Properties of Engineering

Materials
1. Crystalline and Amorphous structures
2. Behavior of pure materials and alloys -
Phase Equilibria
3. Mechanical properties of materials
4. Electrical and electronic characteristics
5. Thermal properties of materials
6. Corrosion
7. Composite materials

2
Crystalline and Amorphous Structures

3
• States of Matter
The states of matter may be given as, Solid,
Liquid, Gas.
Through the study of their properties, we are
able to study the movement of molecules or
particles and how they are packed.
Their properties can be classified as follows.

4
 Solid Liquid Gas

1. Volume Definite volume Definite volume No fixed volume,

occupies the
whole volume of
the container

2. shape Fixed shape Take the shape of Take the shape of

the container the container and
every part fills of
it.

3. Density High Fairly high Low

4. Compressibility Low Low, higher than Very high
solids

5
From 1 and 2 we can conclude that the particles
in a solid are at fixed positions, while the
particles of liquids and gases move freely. That is
the particles can flow.
From 3 and 4 we can conclude that, in a solid
the particles are closely packed.
In the case of a liquid, particles are closely
packed but not as closely as that in a solid.
In a gas particles are far apart.

6
Solid - The arrangement of particles in a solid
can be given as
Regular Irregular
Crystalline solid Amorphous solid
Crystalline solids are those in Amorphous solids have
which the atoms, molecules arrangement of particles in an
or ions contained in the solid irregular pattern. Branches
are arranged in a regular from the main chain prevent
pattern. They have short- the molecules from packing
range order as well as long- together. They have short-
range order. range order, but there is no
e.g. Metals, ceramics, NaCl long-range order.
e.g. Polymers, glass

7
8
• Short range order - is a consequence of
chemical bonding between atoms.
• Long range order- positions repeat in space in
a regular arrangement
Solids can be fully crystalline, partially crystalline
or amorphous.
Metals and ceramics – fully crystalline
Polymers – partially crystalline
Glass - amorphous

9
Inorganic glasses may have the same or similar
compositions as some ceramic materials but are
amorphous. Ceramics can be obtained by slow
cooling from the liquid state. Glasses are
obtained by rapid cooling.

10
Differences between crystalline and
amorphous solids
• Characteristic Geometry: In crystalline solids
the particles are definitely and orderly
arranged thus have characteristic geometry
while amorphous solids do not have
characteristic geometry.
• Melting point: A crystalline solid has a sharp
melting point. i.e. it changes into liquid state
at a definite temperature. An amorphous solid
does not have a sharp melting point.

11
For example, when glass is heated, it softens
and then starts flowing without undergoing any
abrupt or sharp change from solid to liquid
state.
• Cooling Curve: An amorphous solid shows a
smooth cooling curve, while a crystalline solid
shows two breaks in the cooling curve. In the
case of a crystalline solid, two break points ‘a’
and ‘b’ appear. These points indicate the
beginning and end of the process of
crystallization.
12
13
In this time interval temperature remains
constant. This is due to the fact that during
crystallization process, energy is liberated which
compensates for the loss of heat, thus the
temperature remains constant.
Crystalline solids
Slow cooling of a molten metal is shown below.

14
15
To define a crystalline solid a unit cell is used. A
crystalline solid can be identified by the self
repeating unit needed to form the solid. This
repeating unit which is the building block is
called the unit cell.
Unit cell
This is the smallest group of atoms (particles)
possessing the symmetry of the crystal which
when repeated in all three directions will
develop the crystal lattice.
16
Crystal
They are groups of particles (atoms, molecules,
ions, metal ions) arranged in a systematic order
and this order is repeated throughout the
substance. (Cubic, hexagonal, etc.)

17
Crystal lattice
This gives the pattern of points which describes
the arrangement of particles in the crystal. Each
point corresponds to the center of the particle.

18
To explain the crystal systems in metals a three
dimensional unit is needed.
z

β α b
a Υ
y

19
a, b and c are the axial lengths along the
crystallographic axes X, Y and Z.
α, β and γ are the angles between adjacent unit
cell axes.

There are 7 crystal systems and 14 lattice types.

20
21
22
23
24
Lattice parameters or lattice constants
The length of unit cell edges and the angles
between crystallographic axes are referred to as
lattice parameters or lattice constants.
The lattice parameters a, b and c are unit cell
edge lengths.
e.g. Cube – side or edge length
Hexagon – edge length and height
The lattice parameters α, β and ɣ are angles
between adjacent unit cell axes.

