The Role of Online Social Media in The Acculturation Process of North Korean Refugee Young Adults in South Korea

THE ROLE OF ONLINE SOCIAL MEDIA IN THE ACCULTURATION PROCESS OF
NORTH KOREAN REFUGEE YOUNG ADULTS IN SOUTH KOREA
by
SUNG MI HAN
DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Graduate School
of Wayne State University,
Detroit, Michigan
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
2013
MAJOR: COMMUNICATION
Approved by:
Advisor Date
Co-Advisor Date
UMI Number: 3594677
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DEDICATION
With much thankfulness to God,
I dedicate this dissertation to my father, Sung Dong Han,
and to my mother, Mi Ryoung Song, for their unconditional love and support.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank all the special people whom I met while I was working with the
North Korean refugee community in South Korea in 2012. I will never forget the support and
inspiration that I received from the refugee students who are full of hope and passion for their
new lives in South Korea and also the people who have dedicated their time and effort to help
North Korean refugees. I thank God for working with me the whole time letting me meet the
right people at the right time and for giving me faith and power to complete this dissertation.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my co-chairs, Dr. Hayg Oshagan and
Pradeep Sopory, as well as my committees, Dr. Fred Vultee, Dr. Karen McDevitt, and Dr.
Majorie Beeghly for their sincere support for this research and for their great interest in North
Korean refugee issues. Especially, Dr. Karen McDevitt has been a wonderful mentor to me as an
enthusiastic scholar and also as a strong woman with a big heart. I also thank the Department of
Communication at Wayne State University for financial support for my degree and for its
dedicated service to students.
I must thank my parents for giving me encouragement and support for my study in the
United States. Their wisdom and love have given me a great opportunity and courage to explore
the world. I thank my little sister Jinhee, who is my spiritual companion, for constantly praying
for me and for sharing my joy and concerns. I would also like to thank my MSU friends, Dana
Gwen, Jihyun Kim, and Eunjin Park, for always being there for me throughout my study in
Michigan. They are like my second family. Last but not least, I thank my colleagues, Sadaf Ali,
Jehoon Jeon, Arata Miyazaki, Sherri Ter Molen, and Rebecca Mahfouz, for the precious
friendship we built together. I will always remember all the good times we had at Manoogian
508.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vi
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................1
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL OVERVIEW ..............................................................................10
Acculturation ......................................................................................................................... 10
Overview of theories and concepts. ........................................................................... 11
Acculturation of refugees. .......................................................................................... 15
Young adults in the cross-cultural context. ................................................................ 17
The Role of Media in Acculturation Processes ..................................................................... 22
Host media: A window to mainstream culture........................................................... 24
Ethnic media: An alternative social realty. ................................................................ 27
Online social media as a new social context for immigrants. .................................... 30
Acculturation of North Korean Refugee Young Adults in South Korea ............................... 36
The societal and group level contexts. ....................................................................... 37
The influence of South Korean mass media on acculturation. .................................. 44
North Korean refugee young adults’ use of online social media: The focus of the
current study. .............................................................................................................. 48
Statement of Hypotheses and Research Questions ................................................................ 50
CHAPTER 3: METHOD ...............................................................................................................58
Participants and Procedure..................................................................................................... 58
iv
Instruments............................................................................................................................. 61
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...............................................................................................................71
Preliminary Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................. 71
Testing Hypotheses and Research Questions ........................................................................ 80
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION .........................................................................................................98
Appendix A: Instruments ............................................................................................................ 119
References ................................................................................................................................... 135
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... 152
Autobiographical Statement ....................................................................................................... 154
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Participant demographic characteristics ..........................................................................60
Table 2: Correlations between demographic variables and cultural identity, language

competence, and cultural competence ............................................................................ 74
Table 3: Correlations between demographic variables and social networks, community

involvement, self-Esteem, and acculturative stress ........................................................ 75
Table 4: Descriptive statistics for respondents' media use patterns ...............................................78
Table 5: Correlations among main predictor variables ..................................................................79
Table 6: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis for media use predicting South Korean
acculturation domains and psychological health domains .............................................. 86
Table 7: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis for media use predicting North Korean
acculturation domains and psychological health domains .............................................. 91
Table 8: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis for daily media use by media types
predicting South Korean language competence .............................................................. 95
Table 9: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis for North Korea-related media content use
by media types predicting North Korean cultural competence ....................................... 96
Table 10: Regression analysis for North Korea-related media content use by media types
predicting North Korean community involvement ......................................................... 97
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Hypotheses and research questions model .....................................................................57
Figure 2: The media environment of North Korean refugee young adults in South Korea 113
vii
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Developments in communication and transportation have shrunken the world, blurred the
borders, and allowed more people to travel or move overseas. According to a report from United
Nations in 2010, there are about 214 million international migrants who left their homelands and
moved to different countries. This migrant population is 2.5 times greater than that of the 1970’s,
and it indicates that one out of 33 people in the world today is an international migrant (United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2010). In this new reality, “we are
challenged to face one another’s numerous cultural differences and search for profound human
similarities” (Y. Y. Kim, 2001, p.3), and therefore, the need to study what occurs during cultural
transitions and what facilitates cultural adaptation is greater than ever.
Although international migration is a global phenomenon, accepting and harmonizing
cultural differences is a relatively new and difficult social challenge to South Korea given that
the country had been ethnically and culturally homogeneous for thousands of years. Even until
recently, “ethnic homogeneity” had been used tactically as a catchword to bolster the nation’s
pride and to strengthen its social integration. However, since the 1990’s, an increasing number of
people have migrated to South Korea as foreign workers, immigrant spouses, and North Korean
refugees. Therefore, the idea of ethnic and cultural homogeneity is no longer valid, and it has
become a cause of social conflict (H. W. Kang, 2006). As a result, promoting cultural diversity
has become one of major policy agendas for the South Korean government.
Among all migrant groups, North Korean refugees have a special meaning to South
Korea. As North Korea’s political and economic statuses are becoming more unstable and
unpredictable, preparedness for the possibility of future unification is an urgent issue for the
2
South Korean government. In this situation, the importance of North Korean refugees increases
as the perfect pilot group that helps the government anticipate potential acculturation problems
and develop better social integration plans.
The number of North Korean migrants in South Korea has dramatically increased since
the great famine occurred in North Korea from 1994 to 1998, which is known as the Arduous
March. According to the record of the Ministry of Unification of South Korea (2013), as of
December 2012, there are about 25,000 North Korean refugees settled in South Korea. Among
them, young adults ranging in age from 20 to 29 are the second largest group, accounting for
about 27 percent (6,621) of the total population. The largest segment is the 30 to 39 age group,
which account for 31 percent (7,421). North Korean refugee young adults have experienced
extraordinary changes in their lives. They lived in extreme poverty in North Korea and risked
everything to cross the North Korean-Chinese border. During the defection procedure, many lost
or were separated from their families, and many also have been deprived of educational
opportunities for several years. Even after coming to South Korea, North Korean refugee young
adults have to face a harsh reality. Although South and North Koreans are ethnically
homogeneous and shared the same history at least up until 1945, more than 65 years of
separation has changed the social, economic, political, and cultural environments of the two
countries. Language, for example, is one of difficulties that the refugee young adults often
encounter. Their North Korean accent makes them easily differentiated from South Koreans, and
words and expressions used in North and South Korea might have different meanings or be
spelled differently. Foreign terms used in the everyday conversations of South Koreans, such as
English and Chinese words, are unfamiliar to the refugee young adults as well since North Korea
invents its own words for new technologies instead of using borrowed words. This language
3
barrier makes the refugee young adults insecure about communicating with South Koreans,
inhibiting them from learning new social and work skills to survive in a competitive capitalist
society (Min, 2008). Consequently, the refugee young adults not only have to learn the new
environment but also have to overcome being labeled as the “other” by people of the same
ethnicity.
These insecurities, which limit refugee young adults’ interactions with native South
Koreans, may delay major life decisions such as pursuing a higher education, starting a career, or
getting married (Jessor, Donovan, & Costa, 1991). Supporting the cultural adaptation of North
Korean refugee young adults and providing them with the mental health resources to overcome
their tragic pasts so that they can become independent members of a society is an important task
for South Korea. In particular, facilitating communication activities would be one of the most
fundamental and effective ways to bridge the cognitive and affective gaps between North and
South Korean cultures. According to Y. Y. Kim (2001), the success of cross-cultural adaptation
is highly dependent on individuals’ ability to communicate within a given cultural environment.
Nevertheless, little research has been done regarding North Korean refugee young adults in the
communication discipline due to the relatively new nature of this issue. Therefore, more
scholarly attention is needed to investigate the dynamic interplay between the cultural adaptation
of North Korean refugee young adults and their communication activities.
In the United States, communication studies concerning cultural adaptation issues had
received increased attention during the 1970s and 1980s when there was an influx of new
citizens from Latin America and Asia. In cross-cultural adaptation studies, acculturation is the
area that has been most widely researched in the field (Torres & Rollock, 2004; Sam & Oppedal,
2011). While cultural adaptation is considered as “the long-term ways in which people rearrange
4
their lives and settle down to a more-or-less satisfactory existence” (Berry, 2006, p. 52),
acculturation focuses more on the ongoing changes occurring during the contact with other
cultures, including values, norms, words, behaviors, and institutions (Berry, 2006). In other
words, adaptation is the outcome of a continuous acculturation process. Communication studies
in U.S. settings have revealed that engaging in interpersonal communication with the people of
the host culture is the strongest predictor of positive acculturation (Gordon, 1964; Y. Y. Kim,
1977). However, for immigrants and refugees whose social networks and language skills are
limited at the early stages of settlement, opportunities to have interpersonal communication with
host people are limited as well. In this circumstance, media content of the host culture becomes
the major source of information for immigrants and refugees (Gordon, 1964; Y. Y. Kim, 1977,
1988). Studies have repeatedly found the positive relationship between the consumption of
media content of the host culture and the acculturation levels of immigrants and refugees
(Gordon, 1964; Johnson, 1996; Y. Y. Kim, 1977, 1988, 2001; Lee & Tse, 1994; Shoemaker,
Reese, & Danielson, 1985). By providing the information of values, attitudes, and norms of a
host society at large, mass media of the host culture fulfill new settlers’ information needs when
they lack interpersonal networks with members of the host culture.
This mass media-oriented effects model, however, only considers a top-down process of
acculturation – being assimilated into the dominant culture. In this perspective, cultural
identification is unidimensional, which means individuals cannot hold multiple cultural identities.
Thus, in order to acculturate successfully, immigrants and refugees have to not only adopt a host
culture but also reject their original culture. Under this one-way, determinist model, immigrants
and refugees are likely to experience higher levels of psychological stress and to lose their voice
in a host society (Berry, 2006; Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987). This approach of
5
acculturation is called the assimilation model. In the assimilation research tradition, consumption
of ethnic media has been considered negatively as a cultural segregation behavior or reluctance
to adopt host culture (DeFluer & Cho, 1957; Lee & Tse, 1994; Shoemaker, Reese, & Danielson,
1985).
The popularity of the assimilation approach, however, has decreased since the late 1980’s
and 1990’s as the melting pot ideology declined (Elias, 2008), and the pluralism model of
acculturation has since dominated the literature, emphasizing the importance of cultural diversity
in a society (Bourhis, Moise, Perreault, & Senecal, 1997; Subervi-Velez, 1986). According to
this model, immigrants and refugees are expected to adopt their host nation’s public values but at
the same time are encouraged to maintain their cultural heritage. This approach believes that
cultural identification is bidimensional, which allows individuals to hold multiple cultural
identities. Following the pluralism model of acculturation, Berry (1974, 1980, 1989, 1997)
proposes that people in a cross-cultural context adopt four acculturation strategies: integration
(acquiring host culture and maintaining original culture), assimilation (acquiring host culture and
rejecting original culture), separation (rejecting host culture and maintaining original culture),
and marginalization (rejecting both cultures). Researchers adopting the pluralism model have
found that the integration strategy maintaining both host and original cultural identifications is
likely to predict better psychological health such as higher self-esteem and less stress (Berry,
Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987; de Domanico, Crawford, & DeWolfe, 1994; Umana-Taylor, Diversi,
& Fine, 2002).
Media scholars following the pluralism perspective assert that ethnic media can be an
alternative to mainstream media’s underrepresentation of immigrants (Cottle, 2000; Elias, 2008)
Ethnic media refer to media outlets in a host country that are produced and consumed by specific
6
ethnic immigrant groups sharing a common cultural background, such as history, language, a
country of origin, traditions, and rituals (Johnson, 2000; Shi, 2009; Viswanath & Arora, 2000).
The major task of ethnic media is to serve ethnic communities’ cultural, political, economical,
and everyday needs (Shi, 2009), not only by supporting the unity of ethnic communities but also
by providing information about the host society to immigrants (Bekken, 1997; Cottle, 2000;
Soruco, 1996; Viswanath & Arora, 2000). Studies have revealed that these functions of ethnic
media help lower acculturative stress of immigrants and refugees during their cultural transitions
(Shibutani & Kwan, 1965; Viswanath & Arora, 2000).
South Korean media studies adopting the assimilation model have found that the use of
South Korean media is positively related to the refugees’ acceptance of South Korean culture,
trust toward the government, civic and political participation, and social networks with South
Koreans (Kwak & S. G. Park, 2006; Lee, 2000). Even though the pluralism model seems
especially useful for South Korea in the long-term perspective in order to prepare the citizens for
possible unification in the future, the pluralism perspective of acculturation has been overlooked
in the South Korean media literature on North Korean refugees. The main reason for the lack of
the pluralism approach is that ethnic media outlets that can represent North Korean refugees’
lives and interests are not developed yet in South Korea. The National Security Law of South
Korea strictly prohibits consumption of North Korean media, and even the few South Korean
media channels covering North Korean news and issues are too political to attract young refugee
audiences. Thus, it is difficult for North Korean refugee young adults to receive the benefits of
ethnic media that may support their North Korean cultural heritage and provide information
about South Korea. Furthermore, North Korean refugees are generally reluctant to share their
personal histories or honest emotions with other North Korean refugees. Since they have grown
7
up in a society in which family members and neighbors report dissenters to the authorities in
order to protect themselves and their families, they have deep-rooted suspicions and mistrust
toward fellow North Koreans (Min, 2008). Consequently, North Korean refugee young adults are
not only segregated from the South Korean public but also are psychologically disconnected
from the refugee community.
An alternative outlet may be online social communities because the online environment
would allow the refugees to anonymously share information and personal stories with others.
Studies have found that the anonymous nature of online communication facilitates the expression
of minority opinions by decreasing social pressures from face-to-face interactions (Stritzke,
Nguyen, & Durkin, 2004) and thus empowers marginalized groups to voice their opinions in a
society (Mehra, Merkel, & Bishop, 2004; Mitra, 2001, 2004).
Given the unique features of online communication, this research expects that online
social media may serve the role of a relatively secure public sphere for the North Korean refugee
community. In addition to reinforcing connections with other refugees, online social media can
provide North Korean refugees more opportunities to start and maintain relationships with South
Koreans by lowering certain social cues such as accents and socio-economic statuses. That is,
online social media has the potential to facilitate the pluralism model of acculturation of North
Korean refugees by enabling them to maintain North Korean culture while simultaneously
expanding their exposure to South Korean cultural experiences. According to Kwak and S. G.
Park (2006), many North Korean refugees are heavy users of the Internet, spending twice as
much time online per day as South Korean users. It suggests that online media can be an
important support channel for North Korean refugee young adults to get information about South
8
Korean culture, to develop language and social skills, to meet new friends, and to keep in contact
with other refugees.
Despite the fact that online media’s two-way communication capacity perfectly fits the
pluralism model of acculturation, little research has examined the role of online social media in
the acculturation context. Accordingly, the purpose of the present study is to examine the
influence of online social media on the acculturation process of North Korean refugee young
adults in South Korea adopting the pluralism approach, which may provide insights and bridge
the knowledge gap in the media literature.
This study attempts to answer the following questions: What are the refugee young
adults’ media use patterns? How are media use patterns related to their acculturation domains,
such as cultural identity, cultural and language competence, social competence, and
psychological health? What are the distinctive influences of traditional media use and online
social media use on the refugee young adult acculturation domains? By answering these
questions, this study proposes a theoretical model that may explain the diverse interactions
between media use patterns and the refugee young adult acculturation processes. This model may
expand our understanding of the acculturation and media use of North Korean refugee young
adults and has the potential to provide insights that may lead to the incorporation of various
online social media features in acculturation programs administered by governmental and non-
governmental organizations engaged in the cultural education of refugee and ethnic minority
young adults.
This dissertation is structured as follows. Chapter 2 reviews the theoretical groundwork
behind the current research. The literature on acculturation and the role of media in the
acculturation process will be reviewed and then applied to the acculturation context of North
9
Korean refugee young adults in South Korea, followed by the presentation of hypotheses and
research questions of this study. Chapter 3 explicates the methods for data collection and
research procedures of the present research, and Chapter 4 reports the statistical results of the
empirical study that tested the hypotheses and research questions proposed in Chapter 2. Finally,
Chapter 5 discusses the findings, draws conclusions for theoretical and practical implications,
and provides directions for future research.

10
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
The present research investigates the relationship between media and the acculturation
process of North Korean refugee young adults by analyzing their media use patterns and
acculturation domains. For the conceptual framework of this research, Chapter 2 reviews theories
and previous studies related to the acculturation and media areas.
This chapter involves addressing the following three subjects under a range of different
disciplines. First, the literature on acculturation is reviewed by defining different meanings and
dimensions of acculturation drawn from sociology and psychology, and the assimilation and
pluralism approaches of acculturation are further compared. Second, the functions of media
during the acculturation process are reviewed from the communication literature by applying the
assimilation and pluralism models. In addition, distinctive characteristics of online media and
their relevancy to the pluralism model of acculturation are discussed. Third, the acculturation
context of North Korean refugee young adults in South Korea is examined by taking a close look
at the historical, social, and media-related circumstances.
Acculturation
Socialization is a process of adapting an individual’s standards, motives, attitudes, and
behaviors to the norms, values, and customs of a society, thus making one play desirable and
appropriate roles in a society (Damon & Lerner, 2008). This process involves interactions of
many social agents, such as family, school, community, government, and media, whose functions
are interdependent of one another.
Even though socialization is a process continuing throughout one’s life, the intensity of
socialization is particularly great during the childhood and adolescent periods (Damon & Lerner,
11
2008). Once individuals become adults, their socialization process enters into a stable stage,
focusing on maintaining established standards to look at the world and to behave in certain ways.
However, when people move to a new place and have to adapt to a totally different social system,
the intensive cultural socialization is restarted through the acculturation process.
Acculturation research in different disciplines has explored multiple dimensions of cross-
cultural adaptation with a wide divergence of conceptual and methodological views. This section
reviews the various definitions and theories of acculturation and then discusses the acculturation
context of refugees and young adults specifically.
Overview of theories and concepts. Acculturation, in its simplest sense, refers to the
changes that occur when individuals in one group contact another group with a different cultural
background (Sam, 2006). The most frequently quoted definition of acculturation is the one
proposed by Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits (1936) in which “acculturation comprehends those
phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into
continuous first-hand contact with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or
both groups” (p.149). This definition shows vertical and horizontal scopes of the acculturation
process. First, acculturation happens in a vertical path, encompassing changes in group and
individual levels. At the group level, acculturation involves shifts in social, political, or
economic structures of groups within a society (Sam, 2006). This collective transformation, on
the other hand, affects individuals’ experiences as group members. Individuals may undergo
changes in their identities, values, attitudes, and behaviors during this process. The horizontal
path of acculturation is concerned with the direction of influences between groups. Theoretically,
as stated in Redfield et al.’s definition, changes may occur reciprocally, affecting either or both
groups. However, in many real acculturation circumstances such as immigration and refugee
12
resettlement power differences are likely to be present between groups when there are
differences in politics, economics, or the sizes of populations. When one group dominates over
another group, the non-dominant group is likely to become homogenized into the dominant
group’s culture (Sam, 2006).
Since acculturation is concentrated on the dominant group making the changes in the
non-dominant group more visible, many acculturation studies have vaguely used the term
‘assimilation’ as a synonym of acculturation (Berry, 1997; Sam, 2006). In the United States, this
assimilation model had long been the traditional perspective of acculturation, tracing its history
back to the 19th and the early 20th centuries when this view was applied to the influx of
immigrants from Europe. Robert Park, one of the leading figures of the Chicago school of
sociology, argued that assimilation is a process of “interpenetration and fusion” of immigrant
groups for the “unity of thought” (R. E. Park & Burgess, 1924, p. 735). He believed that, as
America turned into a modernized, urbanized, and industrialized society, the boundaries between
ethnic and racial groups would become blurred, resulting in a more rational and unified society.
Similarly, sociologist Gordon’s (1964, 1978) idea of successful adaptation of immigrants in
American society during the 1960s and the 1970s was also the melting pot model. In this model,
ethnic groups conformed to the standards of middle class, white Anglo-Saxon Protestant
Americans (Gordon, 1964) by changing their cognitive, affective, and behavioral patterns as they
joined the larger societal framework.
According to the assimilation perspective, the acculturation process is not only
unidirectional (e.g., only one group changes) but also unidimensional (e.g., individuals can have
only one cultural identity). That is, multiple cultural identities cannot exist in the assimilation
13
model, and thereby immigrants have to lose their original cultural identity entirely in order to
acquire the cultural identity of a host community (Sam, 2006).
The assimilation perspective, however, has been challenged by scholars as the popularity
of the melting pot ideology has decreased over time through the Civil Rights Movement and the
“new ethnicity” movement during the 1960s and 1970s (Y. Y. Kim, 1988). As a result, there has
been a major shift in the acculturation literature from the assimilation perspective to the
pluralism perspective. Contrary to the assimilation perspective, the pluralism perspective
believes that acculturation is both bidirectional (e.g., both groups can change) and bidimensional
(e.g., individuals can maintain multiple cultural identities). From this perspective, individuals in
both cultural groups can be mutually influenced by each other when two different cultural groups
come into contact. In addition, individuals and groups in a cultural transition can develop
multiple cultural identities, without necessarily compromising aspects of their original cultural
identities (Berry, 1980). Individuals in the non-dominant group, in particular, are actively
engaged in constant acculturative activities, adapting to the new culture while simultaneously
maintaining their original culture. Compared to the melting pot ideology of assimilation, the
pluralism model of acculturation is called the “mosaic.” The mosaic ideology seeks to include
diverse ethnic groups as integral parts of the host society through some degree of structural
assimilation but with less cultural and behavioral assimilation (Berry, 1980). Under the pluralism
model, immigrants and refugees are expected to adopt their host nation’s public values but are
free to maintain their cultural heritage within the boundaries of law.
Berry (1974, 1980, 1989, 1997) is one of first psychologists who argued that ethnic and
host identities are independent dimensions rather than a single bipolar continuum (Bourhis et al.,
1997). He considers assimilation as merely one of four acculturation strategies: integration,

14
assimilation, separation, and marginalization. This typology shows different patterns of identity
management strategies adopted by non-dominant individuals and groups during intercultural
contact. The integration strategy is used when individuals actively adopt new cultural aspects
and interact with host cultural group members and still have a desire to maintain their original
culture. Taking this strategy, individuals in the non-dominant culture become a part of the larger
society while retaining their cultural heritage. The assimilation strategy is used when individuals
try to avoid their original culture and attempt to adopt the host culture so completely that they
can merge seamlessly into the new cultural group. The separation strategy occurs when
individuals in the non-dominant cultural group place more importance on retaining ethnic culture
and try to avoid adopting the host culture by shunning interactions with the new cultural group
members. When the majority of individuals in the non-dominant group take this strategy, the
group eventually withdraws from the host society (Berry, 1989). The marginalization strategy is
adopted by individuals who reject both their original and host cultural identities, isolating
themselves from both cultural groups. Marginalization involves the feelings of alienation,
identity loss, and acculturative stress, and it occurs when individuals experience identity
confusion and anxiety during the acculturation process (Berry, 1989).
Berry and his colleagues have investigated acculturation strategy patterns of various
immigrant groups in North America and have observed that the integration strategy is often
associated with the most successful adaptation of immigrants and refugees compared to other
strategies, whereas the marginalization strategy predicts poor adaptation and the highest levels of
mental health problems among the strategies (Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987; Berry, Kim,
Power, Young, & Bujaki, 1989).

