THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE
VOLUME LXX.

No. VIII.—AUGUST, 1933.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

The Later Stages of the Cycle of Erosion.

SOME WEAKNESSES IN THE THEORY or THE CYCLE OF EROSION.

By C. H. CRICKMAY.

rpHE establishment, toward the end of the last century, of the

J- fruitful conception of the " cycle of erosion " carried with it
into general currency certain ideas which rest on no real foundation.
Although few, nowadays, would be so rash as to doubt the validity
of the cycle idea or to question its value as a principle in geology,
few can demonstrate any truth in the accepted pictures of the
later stages of the cycle. Geographical old age and peneplanation rest
on nothing but pure deduction by a few great masters of geography
and geology and a blind acquiescence by the rest of us. I say
blind advisedly, because only blindness could prevent us from seeing
some serious inconsistencies in the picture which have not been
generally noticed. These inconsistencies have become increasingly
evident in the last ten years. It is time to recognize them.
The orthodox conception of the stages of the cycle of erosion
is illustrated in all the textbooks. Even the most modern books
offer versions essentially without improvement over those of thirty-
five years ago.1 One recent book makes an advance among textbooks
in urging that " land areas may lie just above sea-level for long
ages, undergoing hardly any change ", thereby virtually admitting
that the erosion cycle may reach completion ; though the thought
is spoiled in the next sentence by the unsupported dictum : " cycles
are seldom complete."2

1
F. H. Lahee, Field Geology, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1931.
2
W. B. Scott, An Introduction to Geology, The Macmillan Company, 1932.
VOL. LXX.—NO. VIII. 22
338 C. H. Crickmay—

The cycle of erosion is commonly represented as passing through

stages, as follows :
1. Inital stage : The flat upland or plateau, an uplifted, not yet
eroded, plain.
2. Youth: Narrowly V-shaped valleys incised into the flat
upland.
3. Maturity, early: Deep, narrowly V-shaped valleys with
sharp divides or interfluves.
4. Maturity, late: Broader V-shaped valleys with much less
relief and with the beginnings of a flat floor.
5. Old age : The peneplain, an almost featureless plain consisting
of low, rounded-off interfluves with scarcely perceptible
relief and broad shallow valleys ; with, also, a few prominent
hills of much greater relief (monadnocks).
The first three stages are well illustrated among the existing
scenery of the world, though it is notable that the mature stage, as
judged by practical examples, differs from the representation of it
in geological theory in one important respect—the occurrence in
it of much flat horizontal surface of erosional origin at low levels,
namely broad terraces and floodplains. These, though extremely
abundant in Nature, have so far found little place in the diagrams
illustrative of the cycle of erosion. The two later stages of
the conventional representations of the cycle are virtually never
seen in actual scenery.
The impossibility of finding peneplains in actual scenery was
urged against the peneplain idea by Tarr,1 though latterly the
objection has been forgotten. I now undertake to reiterate it in
even stronger terms. The gap that Tarr noted between fact and
theory still stands ; and, moreover, it is a wider one than has been
generally recognized, as will be shown. It includes not only the
common conception of the peneplain but that of all the late stages
of the cycle.
I must emphasize at this point that no objection has been taken
to the cycle idea but simply to the common picture of the course
the cycle is supposed to follow in its late stages.
The particular matters of discrepancy may be summarized as
follows :
1. Late mature and old age scenery of the sort pictured by
accepted theory—that is, low rolling country of faint relief
and universally even gentle slopes—is known only where
special conditions have brought it into existence—e.g., among
the clay plains round Smithville, Missouri, U.S.A., on the
soft sediments of the Atlantic coastal plain of the United
States, or in small parts of the limestone floors of the
Appalachian Valley where solvent denudation of a low flat
1
R. S. Tarr, American Geologist, xxi, 1898, 351-370.
 The Cycle of Erosion. 339
area is the main factor. Such scenery can not be regarded
as a normal development, and has, therefore, no place in
the schemata of the cycle.
2. Plains, obviously of an erosional origin, quoted as examples of
peneplains, are commonly too nearly perfectly flat to admit
of having been produced by peneplanation—that is, by a
combination of downward corrasion by streams and wasting.
Such a combination would not produce flatness, but rather
universally even gentle slopes or, in other words, a peneplain.
3. Some such plains are too irregular to admit of a peneplanation
origin ; regularity and evenness of slope being essential
results of peneplanation.
4. Most plains formerly quoted as peneplains occur in series, at
successive levels, one above another—e.g., the terraces of
the Appalachian Mountains, the Appalachian Plateau-High-
land Rim-Nashville Basin series, the many successive
high plateaux of southern Utah, etc. With only the
peneplanation theory as a basis for understanding such
relationships, it is impossible to see how the lower
" peneplains " were formed without the higher ones being
destroyed.
5. Monadnocks are an equally eloquent denial of peneplanation.
The type example in New Hampshire and most other
monadnocks rise high and rugged above the plateau, or
plateau remnants, around them. Their stature and their
steep slopes are not features of the end-stage of a process
of peneplanation : they are utterly opposed to everything
characterizing that stage. Where slow reduction by down-
cutting and wasting has occurred, no monadnock could
survive, because it is only during rapid erosion that hard
rock is cut perceptibly less than soft. And, indeed, many
monadnocks are of material no harder than the rest of the
terrain.
6. All actual low relief scenery, which presumably represents the
late stages of the cycle of erosion, shows no sign of approach
to the peneplain condition ; but consists, rather, of two
sets of flat surfaces—namely, floodplain and flat-topped
interfluve—with short steep slopes between them. The
peneplain idea gives no clue as to the meaning of such
scenery.
POSSIBILITY OF EMENDING THE THEORY.
It has seemed to me that our theory of the stages of the cycle of
erosion has suffered from two matters of defective observation :
first, over-emphasis of the power of wasting; second, under-
estimation of the power of lateral corrasion. The whole theory
was worked out at a time when denudation was supposed to be
340 C. H. Crickmay—

