayee States’ sanctions on Iran and the associated
visited Tehran. Modi’s visit succeeded in danger of exposing Indian banks and companies
injecting the relationship with a great deal of to indirect American sanctions for dealing with
momentum. Iranian entities prevented further progress.
 The centrepiece of the trip was the basket of  Prime Minister Modi met Iranian President
agreements on the development of the Ebrahim Raisi on the sidelines of the SCO summit
Chabahar port and onward connectivity with in September 2022 and discussed issues of
Afghanistan. bilateral and mutual interests. India has been in
 A set of agreements were signed which include - touch with Iran over the developments in
 (a) a contract for the development and Afghanistan as well following its takeover by the
operation for 10 years of two terminals and five Taliban on August 15 last year.
berths at Chabahar port  Earlier this month, External Affairs Minister S
 (b) the extension of credit lines of $500 million Jaishankar held a telephonic conversation with
for the port and of Rs.3,000 crore for importing his Iranian counterpart Hossein Amir-
steel rails and implementation of the port. Abdollahian, focusing on bilateral cooperation,
India will set up plants in sectors such as and the Iran nuclear deal.
fertilisers, petrochemicals and metallurgy in  Potential
Chabahar free trade zone.  It is suggested that there is a need to start a new
 (c) memorandums of understanding on chapter in India-Iran relations.
provision of services by Indian Railways,

77
 India and Iran can be natural partners in the is called, laid the groundwork for the
South, Central and West Asian regions given development of the shortest commercial route
their common interests, geographical proximity which connects the CARs with Iranian and Omani
and regional realities. ports. A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
 The potential areas of bilateral cooperation are on various components such as the legal,
many. Three key areas of cooperation are being procedural, and infrastructural of the
looked at in this regard: energy, trade and agreement, was signed on August 6, 2014, in
economy, and connectivity. Muscat. Kazakhstan applied for membership in
 India has moved forward on the project of the same year that Qatar withdrew from the
setting up of a fertilizer plant in Iran’s pact.
southeastern port city of Chabahar. The state-
run Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers (RCF),
Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizers and
Chemicals (GNFC) and Gujarat State Fertilizers
Corporation (GSFC) have selected Bank Pasargad
as the Iranian investor for the construction of a
fertilizer plant expected to produce an annual
volume of 1.3 million tons of urea. Indian
companies are reportedly investing some USD
738 million in this project.
 From the Iranian viewpoint, both India and Iran
need to understand the ground realities in the
changed geopolitical situation in the region. As a
 The Ashgabat Agreement, which envisions the
friendly country, Iran expects India to
development of an International Transport and
understand its security issues and concerns. It is
Transit Corridor between Central Asia and the
argued that India needs to have a long term
Persian Gulf, was signed by India in the year
approach on enhancing its cooperation in the
2018. The Gulf countries and Central Asian
area of connectivity and other trade-related
Republics (CARs) will be benefited from this
issues and not look only at short term gains.
corridor, which is said to improve
 There is potential in trilateral energy
communication, cargo, trade, and transit. India
cooperation between Iran, Oman and India for
has taken a step further in its efforts to improve
an under-sea Oman-Iran-India pipeline pipeline
connectivity with Eurasia by joining the
which has been discussed for a long time
Agreement.
without any results on the ground. In addition,
 The Ashgabat Agreement aims to establish a
the prospects of the Turkmenistan-Iran-India
commerce and transportation corridor
(TII) pipeline project is immense as it does not
connecting the CARs and the Persian Gulf. The
face any security challenge. This is the most
corridor will be multi-modal, with road, rail, and
doable project in the current context.
sea transit options.
 Chabahar port is strategically vital for India to
 India’s participation in the Ashgabat Agreement
enhance connectivity with Afghanistan and
will allow it to take advantage of the existing
Central Asia. Both sides had agreed for
transportation and transit corridor to facilitate
extending a USD 150 million credit for the port
trade and commercial relations with the
as well as USD 400 million credit line for the
Eurasian region. This will also be in line with
supply of steel rails from India for the Chabahar-
India’s efforts to build the International North-
Zahedan railway link.
South Transport Corridor (INSTC), a multi-modal
 Economic and trade relations are the weakest
trade transportation network that runs from
link in India’s overall relations with Iran. India
Mumbai, India, through Bandar Abbas, Iran to
and Iran have been trying hard to enhance
Moscow, Russia.
cooperation in this field.
 Challenges ahead
 THE ASHGABAT AGREEMENT  Some of the major challenges are:
 On April 25, 2011, in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan’s  The US maintains an embargo on Iran in terms of
capital, an agreement was signed between gaining access to the American financial system
Turkmenistan, Iran, Uzbekistan, Oman, and or directly conducting transactions in US dollars,
Qatar to build a new international trade and among a series of other restrictions. With new
transit corridor. The ‘Ashgabat Agreement,’ as it sanctions on Iran by USA, Indian government
78
had to curtail its energy imports from Iran . Also D. Third dialogue mechanism (2021)
in the changed scenario, it is difficult for India to E. India central asia summary (January 2022)
meet Iranian expectations on playing a much F. Challenge
more active investor in Iran. G. Potential
 India will also have to navigate carefully 2. SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANISATION
between Iran and its arch rivals, Saudi Arabia (SCO)
and Israel. For India, its relations with both A. Brief history
countries are extremely important. B. Objective
 China Factor C. Structure
 Over the past few decades, China and Iran have D. Importance of SCO for India
developed a broad and deep partnership centred on E. India’s engagement with SCO
China's energy needs and Iran's abundant resources
F. SCO summit 2022 September 2022
as well as significant non-energy economic ties, arms
G. challenges
sales and defence cooperation, and geostrategic
balancing against the United States. 3. BRICS
 Over the past several years, China has become Iran's A. Origin
number one oil customer and trading partner. China B. Objectives
has provided Iran with the technological know-how C. Significance of BRICS
to develop its energy resources. Chinese engineers D. Importance for India
have also built bridges, dams, railroads, and tunnels E. XIV BRICS Summit-June 2022
throughout Iran. China has aided Iran's efforts to F. BRICS achievements
modernize its military hardware and doctrine through G. Challenges
the transfer of military technology and sales of small H. Way forward
arms and tactical ballistic and antiship cruise missiles.
 China and Iran signed a strategic agreement in Tehran  INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA
in March 2021, when former President Hassan
Rouhani was in office, the strategic accord entails  INTRODUCTION
economic, military, security and political cooperation.  India has enjoyed historical and civilizational
The $400 billion agreement paves the way for Iran's linkages with Central Asia through the Silk Route
participation in the Belt and Road initiative. It will from 3rd century BC to 15th century AD, when
significantly expand China's economic and political the sea route from Europe to India was
influence. The details of this deal are not in public discovered. The Silk route connected the two
domain. However, analysts believe that this deal regions not only for transportation of goods like
would secure a regular supply of oil for China.
silk, textiles, spices etc. but also served as an
 China agreed to build two nuclear power plants in
effective channel for exchange of thoughts,
southern Iran and for Iran to provide long-term
supplies of oil to China. Such cooperation could ideas, religion, and philosophy.
threaten Russian positions, since Moscow had earlier  Buddhism spread through this route from India
announced that it would simultaneously be building to Central Asia and from there to West China in
eight nuclear plants in Iran. Russia's place in the the contemporary Xinjiang region. Buddhism
Chinese oil market, which for the last years has been found inroads in several of Central Asian cities
squeezing out the Arabic countries, could also be such as Merv, Khalachayan, Tirmiz and Bokhara
affected. etc in form of Stupas and Monasteries.
 Against American way of balancing China, China is
likely to bring Iran into its orbit. Also, India has
growing proximity with USA and in past India sided
with USA against Iran especially its UN vote. In this
backdrop India and Iran will have to find a middle
path to manage their relations. Iran’s expectation
from India is different as compared to that from
China, US and Europe. India’s strength, in the Iranian
view, lies in ‘soft power’, but Iran does not expect
‘soft power’ from China.
1. INDIA CENTRAL ASIA RELATION
A. Introduction
B. Importance of central asia
C. India’s engagement with central asia and
initiatives
79
 In medieval times, Babar came from Fergana  Traditionally, Central Asia has been an arena of
Valley after losing his kingdom to try his fortune "great game". The modern version is being
in India and laid the foundations of the great played out even today between Russia, China,
Mughal Empire. US, Turkey, Iran, Europe, EU, Japan, Pakistan,
 Post independent India’s linkages with the Soviet India, and Afghanistan, all of whom have
period through culture, music, dance, movies substantial security and economic stakes in the
and literature sustained close relations with the region.
Soviet Republics.  Also, the region lies at the crossroads of Russia,
 In the 1990s, when the five central Asian the Middle East, South Asia and the Far East. Any
republics gained independence, India faced the geopolitical changes in the region inevitably
twin challenges of adjusting to the emerging extend their impact on several states in the
post-cold war order and domestic economic neighbourhood.
reform. Bilateral relations however suffered  GREAT GAME
considerable neglect in the 25 years after  The Great Game" was a political and diplomatic
emergence of these countries as independent confrontation that existed for most of the 19th
States in 1991. century between the British Empire and the
 One notable initiative was Tajikistan functioned
Russian Empire over Afghanistan and
as India’s focus in the region during this period. neighboring territories in Central and South Asia.
India provided material and logistics assistance  Russia was fearful of British commercial and
to the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance in military inroads into Central Asia, and Britain
Afghanistan, routed through Tajikistan. was fearful of Russia adding "the jewel in the
Subsequently, Tajikistan also became the crown", India, to the vast empire that Russia was
recipient of long-term Indian military training as building in Asia. This resulted in an atmosphere
well as the location of what could have been of distrust and the constant threat of war
India’s first overseas military base. In 2002, India between the two empires.
and Tajikistan signed a bilateral defence  In the historical sense the term dated from the
agreement, as part of which India refurbished mid-19th century. "The Great Game" is
Ayni, a disused Soviet airbase. Widely attributed to Captain Arthur Conolly (1807–42) a
considered to have been motivated by an Indian British intelligence officer. It was introduced
desire for access to the airfield, this did not into mainstream by the British novelist Rudyard
come to pass. India’s military cooperation with Kipling in his novel Kim (1901)
other nations in the region has been significant,
b) Economic importance
but far more limited.
 All these states are rich in minerals and well-
 The only significant achievement in the energy
endowed with hydroelectric resources.
sector has been civil nuclear cooperation. In
✓ Kazakhstan has the world’s second largest
2008, Kazakhstan supported India in obtaining
reserves of uranium and is the world’s largest
India-specific exemption to allow civil nuclear
producer;
cooperation with the Nuclear Suppliers Group
✓ Uzbekistan has large reserves of gas, uranium
(NSG) countries. The following year, India and
and gold;
Kazakhstan signed an agreement for the supply
of uranium to India. ✓ Turkmenistan has fourth largest reserves of
 In time, India’s foreign policy evolved to include
natural gas;
a greater emphasis on engagement with India’s ✓ Tajikistan has huge hydroelectric potential;
extended neighborhood, which included Central ✓ Kyrgyzstan is rich in gold and hydroelectric
Asia. Over the years, the INSTC’s membership power. Thus, the region can help in India’s quest
has expanded to include the Central Asian states for energy security
of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.  From trade and investment point of view,
Further, in 2012, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan Central Asia is a huge consumer market for a
agreed to extend support to member countries range of goods and services, which India can
to complete the missing links along the corridor. provide. For India, economic cooperation is
possible through joint ventures in banking,
 IMPORTANCE OF CENTRAL ASIA insurance, agriculture, information technology,
a) Geostrategic importance and the pharmaceutical industry. Indian
 This region is a bridge between different regions companies can participate in road and railway
of Asia and between Europe and Asia construction, electric power transmission and

80
distribution, telecommunications, power watershed moment in reviving the two sides’
generation, etc socio-political and economic ties.
c) Security importance  India’s permanent membership to the Shanghai
 Religious extremism, fundamentalism and drug Cooperation Organization (SCO) in 2017 have
trafficking pose challenges to these societies and paved the way for elevated strategic
to regional stability. Issues relating to water, cooperation between India and Central Asian
security, environment, migration have become Republics.
acute. The region faces newer threats of narco-  In addition to this, the India-Central Asia
terrorism- illegal drug trade emanating from dialogue mechanism has honed India’s outreach
‘Golden Crescent’ of opium production (Iran- to this region. The Dialogue also sought to
Pak-Afghan) is threat to regional security. establish cooperation between specialised
 Hence peace and stability in the region is crucial national institutions including in the fields of
factor for India's security. This region potentially finance, renewable energy, information, digital
acts as and other advanced technologies and green
✓ a buffer to contain the fallout of energy.
fundamentalism. Any advance by Islamic  The India and Central Asia strategic cooperation
extremist groups in the region could invigorate has benefited from this dialogue framework.
similar elements active in Kashmir. ✓ Many of the initiatives presented at the First
✓ to prevent encirclement by any regional or Dialogue, which took place in Samarkand
outside power, and (Uzbekistan) on January 13, 2019, have come to
✓ finally, to insulate India from narco- fruition, including forming an India-Central Asia
terrorism. Business Council (ICABC). Many additional
✓ India’s presence may well serve to neutralise development projects are in progress.
the region’s anti-West bias and reassure US and ✓ In 2020, The Second Dialogue was convened
EU. virtually due to the COVID-19 pandemic. India
 The region’s importance has been accentuated has extended a $1 billion Line of Credit (LOC) for
with the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan, and priority development projects in energy,
the threats of narco-terrorism spilling over to healthcare, connectivity, IT, agriculture,
Central Asia and on to Russia and China. India education, etc. In this line, the third dialogue has
and Central Asian Republics have deep rooted set the stage for intensifying bilateral relations.
ties with Afghanistan – three of these countries,  To improve connectivity, India has registered
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan-share considerable progress in
✓ concluding a trilateral agreement for renovation of
borders with Afghanistan – all agreed on the
Chabahar port,
need for an inclusive government, unhindered
✓ development of the International North South
humanitarian aid and preservation of rights of Transport Corridor (INSTC) and
women, children and minorities in Afghanistan ✓ becoming a member of the Ashgabat Agreement.
 RECENT INITIATIVES ✓ India’s membership of Shanghai Cooperation
 India deals with Central Asia at multiple levels. Organization (SCO) as also the Eurasian Economic
 1) at the bilateral level Union (EEU) promises to bridge this gap.
 2) regional engagement between India and  India uses its considerable soft power through dance,
Central Asia such as the India Central Asia music, bollywood films, yoga, literature etc. India’s
international Technical and Economic Cooperation
Dialogue at the foreign minister’s level.
(ITEC) programme attracts young professionals for
 3) at the multilateral level through platforms capacity building. Cognizant of the rapidly changing
such as the SCO, the Conference on Interaction scenario, the National Security Advisors of all these
and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA) five countries attended the regional meeting on the
and the United Nations. situation in Afghanistan that India hosted in
 India’s Connect Central Asia (CAA) policy of 2012 November 2021.
is a broad-based framework involving political,  THIRD DIALOGUE MECHANISM
economic, security and cultural connections. An India-Central Asia dialogue mechanism at the

Following the announcement of the Connect Foreign Ministers level met in New Delhi for the
Asia policy in 2012, the Indian PM visited all the Third Dialogue on 18-19th December 2021.
five countries in July 2015. It was the first time
 The Third Dialogue emphasized the
an Indian Prime Minister has visited all five accountability and transparency of projects in a
countries in a single visit since their veiled reference to the debt trap that China’s BRI
independence in the early 1990s. This was a is.
81
 The Third Dialogue brought in the additional supplies received from Kazakhstan and
element of connectivity between Indian states Uzbekistan and the offer of assistance made by
and Central Asia..The India-Central Asia Business Turkmenistan during the second wave of COVID-
Council (ICABC) established in 2020 was urged to 19 in India in April-May 2021.
encourage these activities.  CARs reiterated support of their countries for
 Afghanistan was the main agenda of the Third permanent membership of India in an expanded
India-Central Asia dialogue. The Ministers and reformed UN Security Council (UNSC). They
underlined their strong support for a peaceful, further welcomed the ongoing non-permanent
safe, and stable Afghanistan, underlining the tenure of India in the UNSC and its priorities.
need to respect its sovereignty, unity, and  FIRST CENTRAL ASIA SUMMIT
territorial integrity. In a veiled reference to  India hosted the first India-Central Asia Summit
Pakistan, the Third Dialogue emphasized non- in virtual format on 27 January 2022. It was
interference in internal affairs of Afghanistan. attended by Presidents of all five central Asian
 They also agreed to continue providing republics; Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
emergency humanitarian aid to Afghans. The Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. This first India-
foreign ministers also emphasised the Central Asia virtual summit coincided with the
significance of UN Security Council Resolution 30th anniversary of establishment of diplomatic
2593 (2021), which states explicitly that Afghan relations between India and Central Asian
land must not be used for terrorist sanctuary, countries.
training, planning, or funding, and calls for  The summit came two days after a similar China-
coordinated action against all terrorist Central Asia Conference was held where China
organizations. They decided to maintain close offered USD 500 million in assistance and
cooperation on the Afghan situation. They also pledged to ramp up trade to USD 70 billion from
emphasized the importance of counter the present levels of about USD 40 billion a year.
terrorism, and early adoption of the UN  Objectives of the 1st India - Central Asia Summit
Comprehensive Convention on International 1) To emphasise the centrality of the region to
Terrorism (CCIT). India’s integrated and stable extended
 Significantly, the foreign ministers of the five neighbourhood
republics skipped the OIC meeting in Islamabad 2) To establish a framework of regular
to attend the Dialogue in New Delhi. The fact interaction among various stakeholders
that the foreign ministers of the five Central 3) Shared commitment to a “peaceful, secure
Asian nations travelled to New Delhi in and stable Afghanistan.
December 2021 to attend the third India-Central
Asia Dialogue despite the threat of the Omicron
 KEY OUTCOMES
 During the Summit, Prime Minister Modi and the
variant and while deviating from the overlapping
Central Asian Leaders discussed the next steps in
meeting of the Organization of Islamic
taking India-Central Asia relations to new
Cooperation’s foreign ministers demonstrates
heights. On the completion of the summit, the
the importance they place on relations with
‘Delhi Declaration’ was adopted.
India.
a) In a historic decision, the Leaders agreed to
 The meeting also discussed new avenues of
institutionalize the Summit mechanism by
cooperation based on shared interests and the
deciding to hold it every 2 years.
importance of deepening the strategic
b) They also agreed on regular meetings of
engagement in 4 Cs—
Foreign Ministers, Trade Ministers, Culture
✓ commerce,
Ministers and Secretaries of the Security
✓ capacity building,
Council to prepare the groundwork for the
✓ connectivity, and Summit meetings.
✓ contact—which encompass the dimensions of c) An India-Central Asia Secretariat in New
security and terrorism, trade and economy, Delhi would be set up to support the new
development partnership, energy security, mechanism.
healthcare, and climate change. d) They decided to create an India-Central Asia
 With regards to COVID-19, while Central Asian Parliamentary Forum to enhance the
countries appreciated India’s assistance in cooperation between the parliaments of
supplying vaccines and essential medicines India and Central Asian countries.
during the pandemic’s early stages, New Delhi  The Leaders discussed far-reaching proposals to
reciprocated by expressing gratitude for medical further cooperation in areas of trade and
82
connectivity, development cooperation, defence  It is expected to pass through the Kandahar and
and security and, in particular, on cultural and Herat provinces of Afghanistan from where it
people to people contacts. These included will pass through Quetta and Multan of Pakistan
✓ a Round-Table on Energy and Connectivity; and then terminate in Fazilka, a district in Punjab
✓ Joint Working Groups at senior official level that is located near the India-Pakistan border.
on Afghanistan and use of Chabahar Port;  The four countries signed an Inter Government
✓ showcasing of Buddhist exhibitions in Central Agreement (IGA) and Gas Pipeline Framework
Asian countries and Agreements (GPFA) in December 2010 for the
✓ commissioning of an India-Central Asia development of the pipeline
dictionary of common words,
✓ joint counter-terrorism exercises,
✓ visit of 100-member youth delegation
annually from Central Asian countries to India
and
✓ special courses for Central Asian diplomats
 Prime Minister Modi also discussed the evolving
situation in Afghanistan with the Central Asian
leaders. The leaders reiterated their strong support
for a peaceful, secure and stable Afghanistan with a
truly representative and inclusive government. Prime A special-purpose international consortium —