15
Even though the integration strategy is to be the optimal mode of acculturation (Berry et
al., 1987, 1989; Birman, 1994; Bourhis, Moise, Perreault, & Senecal, 1997), it is important to
note that the integration strategy requires certain pre-conditions of host societies in order to be
effectively adopted by individuals (Bourhis et al., 1997). Individuals can successfully manage
both original and host cultural identities when the host society as a whole promotes
multiculturalism and rejects ethnic prejudice. When the host society is open to cultural diversity,
integration or separation is more likely to result (Berry, 1989). On the contrary, when the host
society attempts to minimize cultural diversity through assimilation policies or to segregate
immigrant groups from the rest of the society, it is difficult for individual immigrants to get
social support to pursue the integration strategy. In this condition, the assimilation or
marginalization strategy is likely to be adopted by individual immigrants (Berry, 1989). It has
also been found that migrants who are highly oppressed or discriminated against by the host
society may adopt the marginalization strategy by rejecting the values, practices, and
identifications of the host culture in an effort to fight back against the discrimination and to
protect their original culture (Rumbaut, 2008).
These findings suggest that individuals’ acculturation patterns are closely related to the
societal level acculturation climate such as diversity policies, social support, and public-held
prejudices (Berry, 1997). Thus, understanding the social context in which the interplay between
individual acculturation and group acculturation occurs is essential for appreciating the broad
picture of acculturation.
Acculturation of refugees. Besides the sociopolitical context, the characteristics of
one’s ethnocultural group are another significant factor that affects individual migrants’
acculturation strategies. The group’s motivation for migration is one example (Berry, 1986,
16
1997). Voluntary immigration is more likely to be associated with the assimilation or integration
strategies than forced movement, whereas people who involuntarily experience acculturation
such as refugees may be less willing to adopt host culture (Berry, 1986, 1997). Even when
involuntary migrants want to maintain their original culture, resources to carry on their culture,
such as social networks with people from the same culture, ethnic businesses, and ethnic media
may be limited.
The acculturation conditions of refugees are generally harsher than those of other
immigrants. In addition to the involuntary nature of migration, refugees are subject to suffer the
consequences of trauma while coping with acculturation stress at the same time. According to
the United Nations convention relating to the status of refugees, refugees are defined as people
who left their home countries and never return due to a “well-founded fear of being persecuted
for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political
opinion” (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 1996, p.16; as cited in Allen, Bsilier,
& Hauff, 2006). In their home countries, refugees might experience human rights violations,
such as torture, imprisonment, threat of harm, and dangerous environments, and the trauma from
these experiences intensifies the difficulty and complexity of refugee acculturation (Allen,
Bsilier, & Hauff, 2006). Traumatic experiences hinder exploratory behavior and cognitive
processes such as attention and concentration, and thus, refugees may have less motivations and
abilities to learn new cultures (Akhtar, 1999).
Silove (1999) proposes that trauma of refugees can damage five major adaptive systems
that are supposed to sustain the psychosocial equilibrium of individuals. First, refugees’ personal
safety system can be impaired by actual and perceived threats that simultaneously occur with the
initial trauma and for prolonged periods of time thereafter. Second, the attachment and bond
17
maintenance systems can be undermined by separations from or losses of families, friends, and
communities as well as by the loss of homes, property, and possessions. Third, the justice system
can be negatively affected by repeated human rights violations, such as dehumanization,
humiliation, and degradation. Fourth, the existential meaning system can be shaken by the
exposure to cruelty and by the loss of faith in the beneficence of life and humankind. Last, the
identity and role system can be distorted by indoctrination, propaganda, ostracism, and isolation
performed by oppressive regimes. Silove (1999) argues that even though the five adaptive
systems are identified individually, sufferings from the damaged systems may occur concurrently,
interacting with each other at multiple levels. In the acculturation process of refugees, the
degrees of trauma from the damaged systems are often found to be the stronger predictor of
acculturation levels than individuals’ cultural backgrounds (Berry, 1986; Silove, 1999).
Silove’s (1999) five adaptive system framework suggests that the individual level of
psychological acculturation of refugees is closely related to the group-level acculturation, such as
pre-migration human rights violation experiences of a group (Allen, Bsilier, and Hauff, 2006). In
addition, as stated in the previous section, the macro level of acculturation is also a critical factor
to consider in understanding the acculturation process of refugee individuals. Involuntary
migrants like refugees in particular are more likely than other immigrant groups to be influenced
by the sociopolitical context of a host country, such as status determination policy, resettlement
policy, and acculturative attitudes of a society as a whole (Allen, Bsilier, and Hauff, 2006).
Young adults in the cross-cultural context. Human development involves dynamic
interactions between organisms and the world around them, such as families, friends, school, and
media (Lerner, 2002), and culture is one of the significant environmental settings that comprises
18
the developmental context. Understanding acculturation through the lens of developmental
psychology helps us expand the conceptual boundary of acculturation.
In numerous acculturation studies, the meaning of acculturation has been limited as a
secondary cultural learning, which is to acquire culture-specific attitudes, behaviors, and
knowledge through experiences (Masgoret & Ward, 2006). The developmental perspective of
acculturation, however, considers that adaptation to new culture also evolves through a
maturation process (Sam & Oppedal, 2002). Thus, it is important to understand these two
overlapping but distinctive phenomena of acculturation, learning and development, in order to
better explain the acculturation processes of young adults.
Acculturation of young adults is better understood by considering the period specific
experiences and challenges. Arnett (2000) defines young adulthood, from the late teens through
the twenties, as a new conception of a developmental period, which is characterized by profound
change and exploration of possible life directions. In most of today’s industrialized societies, the
transition period to adulthood is often prolonged, resulting in delayed adult commitments and
responsibilities and intensified role experimentations that continue long after traditional
adolescence (Arnett, 2000). Young adulthood as a period of transition into adult roles involves
education and career training that may affect occupational achievements for the later adult work
lives or establishment of long-term relationships of partnering or marriage that would lead to
parenting. It means that experiences of young adulthood may shape the remainder of the life
course (Arnett, 2000; Jessor, Donovan, & Costa, 1991).
One of important explorations of young adulthood is identity formation, which is a
lifelong process that “neither begins nor ends with adolescence” (Erikson, 1959, p.113). Marcia
(1993) notes that “occurring during late adolescence, the consolidation of identity marks the end
19
of childhood and the beginning of adulthood. Identity formation involves a synthesis of
childhood skills, beliefs, and identifications into a more or less coherent, unique whole that
provides the young adult with both a sense of continuity with the past and a direction for the
future” (p. 3). Having identity synthesis is critical to having a coherent and unified representation
of who one is, and thus, identity confusion causes the lack of certainty about who one is or about
the purpose of one’s life (Erikson, 1959).
In the identity formation process, young adults in cross-cultural conditions are challenged
to manage and synthesize multiple cultural identities. Cultural identification is an important
factor for immigrant young adults in that one’s cultural group provides not only resources,
support, and security, but also the norms and meaning framework to interpret and make sense of
the self and the external world (Hong, Roisman, & Chen, 2006). In addition to the establishment
of cultural group memberships, immigrant young adults also have to figure out which cultural
groups they should identify with in what circumstances. Failure to balance and manage original
and host identities can result in identity confusion and marginalization. In accordance with
Berry’s (1974, 1980, 1989, 1997) findings with the four acculturation strategies, studies across
different cultural settings have repeatedly found that having bicultural identity enables
individuals to alternate thoughts, feelings, and behavior depending on a given cultural situation
(Benet-Martıńez, & Bond, 2008; Hutnick, 1986). Thus, bicultural identity is found to be a
strong predictor of positive acculturation indicators, such as higher self-esteem, lower
acculturative stress, higher satisfaction with life, and better ability to socialize in diverse settings
(Benet-Martinez & Haritatos, 2005; Chen, Benet-Martıńez, & Bond, 2008; Domanico,
Crawford, & DeWolfe, 1994; Farver, Narang, & Bhadha, 2002; Schwartz, Zamboanga, & Jarvis,
2007).
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While cultural identity focuses on one’s identification with a certain cultural group,
cultural competence refers to one’s ability to successfully perform in a given cultural setting.
LaFromboise, Coleman, and Gerton (1993) define the requirements of cultural competence as
follows: possession of a strong personal identity, knowledge of and facility with beliefs and
values of a given culture, sensitivity to the affective processes of the culture, language skills of
the cultural group, performance of socially and culturally appropriate behavior, active
maintenance of social relationships with the group members, and negotiation of the institutional
structures of the culture.
Ward and Kennedy (1999) have found distinguishing roles of ethnic competence and host
cultural competence in acculturation. Ethnic cultural identification tends to relate to positive
psychological acculturation, such as self-concept, cultural identity, and acculturative stress, while
host cultural competence is more associated with socio-cultural acculturation, such as acquiring
social, cultural, and linguistic skills and knowledge to adapt to a host community. Since
individuals’ overall acculturation outcomes are affected by the interplay between ethnic and host
cultural contexts, it is important for young adults in cultural transition to develop bicultural
competence based on healthy bicultural identities in order to perform social interactional tasks
well with both the original and host cultural communities (Benet-Martinez, & Haritatos, 2005;
David, Okazaki, & Saw, 2009; Oppedal, 2006). If immigrant young adults experience deficits of
either one or both of the cultural domains, it would have negative impacts on their identity
formation. Young adults who suffer from identity crises have difficulties in making decisions
about role choices and switching from the ethnic cultural context to the host cultural context and
thus lose direction in regards to goals and values between two cultures (Phinney, Horenczy,
Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001).

21
For immigrant adolescents and young adults, the most important contributor of ethnic
cultural competence is cultural learning and social support from family and ethnic communities.
Parental ethnic socialization is an influential source to reinforce cultural knowledge and
attachment to his or her cultural group (Knight, Bernel, Garza, Cota, & Ocampo, 1993). Studies
have found that immigrant young adults’ ethnic cultural competence is positively correlated to
ethnic loyalties and connectedness, a sense of psychological security and continuity as well as
self-esteem (Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind, 2001; Phinney & Chavira, 1992). On the other hand,
due to the fact that host cultural competence is a significant factor for successful acceptance as a
part of the mainstream culture, it is often associated with immigrant young adults’ feelings of
self-worth (Oppedal, Roysamb, & Sam, 2004; Oppedal, 2006). Host cultural competence is
likely to be related to the host culture’s socialization institutions. For example, schools are the
fundamental place where immigrant young adults gain host cultural competence through peer
interactions and achievement-related activities (Oppedal, 2006). The mass media of the host
culture is another significant contributor as a source of host cultural information for immigrant
young adults. The influences of media as a socialization agent are especially greater during
adolescence and young adulthood as familial sources of childhood socialization declines and the
sources of mature adult socialization are not prevalent yet (Arnett, 1995). For young adults in
cross-cultural transition, therefore, media outlets of a host society become the central part of the
cultural environment to learn norms, values, and language and to develop self and group
identifications (Gordon, 1964; Y. Y. Kim, 1988; Oppedal, 2006).
The impacts of media on migrants’ acculturation are discussed further in detail in the
following section by applying the assimilation and the pluralism perspectives to address the
distinctive roles of host media and ethnic media.

22
The Role of Media in Acculturation Processes
The mass media play a role as a major social institution to define values and rules, to
unify diverse groups of people, to establish a sense of order and direction, to educate the
society’s parameters, and to provide an arena to exchange ideas (Silverblatt, 2004). When
immigrants are beyond the age of schooling and can’t receive formal education of citizenship,
mass media serve the function of traditional socialization agencies, educating new settlers to
have appropriate feelings, responsibilities, and ethics of a new social system (Chaffee, Nass, & S.
M. Yang, 1990). Since immigrants are subject to experience some levels of uncertainty in their
daily activities in a new cultural context but have limited interpersonal networks and language
competence, their reliance on mass media increases consequently (Y. Y. Kim, 1988).
Based on Renckstorf, McQuail, and Jankowski’s (1996) idea that the use of mass media
as a form of internal and external social actions that formulate individuals’ subjective
construction of reality, Adoni, Cohen, and Caspi (2002) suggest that the use of host media and
ethnic media is also a social action that affects the social construction of one’s identity as a
member of the majority and the minority. Adoni et al. (2002) further propose a theoretical model
that classifies the mass media consumption patterns of immigrants and ethnic minorities into four
different groups, which corresponds to Berry’s typology of acculturation strategies. The first
group is dualists who show both high consumption of host language and ethnic language media.
The second group is adapters who show high consumption of host media and low consumption
of ethnic media, and the third group is separatists who only show high consumption of ethnic
media. The last group is detached whose members consume neither host nor ethnic media. The
authors assert that immigrants and ethnic minorities’ host and ethnic media use patterns
influence their host and ethic identification styles; dualists and adapters tend to identify
23
themselves more with host culture, while separatists and the detached identify more with their
home countries and ethnic communities.
The effectiveness of host media and ethnic media on acculturation can be interpreted in
different ways depending on which acculturation model, either the assimilation model or the
pluralism model, is used as a frame of reference. The assimilation perspective focuses on the
functions of host media to transmit the social, cultural, and political information of host culture
to newcomers, preparing them to be absorbed into the dominant culture. In this perspective, the
use of ethnic media prevents immigrants from losing attachment with the homeland and also
from adopting a new culture. Therefore, only adapters are expected to receive benefits from
media for acculturation. On the other hand, the pluralism perspective sheds light on the
importance of ethnic media in facilitating immigrants’ adaptation processes by decreasing
acculturation stress and enhancing immigrants’ pride for their ethnicity. From this standpoint,
both dualists and separatists can ease their transition to a new culture through ethnic media.
Acculturation and media studies conducted in North American settings have shown three
strong tendencies. First, the majority of the studies have followed the assimilation ideology in
defining the meaning of acculturation (Subervi-Velez, 1986; Elias, 2008). Even after the
popularity of the assimilation model decreased in other disciplines, the pluralistic view of
acculturation has not been represented well in media studies. Second, in line with the
assimilation approach, the dominant perspective to look at the relationship between media and
audience has been the mass media effect paradigm, which proposes a linear communication path
from the message sender to the receiver. Third, the media types examined in acculturation and
media studies have been focused on traditional forms of mass media, such as television,
24
newspapers, and magazines. Accordingly, there has been a knowledge gap between traditional
and new media in the acculturation media literature.
While the assimilation perspective has been dominant in media acculturation studies,
researchers’ attention to the pluralism approach has started to increase since the 1990’s,
representing the need to understand the roles of media in the growing ethnic populations.
Scholars following the pluralism perspective have raised concerns about host media’s power to
create symbolic misrepresentations of immigrant culture, which often ignores or negatively
portrays the bonds within ethnic communities (Cottle, 2000). Coping with this issue, ethnic
media has become an alternative social reality for ethnic audiences and also a channel to voice
minorities’ opinions to a host society. Because studies on ethnic media put more emphasis on the
needs of media users rather than on the top-down media effects, the uses and gratification theory
has increasingly been applied to the pluralism approach. The uses and gratification theory is
often considered in opposition to the media effects paradigm since the former focuses on “what
people do with the media” whereas the latter is concerned with “what media do with people”
(Windahl, 1981, p.177). The uses and gratification theory has expanded the scope of pluralistic
acculturation studies by exploring ethnic users’ particular needs for host media and ethnic media
and consequences of using two different media types.
The next section first reviews two major streams of acculturation and media studies, the
effects of host media from the assimilation approach and the functions of ethnic media from the
pluralism approach, and then discusses how the development of online communication and
online social media has changed the communication paradigm of global migrants.
Host media: A window to mainstream culture. The assimilation research tradition is
rooted in a melting pot ideology, which dominated the first half of the 20th century (Elias, 2008).
25
Studies in the assimilation tradition have consistently found the positive impacts of host mass
media on immigrants’ adoption of new cultures, values, and information of a host society at large,
but the power of host media as an acculturation tool is often contrasted with the negative effects
of ethnic media on assimilation. These studies have found that ethnic media use may deprive
immigrants of opportunities to learn about a host country and lower their willingness to adapt to
a new culture. DeFluer and Cho (1957) investigated the post-immigration factors that determine
the acculturation levels of Japanese women living in Seattle and revealed that the consumption of
American radio and television programs, magazines, films, and newspapers was associated with
greater adaptation to the host culture. In contrast, people who preferred Japanese media over
American media showed a greater reluctance to break the ties oriented to Japan.
Similar results have been observed across different cultural minority groups. Shoemaker,
Reese, and Danielson (1985) found that the Spanish-language print media use among Hispanics
in Texas was negatively related to their acculturation levels. Lee and Tse (1994) examined the
cultural adaptation of immigrants from Hong Kong in Canada and found that the immigrants’
consumption across different host media types was positively associated with their adaptation to
a new culture whereas consumption of Chinese media reinforced cultural segregation. Y. Y.
Kim’s (1977) survey research conducted with Korean immigrants in the Chicago area also
revealed that immigrants’ acculturation was significantly predicted by higher involvement in
interpersonal communication with Americans and by more use of American mass media,
especially newspapers. She asserted that the greater the host interpersonal and mass
communication levels, the greater the intercultural transformation. On the contrary, the greater
the ethnic interpersonal and mass communication, the lesser the intercultural transformation.
Hwang and He (1999) examined Chinese immigrants in SiliconValley and argued that the high
26
availability of Chinese media outlets in that particular region prevented those Chinese residents
from acculturating in the new environment by lowering the effectiveness of American media.
Studies also have found that different contents of host media have varying degrees of
acculturation effects. Y. Y. Kim’s (1977, 1988, 2001) series of studies repeatedly observed that
use of information-oriented media, such as newspapers, was related to higher acculturation levels
than use of entertainment-oriented media such as television and radio. Sunoo, Trotter, and
Aames (1980) conducted surveys of Indochinese in California and found that exposure to
newspapers was a stronger predictor of the refugees’ English competence than the general
consumption of television. Johnson (1996) investigated Hispanic women’s preferences for
American television genres and found that those who identified most with talk shows had
significantly higher levels of acculturation compared to those who identified with comedies
because talk shows better facilitated Hispanic women’s English skills than comedies.
Chaffe, Nass, and S. M. Yang’s (1990) study on Korean immigrants in California
suggests that information-oriented media of the host culture are the most important political
socialization agent for immigrants. The authors examined the relationship between media use
patterns and the acquisition of knowledge on American politics and found that the consumption
of U.S. television news and newspapers was a stronger predictor of U.S. political learning than
years of formal education. The authors concluded that the news media of the host culture acted
as a bridge linking home political understanding with host political knowledge, allowing
immigrants to comprehend and relate to local issues.
To sum up, media studies following the assimilation tradition have emphasized that host
societies’ mass media serve the functions to educate, socialize, and integrate migrants into a host
society. The limitation of this approach, however, is that it regards acculturation as

27
unidimensional and completely leaves out positive influences of ethnic attachment in relation to
acculturation. As a result, media studies following the assimilation model have shown the lack of
understanding on the dynamic interplay between host and ethnic media in acculturation
processes. In order to broaden the scope of acculturation phenomena, the pluralism perspective
has been adopted in media studies since the 1990s. Contrary to host media’s functions to
homogenize a society and create a common culture, media studies in the pluralism tradition have
focused on ethnic media’s roles to promote cultural diversities in a host country (Elias, 2008).
Ethnic media: An alternative social realty. Albert Bandura (2001) argues that mass
media work as the symbolic environment, transferring values, new ideas, behavioral patterns,
and social practices and fostering globally shared consciousness. Because mass media take a
major part in people’s everyday lives, their social reality and public consciousness are likely to
be constructed through mass media (Bandura, 1986; 2001). Gerbner’s (1969) cultivation theory
also proposes that people’s perceptions of what the everyday world is like are influenced and
“cultivated” by what they see and hear from mass media. However, the problem of media-
constructed social reality is that unlike the traditional socialization agents, the values and norms
created and transferred by mass media may not necessarily serve public benefits because mass
media organizations are privately owned and operated by the purpose of earning profits not by
social responsibilities (Silverblatt, 2004). Studies have found that the portrayals of ethnic
minorities and communities in mainstream media are not only scarce but also often
misrepresented (Faber, O'Guinn, & Meyer, 1987; Harwood & Anderson, 2002; Mastro & Behm-
Morawitz, 2005; Mastro & Greenberg, 2000; Taylor & Stern, 1997). The distorted ethnic
representation on host media can stereotype and marginalize immigrants’ real life stories, and
therefore it would increase dissatisfaction among the minority groups and social conflicts. The
28
1968 report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders also raised concerns
regarding the issue that news media failed to report adequately on riots and race relations. The
report noted that “In defining, explaining, and reporting this broader, more complex and
ultimately far more fundamental subject the communication’s media, ironically, have failed to
communicate” (Kerner, 1968, p.382).
Scholars following the pluralism perspective believe that ethnic media provide an
alternative social reality that complements the host media-constructed realities of ethnic
minorities. Cottle (2000) argues that ethnic media organizations, such as the minority press, local
cable television and radio stations, independent commercial television production companies,
and community-based film collectives, take an intermediate position between media
conglomerates and daily communications of ethnic minorities. Struggling to balance the need for
universalist appeals and the need for community-based expectations and obligations, ethnic
media organizations contribute to the communication environment of minorities through
authentic and pluralistic representations (Cottle, 2000).
The most basic and traditional function of ethnic media is to reinforce the bonds within
an ethnic community and to exchange community-related information and messages. Jeffres
(2000) analyzed the survey data collected every four years from 1976 to 1992 from 13 different
white ethnic groups in a Midwestern metropolitan area. The analyses revealed ethnic media’s
role to support ethnic groups by retaining attachment to their culture. It was found that ethnic
media use positively predicted ethnic behaviors and ethnic identities, and the effects increased as
the use of ethnic media accumulated over time.
Unlike the assimilation perspective’s general assertion, Moon and C. Park’s (2007) study
conducted among Korean immigrants in Los Angeles found that the consumption of ethnic
29
media was not necessarily associated with the impediment of host culture acceptance. The
authors argued that the content of Korean ethnic media not only was relevant to the Korean
community but also involved U.S. politics, economics, and social issues. As a consequence,
information and messages from Korean ethnic media helped facilitate Korean immigrants’
adaptation to the United States.
Ziegler (1983) analyzed foreign language newspapers published in the United States and
identified their three main roles: to provide a medium of communication for immigrants whose
native language was not English, to publish and update news of home countries which would
otherwise be unavailable, and to help the process of acculturation by providing advice and
information on lifestyles in the United States. These findings suggest that ethnic media support
the bidimensional concept of acculturation by facilitating immigrants’ adoption of new culture
and also by encouraging ethnic solidarity, language, and culture. The dual functions of ethnic
media have been observed repeatedly in different studies on various immigrant groups. Soruco
(1996) found that Cuban Americans used ethnic media to protect cultural bonds and native
language within a community, to get advice for starting a new life in America, and to be
entertained. The study also found that consumption of ethnic media decreased feelings of
isolation and confusion in a new environment. Viswanath and Arora (2000) found the evidence
of ethnic media’s social integration role by investigating the case study of the Asian Indian press
in the United States. Asian Indian newspapers informed their readers not only of ethnic
community events, holidays, and festivals but also of the events and news of the host community.
These newspapers also included the successful stories about members of the immigrant Indian
community and thus encouraged the integration of immigrants into the host society.
30
In addition to the acculturation function, ethnic newspapers are found to be an important
tool for immigrants to leverage their social power as a whole. Bekken (1997) revisited the role of
the ethnic press in late 19th and the early 20th centuries by examining the newspapers published
in foreign languages in the Chicago region. He found that the early ethnic newspapers helped
immigrants voice their opinions in regards to common social challenges and encouraged
immigrants to work together as one collective group to overcome these challenges in the host
society.
The recent developments in information and communication technologies represented by
the Internet and portable communication devices have expanded the territory of ethnic media to
the online space. Now immigrant communities in different parts of the world can easily connect
with homelands and ethnic group members in host countries while actively participating in
media content creation through online social media. Online ethnic communities not only share
the roles of traditional ethnic media but also reflect distinctive characteristics of the online
medium such as connectivity, interactivity, and anonymity. The following section clarifies the
theories and concepts of online social media and further discusses how online social media
function as a new acculturation context to ethnic immigrants and refugees.
Online social media as a new social context for immigrants. The Internet and
multimedia technologies have changed the nature of the ways in which people communicate and
socialize, and the phenomenon of online social media has been one of the most prominent
changes in the past decade. Since the concept of online social media is new, it is often limited to
specialized online social networking services such as Facebook and Twitter (e.g., Boyd &
Ellison, 2007) or confused with “seemingly-interchangeable” concepts of user generated content
or Web 2.0 (Kaplan, & Haenlein, 2010, p. 60). Thus, clarifying the concepts of user generated
31
content and Web 2.0 is necessary to define the concept of online social media. User generated
content refers to the various forms of media content, such as photos, pictures, videos, reviews,
information, and tags that are created by end-users and publicly available online, and Web 2.0
describes a platform that allows users to simultaneously create and modify content in a
participatory and collaborative manner (Ahlqvist, Bäck, Heinonen, & Halonen, 2010; Kaplan, &
Haenlein, 2010). Ahlqvist, Bäck, Heinonen, and Halonen (2010) point out that user generated
content and Web 2.0 are the two essential elements of online social media along with the third
element, communities. Communities indicate a group of individuals that shares and
communicates ideas, values, and a sense of unity using the Internet networks and digital records
(Ahlqvist, Bäck, Heinonen, & Halonen, 2010; Smith, Barash, Getoor, & Lauw, 2008). Based on
these clarifications, online social media can be defined as a group of Internet-based platforms
that provide user networking systems, “that build on the ideological and technological
foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user generated content”
(Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010, p.61). Under this definition, online social media includes various
types of online socializing platforms, such as blogs, microblogging (i.e., Twitter), online
communities, social networking sites (i.e., Facebook), content sharing communities (i.e.,
YouTube), collaborative projects (i.e., Wikipedia), and virtual social/game worlds (i.e., World of
Warcraft). Online social media can be performed through a variety of media devices, such as
desktop computers, laptop computers, tablet computers, cell phones, mp3 players, and game
consoles (cf., Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Lenhart, Purcell, Smith, & Zickuhr, 2010).
Online social media’s unprecedented features can be classified largely into two: social
networking and user participation. First, online social media allow a multitude of people to be
connected with less effort and less commitment by removing time-space constraints. Besides
32
increased accessibility, online social media’s interactive nature and multimedia functions provide
users higher degrees of social presence of others. Social presence theory was developed by Short,
Williams, and Christie (1976) in order to explain the effectiveness of media-mediated
communication. Social presence is the extent to which communicators feel like face-to-face
interactions using a medium, and the theory posits that effectiveness of media-mediated
communication is associated with the degrees of intimacy, interactivity, and acoustic, visual, and
physical contact provided by the medium. Given these criteria, social presence of online social
media is much higher than any other traditional media such as television and telephones, and as a
result, users can enjoy enhanced quality of media-mediated social networking activities using
online social media. In addition, one of the unique characteristics of online social media is to
make people’s social networks visible (Boyd & Ellison, 2007). This trait encourages increased
connections with latent ties, which are technically possible but not activated in face-to-face
settings or with strangers. Therefore, online social media help individuals expand their social
networks by reconnecting past social ties, maintaining current ties, and building new ties at the
same time (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Haythornthwaite, 2005).
Second, providing multimedia tools and Web 2.0, online social media allow users to
participate in creating and sharing their thoughts and lifestyles with others through diverse media
formats such as texts, pictures, music, and video clips (Coyle & Vaughn, 2008). In the one-way
communication model of traditional mass media, users’ media activities are limited to receive,
reject, or select content from media. However, in online social media’s two-way communication,
users no longer remain as receivers or selectors but become active message and content creators
and diffusers. Jenkins (2006) refers this paradigm shift as media convergence, which indicates
not only a technological change but also industrial, cultural, and social changes. In the age of
33
media convergence, media users are no longer isolated but socially connected, and they actively
participate in content selection, creation, and distribution migrating across multiple media
platforms.
The difference between traditional media activities and online social media activities can
be compared to Carey’s (1975) cultural approach to distinguish the transmission view of
communication and the ritual view of communication. The former is associated with the role of
communication to transmit, spread, and disseminate knowledge and ideas, while the latter is
concerned with the role to associate with and participate in a shared reality. In other words, the
ritualistic way of media use is not driven by the need for new information but by the need to be
involved with the world one is living in and to recheck or redefine one’s idea of the world with
that of others. Even though the ritual view of communication has not been a dominant paradigm
in the U.S. media literature, the current new media era opens up opportunities for media scholars
to explore diversified uses of media in interaction with the world.
Weber and Mitchell (2008) call the ritualistic use of online social media among young
people as “identities-in-action” (p. 27). Today’s adolescents and young adults, who have been
growing up with new media, have been participating in online digital production and
consumption activities throughout their lives. By means of those online social media actions,
they are constantly engaged in telling and listening to stories of “where I was then,” “where we
are now,” and “who I would like to be.” Therefore, youths’ interactive use of new media serves
an important role in identity formation. Weber and Mitchell (2008) argue that new media
activities allow adolescents and young adults to construct, deconstruct, and reconstruct multiple
identities in dialectical relationships and eventually develop an integrated self-concept.