accomplished by three main processes—headward extension oi

tributaries, downcutting by all streams, and reduction of interfluves
by wasting. Since then the power of wasting has been shown to be
limited, and a fourth dominant process has been appreciated,
namely, lateral corrasion. However, little has been accomplished in
studying comparatively the potency of these four kinds of action.
Nothing has been done to emend the erosion theory in the light of
newer knowledge of them.

THE POWER OF WASTING.

It has been generally assumed, presumably from a contemplation

of piles of talus at the foot of cliffs or of deeply decayed bed-rock in
regions of warm climate, that wasting is a rapid process. On the
basis of this, we are taught to believe that, from the erosional stage
of early maturity (when relief is at a maximum) until old age (when
it is at a minimum), wasting gains on downcutting and thereby
reduces the relief. Certainly, relief is reduced, but there is no real
proof that wasting is the principal agent. Indeed, the maintenance
of steep slopes into the late stages of the cycle is a strong argument
against the effectiveness of wasting. And the occurrence of deep
transported soils on steep mountain slopes, as in the southern Coast
Range of British Columbia, seems to show that even under favour-
able circumstances wasting may accomplish but little.
It is instructive to compare, in such places as northern California,
the depth of weathering on interfluves with that in canyon walls
which are near to an active stream. In this region rock is decayed
to a depth of 100 to 200 feet or more, yet anywhere near the path
of active corrasion the rock is quite fresh. Plainly, corrasion is far
more effective than weathering.
Another sort of example is found in the northern Sierra Nevada
of California where ancient though unconsolidated river-gravels
still survive the attack of the weather atop mountain ridges, while
valleys on either hand have been incised by stream corrasion through
3,000 feet or so of hard bed-rock. Fine examples of this condition
are to be seen in the ridges east of Mount Jura, Plumas County.
Again, look at the lava-capped and sill-capped " buttes " of
Oregon, Colorado, and other places. They seem to explain themselves
readily by the hard lava on top. But, on many of them the lava
itself is capped by a deposit of non-resistant sediment or ash. Why
did not wasting remove this weak material while it carved out the
hard rock on all sides ? Only because it is neither a rapid nor an
effective agent except on steep slopes, the bed-rock erosion on all
sides having been accomplished by another agent.
A lesson of another sort is to be learned from a comparison of
glaciated and non-glaciated regions. In most non-glaciated country
the mantle-rock is deep : for instance, in the Piedmont of the
south-eastern United States, the interfluves are underlain by 200 feet
 The Cycle of Erosion. 341