Minister conveyed India’s continued commitment to TAPI Pipeline Co. Ltd (TPCL) — was incorporated
provide humanitarian assistance to the Afghan in November 2014. It was decided that from
people. India, state-owned GAIL will pick up 5 per cent
 Taking note of the success of the ‘Delhi Security stake in TPCL, along with Pakistan’s Interstate
Dialogue on Afghanistan’ held in New Delhi in Gas Systems (ISGS) and Afghanistan’s Afghan
November 2021, India and Central Asian leaders
Gas Enterprise (AGE), both of which will have 5
agreed to continue the regular meetings of the
secretaries/NSAs of the Security Council to discuss
per cent stake each in the project while
the development in the region. The establishment of Turkmenistan’s Turkmengaz, will hold majority
a Joint Working Group (JWG) on Afghanistan will give stake of 85 per cent.
 In
an institutional framework to the joint efforts of India April 2016, India along with other
and CARs to stabilize Afghanistan. shareholders of the project signed an
 Turkmenistan also offered to include the investment agreement with the Asian
Turkmenbashi port within the framework of INSTC, Development Bank, under which an initial
which will give impetus to the connectivity initiatives.
budget of $200 million was earmarked to fund
The Indian side welcomed the interest of Central one of the phases of the project.
Asian countries to utilise the services of Shahid
 The $10 billion project failed to make any
Beheshti Terminal at Chabahar port for facilitating
their trade with India and other external markets.
progress since it was conceived about three

decades back mainly due to tensions between
It was also decided at the meeting to resume talks for
the proposed Turkmenistan-AfghanistanPakistan- India and Pakistan, but the changed situation in
India (TAPI) pipeline project. Afghanistan has further marred chances of
 During the summit, it was also proposed to create an making progress. While New Delhi continues to
‘India-Central Asia Investment Club’ under the remain a participant in the mega gas pipeline
auspicious of the India-Central Asia Business Councilproject conceived in the 1990s, its concerns over
(ICABC) to enhance and promote the opportunities in the safety and security around the project have
this sector. Both sides also identified multiple sectors
grown manifold with the return of the Taliban in
like agriculture, energy, textile, pharmaceutical,
Afghanistan,
education, IT, business process outsourcing (BPO) to
 One of India’s primary concerns is that once the
enhance trade and investments
project becomes operational, a lot of Indian
 Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan- industries will become dependent on it. Pakistan
India (TAPI) pipeline project can take advantage of this and can shut off
 The project, conceived in 1995, aims to supplies during periods of tension, which will
transport 33 billion cubic metres of gas from then result in huge losses
Turkmenistan’s Galkynysh gas field to  Another reason that will make it difficult for
Afghanistan, Pakistan and finally India through India to move is the fact that New Delhi doesn’t
the proposed 1814-km long pipeline, also called officially recognise the Taliban regime in
the ‘Peace Pipeline’. Afghanistan, which is one of the stakeholders,
83
sources said. Other factors such as price of gas  China’s trade with the five countries crossed $40
and existence of such a large amount of gas in billion in 2018, roughly 20 times India’s trade
the fields of Turkmenistan and whether it can with the region that year. Much of that trade has
sustain the supplies also remains a question. been driven by Chinese appetite for energy
 CHALLENGE resources. There are several big projects of
a) Poor connectivity strategic importance including
 The key constraint India faces is the lack of direct
✓ the China-Central Asia natural gas pipeline,
access to Central Asia. That India does not share ✓ the China-Kazakhstan crude oil pipeline,
a common land border with any of these states ✓ the China-Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan highway,
has been a major bottleneck in promoting and and
expanding ties. Pakistan does not allow direct ✓ the China-Tajikistan expressway.
routes to either Afghanistan or to Central Asia. ✓ China-Europe Railway Express which runs
China is, therefore, the transit land route for through Central Asia has seen rapid growth since
trade which is time consuming and costly. the launch of Belt and Road Initiative
Further, planned connectivity projects are facing  China has pledged to import more quality goods
serious financial, political, and security and agricultural products from countries in the
challenges, frustrating oil, and gas diplomacy. region and strive to increase the trade between
b) Instability factor the two sides to $70 billion by 2030. China
 Politically, the Central Asian republics are highly would also provide a grant assistance of $500
fragile and also face threats like terrorism, million to Central Asian countries in support of
Islamic fundamentalism etc. making the region a livelihood programs.
volatile and unstable market. There were  Though India is part of the Turkmenistan-
concerns expressed over recent protests against Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) pipeline,
Kazakhstan government and a crackdown by the progress is slow. Uzbekistan has also pushed
authorities ahead for a joint plan with India and Iran to
 Delineation of borders, a Soviet legacy, enhance connectivity through the Chabahar
overlooked many ethnic, tribal, linguistic, Port, but it is expected to take time. Also factors
geographical, and even economic factors. such as trade regulatory hindrances and political
Consequently, the post-soviet era saw problems fragility have often created obstacles in the free
of governance, regulation of movement across flow of trade within the region.
the borders and many inter-state disputes.
Kazakhstan is more progressive than others; THE FUTURE POTENTIAL
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have lagged; a) Trade and investment
Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan remain closed and  Agriculture and food processing is one promising
controlled societies. Uzbekistan is a potential area of cooperation between India and Central
leader but has difficult relations with neighbors Asia. The countries of the region have large
Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan on water issues. tracts of arable land with abundance of water
Kazakhstan, is in the race to become a pre- and low population pressure. There is scope for
eminent power in the region. organic farming and organic products, which are
 Also deteriorating between Iran and the United in demand in the nearby health conscious
States, diminishes reliability and safety required European markets. Besides, agricultural
for trade and commerce in this region. This cooperation can also contribute to India’s own
adversely impacts investments potential in this food security. India’s experience in boosting
region. food and milk production and modernizing agro-
c) Sino-Central Asia ties techniques under the green and white
 Compared to $40b trade turnover with China, revolution can immensely help Central Asia.
the region’s trade with India is only $2b. This  Greater engagement is expected to help
amount is less than 0.5 percent of India’s total improve mutual security and regional economic
trade. It is skewed towards energy imports from prosperity. Economically, Central Asia provides a
Kazakhstan. ‘near abroad’ market for India’s industry,
 China has emerged as the dominant player, as overland routes to rich resources of Russia and
compared to India, by providing loans and Middle East, and significant energy supplies at
investing heavily in the region through ambitious relatively short distances. The INSTC corridor
projects like Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) route is shorter than Suez and the
Mediterranean Sea. As competition for

84
resources with China intensifies, this region is tourism between India and Central Asia. India’s
likely to assume greater significance. rich experience in managing the local-self-
 India and Central Asia also need to expand their government can also be helpful to Central Asian
trade basket. There is considerable scope of countries where mahalla culture (local self-
participation in trade fairs, and in building government) is widely prevalent.
infrastructure projects, as in rail, road, highways,  There is a need to increase research on the
power transmission lines, nuclear power, etc. In region in Indian educational institutions, besides
addition to oil and gas, IT, pharma and textiles, giving training of regional languages to the
higher education, space, SME, power students and researchers. It is now incumbent
generation, food processing and agriculture on the business leaders, practitioners, academia,
present rich potential for deeper engagement. entertainment industry and media sources from
SCO may serve as a guarantor for the projects. India to play an active role to build on and widen
 The ongoing discussion on Air corridors may the relationship for mutual development of
prove to be a positive feature. Central Asia South Asia and Central Asia.
presents a viable space for India’s d) Conclusion
pharmaceuticals industries. Due to a lack of  Overall, in recent years, the contours of the
connectivity, there is a huge potential in India-Central Asia relationship have been
establishing manufacturing units of witnessing metamorphosis in an unprecedented
pharmaceutical products. In addition, manner whereby growing convergence has the
cooperation in the healthcare sector, especially potential to bring about a paradigm shift in the
in medical tourism, is promising. It was also geostrategic dynamics of the extended
brought out that cooperation in the education neighbourhood. The transformational impact
sector may be expedited. Indian universities like from the visit of Indian Prime Minister Narendra
Sharda and Amity have already been operating Modi in July 2015 has been further energised by
in Uzbekistan, which may be extended to other repeat high level exchange visits at various
countries. levels—all of which have further consolidated
 It is in India’s interest to finalise the much- the upswing of strategic ties.
awaited Free Trade Agreement (FTA) between  Remarkably, consistent dialogue and discussions
India and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). at multiple levels in recent years have taken this
b) Regional balance relationship to new orbit. India’s relations with
 Russia, China and Iran are increasing their footprints Central Asia still hold huge potential. It is also
in Central Asia through investments and multilateral worth noting that the convergence of interest
organizations. The regional countries want the between the two regions will continue to fill the
presence of more international players for their gaps and develop closer cooperation in
economic growth and political balance, so that no
unexplored avenues.
one power is able to held sway in the region.
Realizing the importance, stability, experience and  SHANGHAI COOPERATION
economic capabilities of India, Eurasian countries
have favoured greater interaction and engagement
with New Delhi in the form of membership of the SCO
ORGANISATION (SCO)
and proposed FTA with the EEU.
 It is a permanent intergovernmental
 India may yet have to balance geopolitical ambitions international organisation, created in June
of China and Russia to evolve a mutually beneficial 200(initially as Shanghai 5) in Shanghai, China.
framework. Though active partners in the BRI, the The SCO prototype - the "Shanghai Five"
disenchantment of the Central Asian countries has mechanism, initially developed on the basis of
increased not only with the growing Chinese footprint strengthening trust and disarmament in border
in their economic and political systems but also regions of China with Russia, Kazakhstan,
because of repression of several Kazakh and Kyrgyz Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. They had come
Muslims along with Uighurs in the Xinjiang region, together on the agenda of strengthening good
resulting in many anti-Chinese protests. India can use
neighbourly relations of mutual trust, friendship
its soft power diplomacy to take the opportunities
presented in the region.
and cooperation.
 The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Charter
c) Capacity building
was signed during St. Petersburg. SCO Heads of
 New Delhi can work with Central Asian countries
State meeting in June 2002, and entered into
to have a dedicated satellite for the region’s
force on 19 September 2003. This is the
electronic media networks. Greater information
fundamental statutory document that outlines
about each other would also help in boosting

85
the organisation's goals and principles, as well as approve the organization’s annual budget. The
its structure and core activities. SCO's official languages are Russian and Chinese.
 This organization represents approximately 42%  SCO- Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM) - It is
of the world’s population, 22% of its land area the highest forum of SCO after the Council of
and 20% of its GDP. Heads of State (CHS) and the Council of Heads of
 SCO comprises 9-member states, namely Government (CHG). It deliberates on important
✓ India, regional and international issues and considers
✓ Kazakhstan, documents for approval and adoption by the
✓ China, Council of Heads of State.
✓ Kyrgyzstan,  SCO has two permanent bodies 1. SCO
✓ Pakistan, Secretariat in Beijing - –to provide informational,
✓ Russia, analytical & organisational support. 2. Executive
Committee of Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure
✓ Tajikistan, and
(RATS) in Tashkent- to combat terrorism,
✓ Uzbekistan
separatism and extremism.
✓ Iran
 Current observer states are: Afghanistan,  SIGNIFICANCE OF SCO FOR INDIA
Belarus, Mongolia, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and  India’s security, geopolitical, strategic and
Qatar. economic interests are closely intertwined with

 Since its inception in 2001, the SCO has mainly developments in the region
focused on regional security issues, its fight a) Geopolitical
against regional terrorism, ethnic separatism  Stable Afghanistan is in India’s interest. SCO is a
and religious extremism. To date, the SCO’s platform which can play an important role in
priorities also include regional development. The Afghanistan.
SCO has been an observer in the UN General  SCO is a potential platform to advance India’s
Assembly since 2005. Connect Central Asia policy and formulate an
appropriate Eurasian strategy. India can push
 OBJECTIVE
for the Chabahar port project and International
 The SCO's main objectives are as follows:
North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
a) Strengthening mutual trust and
neighbourliness among the member states; b) Security
 The SCO provides India with an opportunity to
b) Promoting their effective cooperation in
politics, trade, the economy, research, initiate multilateral and regional initiatives on
technology and culture, as well as in counterterrorism and deal with the illicit drug
education, energy, transport, tourism, trade. Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) is
environmental protection, and other areas; a permanent body of the SCO and is intended to
c) Making joint efforts to maintain and ensure facilitate coordination and interaction between
peace, security and stability in the region; the SCO member states in the fight against
and terrorism, extremism and separatism.
d) Moving towards the establishment of a c) Energy
democratic, fair and rational new  The Central Asian region is richly endowed with
international political and economic order natural resources and vital minerals. SCO
provides a platform for India’s efforts to connect
 STRUCTURE
with Central Asia. SCO can unblock India’s access
 Heads of State Council - The Council of Heads of
to Eurasia and provide a fillip to projects like
States is the apex decision-making body in the
Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India(TAPI)
SCO. This Council meets at the SCO summits,
pipeline.
which are held each year in one of the member
states' capital cities.  INDIA’S ENGAGEMENT
 SCO Heads of Government Council (HGC)- The  At the July 2005 Astana Summit, India, Iran and
Council of Heads of Governments is the second Pakistan were granted Observer status. In July
highest council in the organization. It meets 2015 in Ufa, Russia, the SCO decided to admit
once a year to discuss the organisation's India and Pakistan as full members. On 9 June
multilateral cooperation strategy and priority 2017, at the historic summit in Astana, India and
areas, to resolve current important economic Pakistan officially joined SCO as full- members.
and other cooperation issues, and also to  India had assumed the Chair of the SCO HGC, in
November 2019, at the conclusion of the term of

86
Uzbekistan. During the course of its  ✓ They stressed that the principles of mutual
Chairmanship, India particularly focused on respect for sovereignty, independence,
creating three new pillars of cooperation: territorial integrity of States, equality, mutual
✓ Startups and Innovation, benefit, non- interference in internal affairs, and
✓ Science and Technology, and non-use or threat of use of force are the basis
✓ Traditional Medicine. for sustainable development of international
 During its chairmanship, India organised in the relations.
virtual format, the first-ever SCO Young  ✓ The member countries are planning to
Scientists Conclave, in which more than 200 develop common principles and approaches to
young scientists participated. India also hosted form a unified list of terrorists, separatist and
the first-ever Consortium of SCO Economic Think extremist organizations whose activities are
Tanks as well as the first ever SCO Startup prohibited on the territories of the SCO member
Forum. states.
 On the cultural-humanitarian side, India  ✓ Support for non – proliferation of nuclear
implemented PM Modi’s commitment at the weapons and the continuation of nuclear
Bishkek Summit in 2019 by launching the first- disarmament
ever SCO Digital Exhibition on Shared Buddhist  India emphasised the initiative to promote
Heritage by the National Museum and millets and address issues related to food
translating 10 classics of Indian regional security. India also to take initiative for new SCO
literature into Russian and Chinese. working group on traditional medicines.
 India assumed the chairmanship of the Council  CHALLENGES
of RATS SCO in October, 2021 for a period of one a) Balancing engagement with QUAD and SCO
year. India hosted a three-day meeting under  SCO and Quad have apparently conflicting
the framework of the SCO’s Regional Anti- stance. SCO, as a platform, is seen by the West
Terrorist Structure (RATS) in May 2022. as an organization to forward Chinese interests
 A major focus of the discussions was to be on and Quad is seen as a coalition to counter China.
the situation in Afghanistan, especially in dealing India’s membership of both organisations is
with the threat from terror groups active in the often seen as India attempting to put its foot in
Taliban-ruled country. India has not recognised two boats.
the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. It has been  The purpose of the two organisations is majorly
pitching for the formation of a truly inclusive securing regional peace and stability. If going by
government in Kabul. It is also insisting that the real purpose, SCO deals with India’s
Afghan soil must not be used for any terrorist Continental neighbourhood to ensure peace,
activities against any country security, and stability in the region. Quad deals
 SCO SUMMIT 2022 with India’s Maritime neighbourhood working
 PM Modi participated in the 22nd Meeting of towards ensuring a free and open and
the Council of Heads of State of the SCO at prosperous Indo-Pacific region.
Samarkand (Uzbekistan). After the summit,  India being a member of both organisations
Uzbekistan handed over the rotating presidency reflects India’s strategy of multi alignment or
of the SCO to India. India will host the next SCO strategic autonomy in the emerging multipolar
summit as a chairman of organisation in 2023. world order. This entails putting India’s national
 Samarkand Declaration of the Council of Heads interests on priority while engaging with
of State of SCO was released after the summit. multiple global players.
Its main highlights of this meetings are- b) Sino-Pak Nexus
 ✓ Varanasi, was declared as the SCO Tourism  Differences between India and Pakistan might
and Cultural Capital for 2022- 2023 to promote hamper the functioning of the SCO. China is
the rich heritage and the tourism potential of Pakistan’s ‘all weather friend’ and supports
SCO member states. Pakistan to maintain the balance of power in
 ✓ Iran was accepted as a permanent member of South Asia. India’s definition of terrorism is
the SCO. different to the definition of SCO under RATS.
 ✓ The Samarkand declaration advocated For SCO, terrorism coincides with regime
commitment to peaceful settlement of destabilisation; whereas for India it is related to
differences and disputes between countries state sponsored cross border terrorism.
through dialogue and consultation.  All members of SCO have supported One-
BeltOne-Road (OBOR) initiative except India. It
87
might lead to isolation of India on this platform. h) To promote mutual trade and investment and
China’s aggressive approach and border disputes create a business-friendly environment for
with India further complicate India’s position in investors and entrepreneurs in all BRICS
the SCO. countries.
 Growing convergence of China and Russia will be i) Strive for, inclusive economic growth to
another challenge for India. Amid Ukraine eradicate poverty, address unemployment and
conflict, Russia may continue to seek a closer promote social inclusion.
partnership with China in the face of increasing j) Commitment to cooperate for strengthening
hostilities between Russia and the West. multilateralism, the rule of law and an equitable
 It would be difficult for India to overcome the international order.
burden of geography and make tangible gains in  Significance
terms of trans-regional connectivity.  The BRICS is the fastest growing and largest
 WAY AHEAD emerging market economy. It accounts for
 The opening of Chabahar port and entry into almost three billion people, or just under half of
Ashgabat agreement should be utilized for a the total population of the world (41%). In
stronger presence in Eurasia. India should retain recent times, the BRICS have contributed to the
its independent voice against dominance of majority of world GDP growth.
other members in the grouping. India could play  As of 2018, these five nations had a combined
a role in de-radicalisation of youths in Central nominal GDP of US$18.6 trillion, about 23.2% of
Asia and leverage its soft power. The SCO should the gross world product, combined GDP (PPP) of
hold more anti-terrorism drills and also around US$40 trillion (32% of World's GDP PPP)
cooperate with the Financial Action Task Force and an estimated US$4.46 trillion in combined
to choke the finances of terror outfits. foreign reserves.
 Further, it is a unique group such that it is not
 THE BRICS:- geographically bound like ASEAN or EU, or
 The term "BRIC"(Brazil, Russia, India and China) commodity based like OPEC or a security-based
was coined in 2001 by then-chairman of alliance like NATO. What binds them together is
Goldman Sachs Asset Management, Jim O'Neill, the joint strategic will of BRICS countries to
in his publication Building Better Global reconfigure the world order and engage the
Economic BRICs. In his analysis Jim asserted that world in search of inclusive growth and
by 2050 these 4 economies will constitute sustainable development.
world’s largest economies.
 Areas of Cooperation
 In 2006, foreign ministers of BRIC nations met in
• Climate Change
St. Petersburg, Russia and formalized the BRIC
• Bretton Woods Reforms
group. In 2009, first full-scale formal meet was
• Global trade + IPR
held in Yekaterinburg, Russia. In 2010 South
• Counter-terrorism
Africa was invited to join the group, thus
• Money Laundering
emerged BRICS (in 3rd Summit in 2011 in Sanya,
• Sustainable Development
China).
 New Areas of BRICS Cooperation
 Recently, Iran and Argentina have applied to join
 The new areas of BRICS cooperation as proposed
the BRICS mechanism. This could be the first
by South Africa are as follows:
expansion of the group since South Africa was
a) Establishment of a Working Group on
included in 2010.
Peacekeeping;
 Objectives
b) Establishment of a Vaccine Research Centre
a) To foster strong economic collaboration,
focused on research and development and
improving political and security co-operation.
vaccine innovation.
b) Democratization of the United Nations, including
c) Establishment of a BRICS Gender and
expansion of the UN-Security Council.
Women’s Forum – intended as a dedicated
c) Reform of global financial governance.
track for gender and women’s issues.
d) South-South framework for cooperation.
d) Establishment of a BRICS Tourism Track of
e) To achieve regional development.
Cooperation.
f) Assisting developing countries in gaining an
e) Leveraging the Strategy for BRICS Economic
advantage in trade and climate change
Partnership towards the pursuit of Inclusive
negotiations.
Growth and Advancing the 4th Industrial
g) Enhance market access opportunities and
Revolution.
facilitate market inter-linkages.
88
 India took over the Chairmanship of the BRICS in exchanges and cooperation within
2021. It was the third BRICS Presidency for India multilateral frameworks.
since its inception (after 2012 and 2016). b) It supported the leading role of WHO in
 IMPORTANCE OF BRICS FOR INDIA combating the pandemic, as well as
 BRICS provides a great alternate for India to acknowledged initiatives such as the COVAX
build its global profile. Participation in a non- and the ACT-A. COVAX is the vaccines pillar
Western grouping balances India’s growing of the Access to COVID-19 Tools (ACT)
partnership with the West. India often equates Accelerator. The ACT Accelerator (ACT- A) is
BRICS with its participation in other “Western- a ground-breaking global collaboration to
led” groupings such as the Quad, which helps in accelerate the development, production,
highlighting its commitment to strategic and equitable access to COVID-19 tests,
autonomy and multi-aligned foreign policy. treatments, and vaccines.
 BRICS membership elevates India’s global profile c) The declaration welcomed the virtual launch
and presents an opportunity to project India as a of the BRICS Vaccine R&D Center.
truly international player. d) It emphasized the urgent need for the
 BRICS provides platform for enhanced establishment of the BRICS Integrated Early
engagement between India and China. Warning System for preventing mass
 Major focus of India’s policy towards BRICS is co- infectious diseases risks.
operating on the economic front. e) The declaration expressed concern about
 India is also a fast-growing economy of the bloc the humanitarian situation in Ukraine and
which can be beneficial to other members. India supported talks between Russia and
being a service-oriented economy and other Ukraine. The grouping is willing to support
members strong in manufacturing, can efforts of the United Nations’ and the
complement each other International Committee of the Red Cross’s
 India can use Brazil and South Africa as a (ICRC) to deliver humanitarian aid to
gateway into South America and Africa. Ukraine.
 India’s contribution to BRICS f) It emphasized the importance of continued
 India’s notable contribution to BRICS is proposal
implementation of the Strategy for BRICS
of the New Development Bank which was put on Economic Partnership 2025 in all relevant
the BRICS agenda by India in 2012. ministerial tracks and working groups..
 India also added the Urbanization Forum to
g) The declaration congratulated NDB on its
BRICS cooperation mechanisms to bring greater relocation to its permanent headquarters
focus on intra-BRICS cooperation to learn from building in Shanghai as well as the opening
each other’s experience in tackling challenges of of NDB’s regional office in India.
rapid urbanization faced by all BRICS members. h) As BRICS countries produce around 1/3rd of
 India institutionalized the practice of holding
the world’s food, the members stressed
BRICS Academic Forum meetings as preparatory their commitment to further enhancing
meetings feeding into the Summit agenda by agricultural cooperation. In this regard, it
hosting the first such meeting in 2009 reiterated the importance of implementing
the Action Plan 2021-2024 for Agricultural
 XIV BRICS SUMMIT, June 2022
Cooperation of BRICS Countries.
 The 14th BRICS Summit was hosted by China in
 South Africa will be hosting the 15th BRICS
virtual format in June 2022. India was
summit next year.
represented by PM Modi at the summit.
 India called for strengthening of the BRICS
 Theme of BRICS Summit - "Foster High-quality
Identity and proposed establishment of Online
BRICS Partnership, Usher in a New Era for Global
Database for BRICS documents, BRICS Railways
Development”.
Research Network, and strengthening
 The participating members issued a joint
cooperation between MSMEs. India will be
statement in the form of Beijing Declaration. Key
organizing BRICS Startup event this year to
highlights of the declaration are as follows:
strengthen connection between Startups in
a) BRICS welcomed the BRICS Initiative on
BRICS countries.
Denial of Safe Haven to Corruption which
further strengthen anticorruption capacity  BRICS ACHIEVEMENTS
building through education and training  The New Development Bank (NDB): a
programs and enhance anti-corruption multilateral development bank operated by the
BRICS states. Primary focus of lending will be