34
In this participatory culture of new media, online social media are more than just a
medium to see the world but rather become the real social context where immigrants and
refugees actively communicate with both host and ethnic people, thereby developing their host
and ethnic identities. Georgiou (2006) states that the Internet’s decentralized, interactive, and
transnational traits provide migrants an excellent social space for transnational as well as
localized communication, for public and private connections, for information and entertainment,
and for interpersonal and communal attachment.
Studies have revealed that ethnic online communities share the major functions of
traditional ethnic media, to reinforce the bonds within ethnic communities and to facilitate the
acculturation of immigrants. Elias and Zeltser-Shorer (2006) examined online communities of
the former Soviet Union Diaspora living in the United States, Israel, and Germany by conducting
an online survey posted on the most popular Russian-language online discussion board in each
country. The respondents answered that they visited Russian-language online communities to be
entertained, to meet and talk to people, and to get information and news about the host country
and the former Soviet Union. Although these online communities have common functions to
serve the Russian-speaking Diaspora in these different countries, each website also exhibited
characteristics specifically targeting the needs of the local immigrants. The study also found that
although the respondents showed strong ethnic attachment, identifying themselves as Russian-
speaking immigrants, they didn’t separate themselves from the host society considering their
host country as their home.
Georgiou (2006) asserts that online ethnic communities are active political forums where
minority discourses are held and thus have great potentials to support ethnic minorities for
expression, empowerment, and positive representation. The author investigated three online
35
communities used by different ethnic groups in the United Kingdom and found that the Internet
provides ethnic minority groups an easy and inexpensive channel to gain visibility as well as to
voice, overcome, and resist the barriers of dominant cultural ideologies such as discrimination,
exclusion, and political and social subordination.
Research indicates that there are some important aspects of online ethnic communities
that require our attention. On the one hand, the functions of online ethnic media are in line with
those of traditional ethnic media. Online ethnic communities develop a sense of solidarity by
allowing immigrants to be connected with the group members and home countries and also by
providing a public sphere where immigrants can leverage their power within a host society.
However, strengthened solidarity does not interfere with ethnic minorities’ desire to integrate
with the host society. The users of online ethnic media acquire information about the host society
and encourage one another to successfully adapt to a new social system. On the other hand, new
technological features make online ethnic media distinct from the functions of traditional ethnic
media. The Internet’s worldwide networks remove physical and geographical barriers, and thus
communication activities in online ethnic media can be more transnational than those of
traditional ethnic media. In Elias and Zeltser-Shorer’s (2006) study, the authors observed that the
respondents often visited Russian-language online communities of other countries to get job or
immigration information. In addition to transnational characteristics, the Internet’s interactivity
makes online ethnic media more decentralized and democratized than traditional ethnic media
(Georgiou, 2006). Even though traditional ethnic media are not power centered as much as media
conglomerates, they still follow the traditional media production and management systems: the
producer and the audience are separated, and the organizations are guided by financial interests.
Online ethnic communities, however, can be less restricted by those conditions. Therefore,
36
online ethnic media may be more open to public discussions and be better suited to develop a
sense of group membership through user-to-user interactions. In addition, they may have more
varieties of media content created by multiple voluntary participants.
Previous research on online social media and immigrants, however, has had a tendency to
focus on online ethnic communities only. Thus, more studies need to examine immigrants’ use of
other popular social media platforms such as blogs, social networking sites, and content sharing
communities. As discussed earlier, acculturation is a process that involves the interplay between
host cultural experiences and ethnic cultural experiences. Therefore, to fully understand how
immigrants communicate and socialize using online social media as a social context, it is critical
to further investigate ethnic minorities’ use of various online social media platforms to interact
with both host and ethnic people.
Acculturation of North Korean Refugee Young Adults in South Korea
The previous sections review the literature on acculturation and media in order to provide
the background theories and knowledge for the current study. This section applies the reviewed
theories and concepts in the context of the acculturation of North Korean refugee young adults in
South Korea. This section reviews North Korean refugee young adults’ acculturation contexts.
For the societal level context, the history of defection from the North to the South is reviewed,
focusing on how the characteristics of the refugee population have changed over time and how
these characteristics have reshaped the South Korean government’s resettlement policies. Next,
for the group level context, general challenges that North Korean refugee young adults have to
cope with in their everyday lives are discussed in terms of family, education, and job
opportunities. Last, the media environment of the refugee young adults and its impact on the
refugees’ lives are discussed.

37
The societal and group level contexts. North Korean refugees in South Korea have
unique characteristics that differentiate them from other immigrants in South Korea or from
other international refugee groups. The uniqueness stems from Korea’s special political situation
as a divided nation. South Koreans generally have mixed emotions and attitudes toward North
Korea. On one hand, North Korea is considered a lost brother because the 1945 division of Korea,
which separated numerous families, was forced on the Korean people without their consent by
the Soviet Union and the United States as a result of the mounting political tension stemming
from the Cold War. On the other hand, North Korea is also considered an enemy state, which
initiated the Korean War in 1950 and has constantly threatened the national security of South
Korea ever since. In a nationwide opinion poll conducted in 2010, 28.7 percent of respondents
answered that North Korean refugees were more like strangers than fellow Korean citizens (Sonh
and N. Y. Lee, 2012). The poll also revealed that the number of people who believed South
Korea had a responsibility to accept all North Korean refugee brothers had dropped from 46.2
percent in 2005 to 38.1 percent in 2010. The difference between these results indicates that
though many South Koreans may feel a kinship with North Korean refugees to some extent, they
are decreasingly willing to accept them as lost brothers and therefore decreasingly willing to
accept them as members of South Korean society. As a result, North Korean refugees are likely
to experience prejudice and discrimination that may hinder their progress during the
acculturation process.
The South Korean government defines a North Korean refugee as a person who was born
in North Korea and has moved to South Korea, but who also has verifiable connections with
North Korea such as a home address, members of immediate families such as parents, children,
or a spouse still living in North Korea, or a place of work. Also to receive refugee status, a North
38
Korean national cannot have taken any other foreign nationalities after he or she left North Korea
(Ministry of Unification, 2013). If North Korean refugees request asylum in South Korea, the
South Korean government protects and accommodates them for humanitarianism, following the
national and international refugee laws and treaties.
The patterns of defection from the North to the South have dramatically changed since
the 1995 Great Famine in North Korea. The deterioration of North Korea’s economy became
aggravated in the early 1990’s due to the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe that
had previously been economic allies of North Korea. In addition to increasing isolation from the
world market, a series of floods in 1995 and 1996 destroyed much of North Korea’s crops,
bringing North Korea’s national food ration system to an end (Chung, 2003). Faced with
starvation, a massive illegal migration in which North Koreans crossed the Chinese-North
Korean border began. The estimated number of North Koreans wandering Chinese regions close
to the border reached approximately 150,000 to 200,000 at its worst point during the early 2000s
(Chung, 2009). Living in China as illegal aliens means that North Korean refugees cannot get
legal jobs, education, or proper medical care. In addition, refugees are at a high risk of being
deported back to North Korea, which would likely result in severe punishment such as
imprisonment, forced labor, and even execution for the individual and even possibly for three
generations of his or her family. For these reasons, North Korean refugees, once again, risk their
lives to come to South Korea in efforts to get legal rights and freedom. The period of stay in a
transitional country, typically China, between crossing the border of North Korea and coming to
South Korea can vary from several months to years.
According to the report of the Ministry of Unification of South Korea (2013), the number
of refugees coming to South Korea was less than ten annually before 1994. However in 1994
39
alone, 52 refugees defected to the South. The number has been rapidly increasing ever since,
reaching its highest point in 2009 at 2,927. As of May 2013, 25,210 North Korean refugees
reside in South Korea. Along with the drastic increase in numbers, the Great Famine has changed
the general characteristics of the refugees as well. Before 1994, the major reasons for defection
to the South were differences in political and ideological opinions between the refugees and the
State (W. Y. Lee, 1997). Therefore prior to 1994, the refugees were likely to be well-educated
elites such as former officers and diplomats who were able to find jobs easily at government
agencies or large corporations in South Korea due to their expertise and experiences (Chung,
2009). On the other hand, the refugees arriving in South Korea after 1994 have often been from
less privileged groups that suffered the most from the food shortages. The majority of these
refugees either did not have regular jobs (50 percent) or were manual laborers (38 percent) in
North Korea, and only 17 percent of them received college level education (Ministry of
Unification, 2013). Because of their lack of skills and knowledge, this latter group of refugees
tends to experience more difficulties adjusting to South Korea’s competitive market system than
their predecessors.
As the number of refugees increased, so did the South Korean government’s policies and
attitudes toward North Korean refugees. Before 1994, the refugees were considered a symbol of
the South Korea’s economic and political superiority over the North, and North Korean refugees
were treated as “patriots and heroes who returned to the state” (Chung, 2009, p.7) especially
during the Cold War. Therefore, these early refugees were given a great amount of resettlement
money as reward. After 1994 due to the large influx of refugees, the South Korean government
has had to develop more realistic and practical resettlement policies. The amount of resettlement
money was decreased to supplement monthly living expenses and no longer functioned as
40
rewards. In addition, the South Korean government opened facilities to prepare refugees to
become financially independent of the state. One such facility is the Hanawon Resettlement
Education Center, which opened in 1998 to provide a two-month mandatory acculturation
program that includes job training along with mental and physical medical care.
The official rhetoric used to identify North Korean refugees in South Korea has evolved
over time, reflecting the changing attitudes of the South Korean government toward the refugees.
In 1997, the term, “residents who escaped from North Korea,” was first used, which emphasized
the refugees’ North Korean origin. In 2005, the government created the term “new settlers” in an
effort to eliminate controversial words such as “escape” and “North.” The former is the official
term still used in government documents, while the latter is used more frequently on unofficial
and everyday occasions. The change of terms is a good example of the South Korean
government’s efforts to integrate the refugees into the South Korean society as migrants rather
than defectors. By redefining the refugees as migrants, the government tries to be responsive to
the multiethnic trends in contemporary South Korea caused by the recent influx of foreign
workers and North Korean refugees (Chung, 2009). However, S. H. Kim (2009) argues that the
fundamental direction of the South Korean government’s refugee policy is assimilation rather
than integration. That is, the goal of refugee acculturation policy is a complete makeover of the
refugees into South Korean citizens by removing North Korean lifestyles. For example, Chung
(2009) criticizes that cultural programs provided by Hanawon are limited to the inculcation of
conventional norms and lifestyles of South Korea’s middle class to the refugees. These programs
often perpetuate gender stereotypes and preach the supremacy of capitalism by teaching adult
male refugees how to drive while teaching adult female refugees how to cook and sew with
home electronics. The ideology behind these programs is that South Korean culture is modern,
41
advanced, and civilized, whereas North Korean culture is traditional, outdated, and uncivilized
(Chung, 2009). The South Korean government’s assimilation approach reflects the society’s
general attitudes towards North Korean refugees, and therefore, it significantly affects
individuals’ acculturation strategies especially when they are going through the period of identity
formation. In a study by Han, Yoon, H. K. Lee, and I. H. Kim (2009), 61.9 percent of
respondents who were attending public middle schools and high schools reported that they would
not reveal their North Korean origin to classmates if they transfer to a different school. It
suggests that many North Korean youths are experiencing identity crises, considering their North
Korean heritage inferior to South Korean culture.
After completing the Hanawon program, the biggest problem that the refugees face in
South Korea is to find a job. According to a 2010 report from the Korean Social Science Data
Center, the economically active population among the refugees was 42.5 percent, and the
unemployment rate was 8.8 percent. Given that the average rate of the economically active
population in South Korea was 61.1 percent with an unemployment rate of 3.5 percent, North
Korean refugees’ economic participation in South Korea was relatively low. Another challenge
was the fact that 54 percent of the jobs North Korean refugees held were merely temporary. As a
result, most of the refugees suffered financial problems. The majority of the respondents defined
themselves as the middle-lower or lower class (66 percent), and a considerable number of the
refugees believed that they were living in abject poverty (11.8 percent). This economic
instability causes feelings of relative deprivation and isolation, expanding the psychological
distance between the refugees and native South Koreans. The refugees argue that they receive
unfair treatment from South Korean employers due to the prejudice against North Korean
42
refugees, but South Korean employers also complain that the refugees lack the South Korean
work ethic and communication skills (Korea Institute for National Unification, 2005).
Most North Korean refugee young adults hope to become more successful than their
parents’ generation through the achievement of degrees in higher education. Unfortunately, it is
also challenging for them to survive in the competitive education system. Since they missed
formal schooling for several years before and during the escape, it is very difficult for them to
quickly understand South Korea’s educational content and pedagogical styles (J. Kim & Jang,
2007). The language barrier is another problem to consider. The division has changed the
dialects used in North and South Korea, so words might have different meanings or might be
spelled differently between the two Koreas. Therefore, the refugee young adults have to learn
new words and expressions, especially those used in academic settings and those imported from
foreign sources. These language differences make the refugee young adults insecure about
communicating with South Koreans, which can negatively affect their peer relationships (Min,
2008). In the 2005 research of Database Center for North Korean Human Rights, the refugee
adolescents and young adults felt more comfortable talking with family members (38.9 percent)
or refugee friends (25.4 percent) than South Korean friends (13.5 percent) or teachers (7.5
percent).
Furthermore, the refugee young adults who missed years of formal education usually
have to study with younger South Koreans in schools, which can deepen the emotional distance
with their classmates (J. K. Cheong, B. H. Cheong, & G. M. Yang, 2004). As a result, many
North Korean refugee young adults who pursue high school diplomas are likely to drop out of
public schools or enter private refugee institutions, segregating themselves from other South
Korean peers. The refugees’ dropout rates in 2010 were 4.4 percent for middle school and 10.1
43
percent for high school students, indicating that more difficulties are present as students involve
in advanced classes. Because the refugee students receive special advantages for college
admissions and scholarships, almost 85 percent of refugee high school graduates pursue college
level education. However, their college dropout rate is 28.4 percent whereas the dropout rate of
native South Korean students is merely 4.5 percent (Educational Development Institute, 2011).
Y. E. Yang and Bae (2010) interviewed refugees in their early 20s who had discontinued
their formal education in South Korea, and they found that the main reason for dropping out was
stress caused by their lack of academic abilities and large age gaps between the refugees and
their classmates. The study observed that the discontinuation of formal education posed a serious
obstacle to getting stable jobs, and thus the interviewees ended switching back and forth between
low-paid work and unemployment. Many of them showed the symptoms of frustration, lack of
confidence, anger, and depression caused by the vicious cycle.
What makes the refugee young adults’ adjustment in South Korea more difficult is their
family environment. As a result of the famine in the 1990s, many North Koreans lost or have
been separated from their family members, which dismantled the traditional family structure of
the country. Many North Korean refugees whose spouses have died or whose spouses were left
behind in North Korea have remarried other refugees or Korean Chinese people living close to
the North Korean-Chinese border. Therefore, numerous refugee young adults live in broken
families and have to deal with conflicts between original and new family members (Min, 2008).
Even more challenging is that, according to a report by Back, Kil, Yun, and Y. R. Lee, (2006),
22.5 percent of North Korean refugee children and adolescents don’t have family members in
South Korea at all. They may attend public schools and live in public or private facilities, or they
may go to alternative schools for the refugees living in dormitories. However after they graduate
44
from high school, most of the refugee orphans have to move out from those facilities since they
are no longer protected and cared for by governmental and non-governmental organizations. This
means the orphaned refugee young adults have to cope with the critical transitional period of
adapting to adult roles by themselves without familial support.
In summary, the acculturation conditions of North Korean refugee young adults in South
Korea are exceptionally challenging. Although the South Korean government tries to support the
refugees with various adaptation programs, surviving in the competitive capitalist system is too
harsh for those who grew up in one of the most closed, controlled, and economically deprived
communist societies in the world. The South Korean government adopts the assimilation
approach in an attempt to merge the refugees into South Korean society, and some refugees try
to hide their national origin. The refugee young adults have to recover from traumatic
experiences from the past while dealing with new acculturation challenges every day. The
missed years of formal education before and during the escape also are serious obstacles to
overcome as they try to adjust to South Korean schools and attempt to find a stable employment.
For the refugee young adults who want to be assimilated into South Korean culture but
have limited resources, South Korean mass media can be the most accessible and convenient
channel to learn economic, political, and cultural systems of South Korea. Cho (2006) states that
North Korean refugees generally have a strong desire to get information and tend to rely on mass
media, especially television, to satisfy their needs. The following section reviews the studies on
how the consumption of South Korean media facilitates the acculturation of North Korean
refugees drawing on both the assimilation and the pluralism models.
The influence of South Korean mass media on acculturation. The division of Korea is
often compared with the division of East and West Germany before 1990. Hesse (1990) argues
45
that before the 1990 German unification, electronic reunification had already occurred because
two major West German public broadcast services were made available to East German regions
in 1985. For East Germans, West German media were the only source of information on world
events that were not covered by East German media. The images of West Germany on television
shaped and reinforced East Germans’ positive perceptions toward the West German government,
and it ultimately played a significant role in collapse of the East German communist regime
(Hesse, 1990). The Germany example suggests that the worldviews of people who are in a closed,
controlled society can be broadened beyond their national borders by mass media-provided
social reality.
Interestingly, according to the testimonies of North Korean refugees, a similar
phenomenon is secretly but increasingly occurring in North Korea. North Korean refugees’
exposure to South Korean media starts before they arrive in the South. Even though South
Korean media is strictly prohibited in North Korea, generally 50 to 70 percent of North Korean
refugees report that they had experienced South Korean radio programs aired for propaganda
purposes while they were still in North Korea (J. C. Lee, 2003; Sung, 2004). More recently,
South Korean entertainment media, such as movies and television dramas, have secretly gained
popularity among North Koreans (D. W. Kang & J. R. Park, 2011). South Korean movies and
television dramas are made in CD, DVD, and thumb drive formats and distributed through the
black market. This trend began in the mid-1990s when hungry North Koreans traveled outside
the country searching for food. When they returned from China, they brought with them both
food and South Korean information and entertainment. A study conducted by D. W. Kang and J.
R. Park (2011) shows striking results in regards to the popularity of South Korean pop culture
among North Koreans. During in-depth interviews with 33 refugees from nine provinces in
46
North Korea, 50 percent reported that they watched South Korean television programs about
once a week while they were living in North Korea. For North Koreans who have been
completely isolated from the rest of the world for decades, South Korea’s media has the potential
to shift the worldviews of North Koreans by providing alternative perspectives that might
challenge them to re-evaluate their government.
Research on the relationship between South Korean media and the acculturation of North
Korean refugees has not been fully explored due to the relatively short history of the refugee
influx. Similar to North American media studies on acculturation, the assimilation model has
been adopted as the dominant paradigm in North Korean refugee media studies. In line with the
findings in North American settings, North Korean refugee research has generally observed mass
media’s positive effects on the adaptation processes of refugees. J. C. Park, Y. Y. Kim, and W. Y.
Lee (1996) found that newspapers and television were the major sources of information about
South Korea to the refugees, and C. H. Lee (2000) also found a positive relationship between the
use of South Korean media and a refugee’s willingness to accept South Korean values and
cultures.
T. Y. Kang, Hwang, and K. M. Kang (2011) found that North Korean refugee adolescents
and young adults who had a short period of settlement in South Korea were likely to report
greater television use and a higher tendency to watch entertainment-oriented television to learn
South Korean pop culture for the purpose of making South Korean friends. The study also
observed different media content types had different acculturation effects. Information-oriented
media consumption was more associated with the motivation for learning South Korean culture
and the motivation for self-enhancement while entertainment-oriented media consumption was
associated with the motivation for self-enhancement only. The results suggest that the refugee
47
adolescents and young adults are actively involved in the selection of television content
depending on their acculturation needs. During the early stage of settlement when the need for
expanding social networks is high, entertainment television provides trivial information that
serves as icebreakers, lowering the emotional distance between the refugees and their South
Korean peers by offering a common frame of reference for friendly conversations. As the
refugees enter the stable stage of settlement, their need for understanding the social system and
social issues of South Korea becomes greater, and thus their consumption of information-
oriented television content, such as news reports, increases.
Along with media content, M. K. Lee and H. J. Woo (2004) found that individuals’
acculturation levels moderated the effects of mass media. The authors compared the relationship
between the refugees’ consumption of television dramas and their perceptions of human
relationships, crime, and morality in South Korean society. The results showed that the refugees
with higher levels of television drama consumption were likely to have negative perceptions
toward South Korean society on all three subjects. However, this tendency was only found
among the group that had low assimilation levels. This indicates that television becomes a
window to understand South Korean society during the initial stage of resettlement, but it also
provides distorted images, making it difficult for the refugees to distinguish between reality and
manipulated media images. The influences of media, however, decrease over time as the
refugees’ experiences in South Korea increase.
Kwak and S. G. Park (2006) examined the relationship between mass media use and the
political socialization of North Korean refugees. They found that greater use of newspapers
predicted the refugees’ larger offline social ties and positive attitudes toward civic participation
in South Korea, whereas the use of television was not significantly associated with those
48
variables. Interestingly, the use of online media was found to relate to positive attitudes toward
South Koreans and larger online social ties, yet it predicted negative attitudes toward the South
Korean government and policies. Kwak and S. G. Park’s (2006) findings suggest that media’s
influences on North Korean refugees can have mixed results depending on media types.
Especially, the association between online media and negative attitudes towards the government
suggests that the engagement of online communication involves more complex activities than the
consumption of one-way messages from mass media. By engaging in political discussions
through online communities, North Korean refugees can build a sense of fellowship with other
South Koreans and also develop critical thinking skills in the evaluation of political issues.
On the other hand, North Korean refugees’ media use has not been examined yet from the
pluralism perspective of acculturation. The lack of research on this topic may be due to the fact
that there is not any traditional form of ethnic media that can represent the life of the refugees in
South Korea. Although there are a few media outlets particularly dealing with the news and
issues about North Korea, they function as propaganda broadcast against the Northern regime.
Accordingly, these media have strong right-wing political perspectives, and the types of issues
discussed in these media are limited as well. In these circumstances, online social media can
replace the role of ethnic media to reflect the needs and lifestyles of North Korean refugee
communities while providing alternative views and a greater variety of information.
North Korean refugee young adults’ use of online social media: The focus of the
current study. As reviewed earlier, previous studies have revealed that online ethnic
communities not only serve the roles of traditional ethnic media but also have highlighted
functions of connectivity and empowerment of ethnic groups (Elias & Zeltser-Shorer, 2006;
Georgiou, 2006). In this regard, this study proposes that online social media can be a public
49
space for North Korean refugee young adults to share information with and emotionally support
other refugee fellows when they do not have traditional ethnic media channels to meet their
communication needs. Online social media are especially useful when the refugees want to
protect their identities from possible threats of North Korea when they socialize with other
refugees. One good example is The Rest Area of New Settlers (http://www.toxjals.com/), which
is the largest online North Korean community with 2,000 to 6,000 daily visitors. The users of
this website are not limited to the refugees in South Korea but also include the refugees in other
countries such as China as well as Korean Chinese who are not refugees but who live in the
Yanbian Autonomous Prefecture, a primarily ethnic Korean region that runs along the Chinese
side of the North Korean-Chinese border. On this website, people exchange a variety of
information about living in South Korea in regards to jobs, education, legal and welfare issues,
childcare, hobbies, and technology. The website also posts advertisements for North Korea-
related products (e.g., music CDs and food) that cater to refugee consumers. People share their
stories of living in North Korea, escaping, and living in South Korea by posting text, photos, and
videos. Given that this website offers information about South Korean culture to North Korean
refugees while reinforcing the bond of the refugee community, it seems that the website not only
serves the traditional roles of ethnic media but also facilitates transnational social networks
across the North Korean Diaspora.
In addition to building relationships with other refugees, online social media can expand
the refugee young adults’ social networks with South Koreans. The anonymity of the online
environment protects the privacy of the refugees and also removes the pressures that are present
in face-to-face interactions (Stritzke, Nguyen, & Durkin, 2004). Thus, the refugee young adults
can freely interact with South Korean friends without exposing their North Korean accent and
50
thus can naturally enhance their social competence. By interacting with South Korean friends
and observing others’ user generated content, the refugee young adults can learn the values and
lifestyles of South Korean young people. At the same time, by participating in daily online social
media activities, the refugee young adults can become gradually and naturally accustomed to
South Korean culture.
Therefore, online social media can be a great venue of the pluralism model of
acculturation for North Korean refugee young adults who are in a critical period of identity
formation as new South Koreans with North Korean backgrounds. As North Korean refugee
young adults can actively interact with both the refugee community and South Koreans through
online social media, North Korean refugee young adults get opportunities to explore, experiment,
and experience different aspects of cultural selves and thus are able to form balanced North
Korean and South Korean identities.
Statement of Hypotheses and Research Questions
The purpose of this study is two-fold. First, this study attempts to provide descriptive
information on acculturation tendencies and media use patterns of North Korean refugee young
adults through preliminary analyses. Second, the main investigation of this study is focused on
the relationship between North Korean refugee young adults’ media use patterns and their
acculturation domains from the pluralism idea that acculturation is a process by which
immigrants can maintain ethnic culture while simultaneously accepting a host culture. Ward
(1996) suggests that acculturation can be categorized into psychological acculturation and
sociocultural acculturation. Psychological acculturation indicates one’s psychological wellbeing
while sociocultural acculturation involves the ability and skills that are required to manage
everyday social situations in a new cultural context. The current research tests cultural identity,
51
self-esteem, and acculturative stress for psychological acculturation domains and language
competence, cultural competence, the extent of social networks, and community involvement for
sociocultural acculturation domains. Self-esteem and acculturative stress are the variables
indicating psychological health, and the extent of social networks and community involvement
indicate social competence. The model for the current study’s hypotheses and research questions
is presented in Figure 1.
The previous experiences with South Korean mass media (RQ1). According to the
testimonies of North Korean refugees living in South Korea, the consumption of South Korean
mass media is prevalent among North Koreans even though it is strictly prohibited in North
Korea (D. W. Kang & J. R. Park, 2011; J. C. Lee, 2003; Sung, 2004). C. H. Lee and S. J. Kim
(2007) assert that South Korean media have direct and indirect impacts on North Korean
refugees’ decisions to flee to South Korea. In order to better understand South Korean mass
media’s longitudinal effects on the acculturation process of North Korean refugee young adults,
it is important to examine how the refugees’ previous experiences with South Korean mass
media in the time before they came to South Korea may be related to their current media use
patterns and acculturation domains. Therefore, the following research question is proposed:
RQ1a: How are North Korean refugee young adults’ previous experiences with South
Korean mass media before they came to South Korea related to their current media use
patterns?
RQ1b: How are North Korean refugee young adults’ previous experiences with South
Korean mass media before they came to South Korea related to their South Korean
acculturation domains?
52
RQ1c: Do North Korean refugee young adults’ previous experiences with South Korean
mass media have varying degrees of influences on South Korean acculturation domains
depending on media types (i.e., newspapers, television dramas/shows, radio, magazines,
and movies)?
The influences of South Korean mass media (H1 & RQ2). Studies have revealed that
South Korean mass media consumption helps North Korean refugees learn and accept
information, values, lifestyles as well as the overall social systems of South Korea (Kwak & S. G.
Park, 2006; Lee, 2000; J. C. Park, Y. Y. Kim, & W. Y. Lee, 1996). Thus, this study proposes that
South Korean mass media consumption may be positively associated with North Korean refugee
young adults’ South Korean cultural competence and language competence and thus
consequently may enhance their South Korean identity.
H1a: Greater use of South Korean mass media will be positively associated with North
Korean refugee young adults’ South Korean identity.
H1b: Greater use of South Korean mass media will be positively associated with North
Korean refugee young adults’ South Korean language competence.
H1c: Greater use of South Korean mass media will be positively associated with North
Korean refugee young adults’ South Korean cultural competence.
RQ2a: Do North Korean refugee young adults’ South Korean mass media use have
varying degrees of influences on South Korean acculturation domains depending on
media types (i.e., newspapers, television, radio, magazines, and websites)?
Since South Korean media provide information about the new culture, they may help
North Korean refugee young adults socialize with South Koreans. T. Y. Kang, Hwang, and K. M.
Kang (2011) found that North Korean refugee young adults with a short period of settlement
53
tended to watch more entertainment-oriented television programs in order to understand South
Korean pop culture and make South Korean friends. In the same vein, having more knowledge
about South Korea through the use of South Korean media may lower acculturative stress and
enhance their psychological health. However, there are no theoretical supports and previous
research findings regarding the direct or indirect relationships between host media use and host
social competence and psychological health. Therefore, to further explore connections between
South Korean media and the acculturation of the refugee young adults and to compare them to
those of online social media, the following research questions are presented:
RQ2b: How is the use of South Korean mass media associated with North Korean
refugee young adults in regards to (1) the extent of South Korean social networks, (2)
South Korean community involvement, (3) self-esteem, and (4) acculturative stress?
The influences of North Korea-related mass media content (H2 & RQ3). Studies in
the U.S. settings have found that the use of ethnic media reinforces ethnic solidarity, language,
and culture (Bekken, 1997; Soruco, 1996; Viswanath & Arora, 2000; Ziegler, 1983). As noted
earlier, the effects of North Korean ethnic media on North Korean refugees’ adaptation have not
been examined yet due to the lack of ethnic media outlets. Thus, the current research suggests
that the consumption of North Korea-related or North Korean refugee-related content would be
positively associated with North Korean identity, language competence, and cultural competence.
H2a: Greater use of North Korea-related mass media content will be positively
associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ North Korean identity.
H2b: Greater use of North Korea-related mass media content will be positively
associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ North Korean language competence.
54
H2c: Greater use of North Korea-related mass media content will be positively
associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ North Korean cultural competence.
RQ3a: Does North Korean refugee young adults’ North Korea-related mass media
content use have varying degrees of influences on North Korean acculturation domains
depending on media types (i.e., newspapers, television, radio, magazines, and websites)?
RQ3b: How is the use of North Korea-related mass media content associated with North
Korean refugee young adults in regard to (1) the extent of North Korean social networks,
(2) North Korean community involvement, (3) self-esteem, and (4) acculturative stress?
The influence of online social media (H3). Online social media provide North Korean
refugee young adults increased connectivity, interactivity, and accessibility in social
relationships. In addition to those benefits, the anonymity of the online environment offers a
secure space for the refugees to gather and also lowers pressures from the face-to-face
interactions (Stritzke, Nguyen, & Durkin, 2004). Through the use of online social media
platforms, socializing with North Korean refugee friends would help the refugee young adults
maintain their North Korean cultural heritage and group membership, while socializing with
South Korean friends would facilitate the process of learning values and lifestyles of South
Korean culture. Accordingly, the use of online social media with North Korean refugee friends
and/or South Korean friends would enhance the refugee young adults’ acculturation domains and
social competence due to larger social networks and higher involvement with the community,
and as a result, it would positively affect their psychological health (higher self-esteem and lower
acculturative stress).
H3a-1: Greater use of online social media with South Korean friends will be positively
associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ South Korean identity.
55
associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ South Korean language competence.
associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ South Korean cultural competence.
associated with the extent of North Korean refugee young adults’ South Korean social
networks.
associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ South Korean community
involvement.
associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ self-esteem.
H3a-7: Greater use of online social media with South Korean friends will be negatively
associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ acculturative stress.
H3b-1: Greater use of online social media with North Korean refugee friends will be
positively associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ North Korean identity.
positively associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ North Korean language
competence.
positively associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ North Korean cultural
competence.
56
positively associated with the extent of North Korean refugee young adults’ North
Korean social networks.
positively associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ North Korean community
involvement.
positively associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ self-esteem.
negatively associated with North Korean refugee young adults’ acculturative stress.
57
Mass Media Acculturation Domains Online Social Media
South Korean Identity
South Korean Language
Host Cultural Domains