or so of decayed rock ; in Arctic America exposed rock is rent in

fragments to great depths below the surface by frost action. In
glaciated regions, on the contrary, such rocks are quite fresh at the
surface, even preserving glacial striae in places. Where long exposed
since glaciation, to weather of either cold or warm climate, the
glaciated surface shows some small changes ; good examples are
found in the Coast Range of British Columbia (cold climate) and
the Front Range of Colorado (warm). The absence of deep weather-
ing from regions formerly glaciated can mean only that a very small
amount of weathering has taken place since the last retreat of the
Pleistocene ice. It seems right to conclude that these processes are
excessively slow compared with others that contribute to erosion,
and that the deep decay of non-glaciated regions has taken for its
accomplishment long ages prior to the end of the Glacial Period,
indeed so long as to suggest that mere wasting might never be
effective in reducing very far the general land elevation.
It is not proper to argue against these conclusions that agricultural
land wastes very rapidly unless planted to crops or " cover-crops ".
Ploughed land is a very special case of a surface peculiarly prepared
for easy surrender to erosional attack. Its breaking down involves
no hard rock, and can not be compared with ordinary processes of
erosion.
THE POWER or LATERAL EROSION.

The verity of lateral corrasion has long been known, and even
the power of this action to bevel hard rock to flatness was already
discerned in 1877.* The ideas of base-levelling and peneplanation
were built up without it. In the last twenty years, starting with
Paige's contention in 1912 for the importance of lateral erosion in
planing the flat rock-floors of the desert,2 and finding support latterly
in the studies of B. Blackwelder and of D. W. Johnson in deserts,
and of E. B. Knopf in humid regions, lateral erosion has come to be
established as one of the dominant processes of denudation.
We might well accept authority, even though there is still contrary
opinion, and proceed with the general argument as though the
potency of lateral erosion were established. Nevertheless, some
examples may be offered by way of confirmation. In the first place,
the fact of the existence of floodplains is proof of the power of lateral
erosion. Many will reply, because they have not yet thoroughly
studied an example, that floodplains are depositional features. This
is not correct. Very few floodplains are really of depositional' origin.
The broad flat area of a normal floodplain is underlain everywhere at
shallow depth by planed bed-rock. The alluvium is a mere carpet,
usually not deeper than the depth of the stream in flood. Truly, the
1
G. K. Gilbert, " Geology of the Henry Mountains.," U.S. Geog. and Geol.
Survey of Rocky Mountain Region, 1877.
2
Sidney Paige, Journal of Geology, xx, 1912, 442^150.
342 C. H. Grickmay—
detail of surface conformation of a floodplain is modelled by sediment-
ation, but the very existence of the plain is due to the work of the
agent which bevelled the underlying rock to flatness. To deny this
•would be like denying that the house was built by the carpenter,
simply because his work is covered in the finished product by that
of other sorts of artisans. The true character of floodplains becomes
obvious only when they are dissected through a change in the
relation of the stream to grade, and are thereby transformed into
rock terraces ; or when well-borings or drillings reveal the thinness
of the alluvial cover, and the flatness or subdued relief of the sub-
jacent bed-rock in contrast to the character of the surface beyond
the limits of the floodplain.
Again, the fact that stream meandering results in the formation
and maintenance of steep high cliffs, here and there, shows that
horizontal cutting is so rapid in such places that the destructive
action of weathering on the cliff is scarcely noticeable. The spreading
and downstream migration of incised meanders are not unfamiliar
phenomena. Most of the rivers of the northern Great Plains of
North America exhibit these conditions, and thereby bear testimony
to the potency of lateral cutting by meandering streams. A broader
survey of the borders of a large stable floodplain shows everywhere
either a fresh cliff or a slope steep enough to tell plainly of a cliff
but recently fallen into ruin. The observation of about 9,000 miles