89
infrastructure projects with authorized lending ✓ Income per person in India is much less than
of up to $34 billion annually. The idea of NDB in Russia.
was proposed by India. NDB is headed by an ✓ China and Russia are members of UN Security
Indian K.V. Kamath. Council - the others are not.
 BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA)  It maintains a low profile on security issues:
providing protection against global liquidity BRICS will never attempt to make the group into
pressures including currency issues where a traditional security framework.
members’ national currencies are being  WAY FORWARD
adversely affected by global financial pressures.  Jim O’Neill, former chairman of Goldman Sachs who
Both are seen as a competitor to the coined the phrase BRIC- (South Africa joining only in
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and along 2010) had assessed the group. He felt BRICS, even
with the New Development Bank, it is viewed as today, has a vital role to play in tackling the most
an example of increasing South-South pressing international challenges. His optimism rests
cooperation. on the continued rise of India and China and the
 BRICS payment system: BRICS countries intend recovery of economic growth in the other three
to create their own multilateral financial system members.
 Although BRICS as an institution does not necessarily
that would be similar to SWIFT.
challenge the existing international order there are
 The annual BRICS summit provides a platform to elements in the BRICS which can be a base for an
the leaders to share their concern and thoughts alternative world order. But it is even more likely that
regarding geopolitical issues. The BRICS have around China and India it is possible to intensify
received both praise and criticism from South-South cooperation and to replace the existing
numerous commentators. Bilateral relations order with the one what would reflect better the
among BRICS nations have mainly been international realities.
conducted on the basis of non-interference,  BRICS’s unfinished agenda of reform of global
equality, and mutual benefit. financial and trade institutions reminds member
countries of the necessity of continued cooperation
 CHALLENGES FACING BRICS in this regard for mutual benefit. There is a greater
 Dominance of China- Presence of China and the need to formalise BRICS cooperation on global
greater role it seeks to assert within the group financial sector reforms and be assertive in
poses major challenge to India. It could use the normsetting that leads to financial flows earmarked
group as a platform for anti-U.S propaganda for separate needs, such as climate change
framed around U.S. sanctions on Russia and mitigation, resilient and sustainable infrastructure,
broader U.S. hegemony. This would go against and green technologies.
 BRICS should take following measures-
India as it seeks to avoid being seen as part of an
✓ set a BRICS FTA to counter mega FTAs happening
anti-U.S. bloc.
across world.
 Competition among themselves to be regional
✓ Expand the reach of NDB and AIIB. NDB should
powers: Both India and China want to dominate exploit the weakening of the Bretton Wood Twins
the Asian neighbourhood. (WB and IMF).
 Different forms of governance: Brazil, India,  Despite the divergent foreign and security policy
South Africa are democratic countries while priorities of the BRICS states, the group unanimously
Russia, China are authoritarian regimes. acknowledges terrorism as a serious threat to their
 Trade conflicts: Brazil and Russia are commodity national, regional and international security.
exporting countries and thus benefit from high  he BRICS must support post-pandemic growth and
commodity prices while India and China are development in emerging countries and push for
commodity importers that benefit from low much enhanced multilateral efforts by furthering its
deep connect with the Global South.
commodity prices.
 Territorial Issues: China and India have
outstanding territorial issues to resolve. China’s 1. EUROPEAN UNION
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is being opposed by A. Evolution of European union
India because it transgresses into Indian B. Structure of European union
Territory. China spearheads two other major C. Brexit & Northern Ireland protocol issue
initiatives in this region – Asian Infrastructure 2. INDIA AND EUROPEAN UNION
Investment Bank (AIIB) and SCO. A. Political relation
 The BRICS have little in common: B. Economic relation
✓ The Chinese economy is 28 times the size of C. Security relations
South Africa’s. D. Miscellaneous relations
90
3. INDIA AND AFRICA RELATION  Over the years, 22 more countries joined the
A. Brief history of ties original 6.

 Countries accede to the union by becoming
B. Importance of Africa
C. Political relation-IAFS party to the founding treaties, thereby
D. Economic relation subjecting themselves to the privileges and
E. Development cooperation obligations of EU membership. This entails a
F. China factor partial delegation of sovereignty to the
G. Challenges institutions in return for representation within
H. potential those institutions, a practice often referred to as
"pooling of sovereignty".
 INDIA- EUROPEAN UNION (EU)  On 1 February 2020, the United Kingdom left the
RELATION EU. The EU currently has 27-member countries,
 The European Union is a political and economic and has 24 official languages.
union or a hybrid intergovernmental and  According to World Bank figures, EU's GDP
supranational organization of 27 countries totalled $15.3 trillion in 2020.
across the European continent  With just 7.3% of the world’s population, the
EU's trade with the rest of the world accounts
for around 20% of global exports and imports.
 Given its achievements, the European Union was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize In 2012.
 A common currency – The Euro as a common
currency circulates among 19 of the member
states known as the Eurozone, under the
auspices of the European Economic and
Monetary Union (EMU).
 The Schengen Area is one of the greatest
achievements of the EU. It is an area without
internal borders, an area within which citizens,
many non-EU nationals, business people and
tourists can freely circulate without being
subjected to border checks. The Agreement was
signed initially by the five (France, Germany,
 Free trade area: An area within which states
Belgium, Luxemburg, and the Netherlands) in
agree to reduce tariffs and other barriers to
Schengen, a small village in Southern Luxemburg
trade.
on the river Moselle in 1985. Since then, it has
 Customs union: An arrangement whereby a
gradually grown and encompasses today almost
number of states establish a common external
all EU States and a few associated non-EU
tariff against the rest of the world, usually whilst
countries.
abolishing internal tariffs.
 22 Member States are members of the Schengen
 Common market: An area, comprising a number
area, which enables passport-free movement,
of states, within which there is a free movement
with five maintaining their own border controls.
of labour and capital, and a high level of
Five countries (Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia,
economic harmonization; sometimes called a
Cyprus, Ireland) maintain their own border
single market
controls. Although not members of the EU,
 An Economic Union is a Common Market
countries like Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and
extended through further harmonization of
Lichtenstein are also part of the Schengen zone.
fiscal/monetary policies and shared executive,
judicial & legislative institutions.  EU BUDGET AND FINANCES
 The EU budget is funded by a percentage of each
 BRIEF HISTORY member country’s gross national income, as well
 In 1951, six countries (Belgium, France,
as other sources. EU countries decide the size of
Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the
this budget, and how it is financed. ‘Own
Netherlands) founded the European Coal and
resources’ (such as duties, levies, VAT and
Steel Community. In 1958, this became known
national contributions) account for
as the European Economic Community (EEC),
approximately 98% of the EU’s budget. The
and its name was changed to the European
Union in 1993.
91
remaining 2% of budget revenue comes from 4. The European Parliament: Usually located in
other sources of income. Strasbourg, the EP is composed of 751 Members
 INSTITUTIONS of the European Parliament (MEPs), who are
 EU's institutional set-up includes:
directly elected every five years. MEPs sit
according to political groups rather than their
1. The European Council: Informally called the
nationality. Although its powers have been
European Summit, this is made up of the
expanded, the Parliament remains a scrutinizing
Presidents or Prime Ministers of each member
assembly, not a legislature. Its major powers (to
state, accompanied by their foreign ministers,
reject the European Union’s budget and dismiss
and a permanent, full-time President of the
the European Commission) are too far-reaching
European Council. The European Council meets
to exercise (supranational body).
four times a year and provides strategic
leadership for the EU (intergovernmental body). 5. The European Court of Justice: Based in
The EU's broad priorities are set by the European Luxembourg, the ECJ interprets, and adjudicates
Council, which brings together national and EU- on, EU law and treaties. There are 28 judges, one
level leaders i.e. Heads of states and from each member state, and eight advocates-
governments as well as President of the general, who advise the Court. As EU law has
European Commission. primacy over the national law of EU member
states, the Court can disapply domestic laws. A
2. The Council: It is a ministerial-level body. It
Court of First Instance handles certain cases
conducts policymaking and coordinating
brought by individuals and companies
functions as well as legislative functions.
(supranational body).
Informally called the Council of Ministers, this is
the decision-making branch of the EU and 6. The European Central Bank: Located in
comprises ministers from the 27 states, who are Frankfurt, the ECB is the central bank for
accountable to their own assemblies, and the Europe’s single currency, the euro. The ECB’s
presidency (vested in a country, not a person) of main task is to maintain the euro’s purchasing
the Council rotates amongst member states power and thus price stability in the euro area.
every six months. Important decisions are made The eurozone comprises the 19 EU countries
by unanimous agreement, and others are that have introduced the euro since 1999
reached through qualified majority voting or by (supranational body).
a simple majority. 7. The Court of Auditors, located in, Luxembourg
3. The European Commission: Based in Brussels, checks the financing of the EU's activities.
with a staff of some 20,000 people, the
Commission is the executive-bureaucratic arm of
THE EFFECTS OF BREXIT
the EU. It is headed by 28 Commissioners and a  BREXIT TIMELINE
President. The Commission proposes legislation,  In a referendum held on 23 June 2016, the
is a watchdog that ensures that the EU’s treaties majority of those who voted chose to leave the
are respected, and is broadly responsible for European Union. On 29 March 2017, in writing
policy implementation (supranational body). The to European Council President Donald Tusk, the
interests of the EU as a whole are promoted by Prime Minister formally triggered Article 50 and
the European Commission, whose members are began the two-year countdown to the UK
appointed by national governments. In principle, formally leaving the EU.
the Commission proposes new laws, and the  The UK had long been expected to leave the
Parliament and Council adopt them. The European Union at 11pm on 29 March 2019.
Commission and the member countries then However, following a House of Commons vote
implement them, and the Commission ensures on 14 March 2019, the Government sought
that the laws are properly applied and permission from the EU to extend Article 50 and
implemented agree a later Brexit date. On 19 October 2019,
the Prime Minister’s new Brexit deal was lost on
amendment in the Commons.
 In accordance with the European Union
(Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019 – commonly
known as the ‘Benn Act’ – the Prime Minister
wrote to European Council president Donald
Tusk, to request an extension to the Brexit
process. On 23 January 2020, the European
92
Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 border with the Republic of Ireland, which is part of
received Royal Assent. This is the legislation that the EU.
will implement the withdrawal agreement  The EU has strict food rules and requires border
negotiated by the UK and the EU. At 11pm on 31 checks when certain goods - such as milk and eggs -
arrive from non-EU countries. That's why a new
December 2020, the transition period ended and
system - the Northern Ireland Protocol - was needed.
the United Kingdom left the EU single market
and customs union.  WHAT UK WANTS?
 It wants that the goods are split into two
 NEW ARRANGEMENT
different lanes
 The two sides have been in complex
 1) Goods destined only for Northern Ireland go
negotiations since March 2020 to try to keep
into the Green Lane and are not checked.
their trade in goods flowing from Jan. 1, 2021.
 2) Goods destined for Ireland and the EU go into
The recent free trade deal announced means
the Red Lane and checks are carried out.
that this goods trade - roughly half of the $900
 How does the UK’s plan create a problem?
billion of annual EU-UK commerce - will remain
 Tax rules would also be changed. Northern Irish
free of tariffs and quotas. businesses currently follow EU rules on state aid and
 However, goods moving between the UK and the
VAT. That means government payments to help firms
EU will be subject to customs and other controls, in Northern Ireland, and tax breaks, must be within
and extra paperwork is expected to cause major limits set by the EU. The UK government wants to
disruptions. remove these limits.
 The deal was negotiated on top of a formal  It also wants an independent body to settle disputes
Withdrawal Agreement reached last year, which over the Northern Ireland Protocol, rather than the
ensured that extensive controls would not be European Court of Justice. The UK government is
put back on the sensitive border between EU threatening to make changes without the agreement
of the EU.
member Ireland and the British province of
 Article 16 of the protocol, titled ―Safeguards says
Northern Ireland. that if the application of this agreement leads to
 The third key element of the deal is dividing up
―serious economic, societal or environmental
fishing quotas between Britain and the EU. difficulties that are liable to persist, or to diversion of
While the EU and the UK agreed not to require trade,- then the UK can unilaterally take appropriate
visas for travel, free movement of people will safeguard measures. But the UK will have to prove
end. That means EU citizens going to the UK, and that it is facing these difficulties if it wants to trigger
vice-versa, will be subject to border screening it. Essentially, invoking this article would pause the
and no longer be able to use biometric passports protocol and will create a space for further
to cross swiftly through electronic gates. negotiations about how trade should be conducted.
There are fears that triggering Article 16 could lead
 BREXIT AND NORTHERN IRELAND the EU to take retaliatory action, ultimately leading to
 Northern Ireland protocol- The Northern Ireland the suspension of the free trade agreement between
Protocol is a trading arrangement, negotiated the EU and UK.
during Brexit talks. It was agreed by the UK  The UK government says it is allowed to change the
prime minister in 2019 and subsequently ratified terms of an international agreement, like the
by UK parliament. It allows goods to be protocol, in order to "safeguard an essential
transported across the Irish land border without interest”. It says disputes about the protocol threaten
to undermine peace in Northern Ireland.
the need for checks.
 The UK and the EU agreed that protecting the
Northern Ireland peace deal - the Good Friday
Agreement - was an absolute priority. So, both sides
signed the Northern Ireland Protocol as part of the
Brexit withdrawal agreement. It is now part of
international law.
 The problem area: The problem lies in the current
process which is followed during the transit of goods.
The goods are checked at ports in Northern Ireland
on arrival. They can then be moved into the Republic
of Ireland once checked.
 Before Brexit, it was easy to transport goods across
this border because both sides followed the same EU
rules. After the UK left, special trading arrangements
were needed because Northern Ireland has a land

93
 the strengthening of the dialogue and
consultation mechanisms,
 deepening of political dialogue and
cooperation and
 enhancing of economic policy dialogue and
cooperation.
 During the ninth summit, India and the EU
reviewed the JAP and a revised JAP was adopted
adding 40 new elements in India-EU
cooperation.
 During the 15th India-EU summit held virtually in
2020, an ambitious Roadmap to 2025 document
 EU’S STANCE ON THE ISSUE was adopted.
 On 15 June 2022, the European Commission  The 16th India-EU Summit is scheduled for May
took legal action against the UK for not keeping 2021.
to the protocol, and called on the government to  These summit-level meetings have provided a
return to negotiations. The EU says the UK's platform for both India and the EU to agree or
move to change the deal is a breach of disagree on a broad range of issues
international law. It said it was not prepared to  TRADE PICTURE
renegotiate the protocol, but has offered to  The EU is India's third largest trading partner,
work on how the rules apply, including: accounting for €88 billion worth of trade in
 reducing customs and checks on goods goods in 2021 or 10.8% of total Indian trade,
 reducing the amount of paperwork after the USA (11.6%) and China (11.4%). The EU
 relaxing rules so chilled meats can still be is the second-largest destination for Indian
sent across the Irish Sea. exports (14.9% of the total) after the USA
 Technical negotiations between the UK and the (18.1%), while China only ranks fourth (5.8%).
EU restarted in October 2022- for the first time  India is the EU’s 10th largest trading partner,
since February. Irish prime minister Micheál accounting for 2.1% of EU total trade in goods in
Martin said both the UK and the EU wanted a 2021, well behind China (16.2%), the USA
negotiated solution, but arriving at an agreed (14.7%) or the UK (10%).
outcome would be difficult.  Trade in goods between the EU and India
 BEGINNING OF INDIA- EU increased by about 30% in the last decade.