Competence
H3a: Online
H1 & RQ2:
Social Media
South Korean South Korean Cultural
with South
Mass Media Competence
Koreans
South Korean Social

Competence:
Social Networks &
Community Involvement
Psychological Health:
Self-Esteem & Acculturative Stress
North Korean Identity
Ethnic Cultural Domains

North Korean Language
Competence H3b: Online
H2 & RQ3: Social Media
North Korean- with North
North Korean Cultural
related Mass Korean
Competence
Media Content Refugees
North Korean Social

Competence:
Social Networks &
Community Involvement
Figure 1. Hypotheses and research questions model.

58
CHAPTER 3
METHOD
Participants and Procedure
A self-administered online survey was deployed within the current study. Given that North
Korean refugee young adults may be reluctant to reveal their personal information, an online
survey was an appropriate method to provide an anonymous and secure environment to the
participants. The participants of the present study were students between the ages of 18 and 30
who were currently enrolled in or graduated from an alternative school for North Korean
refugees located in Seoul, South Korea. The school is a private educational institution that
provided North Korean refugee young adults with programs for cultural and social adaptation as
well as preparation for high school graduation examinations. Students attending this school
generally were 18 years old and over and had missed several years of formal schooling before
coming to South Korea.
Data collection procedures and questionnaire items were developed in consultation with
the school and local government officials. Participants were recruited by email solicitation upon
approval by the school representative. The recruitment email was sent out to the current students
and graduates to explain the purpose and the participation procedures of this research. Only those
who agreed to volunteer clicked the link to the online survey and were directed to the web page
containing the information sheet and electronic survey.
A total of 128 responses were collected in this study, and of the 128 responses, 21 were
excluded due to the instrument incompletion. As a result, data from 107 completed surveys were
used for the final analysis. The majority of participants were females: 36 (34%) males and 71
(66%) females. This ratio reflected the actual ratio of males (31%) to females (69%) in the whole
59
North Korean refugee population in South Korea (Ministry of Unification, 2013). The
participants’ mean age was 25.0 (SD = 4.6). Fifty-seven (53%) of the participants were between
the ages of 18 and 24 while 47% were between the ages of 25 and 30. Forty-two (39%) identified
themselves as alternative school students, and 57 (53%) identified as college students. Four
reported that they were employed (4%), and 4 (4%) were unemployed.
The living conditions of the participants varied as well. Thirty two (30%) participants
reported that they were living in a dormitory or a dormitory-like housing facility. Forty-three
(40%) were living with family, and 27 (25%) were living alone. In addition, 3 (3%) were living
with roommates, and 2 (2%) were living with relatives or acquaintances. Fifty-five (51%)
participants reported that there were other North Korean refugees in their neighborhood. The
average length of stay in a transitional country (or countries) before coming to South Korea was
22.3 months (SD = 33.7 months) while the average length of residence in South Korea was 51.1
months (SD = 37.5 months). Overall, there was a wide range in the length of time respondents
had been in a transitional country (or countries) before coming to South Korea, and these times
ranged from less than a month to 10 years and from 6 months to 12 years, respectively. See
Table 1 for further details.

60
Table 1
Participant Demographic Characteristics (N = 107)
Variables N %
Age
18-24 57
53.3
25-30 50
46.7
Mean (SD) = 25.0 (4.6)
Gender
Male 36 33.6
Female 71 66.4
Education/Job Status
Alternative School Students 42 39.3
College Students 57 53.3
Employed 4 3.7
Unemployed 4 3.7
Years in Transitional Countries
Less than 1 Year 60
56.1
1 – 3 Years 26
24.3
4 – 6 Years 9
8.4
7 – 10 Years 12
11.2
Mean (SD) = 1 Year 10 Months (2 Years 10 Months)
Years in South Korea
Less than 1 Year
7 6.4
1 – 3 Years
48 44.7
4 – 6 Years
20 19.1
7 – 10 Years
30 27.7
More than 10 Years
2 2.1
Mean (SD) = 4 Years 3 Months (3 Years 1 Month)
Living Conditions
Living in Dormitories 32 29.9
Living with Family 43 40.2
Living Alone 27 25.2
Living with Roommates 3 2.8
Living with Relatives/Acquaintances 2 1.9
Neighborhood
Having Refugee Neighbors 55 51.1
Not Having Refugee Neighbors 52 48.9
61
Instruments
The current research has four predictor variables (South Korean media use, North Korea-
related or North Korean refugee-related media use, online social media use with South Koreans,
online social media use with North Korean refugees) and seven criterion variables (cultural
identity, language competence, cultural competence, the extent of social networks, community
involvement, self-esteem, and acculturative stress).
In addition to these variables, other elements that might influence the acculturation
process such as demographic variables were measured to test the dynamic acculturation process
of North Korean refugee young adults. The demographic questionnaire has seven items:
respondents’ age, gender, education or job status, length of stay in a transitional country (or
countries), length of residence in South Korea, living conditions, and neighborhood.
The questionnaire was developed using the two-step translation method. It was first
written in English, and then the English version of measurement items were translated into
Korean. Finally, the Korean version of the questionnaire was translated back into English to
ensure linguistic equivalence of the measures. The Korean version of the measures were
reviewed by a panel of North Korean refugees to make sure that the words and expressions used
in items were understandable to general North Korean refugee young adults. Then, minor
changes were made to the final version of the questionnaire.
Cultural Identity, Language Competence, and Cultural Competence
This study proposes operational definitions of cultural identity, language competence,
and cultural competence as follows. Cultural identity refers to an individual’s sense of self as a
member of a cultural group (or groups) and emotional attachment to that group (cf., Phinney,
1990). Language competence refers to one’s language skills to communicate with members of a
62
given cultural group, and cultural competence refers to one’s knowledge about a given culture
(cf., LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993).
To measure these three variables, the current study uses the subscales of Abbreviated
Multidimensional Acculturation Scale (AMAS–ZABB) developed by Zea, Asner-Self, Birman,
and Buki (2003). This scale is comprised of 42 items with three subscales, cultural identity,
language competence, and cultural competence, and it has been designed to be adaptable for use
with any ethnic group experiencing cultural transition. The AMAS–ZABB scale is a
multidimensional measure of acculturation based on the notion that cultural identity, language
competence, and cultural competence are distinct dimensions of acculturation. It suggests that
even when an individual is competent in a culture, he or she may not necessarily be fluent in that
language or identify with the culture, and vice versa (Zea, Asner-Self, Birman, & Buki, 2003).
The original scale was validated with U.S. college student and community samples with diverse
ethnic backgrounds, and the Cronbach’s alphas for all subscales ranged from .83 to .97 across
different ethnic samples. Following the pluralism model of acculturation, the current study
assesses each subscale with two dimensions: North Korean culture (the original culture) and
South Korean culture (the host culture).
The cultural identity scale consists of six items for each cultural dimension. Items in both
dimensions use similar structures and only replace the word North Korean with South Korean
(e.g., “I think of myself as being North Korean,” becomes “I think of myself as being South
Korean”). Respondents’ level of agreement with each item is assessed on a five-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The score of each cultural identity
is calculated by taking the mean of six items. A higher score indicates stronger cultural
identifications. To check the dimensionality of the scale, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was
63
performed. Factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were extracted, and the minimum values of
factor loadings were set at .40. The EFA with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) extraction
method showed one factor for the North Korean identity scale with 60.7 percent of total variance
explained. The South Korean identity scale also showed one factor with 72.1 percent of total
variance explained. The Cronbach’s alphas for the North Korean identity scale and the South
Korean identity scale were .87 and .86, respectively.
The language competence scale contains eight items in response to each of the following
questions, “How well do you speak or understand North Korean words, expressions, and
accent?” and “How well do you speak or understand South Korean words, expressions, and
accent?” The eight items describe eight different communication contexts: with family/at school
or work, with friends, on the telephone, with strangers, on television or in movies, in newspapers
and magazines, in words of songs, and in general. Items are answered on a five-point Likert scale,
with 5 representing “extremely well” and 1 representing “not at all,” and the mean score of eight
items is used for measuring the language competence. For the North Korean language
competence scale, the EFA with PCA extraction method based on varimax rotation showed one
factor with 78.6 percent of total variance explained. For the South Korean language competence
scale, the analysis showed one factor with 86.6 percent of total variance explained. The
Cronbach’s alphas of the current sample were .96 for North Korean language competence
and .97 for South Korean language competence.
The cultural competence scale assesses respondents’ knowledge of different aspects of
South Korean culture and North Korean culture by asking “How well do you know about the
following items?” Each cultural competence scale includes six items: national heroes, popular
television shows, newspapers and magazines, actors and actresses, history, and political leaders.
64
The respondents’ competence items are answered on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(not at all) to 5 (extremely well), and the item scores were averaged. The EFA with PCA
extraction method clearly indicated one factor solution with 75.7 percent of variance explained
for North Korean cultural competence and one factor with 72.3 percent of variance explained for
South Korean cultural competence. The alpha statistic for North Korean cultural competence
was .88 and .84 for South Korean cultural competence.
Social Competence: Social Networks and Community Involvement
The current study defines social competence as one’s ability to accomplish interpersonal
tasks and to maintain positive relationships with others over time across different social contexts
(cf., Rubin, & Krasnor, 1986). Wellman, Haase, Witte, and Hampton (2001) propose that
individuals’ ability to manage social relationships not only includes interpersonal interactions but
also consists of one’s community commitment. Drawing on this idea, two different levels of
social contexts are examined in order to measure respondents’ social competence in North
Korean refugee and South Korean social settings: the individual level social contexts and the
community level social contexts. For the individual level social contexts, respondents’ extent of
social networks with close families, friends, and neighbors is measured, whereas for the
community level social contexts, respondents’ involvement with the refugee community and
their South Korean community is assessed. This study assumes that the individual level social
competence and the community level social competence are distinctive dimensions and thus each
dimension is individually measured.
The extent of one’s social network is measured by the number of people that respondents
maintain close relationships with in terms of ten different relationship settings. The types of
relationship settings are carefully selected considering the common social relational patterns of
65
North Korean refugee young adults. For North Korean refugee social networks, family members
in South Korea, family members in foreign countries, close North Korean refugee friends, North
Korean refugee friends in foreign countries, and North Korean refugees in my neighborhood are
assessed. For South Korean social networks, close South Korean friends, teachers or professors,
social workers or government officials, South Korean neighbors, and people in my social groups
(e.g., religious groups, school clubs, hobby groups, etc.) are measured. In these ten categories,
respondents report the approximate number of people they currently maintain close relationships
using the following categories: none (0), 1-3 (1), 4-9 (2), 10-19 (3), and 20 and more (4).
Respondents’ overall extent of North Korean social networks is calculated by adding scores of
the former five categories, while South Korean social networks are assessed by adding scores of
the latter five categories.
Respondents’ community involvement is measured by seven Civic Action items
excerpted from the Civic Attitudes and Skills Questionnaire, developed by Moely, Mercer,
Ilustre, Miron, and McFarland (2002). This inventory was tested on U.S. college students, and
the Cronbach’s alphas for the two sample groups were .86 and .88. The original scale contains
eight items to measure young adults’ intentions for community involvement (e.g., “I plan to do
volunteer work”, or “I plan to participate in a local community action program”). This study
removes one item that showed the lowest factor loading: “I plan to become involved in programs
to help clean up the environment.” Additionally, the seven items are paired with the North
Korean refugee community involvement items, by replacing the word “my local community”
with “the North Korean refugee community.” Thus, a total of 14 items measure respondents’
involvement with a local community and the North Korean refugee community. Respondents
describe their level of agreement with the items using a five-point Likert scale from 1 meaning
66
“strongly disagree” to 5 meaning “strongly agree.” In the current sample, the EFA with PCA
extraction method clearly showed one factor with 70.7 percent of total variance explained for the
local community involvement and also one factor with 66.5 percent of total variance explained
for the North Korean community involvement. The Cronbach’s alpha for the local community
involvement was .79 and .75 for the North Korean refugee community involvement.
Psychological Health: Self-Esteem and Acculturative Stress
Respondents’ psychological health is measured by two dimensions: self-esteem and
acculturation stress. The current study suggests operational definitions of self-esteem as a
favorable or unfavorable attitude toward oneself (Rosenberg, 1965) and acculturative stress as
one’s negative psychological reactions during the process of acculturation (cf., Berry, 2006).
Respondents’ self-esteem is measured by Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale (1979), which
consists of ten items. Respondents rate their perceptions of self, using a five-point Likert scale
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The questions describe both positive
self-perceptions (e.g., “I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others”;
“I am able to do things as well as most other people”) and negative self-perceptions (e.g., “I feel
I do not have much to be proud of”; “I certainly feel useless at times”). Scores of items
measuring negative self-perceptions are reversed, thus higher averaged scores indicate greater
positive self-perceptions. For self-esteem, the EFA with PCA extraction method showed one
factor with 60.5 percent of total variance explained, and the Cronbach’s alpha in the current
sample was .89.
Respondents’ acculturation stress levels are measured with the Societal, Attitudinal,
Familial, and Environmental Acculturative Stress Scale (SAFE) developed by Mena, Padilla and
Maldonado (1987). This scale was originally created with 60 items by Padilla, Wagatsuma, and
67
Lindholm (1985) but was later reduced to 24 items by Mena, Padilla and Maldonado (1987).
These 24 items measure levels of acculturative stress in societal, attitudinal, familial, and
environmental contexts by describing various stressful conditions that immigrant students may
experience in a host culture as a minority group (e.g., “I feel uncomfortable when others make
jokes about or put down North Korean people”; “It bothers me that family members I am close to
do not understand my new values”; and “It is hard to express to my friends how I really feel”).
Among the original 24 items, two items that are not relevant to the context of North Korean
refugee young adults have been removed: “It bothers me to think that so many people use
drugs,” and “My family does not want me to move but I would like to.” The SAFE scale was
originally tested on U.S. college students (α = .89), and the items used in this scale describe
various aspects of acculturative stress applicable to North Korean refugee young adults. In total,
22 items on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not stressful) to 5 (extremely stressful) are
measured, and the scores of 22 items are averaged. For the acculturative stress scale, the EFA
with PCA extraction method found three factors with 70.3 percent of total variance explained.
The first factor included 16 items describing stress from the social and environment context, and
it accounted for 51.3 percent of total variance. The second factor explained 11.1 percent of total
variance, and it included three items describing stress from missing North Korea: “It bothers me
that I cannot be with my family in North Korea,” “I often think about North Korea,” and
“Loosening the ties with North Korea is difficult.” The third factor explained 7.9 percent of total
variance, and it included three items describing stress from the familial context: “It bothers me
that family members I am close to not understand my new values,” “Close family members and I
have conflicting expectations about my future,” “I am proud of my family.” Over the years, the
SAFE scale has been extensively used and has been shown to be unidimensional. Fuertes and
68
Westbrook (1996) did find multidimensionality in their work with the SAFE scale but used the
scale as a unidimensional construct, arguing that the different dimensions nevertheless measured
a core concept of acculturative stress. This study follows the approach used in previous research
with this scale, and treats it as a unidimensional construct. The validity and reliability of the
SAFE scale has been proven by previous studies using different immigrant samples, such as
Asian Americans (Mena, Padilla & Maldonado, 1987), Hispanic Americans (Fuertes &
Westbrook, 1996), and African Americans (Perez, Voelz, Pettit, & Joiner, 2002). The
Cronbach’s alpha in the current sample was .83.
Media Use Patterns
The present study examines five different media use patterns of North Korean refugee
young adults: South Korean mass media experiences prior to coming to South Korea, daily South
Korean mass media use, North Korea-related or North Korean refugee-related mass media
content use, online social media use with South Koreans, and online social media use with North
Korean refugees.
Respondents’ previous experiences with South Korean mass media before they arrived in
the country are assessed by asking respondents to describe their past experiences with five
different types of South Korean mass media (newspapers, television dramas or show programs,
radio, magazines, and movies) using the following categories: never (1), rarely (2), sometimes
(3), frequently (4), and very frequently (5). To measure the overall extent of previous
experiences with South Korean mass media, the total score of five items is used.
Respondents’ South Korean mass media use patterns are measured by the degree of daily
exposure to South Korean newspapers, radio, television, magazine, and websites. General South
Korean website use is included as South Korean mass media use, given that website use is not
69
concentrated on socializing functions and user participation, which is differentiated from online
social media use. Respondents are asked to report how long they use each medium in a usual day
using the following categories: never (1), less than 1 hour (2), 1-2 hours (3), 3-4 hours (4), and
more than 5 hours (5). The scores of five items are added to indicate the overall South Korean
media use.
Respondents’ North Korea-related mass media content use is assessed by the following
four items: North Korea-related or the North Korean refugee community-related newspapers,
television programs, radio, magazines, and websites. The frequency of using each item is
measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (very frequently), and the
scores of five items are added.
Finally, a series of questions measuring the intensity of use of online social media are
asked based on Steinfield, Ellison, and Lampe’s (2008) scale, which addresses the number of
hours using online social media, the number of social media friends, and emotional connections
to online social activities.
Respondents first describe how many hours they spend doing online social media in a
usual day using the following categories: never (1), less than 30 minutes (2), 30 minutes-1hour
(3), 2-3 hours (4), and more than 4 hours (5).
Then, the questionnaire asks the number of North Korean refugee friends and South
Korean friends whom the respondents regularly contact using online social media. The numbers
are reported in the following categories: none (1), 1-5 (2), 6-10 (3), 11-15 (4), and more than 16
(5). The numbers of the refugee friends and South Korean friends are used to indicate
respondents’ degrees of connection with North Korean friends and South Korean friends using
online social media.