of floodplain borders convinces me that cliffs in these places are as
nearly continuous as cliffs on sea-coasts. This means that lateral
erosion is, on the whole, as important as wave erosion.
Some special examples of various sorts may be added. There
are places where streams have, flowing in entrenched meanders,
cut through the narrow necks of land between meanders so fast
that the rock remains as an arch over the new diversion of the
streams current. The famous natural bridges of southern Utah
were formed by this action. The time required to form them
was plainly but a fraction of the time needed for weathering
to wear them down.
The Tujunga River, a weak, aggraded, and in places intermittent
stream of southern California, was raised to high flood in the spring
of 1928, with the result that for a few days it changed its character
utterly, and meandered powerfully. In the course of two and a half
days one favourably placed meander undermined over two acres of
ground, and removed about 150,000 cubic yards of earth, sand and
boulders, destroying road-pavement and orange groves. Similar
examples might be multiplied indefinitely.
THE RELATIVE POWER OP FLUVIAL EROSION AND WASTING.
One of the most convincing arguments, to show how vertical and
horizontal erosion by streams may outstrip wasting, is supplied by
the preservation of ancient physiographic features at high levels.
For an example, E. B. Knopf concludes from a study of residual
 The Cycle of Erosion. 343
erosion surfaces in the Appalachians that " on existent divides
remnants of surfaces cut during previous cycles are more or less
immune from the destructive agencies of the present cycle ". And
again, in reference to wind-gaps, " their present outline has been
comparatively little modified since the time when water was flowing
through them, because they are hung up, so to speak, out of reach of
subsequent erosion." The implication of this, in my interpretation
of it, is denial that wasting has any great part in denudation, for the
agents of wasting are universal and no exposed part of the earth's
surface is immune to their exertions. A second implication is that
erosion proceeds from below, from actual drainage-lines. The
interfluve is not reduced by wasting except where it has been given
steep edges by the activities of the streams, and it will survive
indefinitely except for this action of paring away at its edges.1
In the area studied by Knopf, there are several nearly flat
horizontal erosion surfaces one above another. The highest one
and other extensive ones have usually been called peneplains, the
lowest and all the smaller ones have been called terraces. None
below the uppermost can well be a peneplain, because it is obviously
impossible for some features of a former cycle of peneplanation
to remain unchanged while most of the features of that cycle are
not only changed, but almost utterly destroyed. It is impossible
that the higher peneplains could survive unaffected by the wasting
that is supposed to have worn down the lower ones. Quite plainly,
as Knopf concludes, the " peneplains " were formed rapidly, one
after another. The rational interpretation is that they are remnants
of ancient floodplains, carved by lateral corrasion (the only agent
except waves that acts both rapidly and horizontally) during several
successive stages of graded conditions among the streams of this
region.
The terraces of the Appalachians are diminutive compared with
those of certain other mature regions, for instance, south-western
Wyoming. This remarkable country is made up almost entirely of
terraces and cliffs. The baffled student, with the accepted ideas of
erosion stages strong in his mind, vacillates between calling it
youthful or peneplaned. Yet it is neither, for there a*& an indefinite
number of "peneplains" one above another. J None of these are'
trulyjDeneplain/. They are simply remnants of floodplains, carved
on the surface of various hard formations which by their hardness
caused a temporary graded condition. They have long since been
deserted by the streams that formed them, but they stand little
changed by all the wasting that has proceeded during many
subsequent cycles of floodplain-cutting.
A superb example of the preservation of ancient erosional scenery
is seen in the Cypress Hills of western Canada.2 In that locality
1
E. B. Knopf, Bulletin Geol. Soc. America, xxxv, 1924, 636-666.
2
C. H. Crickmay, Canadian Field-Naturalist, xlvi, 1932.
344 C. H. Crickmay—