25
Cubic system can be divided into
Simple cubic (sc)
Face centered cubic (fcc)
Body centered cubic (bcc)

26
27
Atoms at the corners, edges and faces of a cubic
unit cell are shared by more than one unit cell.
• An atom on a face is shared by two unit cells,
so only half of the atom belongs to each of
these cells.
• An atom on an edge is shared by four unit
cells, and an atom on a corner is shared by
eight unit cells. Thus, only one-quarter of an
atom on an edge and one-eighth of an atom
on a corner can be assigned to each of the
unit cells that share these atoms.
28
29
Simple cubic

30
a

31
Simple Cubic
• There are eight atoms at the eight corners of
the cube
• Atoms touch along the edges of the cube
• If, a = lattice parameter
r = radius of an atom
a = 2r

32
 1
The unit cell has the equivalent of x 8 = 1 atom
8

(a corner atom is shared between 8 unit cells)

Packing Factor – Atomic Packing Factor (APF) or

packing fraction is the fraction of volume in a
crystal structure that is occupied by constituent
particles.

33
 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
APF (or Packing fraction) =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

APF =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

34
 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
APF =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒
4𝜋𝑟3
3
=
𝑎3
4𝜋𝑟 3 𝜋
= =
3 2𝑟 3 6
= 0.524

52.4% is occupied by atoms and 47.6% is free

space.
35
Coordination number – Number of nearest
neighbours that an atom possesses in the
lattice.

Coordination number =6
Distance between nearest
neighbours =a

36
Body centered cubic

37
38
39
Body centered cubic
• There are eight atoms at the eight corners of
the cube and one atom at the body center.
• Atoms touch along the body diagonals.
• If, a = lattice parameter
r = radius of an atom
a 3 = 4r

40
• The unit cell has the equivalent of
1
x8 +1 =2 atoms
8

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
• APF (or Packing fraction) =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

41
 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
• APF =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
2𝑥4𝜋𝑟3 8𝜋𝑟3
3 3
= = 4𝑟 3
𝑎3
3

= 0.6804
68.04% is occupied by atoms and 31.96% is free
space.

42
• Coordination number

Coordination number =8
𝑎 3
Distance between nearest neighbours =
2

43
Face centered cubic

44
45
46
Face Centered Cubic
• There are eight atoms at the eight corners of
the cube and six atoms at the six face centers
• Atoms touch along the face diagonals
• If, a = lattice parameter
r = radius of an atom
a 2 = 4r

47
• The unit cell has the equivalent of
1 1
x8 + x6 = 4 atoms
8 2
(a face center atom is shared between two unit
cells)
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
• APF (or Packing fraction) =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

48
 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 4 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
• APF =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
4𝑥4𝜋𝑟3 16𝜋𝑟3
3 3
= =
4𝑟 3
𝑎3
2

= 0.741
74.1% is occupied by atoms and 25.9% is free
space.

49
• Coordination number

50
Coordination number = 12
𝑎 2
Distance between nearest neighbours =
2

51
 Equivalent APF (or Coordination Relationship
number of Packing number between “a”
atoms fraction) and “r”

Simple Cubic 01 0.524 06 a=2r

Body
centered
02 0.6804 08 a 3 = 4r
cubic

Face centered
cubic
04 0.741 12 a 2 =4r

52
• Of the cubic types the fcc has the highest
packing fraction. Since space is best occupied
in fcc, it is called the cubic close packed (ccp).
• Metals generally crystallize in,
bcc (eg. Cr, Mo, V, W, Fe at temp.< 910℃),
fcc (eg. Cu, Pb, Ni, Al Fe at temp.>910℃),
hcp (hexagonal close packed) eg. Zn, Mg, Ti
Few exceptions are
- Simple cubic, Body centered tetragonal

53
Hexagonal close packed
structure (hcp)

54
55
Hexagonal close packed (hcp)

Metals do not
crystallize in the
simple hexagonal
pattern because
the packing factor
is too low.

56
In hcp lattice structure,
• The unit cell consists of 12 atoms at the 12
corners of the hexagonal cell. Two atoms at
the centers of top and base. Three atoms
completely inside. The layer in the middle is
displaced by half a spacing and turned by 30𝑜 .
• Each atom has 6 close neighbours in its own
layer at a distance ‘a’ and also 3 in the layer
below and 3 in the layer above at a distance
𝑎2 𝑐2
+ .
3 4

57
Lattice transformation of iron
Iron changes lattice structure with temperature.
Different crystalline modifications of the same
material are called allotropes.