70
Respondents’ emotional connections to online social activities are assessed using the
following six items: Online social networking is part of my everyday activity (1); I am proud to
tell people I like online social networking (2); online social networking is part of my daily
routine (3); I feel out of touch when I haven't logged onto online social networking sites for a
while (4); I feel I am part of the online social networking community (5); and I would be sorry if
my online social networking sites were shut down (6). Using a five-point Likert scale,
respondents report their levels of agreement with each item, ranging from strongly disagree (1)
to strongly agree (5). The EFA with PCA extraction method showed one factor with 68.4 percent
of total variance explained for emotional connections to online social activities, and the
Cronbach’s alpha was .81.
Respondents’ overall use of online social media with South Korean friends is calculated
by averaging the scores of the number of hours using online social media, the number of South
Korean online social media friends, and the degree of emotional connections to online social
activities. In the same manner, respondents’ overall use of online social media with North
Korean friends is calculated by averaging the scores of the number of hours using online social
media, the number of North Korean refugee online social media friends, and the degree of
emotional connections to online social activities.

71
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Preliminary Statistical Analysis
Before testing hypotheses and research questions, preliminary descriptive statistical
analyses were performed to understand the profile of respondents in terms of major variables.
The mean scores of main criterion variables were as follows: cultural identity (NK: M = 3.40, SD
= .90; SK: M = 3.41, SD = .81), language competence (NK: M = 2.32, SD = .91; SK: M = 3.93,
SD = .78), cultural competence (NK: M = 2.90, SD = .83; SK: M = 3.26, SD = .76), the extent of
social networks (NK: M = 5.80, SD = 3.04; SK: M = 8.35, SD = 3.84), community involvement
(NK: M = 3.89, SD = .87; SK: M = 3.88, SD = .83), self-esteem (M = 3.87, SD = .71), and
acculturative stress (M = 2.71, SD = .51). The sample population showed moderate levels of
cultural identifications for both North Korean and South Korean cultures and significantly
stronger South Korean language competence (t (106) = -3.06, p < .01) and South Korean cultural
competence (t (106) = -10.47, p < .001) than North Korean ones. Also, the sample population
tended to meet more number of South Korean people (approximately more than 20) than North
Korean refugee people (approximately 10-19); t (105) = -9.10, p < .001.
Respondents who reported that they had participated in volunteer works for their local
community were 41%, while those who had participated in volunteer works for the refugee
community were 33%. The results from descriptive statistics indicated that the sample
population as a whole showed relatively greater South Korean acculturation than North Korean
acculturation, corresponding to the assimilation model. Respondents generally showed high
levels of self-esteem and moderate levels of acculturative stress. The mean scores are presented
in Table 2 and Table 3.

72
Bivariate correlations between demographic variables (age, gender, education/job status,
length of stay in transitional countries, length of residence in South Korea, living conditions, and
neighborhood) and main criterion variables of interest (cultural identity, language competence,
cultural competence, the extent of social networks, community involvement, self-esteem, and
acculturative stress) were calculated to explore potential effects of demographic variables on
criterion variables. Categories with few responses were removed from the education/job status
variable and the living condition variable, which resulted in two categories (alternative school
students and college students) for the education/job status variable remained, and three
categories (living in dormitories or dormitory-like facilities, living with family, and living alone)
for the living condition variables remained. These categorical variables were transformed into
dummy variables. The results of correlation analyses are presented in Table 2 and Table 3.
All correlations were weak to moderate, ranging between r = .21, p < .01 and r = .51, p
< .001. Age turned out to be the most influential demographic variable, which was positively
correlated with North Korean cultural identity (r =.25, p < .05), North Korean language
competence (r =.38, p < .001), North Korean cultural competence (r =.43, p < .01), North
Korean refugee social networks (r =.34, p < .01), and acculturative stress (r =.40, p < .001). Age
was also marginally related to South Korean social networks (r =.18, p = .08). Gender was
significantly associated with language competence; compared to male respondents, female
respondents were more positively associated with South Korean language competence (r =.27, p
< .05) while negatively related to North Korean language competence (r =-.40, p < .001).
College students were more positively related than alternative school students to South Korean
language competence (r =.23, p < .05), South Korean cultural competence (r =.22, p < .05),
North Korean cultural competence (r =.26, p < .05), and North Korean community involvement
73
(r =.28, p < .05). Both length of stay in a transitional country (or countries) and length of
residence in South Korea had positive correlations with South Korean acculturation domains.
College students also showed a marginal, positive correlation with South Korean identity (r =.19,
p = 0.8). Length of stay in a transitional country (or countries) was positively associated with
South Korean language competence (r =.22, p < .05) and South Korean cultural competence (r
=.21, p < .05) while negatively associated with North Korean cultural competence (r =.-22, p
< .05). Similarly, length of residence in South Korea was positively correlated with South
Korean cultural competence (r =.51, p < .001), and almost reached significance regarding South
Korean language competence (r =.20, p = .06), but was negatively correlated with North Korean
cultural competence (r =.-21, p < .05). Living condition variables showed unexpected correlation
results. Living with family was negatively related to North Korean cultural identity (r =.-23, p
< .05) but positively related to South Korean cultural competence (r =.21, p < .05). Living in a
dormitory or a dormitory-like facility was negatively associated with North Korean refugee
social networks (r =.-34, p < .01), while living alone was positively associated with both the
refugee social networks (r =.29, p < .01) and South Korean social networks (r =.30, p < .05).
Living in a neighborhood where there were some North Korean refugees was positively
associated with North Korean cultural identity (r =.22, p < .05) but was negatively related to
North Korean refugee community involvement (r =-.28, p < .01) and South Korean community
involvement (r =-.29, p < .01). Living in a neighborhood with the refugee neighbors was also
showed a marginal, positive relationship with North Korean language competence (r =.20, p
= .06) and a marginal, negative relationship with South Korean language competence (r =-.19, p
= .06).
74
Table 2
Correlations Between Demographic Variables and Cultural Identity, Language Competence,

and Cultural Competence
Cultural Language Cultural

Identity Competence Competence
Variable NK SK NK SK NK SK
Age .25* .11 .38*** -.33** .43*** -.15
Gender -.14 .17 -40*** .27* -.02 -.03
Education Status -.07 .19# -.13 .23* .26* .22*
Length of Stay in
-.13 .08 -.03 .22* -.22* .21*
Transitional Countries
Length of Residence
-.14 .06 .03 .20# -21* .51***
in SK
Living (in/with)
Dormitory .13 -.09 .12 .00 .07 -.23
Family -.23* .10 .-06 .08 -.05 .21*
Alone .18 .09 .01 -.10 .07 -.03
Refugee Neighbors .22* -.11 .20# -.19# -.05 -.05
Possible Range 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5

Mean 3.40 3.41 2.32 3.93 2.90 3.26
SD .90 .81 .91 .78 .83 .76
Note. NK = North Korea, SK = South Korea; Gender: 0 = Male, 1 = Female; Education Status:
0 =Alternative School, 1 = College; Refugee Neighbors: 0 = No, 1 = Yes
Statistical significance: # p < .09; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
75
Table 3
Correlations Between Demographic Variables and Social Networks, Community Involvement,

Self-Esteem, and Acculturative Stress
Social Community
Networks Involvement Self- Acculturative
Esteem Stress
Variable NK SK NK SK
Age .34** .18# .01 -.08 -.08 .40***
Gender -.08 .14 .07 .04 .01 -.11
Education Status .15 -.11 .28* .18 .11 -.06
Length of Stay in
Transitional -0.4 -.22* .17 .17 -.22* .03
Countries
Length of
.07 .01 .07 .01 .18 -.18
residence in SK
Living (in/with)
Dormitory -.34** -.19 .08 -.06 -.12 .14
Family .00 -.06 -.07 -.00 .11 -.11
Alone .29** .29** -.03 .00 -.03 -.06
Refugee
.06 -.08 -.28** -.29** .09 -.02
Neighbors
Possible Range 0-20 0-20 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5

Mean 5.80 8.35 3.89 3.88 3.87 2.71
SD 3.04 3.84 .87 .83 .71 .51
Note. NK = North Korea, SK = South Korea; Gender: 0 = Male, 1 = Female; Education Status:
0 = Alternative School, 1 = College; Refugee Neighbors: 0 = No, 1 = Yes
Statistical significance: # p < .09; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
76
Next, descriptive statistics examining respondents’ general media patterns were
performed. The percentages of respondents who reported that they had experienced South
Korean media before they arrived in South Korea were as follows: newspapers (49%), TV
dramas/shows (66%), radio (57%), magazines (47%), and movies (65.2%). Respondents’ general
use of South Korean mass media before they arrived in South Korea ranged from below
moderate levels to moderate levels. Movies showed the highest mean score (M = 2.91, SD =
1.58), followed by TV dramas/shows (M = 2.66, SD = 1.46), radio (M = 2.38, SD = 1.41),
newspapers (M = 2.17, SD = 1.40), and magazines (M = 2.02, SD = 1.32).
Respondents’ daily South Korean mass media use by media types was as follows:
newspapers (M = 2.00, SD = .94), TV (M = 2. 83, SD = 1.16), radio (M = 1.57, SD = .75),
magazines (M = 1.67, SD = .87), and websites (M = 3.11, SD = 1.21). Respondents’ use of North
Korea-related or North Korean refugee-related media content was as follows: newspapers (M =
2.11, SD = 1.10), TV programs (M = 2.06, SD = .94), radio (M = 1.68, SD = .83), magazines (M
= 1.91, SD = 1.03), and websites (M = 2.87, SD = 1.05). In terms of purposes of using the
Internet, respondents showed the highest mean score for information seeking (M = 3.91, SD
= .96), followed by social networking and communication purposes (M = 2.65, SD = .96) and
entertainment purposes (M = 2.26, SD = .81).
Respondents reported that they used online social media more with South Koreans (M =
3.20, SD = .86) than with North Korean refugees (M = 2.87, SD = .75), and the difference was
statistically significant (t (106) = -4.00, p < .001). The mean scores of online social media use by
platform types were as follows: Kakaotalk (Korean instant messaging smartphone application; M
= 4.60, SD = .76), KakaoStory (Korean social networking smartphone application; M = 3.76, SD
= 1.15), Facebook (social networking site; M = 3.16, SD = 1.42), Twitter (microblogging; M =

77
1.92, SD = 1.18), Cyworld (Korean social networking site; M = 2.40, SD = 1.25), personal blogs
(M = 1.88, SD = 1.08), online communities (M = 2.40, SD = 1.11). It was found that South
Korean smartphone-based applications, especially Kakaotalk, were more frequently used than
other platforms. Respondents who owned a smartphone were 90 (84.1%), and among 90
smartphone users, 65.4% answered that they used online social media with a smartphone almost
every day. The mean score of the frequency of using online media with a smartphone was 4.44
(SD = 1.09), which indicated that the mean frequency was between 3-4 times a week and almost
every day.
Last, bivariate correlations for five main predictor variables were conducted: previous use
of South Korean media, daily media use, North Korea-related media use, online social media use
with North Korean friends, and online social media use with South Korean friends. Table 5
shows the results of correlations. Significant correlations ranged from .31, p < .01 to .50, p
< .001. Respondents’ previous experiences with South Korean media were correlated with their
current daily media use (r =.435, p < .001) but were not significantly correlated with other media
types. The results revealed that respondents’ daily media use was significantly related to their
North Korea-related media content use (r =.39, p < .001) and online social media use with South
Korean friends (r =.31, p < .01). Also, significant correlations were observed between North
Korea-related media content use and online social media use with North Korean friends (r =.35,
p < .01) and between online social media use with South Korean friends and online social media
use with North Korean friends (r =.50, p < .001).

78
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for Respondents' Media Use Patterns
Mean Score
Media Type SD
(Possible Range: 1-5)
Experiences with South Korean Media

before Arriving in South Korea
Newspapers 2.17 1.40
TV Dramas/Shows 2.66 1.46
Radio 2.38 1.41
Magazines 2.02 1.32
Movies 2.91 1.58
Daily South Korean Mass Media Use

Newspapers 2.00 .94
TV 2.83 1.16
Radio 1.57 .75
Magazines 1.67 .87
Websites 3.11 1.21
North Korea-Related Mass Media Content Use
Newspapers 2.11 1.10
TV Programs 2.06 .94
Radio 1.68 .83
Magazines 1.91 1.03
Websites 2.87 1.05
Online Social Media Use

With South Koreans 3.20 .86
With North Korean Refugees 2.87 .75
Internet Motivation
Information Seeking 3.91 .96
Social Networking/Communication 2.65 .96
Entertainment 2.26 .81
Online Social Media Use by Platform Types
Kakaotalk (Korean Instant Messaging 4.60 .76
Smartphone Application)
KakaoStory (Korean Social Networking 3.76 1.15
Smartphone Application)
Facebook (Social Networking Site) 3.16 1.42
Twitter (Microblogging) 1.92 1.18
Cyworld (Korean Social Networking Site) 2.40 1.25
Personal Blogs 1.88 1.08
Online communities 2.40 1.11
79
Table 5
Correlations Among Main Predictor Variables
Variable 1 2 3 4 5
1. Previous
Experiences with
1
South Koran Mass
Media
2. Daily South
Korean Mass .44*** 1
Media Use
3. North Korea-
Related Mass .11 .39*** 1
Media Content Use
4. Online Social
Media Use with
-.04 .31** .32** 1
South Korean
Friends
5. Online Social
Media Use with
.00 .12 .35** .50*** 1
North Korean
Friends
Note. Statistical significance: * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001
80
Testing Hypotheses and Research Questions
A series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess the relative
contribution of media use to acculturation domains. Hierarchical multiple regression is an
appropriate analysis method for the current study because it can examine the relationships
between multiple predictor variables and a criterion variable while controlling effects of
exogenous variables. For each analysis, the present study examined whether the data met
assumptions for hierarchical multiple regression analyses regarding homoscedasticity, normality,
linearity, and outliers, and observed that none of the test assumptions were violated. As found in
the previous correlation analyses (see Table 5), some predictor variables showed statistically
significant correlations, but testing for Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) found no
multicollinearity problem for each analysis.
Based on the results from the correlation analysis between demographic variables and
criterion variables (see Table 2 and Table 3), four demographic variables that correlated with
more criterion variables and showed higher significant, coefficient values were selected to be
controlled in main analyses: age, gender, length of stay in a transitional country (countries), and
length of residence in South Korea. These four variables were entered in the first block. For the
analyses of South Korean acculturation domains and psychological health domains, previous
experiences with South Korean mass media before the respondents arrived in South Korea, daily
South Korean mass media use, and online social media use with South Korean friends were
entered in the second block. For the analyses of North Korean acculturation domains and
psychological health domains, North Korea-related or North Korea refugee-related mass media
content use and online social media use with North Korean friends were entered in the second
block.
81
For criterion variables, the mean scores of South Korean cultural identity/North Korean
cultural identity, South Korean language competence/North Korean language competence, South
cultural competence/North Korean cultural competence, social networks with South
Koreans/social networks with North Korean refugees, South Korean community involvement/
North Korean refugee community involvement, self-esteem, and acculturative stress were
entered separately for each analysis.
The relationship between previous experiences with South Korean mass media use
and current media use patterns (RQ1a). RQ1a asked how North Korean refugee young adults’
previous use of South Korean mass media before arriving in South Korea would be associated
with their current media use patterns. As presented in Table 5, respondents’ previous experiences
with South Korean mass media were positively associated with their current daily media use (r
=.435, p < .001) but were not significantly associated with North Korea-related mass media
content use and online social media use with South Koreans and North Korean refugees.
The relationship between South Korean identity and previous experiences with
South Korean mass media (RQ1b)/daily South Korean mass media use (H1a)/online social
media use with South Korean friends (H3a-1). The overall model was significant (F (7, 98) =
3.53, p < .01), explaining 23% of the total variance. In the first step of hierarchical multiple
regression, age, gender, length of stay in a transitional country (countries), and length of
residence in South Korea were entered, and the model explained 9% of the variance. In the first
block, gender was found to have a significant relationship with South Korean identity ( =.27, p
< .05). That is, females were related to greater South Korean identity. In the second block, three
predictor variables, previous experiences with South Korean mass media, daily South Korean
mass media use, and online social media use with South Korean friends, were entered, and the
82
model explained 14% of the variance. After the first block is controlled, two out of three
predictor variables were statistically significant, with daily media use recording higher Beta
value ( = .32, p < .05) than online social media use with South Korean ( =.30, p < .01). Thus,
H1a and H3a-1 were supported.
The relationship between South Korean language competence and previous
experiences with South Korean mass media (RQ1b)/daily South Korean mass media use
(H1b)/online social media use with South Korean friends (H3a-2). The model as a whole was
statistically significant (F (7, 98) = 7.3, p < .001), explaining 39% of the total variance. The first
model with demographic predictor variables explained 30% of the variance. Gender ( =.29, p
< .01) and length of residence in South Korea ( =.32, p < .01) were positively related to South
Korean language competence, while age was negatively related ( =-.37, p < .001). In the second
block, previous experiences with South Korean mass media, daily South Korean mass media use,
and online social media use with South Korean friends were entered. The second block explained
9% of the variance. After the first block is controlled, daily South Korean mass media use was
significantly associated with South Korean language competence ( =.36, p < .01), but previous
experiences with South Korean mass media and online social media use with South Korean
friends did not significantly predict South Korean language competence. Thus, H1b was
supported, but H3a-2 was not supported.
The relationship between South Korean cultural competence and previous
(H1c)/online social media use with South Korean friends (H3a-3). The overall model was
statistically significant (F (7, 98) = 7.2, p < .001), accounting for 39% of the total variance. The
first block with demographic predictor variables accounted for 36% of the variance in South
83
Korean cultural competence. Two out of four variables were significant; length of residence in
South Korea showed a strong, positive relationship with South Korean cultural competence (
=.60, p < .001), while age was negatively associated ( =-.29, p < .01). After the first block was
controlled, the entry of previous experiences with South Korean mass media, daily South Korean
mass media use, and online social media use with South Korean friends in the second block
explained an additional 3% of variance in South Korean cultural competence, and none of the
predictor variables significantly contributed to the model. Thus, H1c and H3a-3 were not
supported.
The relationship between South Korean social networks and previous experiences
with South Korean mass media (RQ1b)/daily South Korean mass media use (RQ2b-
1)/online social media use with South Korean friends (H3a-4). The overall model was
statistically significant (F (7, 97) = 9.4, p < .001) and explained 46% of the total variance. The
first block with four demographic variables explained 16% of the variance. The results showed
that age ( =.24, p < .05) and gender ( =.24, p < .05) were positively associated with South
Korean social networks, while length of stay in a transitional country (or countries) was
negatively associated ( =-.33, p < .01). After these variables were controlled, the variance
explained by the second model was 30%. In the second model, online social media use with
South Korean friends was the only significant, positive variable ( =.57, p < .001) to predict
South Korean social networks. Thus, H3a-4 was supported.
The relationship between South Korean community involvement and previous
(RQ2b-2)/online social media use with South Korean friends (H3a-5). The model as a whole
was significant (F (7, 99) = 3.5, p < .05), accounting for 16% of the total variance. The first
84
model examining demographic variables explained 5% of the variance. Among the four
demographic predictor variables, length of residence in South Korea was marginally correlated
with South Korean community involvement ( =.21, p = .07), while other variables did not show
significance. The second model explained an additional 11% of variance in South Korean
community involvement after removing effects of the first block. Social media use with South
Korean friends approached the relationship, but it did not reach significance ( =.21, p =.07).
Previous experiences with South Korean mass media and daily South Korean mass media use
were not significantly related to South Korean community involvement. Thus, H3a-4 was
partially supported.
The relationship between self-esteem and previous experiences with South Korean
mass media (RQ1b)/daily South Korean mass media use (RQ2b-3)/online social media use
with South Korean friends (H3a-6). The results revealed that the overall model was not
statistically significant, and none of the predictor variables in the first and the second blocks
showed statistical significance for self-esteem. That is, previous experiences with South Korean
mass media, daily South Korean mass media use, and online social media use with South Korean
friends did not predict respondents’ self-esteem. Thus, H3a-4 was not supported.
The relationship between acculturative stress and previous experiences with South
Korean mass media (RQ1b)/daily South Korean mass media use (RQ2b-4)/online social
media use with South Korean friends (H3a-7). The overall model was statistically significant
(F (7, 98) = 4.8, p < .01), explaining 26% of the total variance. The first model investigating
demographic variables explained 21% of the variance in acculturative stress. Among the
demographic variables, age was significantly related to acculturative stress ( =.41, p < .001),
while length of residence in South Korea was negatively related ( =-.27, p < .05). The second
85
block explained 5% of the variance. After effects of the first block were controlled, online social
media use with South Korean friends almost reached statistical significance ( =-.22, p = .06),
but previous experiences with South Korean mass media and daily South Korean mass media use
showed no significant association with acculturative stress. Thus, H3a-7 was partially supported.
The summary of hierarchical multiple regressions examining the relationships between
South Korean acculturation domains/psychological health and previous experiences with South
Korean mass media/daily South Korean mass media use/online social media use with South
Korean friends is presented in Table 6.