 Trade in services between the EU and India
COOPERATIVE ENGAGEMENT reached €30.4 billion in 2020.
 India-EU relations date to the early 1960s, with  The EU's share in foreign investment stock in
India being amongst the first countries to India reached €87.3 billion in 2020, up from
establish diplomatic relations with the European €63.7 billion in 2017, making the EU a leading
Economic Community. A cooperation agreement foreign investor in India. This is significant but
signed in 1994 took the bilateral relationship way below EU foreign investment stocks in China
beyond trade and economic cooperation. (€201.2 billion) or Brazil (€263.4 billion).
 Some 6,000 European companies are present in
 INDIA EU SUMMITS India, providing directly 1.7 million jobs and
 Annual summit-level dialogues have been the indirectly 5 million jobs in a broad range of
cornerstone of India-EU relations. The first India- sectors. A key EU objective in its trade relations
EU summit, held in Lisbon 2000, was a successful with India is to work towards a sound,
venture, which laid the roadmap for future transparent, open, non-discriminatory and
partnership. predictable regulatory and business
 The fifth India-EU Summit upgraded the environment for European companies trading
relations to that of strategic partnership. with or investing in India, including the
 Simultaneously, following the sixth India-EU protection of their investments and intellectual
summit held in New Delhi, both sides adopted property. The aim is to contribute to unlocking
the Joint Action Plan (JAP), which set out the the untapped potential of two-way trade and
roadmap for a strategic partnership between the investment between the EU and India.
two. The JAP included  On 8 May 2021, the EU and Indian leaders
agreed to resume negotiations for a “balanced,

94
ambitious, comprehensive and mutually and spirits and reduce the tariff on the dairy
beneficial” trade agreement, and to launch sector as well as duties on automobiles.
separate negotiations on an investment 3. The IPR provisions in India-EU draft FTA also
protection agreement and an agreement on raise concerns as they will limit the capacities of
geographical indications (GIs). both India and the EU to use public health
 Leaders also agreed to link trade negotiations to safeguards and flexibilities allowed in WTO’s
finding solutions to longstanding market access TRIPS Agreement
issues. 4. Apart from these, EU has been imposing non-
 Key instruments in this respect are the tariff barriers in the form of technical
 EU-India High-Level Dialogue on Trade and regulations, phytosanitary measures, industrial
Investment established in 2021 by a decision standards, conformity assessments or barriers to
of the July 2020 EU-India Summit, as well as services exports.
 the EU-India Trade Sub-Commission B. DEMANDS BY INDIA
established under the 1994 Cooperation and 1. India is pitching for a ‘data secure’ status
Partnership Agreement between the EU and (important for India's IT sector specially in lieu of
India, and its specialised working groups and new GDPR regulations). EU’s GDPR came into
dialogues. force across Europe in May 2018. The objective
 EU and India are rediscovering new pathways to of the GDPR is “to harmonise data privacy laws.
conclude the free trade negotiation. The GDPR ensures data protection and privacy for all
Bilateral Trade and Investment Agreement those living within the EU, and also prevents the
(BTIA) has strategic importance for EU and India. export of personal data outside its territories. It
It is also a geo-political opportunity for peace deals with 3 primary areas: personal data,
and security in the Indo-Pacific, and a consent for its use, and privacy by design. The
geoeconomic opportunity for opening new areas country is among the nations not considered
of economic cooperation. data secure by the EU. The matter is crucial as it
 As global power dynamic shifts, it is important will have a bearing on Indian IT companies
that EU and India assert their role in the wanting market access.
emerging multi-polar world order with closer 2. India’s demographic advantages have provided it
economic cooperation. If EU and India take the with a skilled, competitive, English-speaking
FTA negotiation as a matter of strategic and workforce, of which Europe will be lacking in the
economic urgency, it would help the FTA near future. Considering this, India places
negotiations. Negotiating a successful trade deal considerable importance to Mode 4
which will impact the lives of more than 1.8 liberalisation. Mode 4 refers to the delivery of a
billion people is a complex and complicated service within the territory of a member with the
exercise and will require visionary approach. service provider being present as a natural
 It is also important that EU follows the person. In essence, this enables free movement
developments in the free trade negotiations of individual professionals by committing to
between India and Britain, and how the two are measures such as relaxation of immigration
set to finalise FTA framework soon. norms.
 On 17 June 2022, the European Union 3. India wants the EU to give it greater market
relaunched negotiations with India for a Free access pharmaceuticals sectors provide data
Trade Agreement, and launched separate secure nation status (beneficial to India’s IT
negotiations for an Investment Protection sector) and liberalise visa norms for Indian
Agreement and an Agreement on Geographical professionals.
Indications (GIs). 4. India is apprehensive about demands of the EU
 ISSUES REGARDING INDIA-EU FREE (like further reducing tariffs on EU goods) which
TRADE AGREEMENT (FTA) might hamper the growth of domestic
industries. More recently India’s Bilateral
A. DEMANDS BY THE EU Investment Treaties (BITs) with many European
1. EU wants India to overhaul its financial sector
countries are about to expire. India thus has
and has requested for various regulations
formulated a Model BIT to apply to all countries
pertaining to bank branches, foreign ownership,
which includes some clauses unacceptable to
equity ceilings, voting rights and investments by
European nations.
state-owned companies in foreign banks in India
5. India’s Model Bilateral Investment Treaty
removed, among other changes.
excludes matters relating to taxation. Also, it
2. Further EU has asked India to cut taxes on wines
95
states that foreign investors investing in India  The maiden dialogue between India and the EU
can seek the option of international arbitration took place on June 10 2022 in Brussels pursuant
only when all domestic legal routes have been to a decision taken at the India-EU Summit in
exhausted. These provisions have further acted July 2020, the Embassy of India said in a release.
as impediments in finalizing any deal between  The consultations were co-chaired by the
EU and India. Ministry of Defence Joint Secretary (IC) Somnath
 EU - INDIA POLITICAL RELATIONS Ghosh and the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA)
Joint Secretary (Europe West) Sandeep
AND ENGAGEMENT Chakravorty from the Indian side and Joanneke
 In 2019, the European Union and India marked Balfoort, Director of Security and Defence Policy,
57 years of diplomatic relations. EU-India from the EU side.
relations now span many areas, including  The two sides noted a number of positive
cooperation on regional, global and security developments in the area of security and
issues, close trade and economic ties, sectoral defence cooperation in recent years, including
dialogues on sustainable development and  the establishment of a regular maritime
modernisation, research and innovation as well security dialogue, which met for the second
as people-to-people contacts. time in February 2022,
 As long-standing partners, India and the EU are  the first-ever joint naval exercises held in
committed to dynamic dialogue in all areas of June 2021, and
mutual interest as major actors in their own  a number of joint workshops on the subject
regions and as global players on the world stage. of fostering maritime security.
The world's two largest democracies share key  The two sides during the consultations also
values and principles such as democracy, discussed various means of
freedom, the rule of law, human rights, and the  increasing India-EU cooperation on maritime
promotion of peace and stability. security,
 The 2017 EU-India Summit was a milestone and  implementation of the European code of
gave momentum to the strategic partnership. It conduct on arms export to India's
reiterated cooperation on political, security, neighborhood,
human rights, global and sectoral issues,  cooperation in co-development and co-
including ICT, research and innovation, clean production of defence equipment,
energy and climate change, and sustainable  including India's participation in Permanent
urbanisation. Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in the area
 The years 2018-19 witnessed further progress in of security and defence policy. (The
the partnership with the EU presenting a new Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO)
vision in 2018 to strengthen the cooperation in the area of security and defence policy
with India, 'EU Strategy for Relations with India', was established 2017 by Council. It offers a
placing emphasis on foreign policy and legal framework to jointly plan, develop and
developing defense cooperation, promoting invest in shared capability projects, and
effective multilateralism and building on enhance the operational readiness and
common values and objectives. contribution of armed forces.)
 Political relations are also strengthened by the  “Both sides agreed to increase India-EU defence
regular exchange visits between EU and Indian and security cooperation as an important pillar
parliamentarians. Visits and people-to-people of the bilateral strategic relations
contacts, including expert meetings and think
tank contacts, academic and student exchanges,
 EU- INDIA COOPERATION IN
cultural and other activities complement the INDO PACIFIC
multiple official interactions.  In May 2019, India and EU signed
 DEFENCE AND SECURITY COOPERATION Comprehensive Connectivity Partnership on
 Signifying the growing ties with the European supporting resilient and sustainable connectivity
Union (EU), India held the first-ever Security and both in India and in third countries and regions,
Defence Consultations with it. The two sides including Africa, Central Asia and the Indo-Pacific
reviewed the entire gamut of their defence that will provide an alternative to China's mega
relations and evolving security situation in Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). It covers
Europe, India’s neighborhood and the Indo- cooperation in the digital, energy, transport, and
Pacific. people-to-people sectors.

96
 The new Connectivity Partnership therefore energy or connectivity and achieve the
aims at pooling resources, norms and expertise Sustainable Development Goals. The main task
to serve the needs for the next generation of of the R&I Section includes reaching out to the
sustainable and quality infrastructure. It includes Indian scientific and innovation community in
joint work on standards and the regulatory view of cooperation under the EU's framework
environment, as well as on concrete programme for research and innovation ’Horizon
infrastructure projects. 2020’ (20142020), to be succeeded by Horizon
 As EU seeks to engage deeper in the Indo-Pacific, Europe (2021-2027).
strengthening partnership with India will be  India and the EU have engaged to strengthen
crucial. With the rise of China, the EU needs a links between their flagship initiatives such as
powerful alliance and a stronghold in the Indo- Digital India, European Digital Strategy and the
Pacific security architecture. Also, the speed Digital Single Market for Europe. Regular
with which the EU is reshaping its Indo-Pacific dialogues take place within the Joint ICT
agenda speaks of realisation how China aims to Working Group, focusing on market access
increase its pre-eminence within the established issues for companies on both sides, regulatory
world order, and even fundamentally revise it. issues, ICT standardisation, and research and
 Therefore, Europe’s new strategic orientation innovation(including startups). These meetings
towards India in the Indo-Pacific and India’s are complemented by ICT Business Dialogues.
priority towards maintaining its strategic Furthermore, a Cyber Security Dialogue focuses
autonomy with Europe will help build a robust on exchanging best practices on addressing
relationship. cybercrime and strengthening cyber resilience.
 Notwithstanding the above challenges, the  New cooperation avenues are developing in the
growing realities in EU-India relationship offers areas of Artificial Intelligence (AI), data
more than a foundation of mutual benefit rather protection and privacy, and cyber security to
it offers a strong commitment for reinforcing a address the challenges in emerging technologies.
rule-based order in the Indo-Pacific region.  CLIMATE CHANGE
 Democracy has also been a realm of strategic  EU Green deal Adequate response to face the
relations between them and working together challenges of climate change requires
they can collectively change the geo-political and transitional and adaptive policies and it is
economic dynamics of the new global order. As important for EU and India to redesign their
India celebrates seventy-five years of its existing cooperation. The European Green Deal
Independence; the celebrations called ‘Azadi Ka offers an unequivocal and binding commitments
Amrit Mahotsav’ is a dedication towards the on climate action, thereby breaking the
people of the country who have been quandary inherent to climate transitions.
instrumental in bringing India thus far in its  With this bold initiative, the EU can shape new
evolutionary journey and hold within them the types of diplomacy and incentivise climate
power and potential to take forward the dreams action across the globe with credibility. These
of every Indian, catalysed with the spirit of include clean technologies, enhanced
Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-reliant India). cooperation for technology development and
 Also, as EU and India celebrate sixty years of transfer, increased investment in sunrise sectors,
their bilateral relations, this is a defining knowledge sharing and cleaner finance.
moment in their relations which will shape the  As India aims to become a net-zero economy by
future of India-EU relations. The success of this 2070 and has set a target of installing a nonfossil
will depend upon their ability to transform energy capacity of 500 GW by 2030, India cannot
themselves and their preparedness to share afford not to be a part of this socioeconomic and
their values and ethos. political progress. This new dynamic in India’s
 COOPERATION IN SCIENCE AND relationship with EU extends beyond trade in
today’s world.
TECHNOLOGY & DIGITISATION
 International cooperation on research and
 IMPACT OF BREXIT ON INDIA
 One of the major reasons why trade will be
innovation (R&I) is very high on the European
Union's agenda and is an integral part of the EU- affected is because Britain, since decades, has
India Strategic Partnership. Increased proved to be a gateway to Europe and the end
collaborative efforts on R&I can play an of this union will perhaps make Britain less
important role in addressing societal challenges attractive for Indian investors.
such as climate change, public health, clean
97
 Most Indian businesses use the U.K. as a investments, and a surge in innovation. African
springboard for their European operations, given governments and leaders are playing an active
India’s historical and cultural affinity with the role in shaping the continent’s future and they
country. Indian businesses will have to install a no longer remain passive bystanders. Various
parallel set-up on mainland Europe for non-western powers like China, Japan,
conducting their operations. Singapore, and Malaysia are also expanding their
 From now onwards, India will have to maintain presence in the continent.
separate trade negotiations with both, UK and  India has an intrinsic interest in helping Africa
the European Union. India is the second largest achieve progress. The spirit of “developing
source of foreign direct investment (FDI) for together as equals” defines this bilateral
Britain and it would not want to lose its Indian partnership. A resurging Africa and a rising India
investors. Thus, India can expect a less can give a strong impetus to South-South
regulatory British market for trade and Cooperation, especially when it comes to
investment. addressing challenges in areas like clean
 India is already exploring the possibility of technology, climate-resilient agriculture,
separate free trade agreements with UK and EU. maritime security, connectivity, and Blue
There are about 800 Indian businesses economy. However, the India-Africa partnership
companies with more than 110,000 employees is yet to achieve its full potential. What is
operating in UK and ever-growing in size. needed is an infusion of energy, of something
 After Brexit, Indian companies will have to new and concrete, and with a specific focus and
rethink their business strategies. Brexit will direction.
also affect the $108-billion Indian IT sector  BRIEF HISTORY
because companies like TCS, Infosys and HCL
 India’s relations with Africa date back several
heavily depend on Britain for their IT exports.
centuries. The presence of Indians in East Africa
The automobile sector could face a downturn,
is documented in the 'Periplus of the Erythraean
due to a decline in the export of cars and auto
Sea' or Guidebook of the Red Sea by an ancient
components to Europe.
Greek author written in 60 AD. The geographical
 It is also predicted that Brexit could lead to
proximity and easy navigability in Indian Ocean
changes in UK immigration policies that would
resulted in well-established trade network
favor highskilled workers from India. Divorced
between India and the East Coast of Africa
from the rest of the Europe, the UK could
predating European exploration.
potentially face a dearth of high-skilled EU
 More concrete relation between India and Africa
workers. India could benefit from the possible
begins to emerge during the Islamic age which is
shortfall.
evident through the accounts of Venetian
 CONCLUSION traveller Marco Polo.
 India and the EU have many common interests,  Political connection during the colonial era was
but transforming them into coordinated policies linked through M.K Gandhi who began his
has been rather elusive. Despite shared values, political career in South Africa, became the
the lack of shared interests on a number of leader of colonized and established Indian Natal
issues continue to limit co-operation. Congress in 1894.
 Hopefully, the future will witness the  After India got independent, it raised voice for
broadening, deepening and intensification of African liberation taking their case to all the
civil society dialogue between India and the EU available international forums. End of racial
as well as greater intellectual and elite struggle and decolonization became the rallying
interaction. While both display a growing point of India– Africa relations.
willingness to discuss and engage, they need to  India was a forerunner as a champion of the
re-profile and reorient their mindsets in order to interests of the developing countries from
tap into the vast untapped potential of their Africa, particularly through the Bandung
relations. Declaration of 1955, the Group of 77, and the
 INDIA AFRICA RELATION Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). India’s policy of
NAM provided the world with the third front at
 Africa is a continent on the move, characterised
the time of heightened cold war rivalry between
by rapid economic growth, rising educational
US and USSR, where African nations acted as the
and health standards, increasing gender parity,
strengthening factor.
and expanding infrastructure and connectivity.
The region has witnessed growing trade,
98
 A large number of Indian diaspora continues to the 54 African states through the African Union
live in African countries such as Kenya, Uganda, (AU).
Mauritius, and Nigeria. South Africa alone has an  The first ever India-Africa Forum Summit (2008)
approximately one million strong Indian adopted the Delhi Declaration and the
community that traces its origins back 150 years AfricaIndia Framework for Cooperation, which
when Indian indentured labour arrived in the constituted the blueprint for cooperation
country to work at sugar plantations across between India and Africa in the 21st century.
South Africa India announced unilateral duty free and
 IMPORTANCE OF AFRICA preferential market access for exports from all
Least Developed Countries, 34 of which are in
 There exists a great complementarity of
Africa. Products of immediate interest to Africa
interests between India and Africa. Africa is
include cotton, cocoa, aluminium ores, copper
home to over half a dozen of the fastest growing
ores, cashew nuts, cane sugar, ready-made
countries of this decade such as Rwanda,
garments, fish fillets and non-industrial
Senegal, and Tanzania etc making it one of the
diamonds.
growth pole of the world. African continent has
 In order to enhance opportunities for African
a population of over one billion with a combined
Students to pursue higher studies in India, the
GDP of 2.5 trillion dollars making it a huge
Government of India doubled long-term
potential market.
scholarships for undergraduates, postgraduates
 India is an important source of investment for
and higher courses and increased the number of
projects in Africa in sectors such as
training slots under our technical assistance
pharmaceuticals, IT and telecommunications,
programmes.
engineering, education, health and agriculture.
 The Second India-Africa Forum Summit took
India also provides a longterm, stable and
place in Addis Ababa from May 20-25, 2011. The
profitable market to the goods and services that
AIFS-II, saw the first ever State visit of the Prime
Africa generates.
 Africa is a resource rich nation dominated by
Minister of India to Ethiopia. The Prime Minister
commodities like crude oil, gas, pulses and lentils, announced a new credit line of US $ 300 million
leather, gold and other metals, all of which India lack for Djibouti-Ethiopia Railway line as regional
in sufficient quantities. So, for India, Africa has the integration component of the decisions taken
potential to become a major contributor to our under the Summits. Two documents, namely
energy security and food security requirement. 1. the Framework for enhanced cooperation
 India is seeking diversification of its oil supplies away and
from the Middle East and Africa can play an 2. The Addis Ababa Declaration were adopted
important role in India’s energy matrix. during the summit.
 Both face common challenges in health and well-
 The Third India-Africa Forum Summit was held in
being, food security and nutrition, energy, climate
change, water and sanitation. This is because both
New Delhi in 2015 with participation from 54
have great similarity in terms of demography, disease African countries. The outcome document of
burden and resource constraints. They can learn from the summit – “Delhi Declaration” and
each other’s initiatives in innovative solutions to “Framework for Strategic Partnership”- reflected
these challenges. the common positions of India and Africa on a
 They also have common interest in combating wide array of political and economic issues as
terrorism and piracy to coordinating their positions in well as an articulation of our joint commitment
global forums over issues such as UN reforms, WTO to deepening our mutual cooperation.
and Climate Change.  The meeting provided a new direction to Africa-
 The reform of political, security and economic
India relations based on equality, mutual respect
institutions of global governance, including a
meaningful expansion of the UNSC.
and shared gains in addition to identifying broad
areas of cooperation in political, economic and
RECENT INITIATIVES social development. Cabinet approved opening
A. India Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) of 18 new Indian Missions in Africa to implement
 Multilateral engagement was launched with the first commitments of IAFS-III .
India Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) in 2008. The India–  India committed to grant assistance of USD 600
Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) is the official platform for million, including an India-Africa Development
the African-Indian relations. India by consistently Fund of USD 100 million and a India-Africa
holding India- Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) in places Health Fund of USD 10 million.
like New Delhi (2008), Addis Ababa (2011) and  In July 2018, Prime Minister Narendra Modi
New Delhi (2015) has already forged ties with addressed the Ugandan Parliament during his state
99
visit. He outlined a vision for not just a bilateral 10. Just as India and Africa fought colonialism
partnership with Africa, but also a partnership in together, we will work together for a just,
multilateral forums by espousing the ‘10 guiding representative and democratic global order that
principles for India-Africa engagement’. has a voice for one-third of humanity that lives
 They represent a continuity in policies that have in Africa and India.
historically defined India-Africa partnership. At
B. Defence Partnership
the same time, the Guiding Principles also reflect
 India-Africa Defence Dialogue (IADD) held on the
a change in the nuances and priorities in India’s
sidelines of Def Expo 2022 in Gandhinagar,
engagement, and most importantly, the
Gujarat; paves way for strengthening of India-
principles are clearly articulated. After all, the
Africa defence relations. Gandhinagar
Indian government has long been criticised for
Declaration adopted to enhance cooperation in
not having a clear vision or strategy for Africa,
the fields of training & military exercises.
even after 70 years of robust engagement with
 Indian Defence Minister Rajnath Singh invited
the continent.
African nations to explore Indian defence
 The following are the 10 Guiding Principles equipment & technologies; and said that robust
for India-Africa engagement- Indian defence manufacturing ecosystem can
1. Africa will be at the top of our priorities. We will fulfil international requirements. “India does not
continue to intensify and deepen our believe in a hierarchical world order; Our
engagement with Africa. As we have shown, it international relations are guided by human
will be sustained and regular. 2 equality & dignity”
2. Our development partnership will be guided by  IADD’s theme was ‘Adopting Strategy for
your priorities. We will build as much local Synergizing and Strengthening Defence and
capacity and create local opportunities as Security Cooperation’. Delivering the keynote
possible. It will be on terms that are comfortable address, Rajnath Singh defined the theme of
to you, that will liberate your potential and not IADD as the underlying commitment of India and
constrain your future. African countries to explore new areas of
3. We will keep our markets open and make it convergence for defence engagements,
easier and more attractive to trade with India. including capacity building, training, cyber
We will support our industry to invest in Africa. 4 security, maritime security and counter
4. We will harness India’s experience with the terrorism. He termed India & African countries
digital revolution to support Africa’s as important stakeholders in ensuring a safe and
development; improve delivery of public secure maritime environment, especially in the
services; extend education and health; spread Indian Ocean Region.
digital literacy; expand financial inclusion; and  Emphasising that India & Africa share a multi-
mainstream the marginalised. faceted defence and security cooperation
5. Africa has 60 percent of the world’s arable land, relationship, Shri Rajnath Singh reiterated India’s
but produces just 10 percent of the global support to Africa to deal with challenges of
output. We will work with you to improve conflict, terrorism and violent extremism. He
Africa’s agriculture. described the Indo-African ties as multi-faceted
6. Our partnership will address the challenges of covering economic, diplomatic and defence
climate change. domains. He highlighted that India and Africa
7. We will strengthen our cooperation and mutual share a robust partnership, which is based on
capabilities in combating terrorism and the cooperative framework of ‘SAGAR’ (Security
extremism; keeping our cyberspace safe and and Growth for All in the Region), drawn upon
secure; and, supporting the UN in advancing and the ancient ethos of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’
keeping peace. (The World is One Family).
8. We will work with African nations to keep the  The Gandhinagar Declaration proposes to enhance
oceans open and free for the benefit of all cooperation in the field of training in all areas of
nations. The world needs cooperation and mutual interest by increasing training slots and
competition in the eastern shores of Africa and deputation of training teams, empowerment and
the eastern Indian Ocean. capability building of the defence forces of Africa,
9. As global engagement in Africa increases, we participation in exercises and humanitarian assistance
must all work together to ensure that Africa during natural disasters.
 India offered fellowship for experts from African
does not once again turn into a theatre of rival
countries through Manohar Parrikar Institute for
ambitions, but becomes a nursery for the
Defence Studies and Analysis.
aspirations of Africa’s youth.
100
C. India Africa Maritime Security resources, is still diverse given the wide natural
 India has been gradually increasing its resource base in Africa. Within the African
engagements with the navies in the African Union, India's top trading partner is Nigeria
continent through frequent naval deployments (20.91 per cent). Ten countries account for
and port visits. An inclusive regional maritime nearly 60 per cent of India's total trade with
security infrastructure has been set up with the Africa. Of them, India enjoys a positive trade
participation of the island states which are balance with Egypt and Mozambique, while
strategically located and there are constant having a deficit with the rest of the countries.
interactions at the operational level.  In Agriculture, Pulses, of which India faces a
 An Indian- led initiative Indian Ocean Rim shortage, are a major import item for India from
Association (IORA), is headquartered in Mozambique and Tanzania. During PM Modi’s
Mauritius and has eight African members July 2016 visit, agreements were signed with
including the strategic island states like Mozambique and Tanzania to incentivise local
Madagascar and Comoros. Integrated Maritime farmers to grow pulses in order to cover the
Strategy 2050 of the African Union’s vision growing Indian demand with a guaranteed
statement states, “The main aim of the Strategy minimum procurement price and quantity.
is to foster increased wealth creation from E. Development Cooperation
Africa’s oceans and seas. This can be done by  The Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation
developing a sustainable thriving blue economy (ITEC) programme, launched in 1964 to share
in an environmentally sustainable and secure India’s lessons in development with other
manner”. developing countries, continues to remain an
 India is particularly active in the realm of anti- important pillar of Indian development
piracy. After the kidnapping of several Indian cooperation programme. Africa is a key
citizens by Somali pirates, the Indian navy beneficiary of the programme with nearly 50%
stepped up its efforts after 2008 and escorted of the ITEC slots reserved for countries from the
over 1,000 vessels across the Gulf of Aden, region.
sometimes in cooperation with the European  At the third India-Africa Forum Summit in 2015,
Union’s Mission Atalanta. India pledged to provide 50,000 scholarships to
 Another domain that saw India at the forefront African students over a five-year period and set
is UN peacekeeping missions. The Indian up institutions of higher learning in Africa.
subcontinent has always been one of the leading  The scale of India’s development cooperation
suppliers of peacekeepers to UN missions, with with Africa has also grown rapidly. From 2003
80% of them deployed in Africa. On top of that, onwards, India began to use concessional lines
Indian defense academies have provided of credit (LoC) as one of its key development
training to the Nigerian, Ethiopian and Tanzanian partnership instruments to fund the
military. construction of railway lines, electrification and
D. Economic Relation irrigation projects, farm mechanisation projects,
 The African Union is India's fourth largest trading among others
partner after the United States, China and the  The LoCs are demand-driven and extended on
United Arab Emirates, propped up by the principle of mutual benefit — recipient
diversification in Indian exports to the continent. countries make development gains, while the
 The India-Africa bilateral trade has been growing LoCs help create new markets for Indian
steadily, year-on-year, with the trade volume companies, foster export growth, build good
touching USD 89.5 billion in 2021-22 compared relations with countries that are important
to USD 56 billion the previous year. India is the sources of food, energy and resources, and
fifth largest investor in Africa with cumulative contribute to the country’s image abroad. So far,
investments of US$ 54 billion. India has extended concessional loans of over
 India has a negative trade balance with Africa, USD 12.3 billion to it and completed 197
implying a dominance of imports over exports. projects.
India's trade with Africa has been diversified  India-Africa cooperation has also focused on
from exporting mainly textile yarns to petroleum techno-economic capacity building. Skill
products, pharmaceutical products, chemicals development and capacity building featured
and manufactured products. prominently in all the India-Africa Forum
 At the same time, India's import basket, though Summits.
dominated by primary products and natural