Melting
α iron γ iron δ iron point liquid

bcc fcc bcc

906𝑜 C 1404𝑜 C 1537𝑜 C

58
59
60
Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm. The
atomic weight of copper is 63.54. The
Avogadro’s number is 6.023 x 1026 k mol-1 . If
copper crystallizes in f.c.c type determine the
density of copper.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
Density = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
𝑛 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
=
𝑛 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
61
Copper has a fcc lattice structure.
Atoms touch along the face diagonal.
If a = lattice parameter, r = radius of an atom
a 2 = 4r
4𝑟
a=
2
Unit cell has the equivalent of
1 1
x8 + x6 = 4 atoms
8 2

62
Mass of a unit cell = mass of 4 atoms of copper
Volume of a unit cell = 𝑎3
6.023 x1026 atoms of Cu weigh 63.54 kg
63.54 𝑥4 − 26
4 atoms weigh = 42.198 x 10 kg
6.023 𝑥1026
−9 3
3 4𝑥0.128𝑥10
𝑎 = = 47.44x10−30 𝑚3
2
42.198𝑥10−26
Density = = 8.895x103 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3
47.44𝑥10−30

63
 Miller Notation
It is the language to understand lattice positions
of directions and planes for effective
communication. It is necessary to refer to
specific planes and directions within a crystal
lattice. The notation used is the Miller Indexing
system.

64
Miller Indices of a plane
1. Identify the points at which the plane intercepts
the x, y, z axes in terms of the number of lattice
parameters. If the plane passes through the
origin, the origin of the coordinate system must
be moved.
2. Take reciprocals of the intercepts.
3. Clear fractions but do not reduce to lowest
integers.
4. Include the resulting numbers within simple ( )
brackets. Negative numbers should be written
with a bar over the number.

65
E.g. Plane A
x y z
1. 1 1 1
1 1 1
2.
1 1 1
3. No fractions to clear
4. (111)

66
Plane B
x y z
1. 1 2 ∝
1 1 1
2. 1 2 ∝
1
1 0
2
3. 2 1 0
4. (210)

67
Plane C
x y z
1. ∝ -1 ∝
New
1 1 1
2. ∝ −1 ∝
origin

0 -1 0
3. No fractions to clear
4. (01ത 0)

68
How to draw the plane when Miller indices is
given.
(211)
x y z
1 1 1
Reciprocals
2 1 1
1
1 1
2
Intercepts 1 2 2

69
Miller Indices of a direction
1. Using the right handed coordinate system
determine the coordinates of two points that
lie on the direction.
2. Subtract the coordinates of the “tail” point
from the coordinates of the “head point’ to
obtain the number of lattice parameters
travelled in the direction of each axis of the
coordinate system.

70
3.Clear fractions and/or reduce the results
obtained from the subtraction to lowest
integers.
4. Enclose the number in square brackets [ ]. If a
negative sign is produced, represent the
negative sign with a bar over the number.

71
e.g.

Direction A
1. Head point 100
Tail point 000
2. (Head point – tail point); 100
3. No fractions to clear
4. [100]

72
Direction B
1. Head point: 111; Tail point: 000
2. (Head point – Tail point); 111
3. No fractions to clear
4. [111]
Direction C
1
1. Head point: 001; Tail point: 10
2
1
2. (head point – Tail point); - -1 1
2
3. -1 -2 2
4. [1 2 2]

73
How to draw the direction if the Miller indices is
given

74
It is important to remember that crystals are defined by
their symmetry. That is why the choice of origin is
arbitrary. In some cases, we may want to distinguish
between a specific direction, and all equivalent
directions. We make this distinction with brackets.
• Square brackets [ ] indicate a specific direction. For
example in a cubic system [100] and [010] are
perpendicular directions.
• Angle brackets < > indicate a family of directions. For
example, in a cubic system <100> includes these
directions [100], [1ത 00], [010], [01ത 0], [001], [001ത ]

75
76
• Parenthesis ( ) indicate a specific plane. For
example, in a cubic system (100) and (010) are
perpendicular planes.
• Curly brackets { } indicate a family of planes.
For example, in cubic system {100} includes
ത
(100), (100), ത (001), (001).
(010), (010), ത

77
78
 Close packed planes
Simple cubic structure
(100) Plane
Area = 𝑎2
Equivalent number of atoms
1
= x4 =1 atom
4
Area 𝑎2 has the equivalent of 1 atom

79
(110) Plane
Area = 𝑎2 2
Equivalent number of atoms
1
= x4 =1 atom
4
Area 𝑎2 2 has the equivalent of 1 atom
2 1
Area 𝑎 has the equivalent of atoms = 0.707 atoms
2