86
Table 6
Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis for Media Use Predicting South Korean
Acculturation Domains and Psychological Health
South Korean Acculturation Domains Psychological Health
Cultural Language Cultural Social Community Self- Acculturative

Identity Competence Competence Networks Involvement Esteem Stress
Variable β
1 Step
Age .13 -.37*** -.29** .24* -.05 .-.05 .45***
Gender .27* .29** .06 .24* .09 .13 -.15
Length of Stay in
Transitional -16 .05 .01 -.33** .00 -.29* .09
Countries
Length of
.14 .32** .60*** .05 .21# .19 -.27*
Residence in SK
R2  .09 .30 .36 .16 .05 .10 .21
2 Step
Previous
Experiences with -.07 -.28 -.13 .11 .13 .09 -.15
SK Mass Media
Daily Mass
.32* .36** .16 .04 .20 -.16 .11
Media Use
Online Social
Media Use with .30** .15 .14 .57*** .21# .05 -.22#
SK Friends
R2  .14 .10 .03 .30 .11 .01 .05
Total R2 .23 .40 .39 .46 .16 .11 .26
Note. NK = North Korea, SK = South Korea; Gender: 0 = Male, 1 = Female

Statistical significance: # p < .09; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001
87
The relationship between North Korean identity and North Korea-related mass
media content use (H2a)/online social media use with North Korean friends (H3b-1). The
model as a whole was statistically significant (F (6, 99) = 3.9, p < .01) and explained 22% of
variance in North Korean identity. In the first stage, age, gender, length of stay in a transitional
country (countries), and length of residence in South Korea were entered. The first model
explained 15% of the variance. Two out of four predictor variables were statistically significant;
age was found to be positively related to North Korean identity ( =.33, p < .01), while length of
residence in South Korea was negatively related ( =-.25, p < .05). The second model explained
7% of the variance. After controlling the first block, no statistical significance was observed in
North Korea-related mass media content use, but online social media use with North Korean
friends was positively related to North Korean identity ( =.28, p < .05). Thus, H2a was not
supported, and H3b-1 was supported.
The relationship between North Korean language competence and North Korea-
related mass media content use (H2b)/online social media use with North Korean friends
(H3b-2). The overall model was statistically significant (F (6, 98) = 6.4, p < .001), and the
variance explained by the model was 32%. The first model examining demographic variables
explained 30% of the variance. Of four predictor variables, age ( =.41, p < .001) and gender (
=-.33, p < .01) showed statistical significance, indicating that older and male respondents had
greater North Korean language competence. The second model accounted for 2% of the variance.
After the first block was controlled, neither North Korea-related mass media content use nor
online social media use with North Korean friends was significantly related to North Korean
language competence. Thus, both H2b and H3b-s were not supported.
88
The relationship between North Korean cultural competence and North Korea-
related mass media content use (H2c)/online social media use with North Korean friends
(H3b-3). The whole model was statistically significant (F (6, 98) = 4.4, p < .001), accounting for
44% of the total variance. The first model explained 27% of the variance. The first model
showed that age ( =.48, p < .001) had a strong, positive relationship with North Korean cultural
competence, while length of residence in South Korea was negative related ( =-.28, p < .01).
The second model explained 17% of variance in North Korean cultural competence. After the
first block was controlled, both North Korea-related mass media content use ( =.29, p < .01)
and online social media use with North Korean friends ( =.27, p < .01) were positively
associated with North Korean cultural competence, showing similar Beta values. Thus, H2c and
H3b-3 were supported.
The relationship between North Korean social networks and North Korea-related
mass media content use (RQ3b-1)/online social media use with North Korean friends (H3b-
4). The overall model was statistically significant (F (6, 90) = 7.0, p < .001), accounting for 34%
of the total variance. The first model explained 11% of the variance, and age was the only
predictor variable that had statistical significance ( =.31, p < .01). After effects of the first
model were removed, the second model explained 23% of the variance. Online social media use
with North Korean friends was positively related to North Korean social networks ( =.42, p
< .001), but North Korea-related mass media content use was not statistically significant. Thus,
H3b-4 was supported.
The relationship between North Korean refugee community involvement and North
Korea-related mass media content use (RQ3b-2)/online social media use with North
Korean friends (H3b-5). The model as a whole was statistically significant (F (6, 99) = 3.9, p
89
< .01), explaining 22% of variance in North Korean refugee community involvement. The first
model explained 5% of the variance, and none of the demographic variables were statistically
significant. The second model explained an additional 17% of the variance, and only North
Korea-related mass media content use was positively related to North Korean refugee
community involvement ( =.51, p < .001). Thus, H3b-5 was not supported.
The relationship between self-esteem and North Korea-related mass media content
use (RQ3b-3)/online social media use with North Korean friends (H3b-6). This overall
model was statistically significant (F (6, 99) = 2.2, p < .05) and accounted for 14% of the total
variance. The first model examining demographic variables explained 9% of the variance.
Among the four predictor variables, length of stay in a transitional country (or countries) showed
a significant, negative relationship with self-esteem ( =-.28, p < .05), while length of residence
in South Korea showed a marginal, positive association ( =.21, p = .07). The second block
explained 5% of the variance, and only North Korea-related mass media content use had a
significant relationship with self-esteem ( =.29, p < .05) after the first block was controlled.
Thus, H3b-6 was not supported.
The relationship between acculturative stress and North Korea-related mass media
content use (RQ3b-4)/online social media use with North Korean friends (H3b-7). The
overall model was significant (F (6, 98) = 3.4, p < .01), and the total variance explained by the
model as a whole was 22%. The first model accounted for 21% of the variance, and two out of
four predictor variables were statistically significant; age ( =.41, p < .001) was positively
related to acculturative stress, while length of residence in South Korea ( =-.28, p < .05) was
negatively related. The second model explained 1% of variance in acculturative stress, and none
of the predictor variables were significant. Thus, H3b-7 was not supported.
90
Table 7 shows the summary of hierarchical multiple regressions examining the
relationships between North Korean acculturation domains/psychological health and North
Korea-related mass media content use/online social media use with North Korean friends.
91
Table 7
Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis for Media Use Predicting North Korean
Acculturation Domains and Psychological Health
North Korean Acculturation Domains Psychological Health
Cultural Language Cultural Social Community Self- Acculturative

Identity Competence Competence Networks Involvement Esteem Stress
Variable β
Step 1
Age .33** .41*** .48*** .31** -.01 -.05 .41***
Gender -.09 -.33** -.00 -.06 .08 .11 -.12
Length of Stay in
Transitional -.07 .03 -.15 -.02 .14 -.28* .09
Countries
Length of
-.26* -.16 -.28** .01 .14 .21# -.27*
Residence in SK
R2  .15 .30 .27 .05 .04 .09 .21
Step 2
NK-Related Mass
Media Content -.01 -.07 .29** .16 .51*** .29* .06
Use
Online Social
Media Use with
.28* -.12 .27** .42*** -.05 -.07 -.12
NK Refugee
Friends
R2  .07 .02 .17 .17 .09 .05 .01
Total R2 .22 .32 .44 .22 .13 .14 .22
Note. NK = North Korea, SK = South Korea; Gender: 0 = Male, 1 = Female

Statistical significance: # p < .09; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001
92
Based on the results from the previous hierarchical multiple regressions, another series of
hierarchical multiple regressions were performed to examine the varying effects of media use
depending on different media types. In the following analyses, only the demographic and main
predictor variables that showed significant results from the previous analyses were investigated.
The relationship between previous experiences with South Korean mass media and
South Korean acculturation domains by media types (RQ1c). The previous analyses did not
find any significant relationship between previous experiences with South Korean mass media
and South Korean acculturation domains.
The relationship between daily South Korean mass media use and South Korean
acculturation domains by media types (RQ2a). The previous analyses found that daily South
Korean mass media use was significantly related to South Korean cultural identity ( =.32, p
< .05) and South Korean language competence ( =.36, p < .01). These two variables were
entered as a criterion variable in each analysis, and predictor variables were newspapers, TV,
radio, magazines, and websites.
The overall model assessing the relationship between South Korean identity and five
different media types was statistically significant (F (7, 98) = 3.67 p < .01), explaining 21% of
the total variance. In the first block, gender was entered, and it accounted for 5% of the variance,
Gender was significantly related to South Korean identity  =.23; p < .05. After the first block
was controlled, newspapers, TV, radio, magazines, and websites were entered in the second
block, accounting for 16% of the variance. Among the five predictor variables, only magazine
use showed marginal significance ( =.23, p = .07).
The whole model assessing the relationship between South Korean language competence
and five media types was statistically significant (F (8, 97) = 3.43 p < .001). The overall model
93
explained 39% of the variance. In the first block, age, gender, and length of residence in South
Korea were entered, and the first model explained 27% of the variance. All three variables were
significant with similar Beta values:  =-.33; p < .01 for age,  =.31; p < .01 for gender, and 
=.34; p < .01 for length of residence in South Korea. In the second block, newspapers, TV, radio,
magazines, and websites were entered. After the first block was controlled, the second model
explained 12% of the variance. The results found that three out of five variables showed
statistical significance or marginal significance; newspaper use ( =.37, p < .01) and radio use (
=-.22, p < .05) was positively associated with South Korean language competence, and TV use
was marginally associated ( =.19, p = .07). See Table 8 for further details.
The relationship between North Korea-related mass media content use and North
Korean acculturation domains/psychological health domains by media types (RQ3a). The
previous analyses found that North Korea-related media content use was significantly related to
North Korean cultural competence ( =.29, p < .01), North Korean community involvement (
=.51, p < .001), and self-esteem ( =.29, p < .05). Thus, these three variables were used as a
criterion variable for each analysis, and five media types, newspapers, TV, radio, magazines, and
websites were used as main predictor variables.
The overall model assessing the relationship between North Korean competence and
North Korea-related media content use by media types was statistically significant (F (7, 97) =
7.06 p < .001), and the model explained 40% of the total variance. In the first block, age and
length of residence in South Korea were entered as demographic variables. Age was found to be
positively related to North Korean cultural competence ( =.51, p < .001), but length of
residence in South Korea was negatively related ( =.-33, p < .01). The first model explained
29% of the variance. In the second block, North Korea-related newspaper content, TV content,
94
radio content, magazine, websites content were entered, and 11% of the variance was explained
by the second model. None of these predictor variables were found to have a significant
relationship with North Koran cultural competence. See Table 9 for further details.
In order to examine the relationship between North Korean community involvement and
North Korea-related mass media content use by media types, a multiple regression was
conducted because no demographic variable was found to be significant in the previous analysis.
The model showed statistical significance (F (5, 99) = 3.51, p < .01), accounting for 17% of the
total variance. Among newspaper content, TV content, radio content, magazine content, and
website content, North Korea-related or North Korean refugee-related TV content use was the
only predictor showed statistical significance ( =.40, p < .01). See Table 10 for further details.
The model examining the relationship between self-esteem and North Korea-related mass
media content use by media types was not statistically significant. Among all predictor variables,
only demographic variables in the first block showed statistical significance; length of stay in a
transitional country (or countries) was negatively related ( =-.26, p < .05), and length of
residence in South Korea reached marginal significance ( =.18, p =.09).

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Table 8
Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Daily Mass Media Use by Media Types Predicting South
Korean Identity and South Korean Language Competence
South Korean Identity South Korean Language Competence

Variable B SE  R2  B SE  R2
Step1 .5 .27
Age -.06 .02 -.33**
Gender .39 .18 .23 .52 .16 .31**
Length of .01 .01 .34**
Residence in SK
Step 2 .16 .12

Newspapers .13 .11 .16 .31 .11 .37**
TV .10 .08 .15 .13 .07 .12#
Radio .11 .12 .10 .23 .11 .22*
Magazines .21 .12 .23# .05 .11 .02
Websites .05 .08 .07 -.03 .07 -.04
Total R2 .21 .39
Note. Statistical significance: # p < .09; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001
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Table 9
Hierarchical Regression Analysis for North Korea-Related Mass Media Content Use by Media
Types Predicting North Korean Cultural Competence
North Korean Cultural Competence
Variable B SE  R2
Step1 .29
Age .09 .02 .51***
Length of Residence in -.01 .01 -.33**
SK
Step 2 .11
NK-Related Newspapers .10 .10 .14
NK-Related TV .11 .12 .13
NK-Related Radio -.01 .12 .-.01
NK-Related Magazines .17 .12 .22
NK-Related Websites .11 .11 .15
Total R2 .40
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Table 10
Regression Analysis for North Korea-Related Mass Media Content Use by Media Types
Predicting North Korean Community Involvement
North Korean Community Involvement
Variable B SE  Total R2
.41
NK-Related Newspapers -.15 .12 -.18
NK-Related TV .28 .11 .40**
NK-Related Radio .05 .15 -.05
NK-Related Magazines -.05 .14 -.06
NK-Related Websites .16 .11 .18
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
Acculturation is a complex process in which individuals experience continuous changes
through the interactions with different cultural contexts, and one of the significant social agents
that influence various acculturation domains is media. The current research has investigated how
media use is associated with the acculturation process of North Korean refugee young adults in
South Korea, following the pluralism idea that acculturation involves multidimensional changes
in both host cultural domains and original cultural domains (Berry, 1974, 1980, 1989, 1997;
Bourhis, Moise, Perreault, & Senecal, 1997; Subervi-Velez, 1986). The major goal of the current
study was to find evidence that the interplay between South Korean mass media use and North
Korea-related media use would help the refugees maintain their cultural heritage while actively
developing host cultural identification and competence. This study put special emphasis on
identifying online social media’s roles in the acculturation process of North Korean refugee
young adults in addition to measuring effects of traditional mass media. Although previous
studies have examined the relationships between mass media use and acculturation, few studies
have investigated how the increasing phenomenon of online social media use impacts
immigrants’ and refugees’ host acculturation and ethnic acculturation.
The current study measured respondents’ online social media use with South Koreans and
the use with North Korean refugees as two separate dimensions, expecting that each online social
media use would be specifically related to the acculturation domains of a given culture. In the
main analyses, South Korean media use was assessed by three variables: previous experiences
with South Korean mass media before the refugees arrived in South Korea, daily South Korean
mass media use, and online social media use with South Koreans. Also, respondents’ North
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Korea-related media use was measured by two variables: North Korea-related or North Korean
refugee-related mass media content use and online social media use with North Korean refugees.
Overall, analyses revealed that North Korean refugee young adults’ South Korea-related
and North Korea-related media use significantly improved their acculturation domains of each
culture. The refugees’ daily use of South Korean mass media was associated with their greater
South Korean identity and South Korea cultural competence, and the use of North Korea-related
mass media content was positively associated with their North Korean cultural competence as
well as their North Korean refugee community involvement. Respondents’ online social media
use with South Koreans and North Koreans was also significantly related to their South and
North Korean identifications. Especially, these analyses revealed the significant impacts of
online social media use on increasing the refugee young adults’ social competence in host and
ethnic social contexts. The current study found that the mass media use and online social media
use played distinctive roles in the acculturation processes of North Korean refugees and thus the
use of both media categories facilitated the refugee young adults’ acculturation as a whole.
The first aim of the current research was to examine general acculturation and media
patterns of North Korean refugee young adults. The results from preliminary descriptive
statistics revealed that the sample population showed relatively greater South Korean
acculturation than North Korean acculturation. Respondents reported similar levels of South
Korean identity and North Korean identity, but their South Korean linguistic ability and cultural
knowledge were significantly greater than North Korean ones. Analyses also observed that
respondents tended to have close relationships with more number of South Koreans than North
Korean refugees. These strong South Korean acculturation traits of the refugee young adults may
be affected by their group characteristics and the societal level acculturation climate (Berry, 1989,
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1997). North Korean refugees’ migration to South Korea was involuntary, caused by economic
and political suffering, and thus the refugee young adults may have a desire to retain their North
Korean identity. However, in the situations where the refugee group is too small to provide
cultural resources and also where the South Korean society as a whole promotes the assimilation
model, the refugee young adults may not have opportunities to maintain their North Korean
language skills and cultural knowledge. The tendency seems to become stronger as more time
has passed since they left North Korea. The study found a significant, negative correlation
between North Korean cultural competence and the length stay in transitional countries and
South Korea.
Varying degrees of acculturation tendencies were observed within this study’s age range
of 18 to 30. Compared to younger respondents, older respondents were associated with stronger
North Korean identity, greater competence in North Korean language and cultural knowledge,
and bigger social networks with North Korean refugees. However, they found more difficulties
in understanding and speaking South Korean words and expressions. Consequently, older
respondents showed higher levels of acculturation stress than younger respondents. Gender was
another demographic factor that significantly affected language competence. Female respondents
showed greater competence in South Korean language, which seems consistent with the general
notion that women have enhanced performance on linguistic tasks and are more open to learning
a second language than men (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1979; Oxford, 1993).
Compared to alternative school students, college students were more likely to possess
South Korean identity, South Korean language competence, and South Korean cultural
competence. Also, they were more knowledgeable about North Korean culture and were more
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willing to be involved in the North Korean refugee community. It appears that receiving higher
education helps the refugee young adults to develop competence in both host and ethnic cultures.
Respondents living with family showed significantly lower North Korean cultural
identity but stronger South Korean competence. This result is contrary to the findings from other
U.S. studies that indicate social support from family is the most significant factor of ethnic
cultural identity and competence (Knight, Bernel, Garza, Cota, & Ocampo, 1993). Considering
that living with family was not significantly correlated with other demographic variables such as
age and length of residence in South Korea, it seems that North Korean refugee families
generally promote the assimilation strategy of acculturation to their children, hoping that their
children live a better life than they have experienced (cf., J. Kim & Jang, 2007). The tendency to
reject North Korean culture was also observed among respondents who had North Korean
neighbors. Even though respondents living in a community with other refugee neighbors still
considered themselves as North Koreans, they were less willing to be involved in both the
refugee community and their local community. The results may reflect North Korean refugees’
general mistrust of other refugees (Min, 2008).
The sample population as a whole showed above moderate levels of self-esteem and
below moderate levels of acculturative stress. Length of stay in a transitional country (or
countries) had negative influences on self-esteem and South Korean social networks. Given that
no significant correlation was found between length of stay in transitional countries and other
demographic factors such as age, the association of low self-esteem with length of stay in
transitional countries was possibly caused by certain experiences the refugees had in a transition
period. According to Chung (2009), when North Korean refugees stay in transitional countries
illegally, they encounter a lot of difficulties such as little opportunity for work and education and
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the constant fear of being deported back to North Korea. Thus, it appears that long stays in
transitional counties result in more traumatic experiences and, therefore, hinders the refugee
young adults’ acculturation processes (Akhtar, 1999; Allen, Bsilier, & Hauff, 2006).
Findings from the preliminary analysis of demographic variables suggest that North
Korean refugee young adults’ acculturation is significantly influenced by the dynamic
interactions among individual demographic characteristics, group characteristics, socialization
agents such as family and school as well as the societal circumstance of South Korea (Berry,
1989, 1997; Bourhis et al., 1997). Therefore, in order to identify specific contributions of media
use on acculturation, influences from demographic variables were controlled in the main
analyses by performing a series of hierarchical multiple regressions. Also, the social contexts of
the refugee young adults were taken into consideration for the interpretation of main analyses
results.
To understand the general media use patterns of the refugee young adults, descriptive
analyses and correlation analyses among different media use variables were initially conducted.
More than 60 percent of respondents reported that they had experienced South Korean mass
media before they arrived in South Korea, and their use levels ranged from below moderate
levels to moderate levels. Entertainment-oriented media such as television drama and movies
were more popular than information-oriented media such as newspapers. The results were
consistent with the findings from prior North Korean refugee studies (e.g., D. W. Kang & J. R.
Park, 2011; J. C. Lee, 2003; Sung, 2004) that have found the use of South Korean mass media is
prevalent among North Koreans although it is highly restricted. The current study further
explored the long-term influences of South Korean mass media use on the refugee young adults.
It was found that experiences with South Korean mass media before arriving in South Korea was
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positively correlated with the refugee young adults’ current daily South Korean mass media use.
That means that the refugee young adults’ past South Korean mass media use habits may
continue after they settle down in South Korea. No statistically significant relationship was found
between previous experiences with South Korean mass media and South Korean acculturation
domains. However because previous experiences with South Korean mass media were associated
with greater use of current South Korean mass media, it seems that past South Korean mass
media experiences may have indirect relationships with the refugee young adults’ South Korean
acculturation domains.
Respondents used South Korean websites for approximately two hours per day, and this
level was similar to South Korean’s average daily Internet use, which has been reported at 2.3
hours per day (Korea Internet & Security Agency, 2012). The next frequently used medium was
television, which was viewed for one-to-two hours per day. Although not quite as popular,
newspapers, radio, and magazines were consumed less than one hour per day. Given that the
general population does not have access to North Korea’s intranet, which is reserved for a select
few at major governmental organizations (S. Park, 2012), it is important to note how
dramatically North Korean refugees’ internet use increases after they come to South Korea.
Another noteworthy finding is that 90 percent of respondents reported that they owned a
smartphone. Thus, it is recommended for future research to further investigate how North
Korean refugee young adults adapt to and utilize information technologies and how these
technologies affects their acculturation process.
Similar to the results of immigrant studies conducted in the U.S. context (e.g., Johnson,
1996; Y. Y. Kim, 1977, 1988, 2001), respondents’ daily South Korean mass media use was
significantly related to their South Korean identity and South Korean language competence,
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meaning that as North Korean refugee young adults use more South Korean mass media, they
self-identify more so as South Koreans and are able to better utilize South Korean words and
expressions. However, the extent of South Korean social networks and the refugees’ willingness
to be involved in the South Korean community were not affected by South Korean mass media
use. This suggests that the function of mass media is limited to providing South Korean
information and that it does not function to motive refugees to become active participants in
society. Even if the refugee young adults consume South Korean popular television shows for
the purpose of collecting material that will help them socialize with South Korean peers (T. Y.
Kang, Hwang, & K. M. Kang, 2011), it does not directly help them make more South Koran
friends. In addition, South Korean mass media use neither improved respondents’ self-esteem
nor lowered acculturative stress. The results suggest that South Korean mass media use has
positive but limited influences on the refugee young adults’ acculturation.
The influences of South Korean mass media on South Korean identity and South Korean
language competence were further investigated to find relative importance of different media
types. No specific media type was significantly associated, but magazine was marginally
associated with South Korean identity. Analyses also revealed that newspaper use was the most
significant predictor of South Korean language competence, followed by radio use and TV use.
This result supports the findings from previous studies that information-oriented media are a
stronger predictor of host acculturation than entertainment-oriented media (Y. Y. Kim, 1977,
1988, 2001; T. Y. Kang, Hwang, and K. M. Kang, 2011) especially regarding host language
competence (Sunoo, Trotter, and Aames, 1980).
Respondents showed low levels of North Korea-related mass media content use. The
average scores indicate that North Korean refugee young adults rarely use North Korea-related
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mass media content. This tendency seems understandable given that South Korean media outlets
provide only limited numbers and types of North Korea-related content. Even the available North
Korea-related mass media content or media outlets are likely to be focusing on political issues
rather than covering everyday lives of North Korean refugees. Although North Korea-related
mass media content may be not frequently used by North Korean refugee young adults, the
current study found evidence of its significant and unique role in facilitating North Korean
acculturation domains. The results revealed that respondents’ use of North Korea-related or
North Korean refugee-related mass media content was significantly associated with their North
Korean cultural competence, North Korean community involvement, and self-esteem. It appears
that use of North Korea-related mass media content reinforces refugee young adults’ sense of
North Korean membership, and thus it may naturally lead to their greater commitment to the
refugee community. Moreover, the increased North Korean identity and the refugee community
involvement may positively affect the refugee young adults’ sense of self. The results suggest
that North Korea-related mass media content can serve the similar functions of ethnic media in
the United States (e.g., Cottle, 2000; Soruco, 1996; Viswanath & Arora, 2000; Ziegler, 1983) by
supporting the refugees’ ethnic identity and solidarity. It is important to note that the effects of
North Korea-related mass media content were different from those of regular South Korean mass
media given that daily South Korea mass media use did not predict South Korean community
involvement. Although both media habits were moderated by mass media’s one-way
communication and provided indirect experiences only, the media content had greater impacts on
motivating the users to be involved in the community when the refugee young adults found the
content closer to their cultural heritage.