101
 Information Technology- This is an important Healthcare Professionals” to healthcare workers
pillar of India’s technical cooperation with Africa, in Africa.
given the role of the information and F. The China Factor
communication technology (ICT) sector in India’s  India has engaged Africa for long, its capacity to
growth story and the importance most African effect changes have been limited primarily due
leaders attach to ICT sector development to lack of India’s economic capacity. In 2014,
 The Pan African e-Network, launched in 2009, China-Africa bilateral trade was around $220
was a ground breaking initiative to extend Indian billion. In comparison, India-Africa bilateral trade
expertise in IT to provide better healthcare and in March 2016-17 was $52 billion. Its annual
education facilities in 53 African countries India trade with Africa in 2021 stood at $254 billion, in
has invested $100 million in the Pan-African E- addition to investments and loans worth $200
Network to bridge the digital divide in Africa, billion.
leveraging its strengths in information  Traditionally, China’s participation in
technology infrastructure projects has been remarkable. It
 The second phase of this programme, e- had built the 1,860 km Tanzania-Zambia railway
VidyaBharti and e-ArogyaBharti (e-VBAB), was line in 1975, and the Addis Ababa-Djibouti and
started in 2018, with an aim to provide free tele- MombasaNairobi lines more recently, China is
education to 4,000 African students each year now eyeing to develop the vast East Africa
for five years and continuing medical education Master Railway Plan.
for 1000 African doctors, paramedical staff, and  China has signed several agreements furthering
nurses China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), many
 Further, multiple successful digital tech-driven components of which has been objected to by
companies have managed to gain a strong India. One of the major problem s of the BRI is
foothold in the region as well. Recently, after the that there is no transparency in the agreements
Nigerian government banned Twitter, an Indian with the host country.
micro blogging network start-up – Koo –  The operationalisation of the Chinese support
managed to gain significant following and an base in Djibouti in 2016, which tends to be
active user base in that nation. militaristic in nature, is an alarming development
 Climate Change- Nearly half of all member in most of the engagements that China makes
countries in the International Solar Alliance, under BRI. This boosts China’s String of Pearls
initiated by India, are from Africa. India has strategy.
announced an LoC worth US$ 2 billion to Africa  China is dominantly present in the African
over five years for the implementation of off- Nations of Kenya and Sudan.
grid solar energy projects. India is also working  In view of some experts, Indian engagement lays
to develop solar power systems across the Sahel emphasis on the long term, enhancing Africa’s
region to provide electricity to approximately productive capacities, diversifying skills and
half of the 600 million Africans who are currently knowledge, and investing in small and medium
off-grid. sized enterprises. Whereas, China’s approach is
 COVID-19 Cooperation- During the COVID-19 more traditional — resource-extraction,
pandemic, India has provided 270 metric tonnes infrastructure development and elite-level
of food aid (155 metric tonnes of wheat flour, 65 wealth creation
metric tonnes of rice, and 50 metric tonnes of G. Asia Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC)
sugar) to Sudan, South Sudan, Djibouti and  The idea of Asia Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC)
Eritrea. emerged in the joint declaration issued by Prime
 Also, Under India’s landmark ‘Vaccine Maitri‘ Minister Narendra Modi and Prime Minister
initiative, India gifted 150 metric tonnes of Shinzo Abe in November 2016. It was a direct
medical supplies to 25 African countries. The response to the BRI initiative.
Indian government also organised an e-ITEC  It is based on four pillars of
training course for healthcare professionals on 1. Development and Cooperation Projects,
COVID-19 prevention and management 2. Quality Infrastructure and Institutional
protocols. Connectivity,
 The Ministry of External Affairs also extended 3. Enhancing Capacities and Skills and
the e-ITEC course on “COVID- 19 Pandemic: 4. People-to-People partnership.
Prevention and Management Guidelines for  The AAGC led growth in Africa and Asia will be
responsive to the collective commitment for the

102
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).India has limited trade expansion with the rest of the
also unveiled the Vision Document of the Asian world, including India.
Africa Growth Corridor which is jointly prepared 2. Transport and logistics costs – High shipping
by Indian and Japanese think tanks. the corridor costs and high cost of insurance in exports to
will focus on fpur pillars. African countries have discouraging to many
 India postulates that its partnership with Africa Indian exporters. Given the high transaction
is an amalgam of development priorities in costs and risk perceptions attached, Indian
keeping with the African Union’s long-term plan exporters sometimes show tendencies to
and the Africa Agenda 2063, as well as India’s become risk averse. Therefore, lowering
development objectives. transaction costs is crucial for increasing
 India and Japan should immediately initiate a India-Africa trade.
few joint pilot projects involving the companies 3. Limited market information and knowledge
of India, Japan and a few African countries such — The knowledge asymmetry created due to
as Kenya, Ethiopia and Mozambique in identified the lack of proper dissemination of
areas such as health care, agriculture and blue information, and the incomplete
economy. Unless results become visible in the understanding that India and Africa have
short term, questions may arise about the about each other’s markets creates major
credibility of their joint approach. China’s hurdles. It is necessary to create
substantial success needs to be matched by straightforward regulations, develop basic
sustained India- Japan cooperation in Africa. infrastructure, generate greater political will,
H. Challenges and address domestic leakages, to create
 There are continued acts of unconstitutional the correct environment for reducing
changes in the government or military coups investment risks.
taking place which make the investment climate I. Way Forward
dangerous for the potential investors. Many  India must utilise the tremendous diaspora
nations in the union have terrible experience in present in several African nations to further
sustaining democracy. strengthen its outreach and presence in the
 The continent is rife with sectarian and ethnic Union. India must explore the new areas of
clashes which further makes the social life investment apart from traditional
difficult and makes the project of economic developmental sector investments.
growth susceptible to random violent acts.  The China factor must be dealt in a suitable
 It suffers from serious lack of funding for its manner so that the strategic and diplomatic
programs and depends on external funding presence is balanced.
which makes it prone to external whims thus not  Food security and energy security have come
allowing it to cater to the region’s need fully. into special focus in the context of the Ukraine
 The biggest challenge for Indian LOC-funded conflict. Here too, India and Africa can work
initiatives in Africa is ensuring effective and together for mutual benefit. There is great
timely implementation of projects, and ensuring potential for stepping up India-Africa
that there is no pilferage of funds. The Joint collaboration in the agriculture sector.
Monitoring Mechanism with African Union, as  The rich and valuable experience that India has
promised by PM Modi in 2015, is crucial for acquired over the last 40 years (after the Green
improving India’s delivery mechanism. If Indian Revolution), and its Triple ‘A’ (appropriate,
project implementation is not seriously adaptable, and affordable) technology can
monitored, Indian LOCs will remain on paper indeed be a game changer in assisting African
even. smallholder famers who depend heavily on
 There are three primary constraints to Africa- income from agriculture.
India trade:  India and Africa, can make the triad of health,
1. Limited access to trade finance – Lack of digital and green growth the focus of our
proper financing mechanisms and limited collaboration. This is as much a business
access to traderelated project finance has opportunity as it is a public policy.
been exacerbated by a stringent regulatory  India and Africa must also look to sign more legal
environment, resulting in the withdrawal of frameworks to improve economic engagements
many international banks from Africa’s trade like FTAs. To generate and incubate more ideas,
finance space. This has contributed to both India and Africa should look to engage with

103
one another in more programmes and issues, if any, between India and Pakistan should
platforms. be resolved bilaterally and peacefully, in an
 There should also be greater connectivity and atmosphere free of terror and violence. The
people-to-people contact, which is vital for onus is on Pakistan to create such a conducive
growth of relations. For example, random environment. It has been made clear that India
attacks on African nationals in India have been a will not compromise on issues relating to
cause for concern; India should have a zero- national security and will take firm and decisive
tolerance policy for such incidents. Indeed, as steps to deal with all attempts to undermine
India continues to promote itself as a India’s security and territorial integrity.
multicultural, progressive, and democratic  India has made a number of attempts to build
country, it is necessary to establish effective normal neighbourly relations with Pakistan.
institutional mechanisms for the quick redressal Since 2014, this has manifested in
of grievances of foreign nationals.  the invitation to the then Prime Minister
 Another avenue for engagement is the Nawaz Sharif for the swearing-in ceremony
academia. At present, there are very few in May 2014;
scholarly seminars on Africa and India-Africa  the meeting between Prime Ministers’ in Ufa
engagement being organised on both sides. This in July 2015; and External Affairs Minister’s
gap must be addressed, given that greater (EAM) visit to Islamabad in December 2015.
contacts between universities and think tanks  EAM also took the initiative to propose a
will go a long way in increasing mutual Comprehensive Bilateral Dialogue in
awareness. December 2015.
………7th class ended,8th started……….  PM Modi makes a surprise visit to the
 INDIA-PAKISTAN RELATION Pakistani eastern city of Lahore on Sharif’s
birthday and the wedding of his grand-
 How to sum up India-Pakistan relations? daughter in December 2015.
Different views are there-  These initiatives have been responded with acts
 Some say it is a ‘love-hate’ relationship. of cross border terrorism and violence against
 Others describe the two neighbours as India including the cross-border terror attack on
estranged brothers who love each other but  Pathankot Airbase on 2 January 2016;
are quarrelling over distribution of family  attack on Army Camp in Uri in August 2016;
wealth. and
 Some look at India-Pakistan relationship in  terror attack on the convoy of Indian
adversarial terms: India and Pakistan are security forces in Pulwama by Pakistan
involved in a mortal battle. This enmity will based Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM) on 14
end only with the destruction of Pakistan. February 2019.
 A less extreme view is that Pakistan stands  Pakistan is yet to respond like a normal
against everything that India champions – neighbour. It has continued to
pluralism, secularism, democracy,  sponsor cross border terrorism against India;
development and peace.  restrict normal trade, people to people
 There is not one single dominant view which can exchanges and connectivity with India.
capture the complexity and nuances of Indo-Pak
 On 7 August 2019, Pakistan announced
relations. Also, relations with Pakistan have dynamics
which are very different from India’s relations with
unilateral measures, including downgrading of
other neighbours. It is the most enduring rivalry diplomatic relations, suspension of bilateral
between any two nations since the end of the Second trade and review of bilateral arrangements with
World War. Ironically, the number of issues that India. Subsequently, Pakistan suspended all bus
divides them continues to increase then decrease. and train services between India and Pakistan.
But the number of issues that unite them also has a India has rejected Pakistan’s attempt to present
fairly long list. Peace and harmony is not in sight; an alarming picture of bilateral ties to the world
conflict and hostility is the reality of today – as it was by taking such unilateral measures
of yesterday and, one fears, of tomorrow as well.
 A Brief Timeline of India Pakistan Relation
 TIES DURING PM NARENDRA MODI’S  1947 – Britain, as part of its pullout from the
REGIME Indian subcontinent, divides it into secular (but
 In keeping with its “Neighbourhood First Policy”, mainly Hindu) India and Muslim Pakistan on
India desires normal neighbourly relations with August 15 and 14 respectively. The partition
Pakistan. India’s consistent position is that causes one of the largest human migrations ever

104
seen and sparks riots and violence across the sides agree to a UN-mandated ceasefire, ending
region. the war that had by that point reached a
 1947/48 – The first India-Pakistan war over stalemate, with both sides holding some of the
Kashmir is fought, after armed tribesmen other’s territory.
(lashkars) from Pakistan’s North-West Frontier  1966 – On January 10, 1966, Indian Prime
Province (now called Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa) Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani
invade the disputed territory in October 1947. President Ayub Khan sign an agreement at
The Maharaja, faced with an internal revolt as Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan), agreeing to
well an external invasion, requests the withdraw to pre-August lines and that economic
assistance of the Indian armed forces, in return and diplomatic relations would be restored.
for acceding to India. He hands over control of  1971 – India and Pakistan go to war a third time,
his defence, communications and foreign affairs this time over East Pakistan. The conflict begins
to the Indian government. Fighting continues when the central Pakistani government in West
through the second half of 1948, with the Pakistan, led by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, refuses to
regular Pakistani army called upon to protect allow Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur
Pakistan’s borders. Rahman, a Bengali whose party won the
 January 1948: ―The India-Pakistan Question majority of seats in the 1970 parliamentary
was discussed by UNSC. UNCIP was set up. elections, to assume the premiership. India then
 1949- The war officially ends on January 1, 1949, launches a coordinated land, air and sea assault
when the United Nations arranges a ceasefire. In on East Pakistan. The Pakistani army surrenders
July 1949, India and Pakistan signed an at Dhaka, and its army of more than 90,000
agreement to establish a ceasefire line as become prisoners of war. Hostilities lasted 13
recommended by the UN and the region became days, making this one of the shortest wars in
divided. with a UN peacekeeping force and a modern history. East Pakistan becomes the
recommendation that the plebiscite on the independent country of Bangladesh on
accession of Kashmir to India be held as agreed December 6, 1971.
earlier. That plebiscte has yet to be held.  1972 – Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali
 A key condition for the plebiscite was Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
withdrawal of Pakistan from the areas under its sign Shimla Agreement. The Simla Agreement
control and India withdrawing individuals who designates the ceasefire line of December 17,
were not residents of the State. However, 1971, as being the new “Line-of-Control (LoC)”
neither of this happened. Instead both sides between the two countries.
firmed up their presence in the areas under their
control. Pakistan controls roughly one-third of
the state, referring to it as Azad (free) Kashmir. It
is semiautonomous. A larger area, including the
former kingdoms of Hunza and Nagar, is
controlled directly by the central Pakistani
government. The Indian (eastern) side of the
ceasefire line is referred to as Jammu and
Kashmir state.
 1974 – On May 18, India detonates a nuclear
 1954 – The accession of Jammu and Kashmir to
India is ratified by the state’s constituent device at Pokhran, in an operation codenamed
assembly. “Smiling Buddha”. India refers to the device as a
 1960: India and Pakistan sign a World Bank- “peaceful nuclear explosive”.
 1988 – The two countries sign an agreement
brokered Indus Water Treaty governing six
rivers, or three rivers each. that neither side will attack the other’s nuclear
 1965 – India and Pakistan fight their second war. installations or facilities. Both sides agree to
The conflict begins after a clash between border share information on the latitudes and
patrols in April in the Rann of Kutch (in the longitudes of all nuclear installations. This
Indian state of Gujarat), but escalates on August agreement is later ratified, and the two
5, when between 26,000 and 33,000 Pakistani countries share information on January 1 each
soldiers cross the ceasefire line dressed as year since then.
 1989- Armed resistance to Indian rule in Kashmir
Kashmiri locals, crossing into Indian-
administered Kashmir. By September 22, both begins. India accuses Pakistan of giving weapons
and training to the fighters. India says that
105
Pakistan is supporting the resistance by December 13, an armed attack on the Indian
providing weapons and training to fighters, parliament in New Delhi leaves 14 people dead.
terming attacks against it in Kashmir “cross- India blames Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-
border terrorism”. Pakistan denies this. Pakistan Muhammad for the attacks. The attacks lead to
says it offers only "moral and diplomatic" a massing of India’s and Pakistan’s militaries
support. along the LoC. The standoff only ends in October
 1998 – India detonates five nuclear devices at 2002, after international mediation.
Pokhran. Pakistan responds by detonating six  2004 – Vajpayee and Musharraf hold direct talks
nuclear devices of its own in the Chaghai Hills. at the 12th SAARC summit in Islamabad in
The tests result in international sanctions being January, and the two countries’ foreign
placed on both countries. In the same year, both secretaries meet later in the year. This year
countries carry out tests of long-range missiles. marks the beginning of the Composite Dialogue
 1999 – Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Process, in which bilateral meetings are held
Vajpayee meets with Nawaz Sharif, his Pakistani between officials at various levels of government
counterpart, in Lahore. The two sign the Lahore (including foreign ministers, foreign secretaries,
Declaration, the first major agreement between military officers, border security officials, anti-
the two countries since the 1972 Simla Accord. narcotics officials and nuclear experts).
Both countries reaffirm their commitment to the  2008- In September, Pakistani President Asif Ali
Simla Accord, and agree to undertake a number Zardari and Indian Prime Minister Singh formally
of ‘Confidence Building Measures’ (CBMs). announce the opening of several trade routes
 Composite Dialogue-Vajpayee decided to revive between the two countries. In October, cross-
the dialogue with Pakistan in this changed LoC trade commences, though it is limited to 21
geostrategic context. The first round of the items and can take place on only two days a
renewed Composite Dialogue was held in week. On November 26, (called as 26/11 attacks)
October-November 1998 to discuss eight armed gunmen open fire on civilians at several
identified subjects – sites in Mumbai, India. Ajmal Kasab, the only
1) peace and security including CBMs; attacker captured alive, says the attackers were
2) J&K; members of Lashkar-e-Taiba. In the wake of the
3) Siachen; attacks, India breaks off talks with Pakistan.
4) Tulbul navigation project;  Fragileness of peace process is due to the role of
5) Sir Creek, Pakistan’s military establishment which has a
6) Trade and Economic Cooperation; major role in shaping Pakistan’s foreign policy
7) Terrorism and Drug Trafficking; and and security issues. Pakistan’s deep state has a
8) Friendly Exchanges in different fields. vested interest in the conflicted nature of ties
 The dialogue started but no agreement could be between India and Pakistan. Therefore, they do
reached on any of the subject. not support any compromise and reconciliation
 Vajpayee’s principles of with India. This is the reason why peace talks are
a) insaniyat (humanism), always followed by terror attacks which makes it
b) jamhooriyat (democracy) and impossible for India to carry forward the peace
c) kashmiriyat (Kashmir’s legacy of amity) process. The bilateral relationship suffers from
further attenuated Indo-Pakistan the vicious circle of terror, talks and again terror.
differences.  2015- China and Pakistan signed the China
 Some of the diplomatic gains are eroded, Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
however, after the Kargil conflict breaks out in infrastructural project in 2015 which was an
May. Pakistani forces and Kashmiri fighters affront to Indian sovereignty as the corridor
occupy strategic positions on the Indian side of passes through the PoK.
the LoC, prompting an Indian counter-offensive  2016 – India launches what it calls “surgical
in which they are pushed back to the other side strikes” on “terrorist units” in Pakistan-
of the original LoC. administered Kashmir in September, less than
 2001- In July, Pakistani President Pervez two weeks after an attack on an Indian army
Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari base at Uri leaves 19 soldiers dead. Pakistan
Vajpayee meet for a two-day summit in the denies the attacks took place.
Indian city of Agra. That summit collapses after  2019 – February 2019: Pakistani-based terrorist
two days, with both sides unable to reach group Jaish-e-Mohammed carried out a suicide
agreement on the core issue of Kashmir. On car bomb attack in Indian-controlled Kashmir