an old erosional plain, preserving the ancient stream-channels and

their banks with exquisite fidelity, has survived atop the Cypress
Hills while the Great Plains have been cut away on all sides, and
bevelled to flatness 1,000 feet below. Here, as elsewhere, wasting
has left the upland untouched while a vast erosion has been con-
summated all around it. Here, again, it is impossible that the
carving of the plains to flatness was accomplished by anything but
corrasion by running water, and that necessarily involves two
sorts of corrasion—vertical and lateral.

AN ATTEMPT TO ENVISAGE GEOGRAPHICAL OLD AGE.

If this reasoning on wasting and lateral erosion be correct, the
results of lateral erosion must loom increasingly large as denudation
wears on, and other processes are proportionately slowed up. It is
right to say, on the basis of common observation, that by the time
of attainment of maximum relief the streams will be in large part
graded. This will result in the formation of floodplains, slightly at
first but increasingly as time goes on. From then on, rejuvenations
may be expected to interfere with simple progress, and floodplain
remnants will be left as terraces on the valley walls. As denudation
proceeds the relentless spread of lateral planation will be expected
to wipe out many of the original interfluve ridges, leaving flat
surfaces in their place. The incidence of rejuvenation may bring
the same interfluves into relief again. This will be followed by the
development of wider terraces below.
Thus, full maturity will be characterized by much flat surface at
various levels, with persistently steep slopes between. Valleys will be
shallow, and will have flat floors of a width depending on the length
of time they have been undisturbed. Remnants of interfluve
ridges will remain as monadnocks. This is represented by the
Nashville Basin of Tennessee and the country round it. In a region
of folded stratified rock, dip-slopes will be a dominant note in the
scenery. Late maturity will be the same, only with wider areas of
flat plain both across divides and in valley bottoms, and less relief.
This stage, referred to as a problem on page 339 under the 6th
objection to the peneplain idea, is represented by the Salem Platform
of Missouri and certain low parts of the Piedmont of the Atlantic
States.
Now let us assume that the crust will stand still long enough
for the cycle to complete itself. General reduction of elevation
will decrease the gross detrital load cast upon the drainage, which
in turn will bring grade closer and closer to base-level. The tendency
to cut floodplains graded to sea-level, started in an earlier stage,
will now become dominant; and, starting from the lower courses of
rivers, floodplains will eat their way into the area of the remaining
high ground. This is the stage of old age. At the end of it we would
expect the growing floodplains to become confluent, making one
 The Cycle of Erosion. 345

broad universal plain shared by all the streams of the region. The
surface will be flat, and will have a general slope like that which now
characterizes the lower floodplains of great rivers. The only relief
will be remnants of some of the interfluves which may persist as low
monadnocks. This plain, formed of floodplains joined by their own
growth, may be called a panplain.
FIXAL CONSIDERATIONS.
The question will at once be raised : why are panplains now
forming over so small an area ? The answer is that the modern
continents have, in recent geologic time, been quite abnormally
disturbed. This has taken the form of high elevation and a shifting
of all the largest rivers into areas of subsidence or still-stand. In
consequence, panplanation has been attained only in a limited way ;
and in few places is its verity obvious.
In deserts, where the water supply is scanty and spasmodic, the
gradient of grade is much higher, and consequently is much sooner
reached by the degrading stream. As a result, panplanation of a
local sort becomes evident sooner than in humid regions. Thus we
have the rock-floors of the desert, known as pediments and panfans.
These are exactly homologous with panplains, just as inselberge are
with monadnocks. I think Davis * is quite mistaken in comparing
pediments with a supposed intermediate slope between valley-floor
and valley-wall in humid regions, and Blackwelder 2 is partly wrong
in making panfans the desert counterpart of peneplains. It is
only right to add, however, that Professor Blackwelder's work has
been my constant inspiration.
The beginnings of the panplain date from an early stage in the
cycle, and hence a considerable area may be panplaned before other
parts of the region are beyond maturity. Panplains formed before
the entire region is reduced will be somewhat higher and more
sloping than those formed later, because grade is sustained somewhat
higher by a heavier load of detritus. In due course, these earlier
panplains will be pared away by the growth of the later ones, and
in the course of their going will exactly resemble low terraces being
undermined by the enlargment of any river floodplain. This
control of physiographic development by grade is a key to an
understanding of the remarkable, though commonly forgotten, fact
that over three-quarters of the earth's surface is nearly flat, almost
horizontal ; and most of the remaining one-quarter is of steep,
rather than gentle, slopes.
The essential difference between panplanation and peneplanation
is that the iormei starts from the lower ftoodplains oi rivets and
grows laterally in all landward diiections, whereas the latter is oi
universal occurrence. Presumably, the former is so much the more
1
W. M. Davis, Journal of Geology, xxxviii, 1930, 1-27, 136-158.
2
E. Blackwelder, ibid., xxxix, 1931, 133-140.
346 The Cycle of Erosion.