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Compared to mass media, which provide limited culture learning experiences, online
social media provide more direct and real experiences to North Korean refugee young adults by
facilitating actual social relationships with South Koreans and North Korean refugees. The
current study distinguishes general use of the Internet, such as utilization for information and
entertainment, from online social media use by specifically focusing on online social media’s
distinctive features of social networking and user participation. The analyses were focused on
identifying how online social media influence North Korean refugee young adults’ acculturation
domains and how these influences are differentiated from mass media effects.
The results found that respondents were more likely to use online social media with
South Koreans than with North Korean refugees. This tendency may reflect the fact that
respondents had greater South Korean social networks than North Korean refugee social
networks. Therefore, greater use of online social media with South Koreans over North Korean
refugees may simply indicate the differences in the sizes of social network. Online social media
use with South Koreans was positively related to online social media use with North Korean
friends, demonstrating that respondents who have more South Korean online social media
friends are also likely to have a greater number of refugee friends on online social media. This
phenomenon is comparable to the finding that respondents’ daily South Korean mass media use
was positively related to their North Korea-related mass media content use. The results propose
that South Korea-related media and North Korea-related media consumption are not mutually
exclusive, providing statistical support to refute the assertions from prior media studies following
the assimilation model (e.g., Hwang & He, 1999; Y. Y. Kim, 1977; Lee & Tse, 1994; Shoemaker,
Reese, & Danielson, 1985).

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The analyses revealed that using online social media with South Koreans had significant
and positive relationships with South Korean cultural identity and South Korean social networks
and had marginal associations with greater South Korean community involvement and less
acculturative stress. The results indicate that interacting with South Koreans using online social
media allows the refugee young adults to narrow the emotional distance with South Koreans and
to identify themselves more in line with fellow South Koreans. As discussed earlier, South
Korean identity was also increased by the use of South Korean mass media. The Beta values of
South Korean mass media use and online social media use with South Koreans show that the
impacts of these two media on South Korean identity were similar. However, the current study
proposes that each medium takes a different approach to develop South Korean identity. While
mass media’s one-way communication is concentrated on providing South Korean cultural
information to the refugee young adults, online social media offer a participatory social context
to the refugee young adults where they can build social relationships with South Koreans and
thus naturally grow into South Koreans. As Weber and Mitchell describe (2008), everyday use of
online social media with South Koreans allows North Korean refugee young adults to develop
their South Korean identity in action.
The differences between online social media use and mass media use become apparent in
South Korean social competence variables. While secondary cultural learning from South
Korean mass media did not necessarily improve the refugees’ social networks and South Korean
community involvement, using online social media with South Koreans showed significant
relationships with these variables. It indicates that enhancement in social competence would be
the most distinctive benefit that North Korean refugee young adults receive from using social
media with South Koreans. Y. Y. Kim (1977) argues that engaging in interactions with members
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of the host culture is a stronger predictor of cultural adaptation than host media consumption.
However since immigrants in the early stage of settlement have fewer opportunities to socialize
with host members, immigrants tend to rely on receiving host cultural knowledge from mass
media. The findings from this study suggest that online social media can facilitate immigrants’
relationships with host members by increasing the efficiency of social relationship maintenance
and by lowering social pressures and barriers during interactions. Online social media use with
South Koreans also increased the refugee young adults’ willingness to be involved in the South
Korean community. According to McAdam (1982), people who have a strong attitude toward
their community are more capable of effectively mobilizing their resources from social
relationships. Therefore, using online social media with South Koreans helps the refugee young
adults develop a sense of responsibility to be involved in the South Korean community and
become more socially competent in utilizing their resources from the increased relationships with
South Koreans.
The potential impact of using online social media with South Korean friends on lowering
acculturative stress was also observed. Findings from other acculturation studies (Oppedal,
Roysamb, & Sam, 2004; Oppedal, 2006) reveal that social supports from host peer relationships
are significant factors for successful adaptation, and thus, they are often associated with
immigrant youths’ favorable psychological health. In the same vein, findings from this study
indicate that the refugees’ South Korean social competence may be enhanced by using online
social media, which may also lower their acculturative stress in daily social interactions with
South Koreans.
The current study found evidence that North Korean refugee young adults’ use of online
social media with other refugees can support bonds between North Korean refugees. Analyses
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revealed that respondents who had greater use levels of online social media with North Korean
refugees showed higher North Korean cultural identity, higher North Korean cultural
competence, and greater social networks with other North Korean refugees. The results
demonstrate that by socializing with fellow refugees through online social media, Korean
refugee young adults can maintain their North Korean membership and develop North Korean
cultural competence. These findings are remarkable given the current acculturation
circumstances of North Korean refugee young adults. The refugees generally have difficulties in
socializing with fellow North Korean refugees because they have deep-rooted mistrust toward
other North Koreans, which was originated from North Korea’s oppressive social system (Min,
2008). As a result, the refugees are reluctant to gather in public or share personal information
with other refugees. Furthermore, because the South Korean society as a whole promotes the
assimilation model of acculturation to the refugees (Chung, 2009), the refugees simply do not
have enough resources and social supports to maintain their cultural heritage. In this situation,
findings from the current study suggest that online social media can be an alternative community
channel through which the refugees can socialize with one another in a more secure environment
with less pressure and reinforce their North Korean cultural competence.
Comparisons between online social media use with other North Korean refugees and
North Korea-related mass media content use provide better understanding on the distinctive
contribution of each medium. This study revealed that online social media use with North
Korean refugees was more effective in developing North Korean cultural identity and North
Korean refugee social networks while North Korea-related mass media content use was more
effective in enhancing North Korean community involvement and self-esteem. Both media were
equally effective in increasing North Korean cultural competence. It is assumed that online social
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media use had greater influences on North Korean identity than mass media because online
social media provided an everyday cultural context where the refugee young adults can reinforce
their North Korean identity through ongoing interactions with other refugees. Compared to
online social media’s high accessibility, the overall North Korea-related mass media content
available to the refugee young adults is highly limited. Therefore, constant interactions with
other refugees should be more effective in developing North Korean identity than limited use of
North Korea-related media content. On the other hand, mass media can be more effective in
enhancing the North Korean refugee community involvement because North Korea-related
media content is usually highly political. Therefore, compared to online social media’s everyday
communication activities, consuming political media content can have greater impacts on users’
attitudes toward social involvement even though the exposure to the political media content is
less frequent than using online social media with refugee friends. It also explains why greater use
of North Korea-related media content can be related to higher self-esteem because political
attitudes and self-esteem are positively correlated (Carmines, 1978).
To sum up the findings from the analyses of online social media use, the most significant
role of online social media communication in acculturation, which mass media cannot provide,
was to expand the refugee young adults’ social networks with both South Koreans and other
refugees. Through the increased interactions with people of both cultural groups using online
social media, the refugee young adults were able to develop dual cultural identifications.
Furthermore, as the refugee young adults enhanced their social competence in the relationships
with South Koreans and North Korean refugees, their other acculturation domains, such as
cultural competence and psychological health, were positively influenced as well.

111
The current study proposes that mass media use and online social media use adopt two
different approaches of acculturation. Mass media’s approach is focused on secondary cultural
learning by transmitting information about culturally appropriate values, attitudes, and behaviors
of a given culture to the audience. On the other hand, online social media’s approach to facilitate
acculturation is focused on the developmental perspective of acculturation that includes cultural
learning and maturation processes (Sam & Oppedal, 2002). From interactions with host members
and ethnic individuals within the social contexts provided by online social media, users of online
social media not only can lean cultural information but can also naturally develop a sense of host
and ethnic cultural membership. This developmental perspective of acculturation is especially
applicable to North Korean refugee young adults who are in a period of constant identity and role
exploration (Arnett, 2000).
The findings from this study also highlight the dynamic interplay between mass media
use and online social media use in the acculturation process of North Korean refugee young
adults. Both mass media use and online social media use can facilitate different acculturation
domains of the refugee young adults complementing each other’s roles. For example, South
Korean mass media was more effective in developing South Korean language competence,
whereas online social media use with South Koreans was more effective in increasing South
Korean community involvement. The results indicate that media’s functions to facilitate
acculturation processes would be maximized when informative roles of mass media and social
connective roles of online social media are implemented simultaneously.
Another important point that the current study raised was the importance of the
interplay between South Korean media use and North Korea-related media use. One strength of
this study was that it measured multicultural dimensions of mass media and online social media
112
use. The results found evidence that supports Adoni, Cohen, and Carpi’s (2002) assertion that the
use of host media and the use of ethnic media construct the users’ identifications with host and
ethnic cultures. Corresponding to their argument, the analyses of the current study revealed
significant, positive relationships between South Korean media use and South Korean
acculturation domains and also between North Korea-related media use and North Korean
acculturation domains. Each media use played distinctive roles in facilitating the refugee young
adults’ acculturation. For example when the study examined the psychological health domain,
North Korea-related mass media content use positively influenced self-esteem by enhancing the
refugee young adults’ responsible attitudes toward the North Korean refugee community. On the
other hand, online social media use with South Koreans lowered acculturative stress levels by
helping the refugee young adults develop social competence in the relationships with South
Koreans. To accomplish better psychological health, receiving benefits from both mass media
and online media would be more helpful to the refugee young adults. Therefore, the acculturation
processes of the refugee young adults require the interactions of both South Korean media use
and North Korea-related media use.
Figure 2 portrays North Korean refugee young adults’ media environment where the
dynamic interactions between host media and ethnic media and also between mass media and
online media occur. The media environment in Figure 2 consists of four main media factors:
South Korean mass media use, North Korea-related mass media content use, online social media
use with South Koreans, and online social media use with North Korean refugees. The four
media factors are placed on the horizontal and vertical dimensions, which are cultural directions
and acculturation approaches, respectively. The horizontal dimension indicates the two cultural
directions of acculturation, host acculturation and ethnic acculturation, and the vertical
113
dimension indicates the two approaches of acculturation, secondary cultural learning and direct
cultural experience.
Cultural Directions
Ethnic Acculturation
Host Acculturation
Indirect Cultural Learning

North Korea-
South Korean Related
Mass Media Use Mass Media
Acculturation Approaches
Content Use
Direct Cultural Experience

Refugee Individual
Online Social Online Social

Media Use With Media Use With
South Koreans North Koreans
Figure 2. The media environment of North Korean refugee young adults in South
Korea.
114
In Figure 2, the horizontal cultural direction dimension shows that the more media use of
a given culture, the greater the development of the acculturation domains of that culture. The
cultural direction is also bidimensional, indicating that host acculturation and ethnic
acculturation are simultaneous, mutually non-exclusive processes. The vertical acculturation
approach dimension shows that the refugee individuals’ use of mass media is more related to
secondary cultural learning while the use of online media is more related to direct cultural
experience. Also, the acculturation approach is bidimensional, indicating that acculturation of the
refugee young adults is a developmental process that involves both secondary cultural learning
and maturation from direct experiences. The four media factors in this media environment are all
interrelated, meaning that each media experience does not occur separately but that they
constantly overlap with other media experiences.
The findings from this study support the pluralism model of acculturation. The sample
population showed a tendency to identify themselves as North and South Koreans
simultaneously, which supports the idea that cultural identity is multidimensional. In addition,
their South Korean mass media use and North Korea-related mass media content use showed a
positive correlation, and their online social media use with South Koreans was also positively
related to online social media use with other refugees. These results suggest that developing
South Korean acculturation through the use of South Korean mass media does not require the
refugee young adults to reduce North Korea-related media content use, and vice versa. This
finding supports the idea of the pluralism model that North Korean refugees can develop their
host and ethnic acculturation simultaneously through the use of host and ethnic media.
This research raises issues for the current acculturation circumstances of the South
Korean society. The South Korean government’s acculturation policy and the refugee
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acculturation programs have been focused on the assimilation model, merging the refugees into
the South Korean society. This study revealed that, even though the refugee young adults showed
a tendency to retain their North Korean identity, their North Korean language and cultural
competence decreased the longer they lived in South Korea. The results suggest that it is difficult
for the refugee young adults to maintain their cultural heritage because they have limited social
supports and North Korean cultural resources. Studies have found that the assimilation model of
acculturation is likely to increases the acculturative stress of immigrants (Berry, Kim, Minde, &
Mok, 1987; de Domanico, Crawford, & DeWolfe, 1994; Umana-Taylor, Diversi, & Fine, 2002)
and also may cause social conflicts between the host and ethnic groups (Bourhis, Moise,
Perreault, & Senecal, 1997; Subervi-Velez, 1986). The tendency of neglecting North Korean
refugees’ cultural heritage is contradictory to the South Korean government’s recent policy
directions that promote cultural diversity in a society (H. W. Kang, 2006).
The limitations of this study bear consideration. First, this study measured respondents’
online social media use based on three aspects: hours for using online social media, number of
friends on online social media, and the degree of emotional attachment to using online social
media. This type of measurement is appropriate to assess the overall intensity of using online
media, but it fails to capture different use patterns of online social media platforms. Online social
media involves various types of online socializing platforms such as microblogging, social
networking sites, and content sharing communities, and their characteristics vary greatly by
platform types (Kaplan, & Haenlein, 2010). Therefore, there would be significant connections
between platform types and immigrant users’ acculturation domains. Thus, future studies should
further explore these relationships. Also, platform specific influences can be investigated in
detail to find more knowledge on the interactions between particular online social media
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platforms and acculturation processes. Second, the sample population used in this study was
limited to the current students and graduates of one refugee alternative school. Therefore, the
limited sample requires careful consideration while generalizing the findings from this study to
the total refugee young adult population. In addition, as discussed earlier, acculturation processes
are closely related to group characteristics and the societal conditions. Immigrants and refugees
in different cultural groups and societal contexts may have distinct acculturation and media
patterns. Therefore, additional replications using different populations in various cultural
contexts should be undertaken to expand knowledge on online social media’s role in
acculturation.
Based on the findings of this study, the following suggestions are recommended to
facilitate North Korean refugee young adults’ pluralism model of acculturation through media
use. The most important contribution of the current study was to find evidence of the power of
online social media to increase the refugee young adults’ social networks with both South
Koreans and North Korean refugees. As previously mentioned, building social relationships with
host people is one of the most critical activities for the successful adjustment of refugees in
South Korea. Also, interacting with other North Korean refugees provides opportunities for the
refugees to maintain their North Korean cultural heritage. Therefore, this study recommends
governmental and non-governmental organizations engaged with North Korean refugee social
services to incorporate the positive effects of online social media into their acculturation
programs. They could provide online social media education programs that teach the refugees
how to use online social media effectively and safely. The programs not only would explain the
technological features of online social media but would also discuss the economic and political
impacts of online social media on the South Korean society and on issues related to privacy and
117
identity protection. This type of program would be especially important to the young refugees
who have strong interests in new technologies but little knowledge and experiences with using
online social media. The current study also reveals the positive effects of using North Korea-
related media content on increasing the refugee young adults’ self-esteem and on enhancing their
motivations to be actively involved in the North Korean refugee community. Therefore, the
government agencies should provide financial support to organizational and individual media
producers to develop various media content related to North Korea and North Korean refugees.
These governmental supports would benefit not only the refugee community but also South
Korean media producers and practitioners.
The Summary
The current study examined how North Korean refugee young adults’ media use would
influence their acculturation processes, especially focusing on identifying the role of online
social media. The study analyzed the acculturation and media patterns of the refugee young
adults and revealed that South Korean mass media use and North Korea-related mass media
content use had significant and positive influences on the refugees’ acculturation domains of a
given culture. The study was successful in identifying statistical evidence of online social
media’s positive roles in facilitating the acculturation process of North Korean refugee young
adults. Especially, online social media use had strong effects on enhancing the refugee young
adults’ social competence in the interactions with both South Koreans and North Korean
refugees. The study also revealed that online social media and mass media served distinctive
functions in the acculturation processes of the refugee young adults. Mass media allowed the
refugees to learn a given culture from secondary experiences by providing cultural information
in one-way communication. One the other hand, online social media provided a social channel to
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the refugees where they were able to learn and grow within the host and ethnic cultures from the
real interactions with South Koreans and other refugees. Finally, the study proposed a model that
described North Korean refugee young adults’ media environment where the diverse interactions
between South Korea-related media use and North Korea-related media use as well as between
mass media use and online social media use occurred constantly and simultaneously. Based on
the results of analyses, practical implications and directions for future research were suggested.
The findings from this study bridge the knowledge gap in the media literature by expanding
understanding on the roles of online social media in the acculturation of individuals in cross-
cultural contexts.
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APPENDIX A
INSTRUMENTS
Original Questionnaire
Research on Online Social Media Use of Young Adults from North Korea
The following questions ask your opinions about the North and the South cultures. Please
indicate your opinion by circling the number that best describes your agreement or
disagreement with each statement.
1. How much do you agree with the following statements?
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

disagree somewhat somewhat agree
I think of myself as being North 1 2 3 4 5
Korean.
I think of myself as being South 1 2 3 4 5
Korean.
I feel good about being North 1 2 3 4 5
Korean.
I feel good about being South 1 2 3 4 5
Korean.
Being North Korean plays an 1 2 3 4 5
important part in my life.
Being South Korean plays an 1 2 3 4 5
important part in my life.
I feel that I am part of North Korean 1 2 3 4 5
culture.
I feel that I am part of South Korean 1 2 3 4 5
culture
I have a strong sense of being North 1 2 3 4 5
Korean.
I have a strong sense of being South 1 2 3 4 5
Korean
I am proud of being North Korean. 1 2 3 4 5
I am proud of being South Korean. 1 2 3 4 5
120
2. There are a lot of differences in words and expressions used in North Korea and South Korea.
How well do you speak and understand North Korean and South Korean in the following
situations?
I speak and understand North Korean Not at A little Neutral Pretty Extremely
words and expressions….. all well well
With my families 1 2 3 4 5
With friends from North Korea 1 2 3 4 5
On the phone 1 2 3 4 5
With strangers 1 2 3 4 5
In general 1 2 3 4 5
On television or in movies 1 2 3 4 5
In newspapers and magazines 1 2 3 4 5
In songs 1 2 3 4 5
I speak and understand South Korean Not at A little Neutral Pretty Extremely
words and expressions….. all well well
At school or at work 1 2 3 4 5
With my South Korean friends 1 2 3 4 5
On the phone 1 2 3 4 5
With strangers 1 2 3 4 5
In general 1 2 3 4 5
On television or in movies 1 2 3 4 5
In newspapers and magazines 1 2 3 4 5
In songs 1 2 3 4 5
3. How well do you know the following items?
Not at A little Neutral Pretty Extremely

all well well
National heroes in North Korea 1 2 3 4 5
National heroes in South Korea 1 2 3 4 5
Popular television shows in North 1 2 3 4 5
Korea
Popular television shows in South 1 2 3 4 5
Korea
Popular newspapers and magazines in 1 2 3 4 5
North Korea
Popular newspapers and magazines in 1 2 3 4 5
South Korea
Popular actors and actresses in North 1 2 3 4 5
Korea
Popular actors and actresses in South 1 2 3 4 5
Korea
History of North Korea 1 2 3 4 5
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History of South Korea 1 2 3 4 5

Political leaders in North Korea 1 2 3 4 5
Political leaders in South Korea 1 2 3 4 5
The following questions ask your social relationships and activities.
4. Please indicate the approximate number of people with whom you currently maintain close
relationships in the following categories:
None 1-3 4-9 10-19 20 and

more
Friends from North Korea 1 2 3 4 5
South Korean friends 1 2 3 4 5
North Korean friends in different 1 2 3 4 5
countries
Families in different countries 1 2 3 4 5
Families in South Korea 1 2 3 4 5
School teachers of professors 1 2 3 4 5
Community center or government 1 2 3 4 5
officials
People from North Korea in my 1 2 3 4 5
neighborhood
Neighbors in my local community 1 2 3 4 5
People in my social groups (e.g., 1 2 3 4 5
religious groups, school clubs, hobby
communities)
5. Are you currently involved in the activities for your local community?
1. Yes 2. No
6. Are you currently involved in the activities for the North Korean community?
1. Yes 2. No
7. How much are you willing to participate in community activities in the future?
Not at Very Neut Somewh To a

In the future, I plan to….. All Little ral at Great
Extent
Do some volunteer work for my local 1 2 3 4 5
community.
Do some volunteer work for North Korean 1 2 3 4 5
refugees.
Become involved in my local community. 1 2 3 4 5
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Become involved in the North Korean 1 2 3 4 5

refugee community.
Participate in my local community action 1 2 3 4 5
program.
Participate in the North Korean refugee 1 2 3 4 5
community action program.
Become an active member of my local 1 2 3 4 5
community.
Become an active member of the North 1 2 3 4 5
Korean refugee community.
Participate in a local community service 1 2 3 4 5
organization.
Participate in a North Korean refugee 1 2 3 4 5
community services organization.
Help the people who are in difficulty in my 1 2 3 4 5
local community.
Help the people who are in difficulty in the 1 2 3 4 5
North Korean refugee community.
Be committed to making a positive 1 2 3 4 5
difference in my local community.
Be committed to making a positive 1 2 3 4 5
difference in the North Korean refugee
community.
The following questions ask you about yourself.
8. How much do you agree with the following statements?
Stron Disag Neut Agree Strong

gly ree ral somewha ly
disagr some t agree
ee what
On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 1 2 3 4 5
At times, I think I am no good at all. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 1 2 3 4 5
I am able to do things as well as most other 1 2 3 4 5
people.
I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 1 2 3 4 5
I certainly feel useless at times. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel that I’m a person of worth. 1 2 3 4 5
I wish I could have more respect for myself. 1 2 3 4 5
All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a 1 2 3 4 5
failure.
I have a positive attitude toward myself. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel uncomfortable when others make jokes 1 2 3 4 5
123
about or put down North Korean people.