106
which resulted in the deaths of over 40 have the potential to generate hydroelectricity
members of India’s paramilitary forces. India at great magnitudes.
retaliated with Balakot air strikes across the Line  From a geopolitical standpoint, Kashmir is vital
of Control, and Pakistan shot down an Indian as well. Kashmir serves as a bridge between
aircraft and captured a pilot. These actions South Asia and Central Asia. For India, it is the
significantly increased tensions between the two only direct route to Central Asia and through
nuclear states but two days later, the Indian Central Asia to Europe. It plays a key role in the
pilot was released and tensions relaxed. India Belt and Road initiative. More importantly, it is
has revoked the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) key for the ChinaPakistan Economic Corridor
status to Pakistan. (CPEC). Additionally, in 1963, Pakistan ceded the
 ISSUES BETWEEN BOTH COUNTRIES Shaksgam valley and Gilgit to China. This region
was originally a part of Pakistan occupied
 KASHMIR ISSUE Kashmir.
 The Kashmir region is often dubbed as one of  It is also extremely important to India’s national
the most militarised places in the world. Two security. Kashmir is a central piece between
nuclear powers, India and Pakistan, lay claim to three nuclear nations: India, Pakistan and China.
the region and have been warring over it since At the moment, of the original territory of
their independence from the British in 1947. Kashmir, India has control over roughly 55% of
 Kashmir issue is related to the divergent the total area, Pakistan controls 30% of the land
concepts of nationhood. India emerged as a and China controls 15% of it. Kashmir is the only
secular nation with a Hindu majority population direct link between Pakistan and China. This
and a large Muslim minority besides several direct link with China has been largely beneficial
more religious minorities. Pakistan also emerged in terms of economic development. In the face
as a theocratic nation as a result of partition of of a conflict, without Kashmir, China and
the country on the basis of two-nation theory. It Pakistan could combine forces, gravely
had a Muslim majority population and a large endangering India. With India’s straining
Hindu minority and sizeable Sikh community. relationships with both China and Pakistan, it
 Pakistan considers that India has not reconciled has become wary of this.
to the fact of Partition and wants to undo the
Partition. It regards that as Muslim majority
province Kashmir should have been a part of
Pakistan. It regards Kashmir as the unfinished
agenda of partition. On the other hand, a secular
India also considers entire Jammu and Kashmir is
an integral part of India and Pakistan illegally
occupies its territory. Holding this state is also
must for Indian nationhood else it may open the
floodgates of separatist movement in other
parts of India.
 While Pakistan considers the Kashmir conflict an
international dispute, India says it is a bilateral  In October of 2019, the Indian government led
issue and an “internal matter. by Narendra Modi revoked Article 370 of the
 Another primary reason for this conflict between Indian Constitution. Pakistan condemned India's
the two nations is due to how valuable Kashmir decision to revoke the special status of its part of
is in terms of national security, geography and Kashmir as illegal, saying it would "exercise all
resources. The largely important Indus River possible options" to counter it.
flows through Kashmir. The Indus River is  Following the abrogation of Article 370 the
extremely crucial to agriculture in Pakistan. It is diplomatic relations between the two countries
especially important in the lower Indus valley have been downgraded. Pakistan launched a
region, where rainfall is uncommon. Similarly, global diplomatic campaign to attract
India depends on the Indus for irrigation. Hence, international support for Pakistan’s position on
the Indus and its tributaries are highly sought Kashmir.
after. The nation that controls this region  In November 2022, India criticised Pakistan for
effectively can cut off the water supply to the raking up the issue of Kashmir in the United
other. The Kashmiri Rivers and water bodies also Nations General Assembly and termed it as
Pakistan’s desperate attempts “to peddle
107
falsehoods” and bad habit of abusing the territories under its control. India is using major
sanctity of multilateral forums. powers like USA and France and international
 CROSS-BORDER TERRORISM organizations like UN and FATF to build pressure
 Terrorism emanating from territories under on Pakistan to take effective steps against
Pakistan's control remains a core concern in terrorism.
bilateral relations. Pakistan has been adept at  FINANCIAL ACTION TASK FORCE (FATF)
playing the dual role of promoting terror as well  FATF is the global watchdog on anti-money
as combating it. Its links with terrorism is both laundering and combating financing terrorism
strategic and tactical. Strategically, it will not (AML/CFT) efforts. The inter-governmental body
abandon its deeply rooted jihadi links that keep sets international standards that aim to prevent
India under pressure. Tactically it can take steps these illegal activities.
to defuse pressure to end terrorism from its soil.  The 39-member body that was set up in 1989
 India has consistently stressed the need for out of a G-7 meeting of developed nations, is
Pakistan to take credible, irreversible and today made up of 37 countries and two regional
verifiable action to end cross border terrorism organisations: the European Commission, the
against India and fulfill its assurances, given to European Union’s executive body, and the Gulf
India at the highest level in January 2004 and Cooperation Council. India joined with
reiterated several times, that territory under its ‘observer’ status in 2006 and became a full
control would not be allowed to be used for member of FATF in 2010.
terrorism against India in any manner. The  According to its mission statement, FATF
government of Pakistan allows known terrorist members meet regularly to monitor various
organizations and their leaders to operate freely countries, “review money laundering and
and indulge in anti-India propaganda and terrorist financing techniques and counter-
activities openly. measures; and promote the adoption and
 India has repeatedly called upon Pakistan to implementation of the FATF Recommendations
bring perpetrators of Mumbai terror attacks to globally”. The decision-making body of the FATF
justice expeditiously. However, there has been or Plenary meets thrice a year, in February, June
no progress in the ongoing trial of Mumbai and October, to take stock of “Mutual Evaluation
terror attacks case in Pakistan even after all the Reports” (MERs) of the countries they review.
evidence has been shared with Pakistan side.  Black List: Countries known as Non-Cooperative
 It has also been emphasised that India will Countries or Territories (NCCTs) are put in the
continue to take firm and decisive steps to blacklist. These countries support terror funding
protect its national security. and money laundering activities. The FATF
 Stephen Cohen argues that ‘terrorism’ is the revises the blacklist regularly, adding or deleting
core issue for India, ‘Kashmir’ for Pakistan, and entries.
‘nuclear security and stability’ for the  Grey List: Countries that are considered safe
international community. These tectonic plates haven for supporting terror funding and money
crash up against each other, but cannot mesh laundering are put in the FATF grey list. This
comfortably. inclusion serves as a warning to the country that
 Despite the abrogation of Article 370, terrorist it may enter the blacklist
activities have continued in Kashmir. These  Countries on both lists are subject to increasing
activities have now taken the form of targeted levels of financial strictures, as the listing is like a
killings where police personnel, local councillors, global rating, and makes it difficult to procure
and religious minorities in the Valley are loans from financial organisations like the
targeted. Last year, killings of Pandits and Sikhs IMF/World Bank, ADB etc., as well as to invite
in the Valley triggered a fresh wave of insecurity investment from private companies and other
among the remaining religious minorities in the countries.
Valley and there were reports that some families  On September 28, 2001, the UN Security Council
even left in the wake of those killings. There had also passed a new resolution (UNSC 1373),
were also multiple attacks on local councillors which added to a previous 1999 resolution
and district-based council leaders. (UNSC 1267), which barred links to any group or
 India highlighted in global interest that Pakistan individual connected to the Taliban or al-Qaeda.
must continue to take credible, verifiable, The lists that the UNSC then approved, of
irreversible and sustained action against hundreds of designated terrorists, soon became
terrorism and terrorist financing emanating from one of the important tasks for the FATF, and the

108
reason it is frequently in the news. it held its the mid- channel. Though Pakistan does not dispute
quarterly plenary session to discuss the listings the 1925 map, it maintains that the doctrine is not
of several countries on its radar, including applicable in this case as it most commonly applies to
Pakistan. non-tidal rivers, and Sir Creek is a tidal estuary.
 Over the years, the creek has also changed its course
 In October 2022, Financial Action Task Force
considerably. If one country agrees to the other’s
(FATF) announced the removal of Pakistan from traditional position, then the former will end up
its “Grey List.” Pakistan has been placed in and losing a vast amount of Exclusive Economic Zone
removed from “Grey List” in the past too. It was (EEZ) rich with gas and mineral deposits. A country
placed in the “Grey List” for the third time in has special rights to EEZ under the United Nations
June, 2018 and remained there till October, Convention on the Law of the Sea that includes
2022. As a result of FATF scrutiny, Pakistan has exploration and use of resources there including via
been forced to take some action against well- deep sea mining, in which there have been exciting
known terrorists, including those involved in new breakthroughs.
attacks against the entire international
community in Mumbai on 26/11.
 SIR CREEK DISPUTE
 The dispute may have its origin in just a pile of
firewood, but the Sir Creek’s dispute is turning out to
be one of India’s biggest security headaches.
 The Sir Creek dispute between India and Pakistan got
its name from the British representative who
negotiated the original dispute over firewood
between the local rulers. It is now turning out be
more than just an unresolved border. The 96-km
estuary between India and Pakistan, cutting through
where Gujarat State and Sindh province meet, has
had a dramatic impact on Indian security, though it’s
 PROBLEMS FOR FISHERMEN AND
always been seen to be relatively simple to resolve. SECURITY
 With both countries unable to agree on the exact  Because of various factors, the Sir Creek area is also a
boundary, the differences flow into the Arabian Sea great fishing destination for hundreds of fishermen
creating a vast stretch of disputed water, where from both India and Pakistan. Due to lack of proper
fishermen’s misery, terrorist designs and global drug maritime boundary, many of their boats stray across
syndicate interests are all converging. the perceived boundaries, and they end up being
arrested by the other side. The demarcation would
also prevent the inadvertent crossing over of
fishermen of both nations into each other's
territories.
 On August 10, 1999, just a month after the Kargil war,
an Indian fighter plane shot down a surveillance
aircraft of the Pakistan Navy, killing all its 16
occupants. India said the Pakistani aircraft was deep
inside its boundary; Pakistan disputed the claim. It
was flying over Sir Creek.
 Occasionally, fishermen fall prey to deadlier forces
than just the rival nations. One such instance
occurred in November 2008, when 10 terrorists from
the Lashkar-e-Taiba left in a Pakistani boat for
 Pakistan claims the entire Sir Creek with its eastern Mumbai. They captured an Indian fishing vessel,
bank defined by a "green line'' based on a 1914 Kuber, off Sir Creek, and used it to attack Mumbai Of
agreement signed between the government of Sindh course, the disputed nature of the sea off the area
and rulers of Kutch. Accepting Pakistan's premise on was one of the reasons why the terrorists decided to
the "green line" would mean loss of about 250 square capture the boat there.
miles of EEZ for India.  This region has become main route to smuggle drugs,
 India claims that the boundary lies mid-channel, as arms and petroleum product to India. The blurred
was depicted in a map in 1925 and implemented with maritime boundary is being exploited by drug
pillars placed to mark the boundary. India supports its syndicate.
stance by citing the Thalweg doctrine in international  There are enough red flags being raised in Sir Creek,
law. The law states that river boundaries between and the disputed seas off it. It is for both countries to
two states may be, if the two states agree, divided by grab the earliest opportunity to find a solution to

109
what is a low-hanging fruit among the many India-  Together, the two nations have about 150 manned
Pakistan bilateral disputes. outposts along the glacier, with some 3,000 troops
 SIACHEN DISPUTE each. Over 2,000 Pakistani & 4,000 Indian soldiers
have died at Siachen conflict. More soldiers have died
or handicapped from frost bites, cold and avalanche
i.e. harsh weather than combat.
 Official annual figures for maintaining these outposts
are put at $300 and $200 million for India and
Pakistan respectively.
 With the tragic news of 150 Pakistani soldiers (2012)

and few Indian soldiers (2015) buried alive in an
avalanche in their base camp at Siachen, it brings
back to memory the bitter truths about this conflict.
 The glacier:
 Siachen means ‘the place of wild roses’.
 Siachen glacier is the great Himalayan watershed that
demarcates central Asia from the Indian
subcontinent, and that separates Pakistan from China
in this region.
 It is the world’s second longest non-polar glacier, and
thus is sometimes referred to as the third pole.
 It is 70 km long and flows from an altitude of 5750
meters to 3620 meters above sea level.
 The conflict:
 Siachen is known as the world’s highest battlefield
between India & Pakistan. Troops are deployed at
elevations of up to 6,700 metres (22,000 feet) at
minus 60 degrees C.
 Siachen conflict began in 1984 when both India and
Pakistan, began sending mountaineers, in an attempt
to lay their claims over the area. Several skirmishes
took place till 2003 when a cease fire was declared.
 The roots of the conflict over Siachen lie in the non-
demarcations on the map northward to the China
boundary beyond NJ9842, which is the line’s “dead
end” in the India-Pakistan line of control agreement.
 The 1949 Karachi agreement and the 1972 Simla
agreement presumed that it was not feasible for
human habitation to survive north of NJ9842.
 UN officials presumed there would be no dispute
between India and Pakistan over such a cold and
barren icy wasteland. The contentious area is only
900 square miles (2,300 km2) Indian and Pakistani
sides have since interpreted the phrase “thence
North to the glaciers” very differently. Pakistan
argues that this means that the line should go from
NJ 9842 straight to the Karakoram pass on the
SinoIndian border. India, however, insists that the
line should proceed north from NJ 9842 along the
Saltoro range to the border with China.
 Indians control the length and heights of the glacier
including the three passes, while the Pakistanis
control the glacial valley. As a result, Pakistanis
cannot climb up, and Indians cannot come down.

110
 The strategic importance:
 The strategic importance of the region from an
Indian point of view can be seen from the map.
 1) Firstly, the Saltoro Ridge overlooks the area of
Gilgit–Baltistan of Pakistan Occupied Kashmir
(POK) that is under dispute with Pakistan.
 2) Secondly, it guards the routes leading to Leh,
the principal town and capital of Ladakh.
 3) Thirdly, it overlooks and dominates the
Shaksgam Valley, which was illegally ceded to
China by Pakistan.
 4) Fourthly, it is close to the Karakoram Pass
through which the Karakoram Highway passes
connecting Gilgit-Baltistan to Xinjiang Province
of China.
 Counter view-
 No matter what India and Pakistan may claim
about its strategic importance, Dr. Stephen
Cohen, a well-known and respected
Washington-based South Asia analyst, considers,
“Siachen conflict is a fight between two bald
men over a comb.” In his view, “Siachen… is not
militarily important… They (Indian and Pakistani
armies) are there for purely psychological
reasons, testing each other’s ‘will’.”
 The talks for demilitarisation of Siachen did take
place between India and Pakistan in May 2011,
but fialed to reach any agreement. The truth
remains that this stretch of icy wasteland holds
no political or economic importance to the
billion and a half residing on both sides of the
 Indian Stand border.
 Cartographic aggression by Pak must cease.  Instead of being a battle ground, Siachen should
Many Pak Atlases show Siachen as part of be demilitarized, and to evade the unresolved
Pakistan. dispute of AGPL (actual ground position line) the
 India agrees to establishment of a demilitarized area could be seen as a ‘common ground’
zone in Siachen. precious enough to study and conserve the
 However before the modalities begin, exchange glacier which is under threat due to the climate
of maps in which deployment of troops on change. And the billions of rupees used to
Actual Ground Position Line is marked, must be maintain its cost should be directed at
exchanged. improvement of the plight of the impoverished
 Ground rules to govern future military peoples on both sides.
operations in this area must be formed.  INDUS WATER TREATY (1960)
 Redeployment of forces to mutually agreed  In the backdrop of the terror strikes, including
position should thereafter take place. the Uri attack. Prime Minister Narendra Modi
 Pak Stand had declared in 2016 that "blood and water
 Forces should be redeployed to position at the time cannot flow together,”. India decided to increase
of ceasefire after 1971 war thus de facto asking India the utilization of rivers flowing through J&K to
to vacate Siachen. fully exercise India's rights under the pact.
 Demilitarization of extension of Line of Control
beyond NJ 9842 as per the immediate previous  PROVISIONS OF IWT
alignment, hence Actual Ground Position Line to go The Indus Waters Treaty is a water-sharing

to Karakoram Pass. arrangement signed by former Indian Prime
 Pak does not agree to marking of present AGPL Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and General Ayub
and troops deployment and thereafter exchange Khan on September 19, 1960, in Karachi. The
of maps. treaty gave the three "eastern rivers" of Beas,
111
Ravi and Sutlej to India for use of water without treaty has hampered development there and
restriction. The three "western rivers" of Indus, fostered popular grievance.
Chenab and Jhelum were allocated exclusively to  Although the IWT permits modestly sized, run-
Pakistan. New Delhi is under obligation to let the of-river hydropower plants and prior notification
waters of the western rivers flow, except for does not mean the other party's prior consent,
certain consumptive use, with Pakistan getting Pakistan has construed the condition as arming
80% of the entire water of the six-river Indus it with a veto power over Indian works. To keep
system. The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) reserved unrest in J&K simmering, it has objected to
for India just remaining 19.48% of the total virtually every Indian project. Its obstruction has
waters. delayed Indian projects for years, driving up
 India can construct storage facilities on western their costs substantially.
rivers of up to 3.6 million-acre feet, which it has  Pakistan has for over a decade now been
not done so far. India is also allowed agriculture pursuing a "water war" strategy against India.
use of 7 lakh acres above the irrigated cropped This strategy centres on repeatedly invoking the
area as on April 1, 1960. It allowed India to use IWT's conflict-resolution provisions to
them for irrigation, transport and power internationalise any perceived disagreement so
generation, while laying down precise do's and as to mount pressure on India. In past it had
don'ts for India on building projects along the done with respect to two hydropower projects
way. in J&K, Kishanganga on Jhelum and Ratle
 The IWT permits run of the river projects and Hydroelectric projects on Chenab. Similarly,
require India to provide Pakistan with prior Pakistan has been flagging concern over designs
notification, including design information, of any of India's three other hydroelectricity projects --
new project. Pakal Dul (1000 MW), Miyar (120 MW) and
 The treaty provides a 3-tier dispute resolution Lower Kalnai (48 MW) -- being built/planned in
mechanism - the Indus river basin, contending these violate
 “questions” are handled by the Permanent the treaty.
Indus Commission;  The treaty has been a success mainly because of
 “differences” are to be resolved by a Neutral India, which has continued to uphold the pact
Expert; and even when Pakistan has repeatedly waged
 “disputes” are to be referred to a seven- aggression and fundamentally altered the
member arbitral tribunal called the “Court of circumstances of cooperation. International law
Arbitration.” recognises that a party may withdraw from a
 IWT is considered as the world's most generous treaty in the event of fundamentally changed
water-sharing treaty. It is the only inter-country circumstances. So, India can dissolve the
water agreement embodying the doctrine of lopsided but indefinite treaty. The Anti-Ballistic
restricted sovereignty, which compels the Missile Treaty was also of indefinite duration but
upstream nation to forego major uses of a river the US unilaterally withdrew from it after Russia
system for the benefit of the downstream state. opposed its revision.
 The IWT has been a symbol of India-Pakistan  The water card is probably the most potent
cooperation and has survived the three wars of instrument India has in its arsenal - more
1965, 1971 and 1999 as well as various tense powerful than the nuclear option, which
stand offs between the two countries. Regular essentially is for deterrence. The Indus is
Exchange of river flow data has kept away Pakistan's jugular vein. If India wishes to improve
Pakistani fears and insecurities. Pakistan's behaviour and dissuade it from
 There have been consistent calls in India that the exporting more terrorists, it should hold out a
government scrap the water distribution pact to credible threat of dissolving the IWT.
mount pressure on Pakistan in the aftermath of  ARGUMENT AGAINST
audacious Uri terror attack.  By imperilling one of the few treaties that has
 ARGUMENTS FOR SCRAPPING IWT successfully governed how water is shared
 The Indus Waters treaty has been an issue since between any nations, India may have opened
its inception. Jammu and Kashmir believes that it the floodgates to a new and potent source of
is at a loss and the concessions given to Pakistan conflict between India and its arch rival and in so
are more than it should have been given. By doing, have set a bad example for the rest of the
gifting the state's river waters to Pakistan, the world. It could only end up worsening future