80
(111) Plane
1
Area = x a 2 x a 2 sin 60
2
3𝑎2
=
2
1 1
Equivalent number of atoms = x3 = atom
6 2
3𝑎2 1
Area has the equivalent of atom
2 2
2 1 2
Area 𝑎 has the equivalent of x = 0.577 atoms
2 3
Close packed plane in simple cubic structure is (100)

81
Body centered cubic structure
(100) Plane
Area = 𝑎2
Equivalent number of atoms
1
= x4 =1 atom
4
Area 𝑎2 has the equivalent of 1 atom

82
(110) Plane
Area = 𝑎2 2
Equivalent number of atoms
1
= x4 +1 =2 atoms
4
Area 𝑎2 2 has the equivalent of 2 atoms
2 2
Area 𝑎 has the equivalent of atoms = 1.414 atoms
2

83
(111) Plane
1
Area = x a 2 x a 2 sin 60
2
3𝑎2
=
2
1 1
Equivalent number of atoms = x3 = atom
6 2
3𝑎2 1
Area has the equivalent of atom
2 2
2 1 2
Area 𝑎 has the equivalent of x = 0.577 atoms
2 3
Close packed plane in bcc structure is (110)

84
Face centered cubic structure

(100) Plane
Area = 𝑎2
Equivalent number of atoms
1
= x4 + 1 =2 atoms
4
Area 𝑎2 has the equivalent of 2 atoms

85
(110) Plane

Area = 𝑎2 2
Equivalent number of atoms
1 1
= x4 + x2 =2 atoms
4 2
Area 𝑎2 2 has the equivalent of 2 atoms
2 2
Area 𝑎 has the equivalent of atoms
2
= 1.414 atoms

86
(111) Plane

1
Area = x a 2 x a 2 sin 60
2
3𝑎2
=
2
1 1
Equivalent number of atoms = x3 + x3 = 2 atoms
6 2
3𝑎2
Area has the equivalent of 2 atoms
2
2 2
Area 𝑎 has the equivalent of 2x = 2.309 atoms
3

Close packed plane in fcc structure is (111)

87
 Close packed directions
Simple cubic structure

88
[100] direction
Distance = a
1
Equivalent number of atoms = x 2 = 1 atom
2
Distance a has the equivalent of 1 atom
[110] direction
Distance = a 2
1
Equivalent number of atoms = x 2 = 1 atom
2
Distance a 2 has the equivalent of 1 atom
1
Distance a has the equivalent of = 0.707 atoms
2

89
[111] direction

Distance = a 3
1
Equivalent number of atoms = x 2 = 1 atom
2
Distance a 3 has the equivalent of 1 atom
1
Distance a has the equivalent of 3
= 0.577 atoms

Close packed direction in simple cubic structure is [100]

90
Body centered cubic structure

[111]

91
[100] direction
Distance = a
1
Equivalent number of atoms = x 2 = 1 atom
2
Distance a has the equivalent of 1 atom
[110] direction
Distance = a 2
1
Equivalent number of atoms = x 2 = 1 atom
2
Distance a 2 has the equivalent of 1 atom
1
Distance a has the equivalent of = 0.707 atoms
2

92
[111] direction

Distance = a 3
1
Equivalent number of atoms = x 2 + 1= 2 atoms
2
Distance a 3 has the equivalent of 2 atoms
2
Distance a has the equivalent of = 1.154 atoms
3

Close packed direction in bcc structure is [111]

93
Face centered cubic structure

94
[100] direction
Distance = a
1
Equivalent number of atoms = x 2 = 1 atom
2
Distance a has the equivalent of 1 atom
[110] direction
Distance = a 2
1
Equivalent number of atoms = x 2 + 1= 2 atoms
2
Distance a 2 has the equivalent of 2 atoms
2
Distance a has the equivalent of = 1.414 atoms
2

95
[111] direction

Distance = a 3
1
Equivalent number of atoms = x 2 = 1 atom
2
Distance a 3 has the equivalent of 1 atom
1
Distance a has the equivalent of = 0.577 atoms
3

Close packed direction in fcc structure is [110]

96
 Close packed plane Close packed
direction
sc (100) [100]
Bcc (110) [111]
fcc (111) [110]

bcc structure has six (110) close packed

planes
fcc structure has eight (111) close packed
planes or four sets of (111) planes

97
98
99
Distance between parallel planes (𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 )
(Any two planes parallel to each other are
equivalent and have identical indices).
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 +𝑙 2
hkl – Miller indices
a – lattice parameter
𝑎 𝑎
e.g. 𝑑111 = =
12 +12 +12 3
𝑎
𝑑100 = =a
12 +0+0

100
101