rapid that the latter would rarely, if ever, reach completion. This
is a key to the understanding of scenery made up of " peneplains "
at different levels one above another, and also of the survival of
monadnocks.
AN INTERNATIONAL KAPPROCHEMENT.
For a long time, British and American geologists were disagreed
as to the mode of formation of corrasional plains : the former
favouring wave-action; the latter, a combination of vertical
corrasion and wasting. Though no real controversy took place,
and for a long time no great interest has been focussed on the
question, there is still, though well concealed by international
courtesy, a firm divergence of opinion. It now seems possible that
a due recognition of the part played by lateral erosion may be the
key, not only to a better understanding of scenery in terms of
dynamic geology, but also to an international rapprochement
in the interpretation of erosional plains.
THE DURATION OF THE EROSION CYCLE.
We are told, especially by physiographers, that we are not to
think of the cycle of erosion in terms of exact periods. None the
less, the geologist, feeling the need of bringing all possible exactness
into his inexact science in order to attain quantitative results, turns
toward the thought of how long, in familiar units, is the cycle of
erosion. Calculations on the basis of present day rates of denudation,
based in turn on the load of great rivers, have suggested that the
modern continent of North America might be base-levelled in
15,000,000 years.1 Barrell 2 provided a factor for the supposed
slowing up of erosion in old age which would lengthen the time
required for base-levelling to 30,000,000 or 50,000,000 years.
Observation shows this to be much greater than the periods of
" peneplain " cutting of which we have record. For instance,
none of the Appalachian " peneplains " are much older than the
latest Cenozoic.3 Also, it is much greater than the periods of
base-levelling recorded in unconformities.4 Some Jurassic uncon-
formities in western North America record periods of base-levelling
of about 1,000,000 years. Moreover, it is well known that there are
a number of successive base-levellings recorded in the Cenozoic of
California. If the whole Cenozioc is only 50,000,000 years,5 none
of these base-levellings can well represent much more than 5,000,000,
and more probably nearer 1,000,000.
1
R. B. Dole and H. Stabler, Water Supply Paper, 234, U.S. Geol. Survey,
1909.
2
J. Barrell, Bulletin Geol. Society of America, xxviii, 1917, 745-904.
3
E. B. Knopf, Bulletin Geol. Soc. America, xxxv, 1924, 635-6.
4
C. H. Crickmay, " Jurassic Unconformities," American Midland
Naturalist, 1933.
6
Bulletin National Research Council, 80, Washington, D.C., 1931.
 On Lepidocylina atascaderensis. 347

Panplanation is the key to understanding these discrepancies

between the expected and observed rates of erosion. Since base-level
may be approximated in one place long before the great task of
reducing the continent is even well advanced, the cycle may be, to
all appearances, completed in that one area in a small fraction of the
time needed for the greater task. The time required for the panplana-
tion of a region may be expected to be in some measure proportional to
its area. If a cycle involves greater area, it will require more time.
Finally, it seems unlikely that there will be any great slowing
up with old age. Lateral erosion is strong as long as a river is at
grade and has a sufficient supply of water, no matter how low the
gradient. The Mississippi, on which the calculations of the rate
of erosion were based, transports its load through reaches in which
the gradient is only 1 inch in 1 mile. With gradients only slightly
above this, it meanders powerfully and adds to its already enormous
load. There is, therefore, every reason to expect that the continent
may be reduced at the present day rate in great part to a flat plain,
not at a gradient of 1 inch in 1 mile, but at gradients continuous
with this, being a little steeper inland in consequence of the smaller
currents of tributaries and headwaters.

On Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) atascaderensis Berry

from the Atascadero Limestone (Eocene) of N.W. Peru.
By J. U. TODD, B.A.
(PLATE XVIII.)
TN 1930 Willard Berry published a paper on the Lepidocyclines
-*- of the Atascadero Limestone,1 for which he erected five new
species, two of which were megalospheric and three microspheric.
An examination of abundant material and no fewer than 207
sections of the Lepidocyclines of this rock, however, leaves no
doubt in the writer's opinion, that there is but one species present
showing a considerable range of variation and of which there is
an almost equal proportion of megalospheric and microspheric
forms, the latter being, perhaps, slightly more abundant. Thus
the first name that Berry proposed is taken to include the lot.
A careful examination of Berry's paper shows that he has
apparently erected each species on a single horizontal section and
a single vertical section, since precise measurements to one-tenth
of jtt are given in each case, with no range of variation whatever.
In sectioning there is always liable to be a variation due to the
failure of obtaining an exactly median section, and a slightly
oblique section may make a difference of several JU., even though it
shows all the equatorial layer chambers.
1
Willard Berry, " The Larger Foraminifera of the Atasoadero Limestone
of North-West Peru, S. America" : Eclog. Geol. Helv., 1930, xxiii,
490 et seq.