112
distributional conflicts over water in the sub- India is allowed to irrigate 1.332 million acres for
region. irrigation; it irrigates around 800,000. So now a
 Any Indian attempt to put a squeeze over water plan will be made to irrigate the rest. It also has
flowing to Pakistan suffers from two infirmities. plans ready with a virtual procession of dams
First, there is no way to control the fast-flowing planned on the Jhelum and the Chenab with
waters of the Indus, at least in India unless India names like Sawalkot, Dul Hasti, Pakuldul, Gyspa
builds dams and forces its citizens J&K to and Bursar.
undergo the trauma of massive displacement.  The populations of both Pakistan and India are
Second, Pakistan is bound to approach an no longer same, and populations will only
international tribunal to contest India’s increase more by the middle of 21st century,
construction parameters. The possibility of making review of the treaty vital. The IWT also
litigation slowing down the pace of work didn’t consider the impact of climate change. Its
coupled with the extremely difficult terrain will amendment also becomes important as people
mean it will take an enormous amount of the in disputed Kashmir are seeking a greater say in
nation’s resources to build a single dam. the affairs involving their natural resources.
 Pakistan’s agricultural economy is effectively a  Pakistan and India must consult each other on all
bet on the Indus waters. In a scenario where the major projects on the Indus river system that
sixth most populous country, with nuclear might have cause a hostile environmental
weapons and one of the largest standing armies impact across borders. Both nations must
in the world is torn apart by lack of water, could improve domestic water management and
have dangerous ramifications on all of South encourage less water intensive crops. Improved
Asia. infrastructure could help plug power distribution
 Unilateral abrogation of the treaty will severely losses while both countries need to increase
undermine Delhi’s hard-won reputation as a rainwater harvesting projects wherever possible
responsible rising power. It would come back to as well.
bite India as it seeks membership in the UN  Pakistan and India could jointly build dams and
Security Council and a greater voice on the share benefits. This could lower their tensions
international stage. over water sharing. They can also reduce their
 Its actions as an upper riparian country run the reliance on hydro-electricity by adopting solar
risk of seriously undermining its position as a energy instead.
lower riparian state vis-à-vis China. On the  As a change in India’s stand, it has regularly
Brahmaputra, India has stakes in participated in meeting of Permanent Indus
institutionalising norms of first-user rights, joint Commission (PIC) under the aegis of Indus Water
management and consultative processes. If it Treaty since then. The World Bank has assured
chooses to renege on its own international its continued neutrality and impartiality in
obligations, India’s chances of getting China to helping India and Pakistan find an amicable way
invest in process-oriented, institutionalised forward during talks over issues related to two
norms in a trans-boundary basin will become of India's hydroelectricity projects under Indus
less realistic. Waters Treaty
 A planned move to abrogate international WORLD BANK CHAIRS MEETING OVER IWT
obligations will send negative signals to Dhaka, In November 2022, the World Bank held two
Kathmandu and Thimphu. It is likely to lessen separate hand-over meetings with the Neutral
confidence in India’s credentials as a leader with Expert (NE) and the chairman of Court of Arbitration
an inclination to design regional norms of (CoA) under the Indus Waters Treaty related to the
benefit-sharing. It would further reinforce the dispute between Pakistan and India on the designs
perception that India has a strong unilateralist of controversial Kishenganga and Ratle hydroelectric
streak. power projects.
 WAY OUT The former was inaugurated in 2018 while the latter
 Some scholars have asserted that even within is under construction. The plants are located in India
the provisions of IWT, India has enough leeway on tributaries of the Jhelum and the Chenab Rivers,
to utilise the waters of Western rivers in a respectively. The World Bank is not financing either
manner to convey a strong signal to Pakistan project. Representatives from India and Pakistan
without violating treaty provisions. The plan is were also invited to attend the two meetings.
for India to exercise its legal rights under the The meetings followed the appointments made
treaty to the maximum capacity. Under IWT pursuant to the treaty by the World Bank in October

113
2022 of Michel Lino, as the Neutral Expert, and Prof ensuring peace and prosperity in the South Asian
Sean Murphy, as a chairman of the Court of region.
Arbitration. In line with its responsibilities under the  However, the political differences create a major
Indus Waters Treaty, the World Bank effected the hurdle particularly on the economic front. There
appointments that it was mandated to make in the is need to strengthen the visa system in order to
two separate processes requested by India and implement more people to people contact by
Pakistan in relation to the Kishenganga and Ratle having cultural, educational and economic
hydroelectric power plants. exchanges.
The two countries disagree over whether the  The trust deficit between both nations needs to
technical design features of these two hydroelectric be worked on not only by engaging in positive
plants contravene the Treaty. Pakistan asked the problem-solving discussions but also taking
World Bank to facilitate the appointment of the effective action towards it. Hence, there is no
Chairman of the Court of Arbitration, and India short-term solution to the strained relations
asked the World Bank to facilitate the appointment between the two countries and a large number
of the Neutral Expert of issues exist that can be tackled through a
 TRADE AND COMMERCE step-by-step approach by constant initiatives
 India had accorded MFN status to Pakistan in
from both sides.
1996. A Pakistan cabinet decision of November  INDIA-SRI LANKA RELATION
02, 2011 to reciprocate remains  The relationship between India and Sri Lanka is
unimplemented. In August 2012, India more than 2,500 years old. Both countries have
announced reduction of 30% in its SAFTA a legacy of intellectual, cultural, religious and
Sensitive List for non-Least Developed Countries linguistic interaction. Both were historically parts
of SAFTA [including Pakistan], bringing down of British India and member countries of NAM.
tariff on 264 items to 5% within a period of three Presence of a significant Tamil ethnic group in Sri
years. However, Pakistan continued to follow Lanka further deepens the relations.
restrictive trade policy towards India.  In recent years, the relationship has been
 In the aftermath of cross border terror attack in marked by close contacts at all levels. Trade and
Pulwama, India, on 15 February 2019 withdrew investment have grown and there is cooperation
Most Favoured Nation Status to Pakistan. India in the fields of development, education, culture
also hiked customs duty on exports from and defence. Both countries share a broad
Pakistan to 200% on 16 February 2019. understanding on major issues of international
Subsequently, as part of its unilateral measures, interest. In recent years, significant progress in
Pakistan suspended bilateral trade with India on implementation of developmental assistance
7 August 2019. projects for Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)
 Pakistan closed its airspace for India bound and disadvantaged sections of the population in
flights. Sri Lanka has helped further cement the bonds
 CONCLUSION of friendship between the two countries.
 Both nations need to understand that by robust  The nearly three-decade long armed conflict
bilateral cooperation, both nations stand a between Sri Lankan forces and the LTTE came to
chance of gaining a great deal by engaging in the an end in May 2009. During the course of the
field of trade, investment etc. As a prerequisite conflict, India supported the right of the
Pakistan must stop its policy of state-sponsored Government of Sri Lanka to act against terrorist
cross border terrorism and act against anti-India forces. At the same time, it conveyed its deep
elements with an iron hand. This alone has the concern at the plight of the mostly Tamil civilian
potential of restoring trust between them and population, emphasizing that their rights and
provide conducive environment for resuming welfare should not get enmeshed in hostilities
stalled peace talks. against the LTTE.
 It is important to note that Pakistan’s Army is  The need for national reconciliation through a
driven by strategic choices and politico- political settlement of the ethnic issue has been
economic rationale which the decision-makers in reiterated by India at the highest levels. India's
New Delhi need to analyse and understand, and consistent position is in favour of a negotiated
then reach out to the generals in Rawalpindi political settlement, which is acceptable to all
accordingly. communities within the framework of a united
 Regional cooperation is essential for stability in Sri Lanka and which is consistent with
Afghanistan. It shall be in the larger interest of
114
democracy, pluralism and respect for human statement covering all areas of bilateral
rights. cooperation, titled ‘Mitratva Maga’ was issued
 IMPORTANCE OF SRI LANKA following the Virtual Summit.
 Earlier Sri Lankan President Gotabaya Rajapaksa
 Sri Lanka has a very strategic geographic position visited India from 28-30 November 2019 in the
in Indian Ocean Region and Bay of Bengal; first overseas trip as President and held bilateral
making it significant for India geopolitically. It discussions with Indian leadership. H.E Mahinda
sits at the epicenter of the arc connecting the Rajapaksa paid a State Visit to India from 7 – 11
Persian Gulf to the Strait of Malacca. An island February 2020 as his first overseas trip after
nation with an economy that’s mainly reliant on assumption of Office.
tourism and tea exports, Sri Lanka’s blessed
geography puts it at a crucial juncture of the  CIVIL WAR IN SRI LANKA
busy shipping lanes of the Indian Ocean.  Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Accord of 1987
 India also has a vital strategic stake in Sri Lanka  Indian intervention in Sri Lankan civil war
for its own security interests. An unfriendly Sri became inevitable as that civil war threatened
Lanka or a Sri Lanka under influence of a power India’s unity, national interest and territorial
unfriendly to India would strategically discomfit integrity.
India.  The accord was expected to resolve the Sri
 Sri Lanka sits squarely in the middle of the Lankan Civil War by enabling the thirteenth
theatre where Russia and China seek to Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka and
challenge U.S. global strategy, and in 2009 Sri the Provincial Councils Act of 1987. Under the
Lanka was invited by China and Russia to attend terms of the agreement, Colombo agreed to
the Shanghai CoOperation Council as a dialogue devolution of power to the provinces, the Sri
partner. Lankan troops were to be withdrawn to their
 Economically, Sri Lanka provides a plethora of barracks in the north and the Tamil rebels were
opportunity for increased engagement efforts as to surrender their arms.
well. The infrastructural developments in Sri  India agreed to end support for the Tamil
Lanka over the past decade have significantly separatist movement and recognise the unity of
increased the commercial capacity of the Sri Lanka and also promised not to allow its
country. territory to be used by Tamil militants. The Indo-
 Significance at Multilateral Forms: Sri Lanka is Sri Lanka Accord also underlined the
already using the increased commercial capacity commitment of Indian military assistance -
to seek economic partnerships with the Indian Peace Keeping Force came to be inducted
emerging economic power base known as the into Sri Lanka. The LTTE later refused to disarm.
BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and China), and is Because of this changing stance, the Indian
poised to become their regional hub. Peace Keeping Force engaged the LTTE in a
 POLITICAL RELATIONS series of battles even though the original
 Political relations between the two countries intention was of IPKF was not be involved in
have been marked by high-level exchanges of large scale military operations. The IPKF began
visits at regular intervals. Prime Minister Shri. withdrawing in 1989, and completed the
Narendra Modi hosted a Virtual Bilateral Summit withdrawal in 1990.
(VBS) with Sri Lankan Prime Minister H.E.  The Accord acknowledged in a formal sense that
Mahinda Rajapaksa on 26 September 2020, also Sri Lanka was a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and
attended by senior Ministers/officials from both multi- religious plural society and recognized
sides. This was the first such engagement by that each ethnic group had a distinct cultural
Prime Minister H.E Mahinda Rajapaksa after the and linguistic identity that had to be carefully
Parliamentary elections of August 2020 and also nurtured. There was a provision for merger of
the first VBS held by Indian Prime Minister with the northern and eastern provinces into one
a neighboring country. administrative unit with an elected Provincial
 A USD 15 million grant from India for promotion Council, one Governor, one Chief Minister and a
of bilateral Buddhist ties and an inaugural Board of Ministers.
international flight carrying Sri Lankan pilgrims  13TH AMENDMENT IN THE CONSTITUTION
to the sacred city of Kushinagar, after OF SRI LANKA
Kushingar’s recent designation as international  On 29th July 1987, Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was
airport, were announced at the VBS. A joint signed. In pursuant to that, the Sri Lankan

115
Parliament passed the Thirteenth Amendment critical — and abstained twice, in 2014 and
to the constitution on 14th Nov’ 1987 with the 2021. Irrespective of its vote, India has
objective of creating provincial councils based on consistently emphasised the need for a political
the provisions of the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord. settlement within the framework of a united Sri
 In this regard, certain Articles of the 1978 Lanka, ensuring justice, peace, equality and
Constitution were amended and Chapter XVII A dignity for the Tamils of Sri Lanka. India
consisting of Article 154A to 154T and Eighth and abstained on a draft resolution in the UN Human
Ninth schedule were added by the Thirteenth Rights Council in Geneva in September 2022 on
Amendment. The Thirteenth Amendment to the promoting reconciliation, accountability and
Constitution provides for: human rights in Sri Lanka. Due to its long-held
 The establishment of Provincial Councils position, India does not vote in favour of a
 The appointment and powers of the country-specific UN resolution. Also voting
Governor of Provinces against Sri Lanka would have pushed the Island
 Membership and tenure of Provincial country more towards China. It urged the Sri
Councils Lankan government to deliver on commitments
 The appointment and powers of the Board towards the Tamil minority. India highlighted
of Ministers that its two fundamental considerations remain:
 The legislative powers of the Provincial  support to Lankan Tamils for justice, dignity
Councils & peace;
 Alternative arrangements where there is a  Unity, stability & territorial integrity of Sri
failure in the administrative machinery Lanka.
 The establishment of the Finance  Why Sri Lanka Faces the Heat Of UNHRC?
Commission.  Over 13 years since the end of Sri Lanka’s civil
 Tamil as an official language war, survivors continue demanding justice and
 English as a link language accountability for war-time crimes. It is claimed
 The establishment of the High Court of the that during Sri Lankan civil war, tens of
Province thousands of civilians were killed and
 Elections to the three provinces – Northern, disappeared. In the post-war years, concerns
Central and North Western Provinces held were raised over persisting militarisation,
 However, there are practical problems in especially in the Tamil-majority north and east;
devolving land, police and financial powers to repression, and the shrinking space for dissent.
the provinces and the Government has stressed  In latest report on Sri Lanka, the U.N. Human
that the structure that is implemented should be Rights Chief said that “embedded impunity for
acceptable to all parts of the country. Over the past and present human rights abuses, economic
time, Sri Lankan government had indicated that crimes and corruption was among the
there are no plans to devolve the police powers underlying factors that led to the country’s
to the Northern Provincial Council. The recent devastating economic crisis”.
Supreme Court verdict - land is essentially a  It is the first time that a UNHRC resolution on Sri
federal subject. After the defeat of the LTTE, Sri Lanka calls for accountability for violation of
Lankan President Mahinda Rajapaksa had given human rights due to corruption and economic
assurance to India as well as the international crisis. However, it urged the government in
community that the government would go Colombo to deliver on commitments towards
beyond the Thirteenth Amendment to devolve the Tamil minority. It also observed that Sri
substantial powers to the Tamil majority areas Lanka’s progress in implementing commitments
under ‘13th Amendment Plus. However, on the 13th Amendment, meaningful
President Rajapaksa never made it clear what devolution, and early provincial elections
exactly he meant by ‘13th Amendment Plus.’ remains inadequate
India has voiced concern over the lack of
measurable progress by Sri Lanka on its
 ECONOMIC CRISIS IN SRI LANKA
 Sri Lanka is facing the double whammy of rising
commitment of a political solution to the ethnic
issue through full implementation of the 13th prices and high debt, and its people are bearing
Amendment. the brunt of it as the domestic situation turns
increasingly grim. In September 2021, Sri Lanka
 UNHRC RESOLUTION declared a state of Economic Emergency for the
 Since 2009, India has voted thrice in favour of Supply of Essential Foods. It allowed the
the U.N. resolution on Sri Lanka — two were government to take control of the supply of
116
basic food items, and set prices to control rising government can procure food, medicines, and
inflation, which spiked to 14.2% in January 2022. other essential commodities.
 The country is struggling under a severe foreign  This was following a previous $500 million line of
exchange shortage that has limited essential credit in February 2022 to help it purchase
imports of fuel, food and medicine. As a result, petroleum products. In addition to this, India has
Sri Lanka has plunged into the worst economic already supplied 2,70,000 MT fuel to Sri Lanka.
crisis since independence in 1948.  In November 2021, India had given 100 tonnes
 Factors Responsible for Economic Crisis of of nano nitrogen liquid fertilizers to Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka  RBI has extended a currency swap of $400
a) Impact of Covid-19 Pandemic- million and deferred payments owed by the
 Tourism industry which represents over 10% of central bank of Sri Lanka worth several hundred
the country’s GDP and brings foreign exchange million dollars. RBI has announced that all
reserve was severely hit. It also led to eligible current account transactions including
production shortages and logistical bottlenecks. trade transactions with Sri Lanka may be settled
 Thousands of Sri Lankan laborers in West Asian in any permitted currency outside the Asian
countries were left stranded and returned Clearing Union (ACU) mechanism. Earlier in May
jobless. Due to shut-down, Garment factories 2022, RBI allowed trade with Sri Lanka to be
and tea estates could not function, as infections settled in rupees outside the ACU mechanism. It
raged in clusters. This led to domestic job losses will help Sri Lanka in saving its depleting foreign
where thousands of youth lost their jobs in cities exchange reserves which stood at a mere $1.89
as establishments abruptly sacked them or shut billion at the end of May 2022.
down.  COMMERCIAL RELATIONS
b) Increase in foreign exchange rate-  India and Sri Lanka enjoy a vibrant and growing
 Forex decline meant that all key foreign economic and commercial partnership, which
exchange earning sectors, such as exports and has witnessed considerable expansion over the
remittances, along with tourism, were brutally years. The entry into force of the India-Sri Lanka
hit. Free Trade Agreement (ISFTA) in 2000
 With the supply of foreign exchange drying up, contributed significantly towards the expansion
the value of the Sri Lankan rupee started of trade between the two countries. Economic
depreciating which made the imports costlier. ties between the two nations also include a
The island nation imports a large part of its food flourishing development partnership that
supplies. So, the price of food items has risen in encompasses areas such as infrastructure,
tandem with the depreciating rupee. connectivity, transportation, housing, health,
c) Policy failures of the Lankan govt- livelihood and rehabilitation, education, and
 The lack of a comprehensive strategy to respond industrial development
to the crisis aggravated the crisis.  India has traditionally been among Sri Lanka’s
 Push for Organic Agri-Products- Sri Lanka wants largest trade partners and Sri Lanka remains
to become the first country in the world with an among the largest trade partners of India in the
agriculture sector that is 100% organic. Govt has SAARC. In 2020, India was Sri Lanka’s 2nd largest
banned the use of chemical fertilisers in farming. trading partner with the bilateral merchandise
This has further aggravated the crisis by trade amounting to about USD $ 3.6 billion. Sri
dampening agricultural production. Lankan exports to India have increased
d) Role of Speculators- substantially since 2000 when ISLFTA came into
 the government imposed wide import force and more than 60% of Sri Lanka’s total
restrictions to save dollars which in turn led to exports to India over the past few years have
consequent market irregularities and reported used the ISFTA benefits. Interestingly, only about
hoarding.Speculators are causing rise in food 5% of India’s total exports to Sri Lanka in the
prices by hoarding essential supplies past few years have used the ISFTA provisions,
 SUPPORT EXTENDED BY INDIA thereby indicating their overall competitiveness
 As first responder, India’s recent economic aid in the Sri Lankan market.
stands at USD 3.5 billion. India sent a shipment  In addition to being Sri Lanka’s largest trade
of 11,000 MT of rice ahead of the New Year partner, India is also one of the largest
celebration by the people of Sri Lanka. contributors to Foreign Direct Investment in Sri
 In March 2022, India extended a $1 billion credit Lanka. A number of leading companies from
facility to Sri Lanka, which will ensure that the India have invested and established their