I have more barriers to overcome. 1 2 3 4 5
It bothers me that family members I am close 1 2 3 4 5
to not understand my new values.
Close family members and I have conflicting 1 2 3 4 5
expectations about my future.
It is hard to express to my friends how I really 1 2 3 4 5
feel.
It bothers me that I cannot be with my families 1 2 3 4 5
in North Korea.
I don’t have any close friends. 1 2 3 4 5
I don’t feel at home. 1 2 3 4 5
People think that I’m not friendly when, in 1 2 3 4 5
fact, I have trouble communicating in the
South Korean dialect.
It bothers me when people pressure me to 1 2 3 4 5
assimilate to South Korean culture.
It bothers me that I accidently use North 1 2 3 4 5
Korean expressions sometimes.
I often think about North Korea. 1 2 3 4 5
Loosening the ties with North Korea is 1 2 3 4 5
difficult.
It is difficult for me to "show off" my family. 1 2 3 4 5
I have trouble understanding others sometimes 1 2 3 4 5
when they speak in the South Korean dialect.
I feel ignored sometimes by people who are 1 2 3 4 5
supposed to assist me.
Because I am not originally from South Korea, 1 2 3 4 5
I do not get enough credit for the work I do.
When I look for a good job in the future, I 1 2 3 4 5
sometimes feel that being North Korean will
be a limitation.
Many people have stereotypes about North 1 2 3 4 5
Korea or North Korean refugees and treat me
as if they are true.
I often feel that people actively try to stop me 1 2 3 4 5
from advancing because I am from North
Korea
Because of my North Korean background, I 1 2 3 4 5
feel that others often leave me out from
participating in their activities.
People look down upon me if I practice 1 2 3 4 5
customs of North Korean culture.
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The following questions ask your media use.
9. Before coming to South Korea, have you ever used the following South Korean mass media?
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Very

Frequently
South Korean newspapers 1 2 3 4 5

South Korean TV dramas and 1 2 3 4 5
show programs
South Korean radio 1 2 3 4 5
South Korean magazines 1 2 3 4 5
South Korean movies 1 2 3 4 5
10. How long do you usually use the following media on an average day?
Almost Less 1 hour-2 2 hours-3 More

never than 1 hours hours than 3
hour hours
Newspapers 1 2 3 4 5
TV 1 2 3 4 5
Radio 1 2 3 4 5
Magazines 1 2 3 4 5
Websites 1 2 3 4 5
11. How often do you use the following media content related to North Korea or North Korean
refugees?
Never Rarely Sometim Freque Very

es ntly Frequen
tly
North Korea or the North Korean refugee 1 2 3 4 5

community related newspapers
community related TV programs
community related radio programs
community related magazines
community related websites
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12. How often do you usually use the internet for what purposes?
Never A few 1-2 3-4 Almost

times times a times a everyday
a week week
month
To get information 1 2 3 4 5
To study 1 2 3 4 5
To chat 1 2 3 4 5
To participate in online communities 1 2 3 4 5
To use social media (e.g., Facebook, 1 2 3 4 5
Tweeter)
To use my personal website or blog 1 2 3 4 5
To play games 1 2 3 4 5
To pass time and enjoy myself 1 2 3 4 5
To download music/videos 1 2 3 4 5
To shop/To make reservations 1 2 3 4 5
13. Do you have a smartphone?
1. Yes 2. No
14. If you have a smartphone, how often do you usually use social media (e.g., Kakao Talk, Line,
Facebook, Tweeter) with your smartphone?
A few times a A few times a A few times a

Almost Never Everyday
year month week
15. How many hours do you spend doing online social media in a usual day?
1. Never
2. Less than 30 minutes
3. 30 minutes-1hour
4. 2-3 hours
5. More than 4 hours
16. Please indicate the number of North Korea native friends on your Kakao Talk whom you
regularly contact.
1. 0
2. 1-5
3. 6-10
4. 11-15
5. 16 and more
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17. Please indicate the number of South Korea native friends on your Kakao Talk whom you
regularly contact.
1. 0
2. 1-5
3. 6-10
4. 11-15
5. 16 and more
18. Please mark the number from the scale that best corresponds to your answer.
Not at Very Neutral Somew To a

All Little hat Great
Extent
Online social media is part of my everyday 1 2 3 4 5

activities.
I am proud to tell people that I’m on 1 2 3 4 5
online social networking sites.
Facebook has become part of my daily 1 2 3 4 5
routine.
I feel out of touch when I haven't logged 1 2 3 4 5
onto online social media for a while.
I feel I am part of my online social 1 2 3 4 5
community.
It would be sorry if my online social 1 2 3 4 5
networking sites shut down.
Please answer the following questions about your general information.
1. How old are you? ( ) years old

2. What is your gender?
1. Male 2. Female
3. How long have you stayed in a transitional country or countries (e.g., China, Mongolia,
Thailand, etc)?
( ) year(s) ( ) month(s)
4. How long have you lived in South Korea?
( ) year(s) ( ) month(s)
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5. I am currently…
1. An alternative school student.
2. A college student.
3. Employed.
4. Unemployed.
6. I live…
1. In a dormitory.
2. In my relative’s or acquaintance’s home.
3. With my families
4. By myself.
5. With my roommate(s).
7. In my community…
1. There aren’t any neighbors who came from North Korea.
2. There are some neighbors who came from North Korea.
Thanks you for your participation!

128
Korean Version Questionnaire
북한출신 청년들과 청소년들의 소셜미디어 사용에 관한 조사
아래 질문들은 북한과 남한 문화에 대한 당신의 의견을 물어보고 있습니다. 각 질문의 형식에 알맞게
응답해 주시고 해당하는 곳에 표시 해주세요.
1. 당신은 다음의 각 항목에 대해 얼마나 동의하시나요?
전혀 별로 보통 어느정도 매우
그렇지 그렇지 그렇다 그렇다
않다 않다
나는 내가 북한사람이라고 생각한다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 내가 남한사람이라고 생각한다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 내가 북한출신인 것이 좋다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 내가 남한사람인 것이 좋다. 1 2 3 4 5
내가 북한출신이란 것은 나의 삶에서 1 2 3 4 5
중요한 의미를 가진다.
내가 남한사람이란 것은 나의 삶에서 1 2 3 4 5
중요한 의미를 가진다.
나는 북한문화에 속한다고 느낀다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 남한문화에 속한다고 느낀다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 북한사람이라는 의식이 강하다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 남한사람이라는 의식이 강하다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 북한사람이라는 자부심이 있다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 남한사람이라는 자부심이 있다. 1 2 3 4 5
2. 북한과 남한에서 사용되는 말에는 많은 차이가 있습니다. 아래에 해당 상황에서 사용되는 북한과
남한의 용어나 표현을 당신이 얼마나 잘 말하고 이해하는지 대답해 주세요.
전혀 잘 별로 잘 보통 어느정도 매우 잘
나는 북한의 용어나 표현을 … 사용하지 사용하지 잘 사용한다
않는다 않는다 사용한다
가족들과 1 2 3 4 5
북한출신 친구들과 1 2 3 4 5
전화로 말할 때 1 2 3 4 5
낯선 사람들과 1 2 3 4 5
일반적으로 1 2 3 4 5
텔레비전이나 영화를 볼 때 1 2 3 4 5
신문이나 잡지를 볼 때 1 2 3 4 5
노래 가사를 들을 때 1 2 3 4 5
전혀 잘 별로 잘 보통 어느정도 매우 잘
나는 남한의 용어나 표현을 … 사용하지 사용하지 잘 사용한다
않는다 않는다 사용한다
학교나 일터에서 1 2 3 4 5
남한 친구들과 1 2 3 4 5
129
전화로 말할 때 1 2 3 4 5
낯선 사람들과 1 2 3 4 5
일반적으로 1 2 3 4 5
텔레비전이나 영화를 볼 때 1 2 3 4 5
신문이나 잡지를 볼 때 1 2 3 4 5
노래 가사를 들을 때 1 2 3 4 5
3. 당신은 아래 항목에 대해 얼마나 잘 알고 있습니까?
전혀 잘 모름 보통 잘암 매우 잘
모름 암
북한의 위인들(역사적인 인물들) 1 2 3 4 5
남한의 위인들(역사적인 인물들) 1 2 3 4 5
북한의 인기 있는 텔레비전 프로그램 1 2 3 4 5
남한의 인기 있는 텔레비전 프로그램 1 2 3 4 5
북한의 유명한 신문이나 잡지 1 2 3 4 5
남한의 유명한 신문이나 잡지 1 2 3 4 5
북한의 유명한 배우들 1 2 3 4 5
남한의 유명한 배우들 1 2 3 4 5
북한의 역사 1 2 3 4 5
남한의 역사 1 2 3 4 5
북한의 정치인 1 2 3 4 5
남한의 정치인 1 2 3 4 5
아래는 당신의 사회 활동에 관한 질문입니다.
4. 아래 항목별로 현재 자주 만나거나 연락하는 사람들의 대략적인 숫자에 표시해 주세요.
없다 1-3명 4-9명 10-19명 20명 이상

북한 출신 친구 1 2 3 4 5
남한 출신 친구 1 2 3 4 5
외국에 있는 친구 1 2 3 4 5
외국에 있는 가족 1 2 3 4 5
남한에 있는 가족 1 2 3 4 5
학교 선생님이나 교수님 1 2 3 4 5
복지센터 직원이나 공무원 1 2 3 4 5
주변에 알고 지내는 북한이탈주민 1 2 3 4 5
동네 이웃 1 2 3 4 5
내가 활동하는 사회 모임 사람들 1 2 3 4 5
(종교 단체/학교 동아리/동호회 모임 등)
5. 당신은 현재 지역사회를 위한 자원봉사활동이나 단체활동에 참여하고 계십니까?
1. 예 2. 아니요
130
6. 당신은 현재 북한이탈주민사회를 위한 자원봉사활동이나 단체활동에 참여하고 계십니까?
1. 예 2. 아니요
7. 당신은 앞으로 얼마나 사회 활동에 참여하고 싶으십니까?
나는 앞으로… 그렇지 그렇지 그렇다 그렇다
않다 않다
내가 사는 지역을 위한 자원봉사활동을 할 1 2 3 4 5
것이다.
북한이탈주민을 위한 자원봉사활동을 할 1 2 3 4 5
것이다.
내가 사는 지역사회 활동에 참여할 것이다. 1 2 3 4 5
북한이탈주민사회 활동에 참여할 것이다. 1 2 3 4 5
내가 사는 지역의 사회운동프로그램에 참여할 1 2 3 4 5
것이다.
북한이탈주민의 사회운동프로그램에 참여할 1 2 3 4 5
것이다.
내가 사는 지역사회의 적극적인 일원이 될 1 2 3 4 5
것이다.
북한이탈주민사회의 적극적인 일원이 될 1 2 3 4 5
것이다.
내가 사는 지역사회 봉사에 참여할 것이다. 1 2 3 4 5
북한이탈주민사회 봉사에 참여할 것이다. 1 2 3 4 5
내가 사는 지역의 어려운 사람들을 돕고 싶다. 1 2 3 4 5
어려운 환경에 있는 북한이탈주민들을 돕고 1 2 3 4 5
싶다.
내가 사는 지역에 좋은 변화를 만들어 내고 1 2 3 4 5
싶다.
북한이탈주민사회에 좋은 변화를 만들어 내고 1 2 3 4 5
싶다.
아래는 당신이 생각하는 자신에 대한 질문입니다.
8. 당신은 다음의 각 항목에 대해 얼마나 동의하시나요?
그렇지 그렇지 그렇다 그렇다
않다 않다
전체적으로 나는 나에대해 만족한다. 1 2 3 4 5
가끔 나는 내가 잘하는게 없다고 생각한다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 내가 좋은 점이 많다고 생각한다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 남들처럼 일을 잘할 수 있다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 자랑할 것이 없다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 가끔 내가 쓸모없다고 느낀다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 내가 가치 있다고 생각한다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 내가 나 자신을 더 존중했으면 좋겠다. 1 2 3 4 5
131
전체적으로 나는 실패자라고 생각한다. 1 2 3 4 5

나는 자신에 대한 긍정적 태도를 가지고 있다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 사람들이 북한에 대한 농담을 할때나 1 2 3 4 5
무시하는 것 같을 때 기분이 나쁘다.
나는 넘어야 할 장애물이 많다. 1 2 3 4 5
가끔 나의 가족들이 나의 가치관을 이해해주지 1 2 3 4 5
못해서 속상하다.
나의 가족들은 나의 미래의 꿈에 대해서 나와 다른 1 2 3 4 5
생각을 하고 있다.
내가 어떻게 느끼고 생각하는지 친구들에게 1 2 3 4 5
표현하기가 쉽지 않다.
북한에 있는 가족들을 만날수 없다는 사실이 1 2 3 4 5
슬프다.
나는 가까운 친구가 없다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 이곳이 편하지 못하다. 1 2 3 4 5
내가 남한말이 서툴어서 다가가지 못할 뿐인데 1 2 3 4 5
사람들은 내가 사교적이지 않다고 생각한다.
사람들이 나를 남한의 문화를 받아들이게 강요하는 1 2 3 4 5
것이 가끔 짜증난다.
내가 가끔 북한말투를 쓰는것이 신경쓰인다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 북한에 대해 자주 생각한다. 1 2 3 4 5
나의 삶이 북한과 멀어지는 것이 힘들다. 1 2 3 4 5
나의 가족들을 자랑스러워 하는 것은 쉽지 않다.. 1 2 3 4 5
때로 남한사람들의 말을 이해하기가 힘들다. 1 2 3 4 5
때로 나를 도와주어야 하는사람들이 나를 도와주지 1 2 3 4 5
않아서 무시당한 기분이 든다..
내가 남한출신이 아니기 때문에 가끔 내가 한 일에 1 2 3 4 5
대해 보상을 덜 받는다고 생각한다.
나중에 내가 직업을 찾을 때에 내가 북한에서 1 2 3 4 5
왔다는 것이 방해가 될 수 도 있다고 생각한다.
많은 사람들이 북한에 대한 잘못된 편견을 가지고 1 2 3 4 5
있고 나를 그렇게 대할 때가 있다.
나는 종종 사람들이 내가 북한에서 왔기 때문에 1 2 3 4 5
내가 잘되려 하는 것을 막으려 한다는 기분이 든다.
내가 북한에서 왔기 때문에 일이나 활동에 1 2 3 4 5
참여하기 힘들 때가 있다.
내가 북한에서 했던 행동을 하면 사람들이 1 2 3 4 5
이상하게 본다.
아래는 당신의 미디어 사용에 관한 질문입니다.
9. 당신은 남한에 오기 전, 아래의 남한 미디어를 사용해 본 적이 있으신가요?
전혀 사용 거의 보통 가끔 자주
한적이 사용하지 사용했다 사용했다
없다 않았다
남한신문 1 2 3 4 5
132
남한 드라마나 쇼프로 1 2 3 4 5
남한 라디오 1 2 3 4 5
남한 잡지 1 2 3 4 5
남한 영화 1 2 3 4 5
10. 당신은 현재 아래의 미디어를 하루에 얼마나 자주 사용하시나요?
거의 사용 1시간 1시간- 2시간- 3 시간

안한다 이하 2시간 3시간 이상
신문 1 2 3 4 5
텔레비젼 1 2 3 4 5
라디오 1 2 3 4 5
잡지 1 2 3 4 5
웹사이트 1 2 3 4 5
11. 당신은 현재 북한에 관련된 아래의 미디어를 얼마나 자주 사용하시나요?
전혀 사용 거의 보통 가끔 자주
한적이 사용하지 사용한다 사용한다
없다 않는다
북한이나 북한이탈주민 관련 신문 1 2 3 4 5
북한이나 북한이탈주민 관련 텔레비젼 1 2 3 4 5
프로그램
북한이나 북한이탈주민 관련 라디오 1 2 3 4 5
북한이나 북한이탈주민 관련 잡지 1 2 3 4 5
북한이나 북한이탈주민 관련 웹사이트 1 2 3 4 5
12. 당신은 인터넷을 보통 무슨 용도로, 얼마나 자주 사용하시나요?
거의 한달에 일주일에 일주일에 거의

사용안함 몇번 1-2번 3-4번 매일
정보검색 1 2 3 4 5
학업 1 2 3 4 5
메신저/채팅(예: 네이트온) 1 2 3 4 5
카페/동호회 활동 1 2 3 4 5
소셜 미디어(예: 페이스북, 트위터) 활동 1 2 3 4 5
개인 홈페이지/블로그 활동 1 2 3 4 5
게임 1 2 3 4 5
오락(시간 때우기) 1 2 3 4 5
음악/동영상 감상 및 다운로드 1 2 3 4 5
쇼핑/예약 1 2 3 4 5
13. 당신은 스마트 폰을 가지고 있으신가요?
1. 예 2. 아니요
133
14. 만약 스마트 폰을 가지고 있다면, 스마트 폰을 통한 소셜 미디어(예: 카카오톡, 라인, 페이스북,

트위터)를 얼마나 자주 사용하시나요?
일 년에 한 달에 일주일에
거의 사용안함 거의 매일
몇번 몇번 몇번
15. 당신은 보통 하루에 얼마나 온라인 소셜 미디어를 사용하시나요?
1. 전혀 사용하지 않는다
2. 30분 이하
3. 30분-1시간
4. 2시간-3시간
5. 4시간 이상
16. 카카오톡으로 주기적으로 연락하는 남한출신 친구는 몇 명 인가요?
1. 0명
2. 1-5 명
3. 6-10 명
4. 11-15 명
5. 16 이상
17. 카카오톡으로 주기적으로 연락하는 북한출신 친구는 몇 명 인가요?
1. 0명
2. 1-5 명
3. 6-10 명
4. 11-15 명
5. 16 이상
18. 아래 각각의 문장에 대해 여러분이 생각을 가장 잘 표현한 번호를 고르세요.
전혀 별로 보통 어느정 매우
그렇지 그렇지 도 그렇다
않다 않다 그렇다
온라인 소셜 미디어는 내 일상의 일부분이다. 1 2 3 4 5
나는 사람들에게 내가 온라인 소셜 사이트를 1 2 3 4 5
한다고 자랑스럽게 말할 수 있다
온라인 소셜 미디어를 하는 것은 나의 1 2 3 4 5
일과이다.
나는 소셜 미디어를 안하면 세상과 단절된 1 2 3 4 5
느낌이 든다.
나는 내가 속해있는 온라인 카페나 동호회의 1 2 3 4 5
한 일원이라고 생각한다.
만약 온라인 소셜 미디어가 중단된다면 매우 1 2 3 4 5
살기 힘들 것이다.
134
마지막으로 당신의 일반적인 배경에 대해 물어보겠습니다.
1. 당신의 나이는 무엇입니까? ( )살
2. 당신의 성별은 무엇입니까?
2. 남 2. 여
3. 당신은 남한에 오기 전 제 3 국(중국, 몽고, 태국, 기타 등)에서 대략 얼마나 오래 생활하였습니까?
( )년( ) 개월
4. 당신은 지금까지 남한에서 대략 얼마동안 생활하였습니까?
( )년( ) 개월
5. 나는 현재….
1. 대안학교 학생입니다.
2. 대학생입니다.
3. 직장인입니다.
4. 취업준비생입니다.
5. 당신은 현재 어디에 살고 있습니까?
1. 기숙사나 기숙사 형태의 그룹홈

2. 친척집이나 아는 집
3. 가족들과
4. 혼자 자취
5. 룸메이트와 함께 자취
7. 내가 살고 있는 동네에는…..
1. 북한이탈주민들이 거의 없습니다.
2. 북한이탈주민들이 있습니다.
질문이 끝났습니다. 끝까지 풀어주셔서 감사합니다!

135
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ABSTRACT
THE ROLE OF ONLINE SOCIAL MEDIA IN THE ACCULTURATION PROCESS OF

NORTH KOREAN REFUGEE YOUNG ADULTS IN SOUTH KOREA
by
SUNG MI HAN
August 2013
Advisor: Dr. Pradeep Sopory
Co-Advisor: Dr. Hayg Oshagan
Major: Communication
Degree: Doctor of Philosophy
The purpose of this study is to investigate media’s influences on the acculturation of North
Korean refugee young adults in South Korea, especially focusing on identifying the role of online
social media. The study examined the acculturation and media patterns of the refugee young adults
and found evidence that the use of South Korean media and North Korea-related media enhanced the
acculturation domains of South and North Korean cultures, and therefore the utilization of both
media as a whole can facilitate the pluralism model of acculturation. Specifically, a series of
hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that South Korean mass media use had positive, significant
relationships with South Korean identity and language competence. In addition, online social media
use with South Koreans was significantly related to greater South Korean identity and South Korean
social networks, and it also showed marginal associations with greater involvement with the South
Korean community and less acculturative stress. On the other hand, the use of North Korea-related
mass media content was positively related to North Korean cultural competence, North Korean
refugee community involvement, and self-esteem, and the use of online social media with North
Korean refugees was positively related to North Korean identity and cultural competence and social
networks with other refugees. These findings indicate that the acculturation process of North Korean
153
refugee young adults is significantly influenced by the dynamic interactions between South Korean
media and North Korea-related media and also between the mass media and online social media. The
theoretical model describing the media environment of North Korean refugees was presented along
with the discussions of practical implications and directions for future research.
154
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL STATEMENT
Sung Mi Han was born and raised in Seoul, South Korea. She received her B.F.A. in Visual
Communication Design from Hong-Ik University in South Korea and M. A. in Advertising from
Michigan State University. In 2008, she entered the graduate program in Communication at Wayne
State University in Detroit, MI. Her research interests include new media effects and cross-cultural
communication.

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THE ROLE OF ONLINE SOCIAL MEDIA IN THE ACCULTURATION PROCESS OF

NORTH KOREAN REFUGEE YOUNG ADULTS IN SOUTH KOREA

Submitted to the Graduate School

of Wayne State University,

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

With much thankfulness to God,

I dedicate this dissertation to my father, Sung Dong Han,

dedicated service to students.

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... iii

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vi

List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................1

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL OVERVIEW ..............................................................................10

Overview of theories and concepts. ........................................................................... 11

Acculturation of refugees. .......................................................................................... 15

Young adults in the cross-cultural context. ................................................................ 17

The Role of Media in Acculturation Processes ..................................................................... 22

Host media: A window to mainstream culture........................................................... 24

Ethnic media: An alternative social realty. ................................................................ 27

Online social media as a new social context for immigrants. .................................... 30

Acculturation of North Korean Refugee Young Adults in South Korea ............................... 36

The societal and group level contexts. ....................................................................... 37

The influence of South Korean mass media on acculturation. .................................. 44

current study. .............................................................................................................. 48

Statement of Hypotheses and Research Questions ................................................................ 50

CHAPTER 3: METHOD ...............................................................................................................58

Participants and Procedure..................................................................................................... 58

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...............................................................................................................71

Preliminary Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................. 71

Testing Hypotheses and Research Questions ........................................................................ 80

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION .........................................................................................................98

Appendix A: Instruments ............................................................................................................ 119

References ................................................................................................................................... 135

Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... 152

Autobiographical Statement ....................................................................................................... 154

Table 1: Participant demographic characteristics ..........................................................................60

Table 2: Correlations between demographic variables and cultural identity, language

Table 3: Correlations between demographic variables and social networks, community

Table 4: Descriptive statistics for respondents' media use patterns ...............................................78

Table 5: Correlations among main predictor variables ..................................................................79

Figure 1: Hypotheses and research questions model .....................................................................57

transitions and what facilitates cultural adaptation is greater than ever.

Although international migration is a global phenomenon, accepting and harmonizing

and develop better social integration plans.

is highly dependent on individuals’ ability to communicate within a given cultural environment.

of North Korean refugee young adults and their communication activities.

words, adaptation is the outcome of a continuous acculturation process. Communication studies

they lack interpersonal networks with members of the host culture.

cultural identification is bidimensional, which allows individuals to hold multiple cultural

& Fine, 2002).

alternative to mainstream media’s underrepresentation of immigrants (Cottle, 2000; Elias, 2008)

(Shibutani & Kwan, 1965; Viswanath & Arora, 2000).

from the refugee community.

of minority opinions by decreasing social pressures from face-to-face interactions (Stritzke,

society (Mehra, Merkel, & Bishop, 2004; Mitra, 2001, 2004).

with other refugees.