117
presence in Sri Lanka. According to BoI, FDI from spread across different provinces such as
India amounted to about US$ 1.7 billion during Northern, Eastern, Central etc have already been
the period 2005 to 2019. The main investments completed. During the visit of Prime Minister
from India are in the areas of petroleum retail, Shri Narendra Modi to Sri Lanka in May 2017, he
tourism & hotel, manufacturing, real estate, announced that an additional 10,000 houses
telecommunication, banking and financial would be constructed in plantation areas at a
services. Similarly, investments by Sri Lankan total cost of INR 453 crore. There are also four
companies in India are also surging and taking smaller housing programmes for constructing
advantage of India’s dynamic economy and 2400 houses across Sri Lanka. Overall, India has
wider market. Significant examples include so far committed to construct close to 62,500
Brandix (about USD 1 billion to set up a garment houses in Sri Lanka.
city in Visakhapatnam), MAS holdings, Damro,  The country-wide 1990 Emergency Ambulance
LTL Holdings, and other investments in the Service is another flagship project. The Service
freight servicing and logistics sector. which was initially launched in July 2016 in
 Sri Lanka recently allowed India to jointly Western and Southern Provinces of Sri Lanka
develop the Trincomalee port (oil tanks farm) in was later expanded to all the Provinces in the
northeastern part of the country. India has also next phase. Launch of the second phase was
bid to lease and manage the Mattala airport in held on 21 July 2018 in Jaffna wherein Prime
Hambantota. Minister Narendra Modi joined the then Prime
 East Container Terminal at the Colombo Port – In of Sri Lanka Ranil Wickremesinghe virtually from
May 2019, Sri Lanka, Japan and India signed an New Delhi. At a total cost of more than USD 22.5
agreement to jointly develop the East Container million, close to 300 ambulances were provided
Terminal at the Colombo Port. However in by GOI under this project.
February, 2021 Sri Lanka backed out from a  Some of other notable grant projects which have
tripartite partnership with India and Japan for its been completed are the
East Container Terminal Project at the Colombo  150- bed Dickoya hospital,
Port, citing domestic issues. But later, the West  livelihood assistance to nearly 70,000 people
Coast Terminal was offered under a public from fishing and farming community in
private partnership arrangement to Adani Ports Hambantota,
and Special Economic Zones Ltd.  supply of medical equipment to Vavuniya
 India and Sri Lanka signed a civilian nuclear Hospital and 150 Boats and Fishing gear for
energy deal in 2015. The agreement aims at Mullaithivu fishermen.
cooperation to explore nuclear energy for  A modern 1500 - seat auditorium named
peaceful purposes. after Rabindranath Tagore in Ruhuna
 DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION University, Matara, is the largest in any
 Sri Lanka is one of India’s major development University in Sri Lanka.
partners and this partnership has been an  There are another 20 ongoing grant projects
important pillar of bilateral ties between the two across diverse spheres. This includes
countries over the years. With grants alone  the iconic Jaffna Cultural Center,
amounting to around USD 570 million, the  construction of 153 houses and
overall commitment by GOI is to the tune of infrastructure facilities in ShobithaThero
more than USD 3.5 billion. Demand driven and Village in Anuradhapura;
people-centric nature of India’s development  Upgradation of Saraswathy Central College
partnership with Sri Lanka have been the in Pusselawa, Kandy;
cornerstone of this relationship. Grant projects  Construction of 600 houses under Model
cut across sectors such as education, health, Village Housing Project in 25 districts of Sri
livelihood, housing, industrial development etc. Lanka;
 The Indian Housing Project, with an initial  5000 MT temperature-controlled warehouse
commitment to build 50,000 houses in war in Dambulla;
affected areas and estate workers in the  Kandian Dancing School at Pallekelle
plantation areas, is Government of India (GoI)’s  DaladaMaligawa Cultural Heritage project,
flagship grant project in Sri Lanka. Overall Kandy;
commitment of INR 1372 crores makes it also  144 transit housing units in Madhu Shrine,
one of the largest projects undertaken by GoI Mannar etc.
abroad. As on date, close to 49,300 houses

118
 11 Lines of credit (LOC) have been extended to for periodic Cultural Exchange Programmes
Sri Lanka by the Export Import Bank of India in between the two countries.
the last 15 years. Important sectors in which  Buddhism is one of the strongest pillars
Projects have been executed/ are under connecting the two nations and civilizations
execution, under these LOCs include: Railway, from the time when the Great Indian Emperor
transport, connectivity, defence, solar. Some Ashoka sent his children ArhatMahinda and
important Projects completed are: TheriSangamitta to spread the teachings of Lord
 supply of defenceequipments; Buddha at the request of King DevanampiyaTissa
 upgradation of railway line from Colombo to of Sri Lanka.
Matara;  Underlining the deep people-to-people connect
 track laying by IRCON on Omanthai-Pallai and shared Buddhist heritage between India and
sector, Sri Lanka, the venerated relics of Lord Buddha
 Madhu Church Tallaimannar, from Kapilawasthu discovered in 1970 in India
Madawachchiya-Madhu Railway line; have been exhibited two times in Sri Lanka. The
 reconstruction of the Pallai-Kankesanthurai first time was in 1978 when they were brought
Railway line; to Sri Lanka and drew crowds of nearly 10
 signalling and telecommunication system; million people. In 2012, at the request of the
 supply of engine kits for buses, diesel then Sri Lankan President, H.E Mahinda
locomotives railways, DMUs, Carrier and fuel Rajapaska, the relics once again travelled from
tank wagons etc. India to Sri Lanka to commemorate the 2600th
 During President Gotabaya Rajapaksa’s visit in anniversary of the Enlightenment of the Buddha.
November 2019, a LOC of USD 400 million for The venerated relics from the Waskaduwe
development and infrastructure projects and Vihara have also been exhibited in India in
USD 50 million for security and counter October 2015 to celebrate the 60th anniversary
terrorism were announced. These LOC of Dr Ambedkar, the architect of the Indian
Agreements are currently under discussion Constitution, embracing Buddhism along with
between the two sides. 500,00 followers, where over 8 million people
 India now offers about 710 scholarship slots came to see the relics and paid homage.
annually to Sri Lankan students. In addition,  Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi during the
under the Indian Technical and Economic Virtual Bilateral Summit held between India and
Cooperation (ITEC) Program, India offers 402 Sri Lanka on 26 September 2020, announced a
fully-funded slots every year to officials in USD 15 million grant assistance for protection
various Ministries of Government of Sri Lanka and promotion of Buddhist ties between India
and also to other eligible citizens for short term and Sri Lanka. This is a first of its kind grant
training programs in a wide variety of technical announcement by India which may be utilised
and professional disciplines to enhance skill sets. for construction/renovation of Buddhist
Indian institutes under ‘Study in India’ Program monasteries, education of young monks,
provide technical expertise across a diverse strengthening engagement of Buddhist scholars
range of courses, and include programs in niche and clergy, development of Buddhist heritage
disciplines such as Ayurveda, Yoga, and Buddhist museums, cultural exchanges, archaeological
Studies. From the academic session 2017-18, Sri cooperation, and reciprocal exposition of The
Lankan students can also appear for National Buddha’s relics. In July 2020, the Government of
Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) in centers in India declared the Kushinagar Airport in India,
India for MBBS/BDS admissions. IIT JEE the place of Lord Buddha's Mahaparinibbana, as
(Advanced) entrance examinations have an international airport, to allow Buddhist
commenced in Sri Lanka from 2017. pilgrims from around the world to visit the
 CULTURAL RELATIONS revered site associated with Lord Buddha with
 India and Sri Lanka have a shared legacy of ease.
historical, cultural, religious, spiritual and  The Swami Vivekananda Cultural Centre (SVCC),
linguistic ties that is more than 2,500 years old. the cultural arm of the High Commission of
In contemporary times, the Cultural Cooperation India, Colombo, has been playing a key role in
Agreement signed by the Government of India strengthening these ties and promoting people-
and the Government of Sri Lanka on 29 to-people contacts between India and Sri Lanka
November, 1977 at New Delhi forms the basis since its inception in 1998. SVCC actively
promotes awareness of Indian culture by

119
offering classes in Bharatnatyam, Kathak, possible to deal with the issue of detention of
Hindustani and Carnatic vocal, Violin, Sitar, fishermen in a humane manner.
Tabla, Hindi and Yoga.  India and Sri Lanka have agreed to set up a Joint
 MAJOR IRRITANTS Working Group (JWG) on Fisheries between the

Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare of
 Fishermen issue India and Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic
 Both Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen have been Resources Development of Sri Lanka as the
fishing in the Palk Bay for centuries. Problem mechanism to help find a permanent solution to
emerged only after the maritime agreement was the fishermen issue.
signed by India and Sri Lanka in 1976. In 1976,  Several meetings at Ministerial level have been
through exchange of letters, both India and Sri held. The delegation from both sides deliberated
Lanka agreed not to engage in fishing activities on the fisheries issue including co-operation on
into each other’s waters. patrolling, setting up of a Hotline between two
 Given the proximity of the territorial waters of Coast Guards, introduction of effective tracking
both countries, especially in the Palk Straits and systems for fishing vessels, release of Indian
the Gulf of Mannar, incidents of straying of boats in Sri Lankan custody, SOPs for release and
fishermen are common. There is absence of handing over of arrested fishermen and
value fish in Indian waters, whereas the Sri measures to phase out bottom trawling in Palk
Lankan side of the Palk Bay is rich in marine Bay. Another instrument to encourage an
resources. Though there are plenty of resources amicable solution has been fishermen
available on the offshore areas of the Indian association level talks, overseen by both
waters, but due to lack of deep-sea fishing Governments.
capability Indian fishermen prefer to fish in the  The Tamil Nadu Government has reportedly
Palk Bay. sanctioned Rs. 52 crore for improving deep sea
 Sri Lankan Tamil fishermen from the country’s fishing capability and has sought additional deep
northern province could not freely fish during sea fishing package from the Central
the last three years of the Fourth Ealam War Government. India has asked Sri Lanka to deal
(2006-09) because the Sri Lankan Navy had with the issue in a humane manner.
imposed security restrictions, particularly on  India has also requested Sri Lanka to refrain
night fishing. It was during this period that the from firing at the Indian fishing vessels or killing
area of activities of the Indian fishermen is the fishermen. The issue has been discussed by
alleged to have increased. the leaders of the two countries at every high-
 There are, at present, nearly 1,900 Indian level meeting.
trawlers fishing in the Palk Bay within the Indian  Both countries can work out together to evolve
maritime zone (some venture beyond into the agreement to permit licensed Indian fishermen
Sri Lankan zone). This is against less than half the to fish in Lankan waters. Establishing a Joint
number of Sri Lankan fishing boats normally Palk Bay Authority comprising representatives of
operating in the area, and generally confined to the governments of India and Sri Lanka, fisheries
the Sri Lankan side. and marine experts and fishermen of both the
 The Indians mostly fish at night for shrimp, with countries to regulate fishing activity in the Bay.
the trawlers originating from coastal Tamilnadu. Start joint-venture initiatives involving Indian
Moreover, their use of gill nets and synthetic and Sri Lankan fishermen in deep sea fishing by
nets has caused severe damage to the ordinary introducing multiday boats and giant fishing and
nets of Sri Lankan fishermen. Besides Indian fish-processing vessels in international waters. It
fishermen use trawlers which are considered will act as a boost for the deteriorated relations.
harmful for marine ecology and are also banned  The Kacchativu Dispute
in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan fishermen refused to  A territorial dispute arose in regard to the
have any kind of understanding with the Indian ownership of a one square mile uninhabited
fishermen until and unless bottom trawling is island, called Kacchathivu, off the Jaffna coast in
completely stopped. the Palk straits. Kachchatheevu, a ‘barren island’
 Both countries have agreed on certain practical
lies about 15 km from Rameswaram and 20 km
arrangements to deal with the issue of bona fide north of Neduntivu off Jaffna peninsula and is
fishermen of either side inadvertently crossing just 1.5 km from the International Boundary Line
the International Maritime Boundary Line. in Sri Lankan waters.
Through these arrangements, it has been

120
 Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) claimed that  There was another petition filed by DMK later,
Kachchatheevu belonged to it because the on the same issue. The petitions are pending in
Portuguese and later the British rulers of Sri the Supreme Court of India.
Lanka exercised jurisdiction over it from  China Factor
Colombo. India argued that the Island formed  The increasing dependence on China for
part of the land of the Raja of Ramanathapuram. investment and military aid curtailed Sri Lanka ’s
 Pilgrims from both India and Sri Lanka used to go ability to limit Beijing's influence in its economic
to Kacchativu Island every year in the month of and maritime policy. China has been keen to
March during the four-day St. Anthony's festival push its economic and infrastructure proposals
for worship at the local Roman Catholic Church. to the Indian Ocean states.
India protested over the presence of Sri Lankan  The main objective behind is to ensure the
police during the festival in 1968. This caused security of its sea lanes, especially unhindered
conflict. flow of critically-needed energy supplies from
 In 1974, an agreement was signed between India Africa and West Asia. Sri Lanka is seen as “an
and Sri Lanka. The 1974 Agreement, while important hub
ceding Kachchatheevu to Sri Lanka, also protects  India’s exports to Sri Lanka rose from $1.82
traditional fishing rights enjoyed by Indian billion in 2005 to $3.32 billion in 2020, whereas
fishermen to fish in and around Kachchatheevu. China’s went up from $0.91 billion to $4.01
Unfortunately, these traditional rights were billion — surpassing India’s exports.
given away when the maritime boundary  China is Sri Lanka’s largest bilateral creditor.
agreement delimiting the Gulf of Mannar and China’s loans to the Sri Lankan public sector
the Bay of Bengal was signed in 1976 amounted to 15% of the central government’s
external debt, making China the largest bilateral
creditor to the country.Sri Lanka has increasingly
relied on Chinese credit to address its foreign
debt burden. China is providing loans for the
development of infrastructure. Some of the
important infrastructure projects developed by
China in the island state include Hambantota
port, Colombo Expressway, Coal Power Project,
Mattala Airport etc.
 During the decade of 2010-2020, China has been
 The fishermen in Tamil Nadu feel, with the largest foreign investor in Sri Lanka. China’s
justification, that the two agreements have investment stands at $12 billion between 2006
struck a death blow to their livelihood. The and 2019. These investments include two
Island’s importance stems from the fact that the controversial projects: the Colombo Port City
sea around it is rich in white and brown prawns Project and the investment in Hambantota Port
and other varieties of fish. by the China Merchants Port Company. Unable
 In 2009, Tamil Nadu Government declared that to service its debt, in 2017, Sri Lanka lost the
the area is controlled by Sri Lanka against the unviable Hambantota port to China for a 99-year
original pact of allowing Indian fishermen to lease.
access the water of Sri Lanka. This resulted in  Sri Lanka passed the Colombo Port City
escalation of tensions. The problem continued to Economic Commission Act, which provides for
grow and prop in at times whenever fishermen establishing a special economic zone around the
move in to the Sri Lankan sea area. In 2010, the port and also a new economic commission, to be
Sri Lankan government issued a notice to the funded by China.
Tamil Nadu government saying the Indian court  The Colombo port is crucial for India as it
cannot nullify the 1974 agreement handles 60% of India’s trans-shipment cargo.
 However, in June 2011, the new Tamil Nadu  Most of the government and private investment
government led by Jayalalithaa filed a petition in by China is in major infrastructure projects -
Supreme Court seeking the declaration of the especially ports and airports. In December 2020,
1974 and 1976 agreements as unconstitutional Sri Lanka announced the first large-scale Chinese
on the ground that cession of Indian territory to investment in manufacturing in the country, a
another country should be ratified by parliament $300-million tyre factory near a strategic deep-
through amendment of the constitution.

121
sea port. The factory will be adjacent to the scientific research to be conducted in Sri Lankan
Hambantota port waters.
 China supplies huge number of military  The nature of the Chinese vessel added to the
equipments, arms and ammunitions. controversy, with China stating that it is a
 China has displaced Japan as Sri Lanka ’s major research vessel on scientific missions, whereas
aid donor with an annual package of $1 billion. the U.S. Department of Defense said that the
It is the first foreign nation to have an exclusive ship is “under the command” of the People’s
economic zone in Sri Lanka. Liberation Army, with capabilities to track
 China had voted in favour of Sri Lanka in US satellites and missile launches. India suspects
sponsored UNHRC resolutions. that its spaceport in Sriharikota, its missile test
 Sri Lanka’s economic crisis may further push it to range in Odisha, as well as several other
align its policies with Beijing’s interests. sensitive facilities are within the tracking range
 Steps taken by India of Yuan Wang 5. It has also been noted that the
 China’s ‘string of pearls’ strategy is an attempt ship could also be used to survey the ocean
to expand its influence in South Asia, which is which would help the Chinese in planning
closely watched and monitored by India. China’s submarine operations in the region
flagship projects in Sri Lanka are the  The docking of the ship is being seen in the
Hambantota Port Development and the context of China's security challenges to India
Colombo Port Project, both located at strategic and its neighbourhood and the competition and
points in global sea trade. Large projects like challenges it brings to the broader Indo-Pacific
these make it easier for Beijing to draw Sri Lanka region. India considers South Asia its strategic
into its 21st Century Maritime Silk Road project - backyard where China has made considerable
part of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Chinese inroads. Therefore, its continued and increasing
presence at this port is also seen by some presence in the region challenges India's clout in
experts as a Chinese strategy for military the region. This is why the presence of a
presence in the Indian Ocean. potentially espionage vessel in the immediate
 In the last couple of years India has focused on neighbourhood is a concern to India. In view of
countering the growing presence of China in Sri strategic experts this episode is being seen as an
Lanka by developing infrastructure. According to embarrassment of India as Sri Lanka violated
the government of India, Sri Lanka has been one Indian concerns and sensitivities despite India
of the major beneficiaries of India’s being its biggest backer in its worst economic
development credit, to the tune of US$2.6 billion crisis. India’s clout in the country is still not as
including US$436 million in grants. much as that of China. This is why Chinese
 There are also talks of upgrading the India–Sri pressure to allow the ship's visit prevailed over
Lanka FTA to include a new trade pact called the the Indian prodding to not allow it. Moreover, it
Economic and Technological Cooperation has also been reported that China's international
Agreement (ETCA). The ETCA is proposed to clout also outdid India. Sri Lanka is looking for a
enhance trade in services, investments and bailout from the International Monetary Fund
technology cooperation with India’s five fastest (IMF) and China reportedly threatened it if ship
growing southern states - Karnataka, Tamil was not allowed.
Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.  There is also the possibility of Sri Lanka playing
 YUAN WANG - 5 INCIDENT the "China Card" and balancing the two regional
 The most recent controversy began with the
powers — India and China. Countries such as Sri
docking of a Chinese research vessel, the Yuan Lanka and Nepal have often used the prospect of
Wang 5, at the strategically significant getting closer with China —India's principal
Hambantota Port in southern Sri Lanka on rival— to level up their place in their dealings
August 16, 2022. The Chinese military research with India. Chinese Ambassador in Sri Lanka Qi
vessel was originally supposed to arrive at the Sri Zhenhong, in an article published in the Sri Lanka
Lankan port on August 11 but Sri Lankan officials Guardian, attacked India for Sri Lanka’s initial
had not cleared it due to “security concerns rejection of the Chinese request to dock the ship
raised by India.”. China was later granted in Hambantota and linked it with Nancy Pelosi’s
permission on August 13 2022 “on condition recent visit to Taiwan. The Indian High
that it will keep the Automatic Identification Commission in Sri Lanka criticized remarks of
System (AIS) switched on within the Exclusive Chinese Ambassador as a violation of basic
Economic Zone (EEZ) of Sri Lanka and no diplomatic etiquette which may be a personal

122
trait or reflecting a larger national attitude of
China.
 President of Sri Lanka declared that his country
does not want to be boxing ground for any rival
powers.
 TRINCOMALEE OIL FARM PROJECT
 During the Second World War, the British built
the Trincomalee oil tank farms. These oil tank
farms were to serve as a refueling station and it
was adjacent to the Trincomalee port, an
enviable natural harbour
 The nearly century-old oil tanks need to be

refurbished — at the cost of millions of dollars — if
they are to be fit for use again. The oil facility is
located in ‘China Bay’. It has 99 storage tanks with a
capacity of 12,000 kilolitres each, spread across the
Upper Tank Farm and the Lower Tank Farm. India`s
engagement with Sri Lanka for development of this
oil tank storage farm project dates back to IndiaSri
Lanka Accord of 1987 (popularly referred as Rajiv-
Jayewardene Accord). The accord stated that the
work of refurbishing tank farm located in north-
eastern province of Trincomalee would be
undertaken jointly by the two countries.
 Sri Lanka recently allowed India to jointly develop the
Trincomalee port (oil tanks farm) in north-eastern
part of the country. This project has gained significant
importance due to increasing presence of China in
the region. Trincomalee is an important
counterbalance to the southern Hambantota Port
backed by China.
 CONCLUSION
 India needs to invest some political capital in
resolving problems such as the long-standing
dispute over fisheries. Beyond its objection to
China’s BRI projects, Delhi, either alone or in
partnership with like-minded countries like
Japan, should offer sustainable terms for
infrastructure development. New Delhi also
needs to contribute more to the development of
Colombo’s defence and counter-terror
capabilities.
 If the new government in Colombo can advance
reconciliation with the Tamil minority, it will be
easier for India to strengthen ties with Ranil
Government.
………8TH CLASS ENDED, ALL CLASSES DONE……….
123

(V) International Relations by Sushant Verma Sir

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(V) International Relations by Sushant Verma Sir

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(V) International Relations by Sushant Verma Sir

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

power in Hungary. military and diplomatic talks to resolve the crisis

region. talks, the two sides completed the

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

 IMPACT ON INDIA’S INTERESTS

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

DEFENCE TIES IND-RUSSIA the world.

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

THE ROLE OF INDIA IN UN India continued the opposition to apartheid,

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

rivalry, which has always influenced West Asian region.

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

Qatar. economic interests are closely intertwined with

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

A. Brief history of ties original 6.

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

 BEGINNING OF INDIA- EU increased by about 30% in the last decade.

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

 With the tragic news of 150 Pakistani soldiers (2012)