Communication and Collaboration Skills

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF EDUACTION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY
UCU 110 : COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATIVE SKILLS
WRITTEN BY: Mrs. Doris Kangai Njoka
Mr. Thomas M. Rimbui
Miss Beatrice N. Murila
Dr. Sophia M. Ndethiu
VETTED BY: Dr. Harrison Mulwa
INTRODUCTION
This course is aimed at helping you to develop the capacity to communicate effectively and
efficiently in a variety of contexts, learn independently, collaborate with others, think
critically as well as become an information literate citizen. This is a skills based course,
which is taken by all the first year students across disciplines at the university. Since
communication and collaboration are key 21st century skills, you will be given space to
practice them through a variety of activities and a collaborative research project. The
activities are spread out within the course topics and they are here referred to as ‘e-tivities’.
The project is based on an argumentative essay topic that you will be guided to choose from
one of your core units. The project, which is one of the spaces in which you will practice the
skills covered in various topics, will run parallel with the coverage other content. See Table
8.10.4: Group project schedule in lesson 8 of this course.
Welcome to the course.
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, the learner should be able to:
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1. Communicate effectively orally and in writing in academic and other settings.
2. Listen to oral presentations, take relevant notes and answer questions on the same.
3. Prepare and use study schedules.
4. Access, evaluate, and use library and other information resources for academic and
other purposes.
5. Carry out research and present the findings in academic and work related forums.
6. Apply information literacy and information ethics skills and competencies for
academic and lifelong learning.
7. Work creatively in groups to carry out research projects.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This is a common unit for all the first year students across disciplines. It will be covered in 39
hours, some of which will be spent on online interactions. The focus is on helping you
develop effective ways of fitting into college study and a range of transferrable skills. The
skill areas covered are Fundamentals of Communication and Collaboration, Collaboration
and empathic listening, Oral Skills, Reading Skills, Information Literacy and Ethics,
Collaboration and interpersonal skills, Study skills, and Advanced writing skills. Note
also, there is a project embedded in the learning of these skills to help you practice the
skills as you cover them. Your mastery of these skills will give you an edge in the 21 st
century environment.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
The course is for first year students to help them learn effectively in all areas of
specialization. It is, therefore, a requirement for graduation. Every student at the university
needs to attain a pass or above in UCU 100: Communication and Collaboration Skills.
You will be expected to contribute to the forums by posting your responses and comments on
other posts as indicated in the e-tivities . It will be helpful to work on the assigned readings
before posting or responding to questions. This will make your interactions more enjoyable.
Type all your work in font 12 Times new Roman (unless guided otherwise) with the margins
set as per the referencing style you use in the written work. California State University,
Dominguez Hills, for example, gives details of the American Psychological Association style,
7th edition.
Be polite in all your communication. Avoid any language that might create a negative
learning environment with the other learners. You will get more guidance on how to
communicate and succeed in online courses by reading the three sources given below:
1. Tips for success in online classes during coronavirus outbreak
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2. Strategic study techniques
3. Making the most of your learning style
Duration of Course: The course will run for one semester.
LESSON 1.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATION
1.1: Introduction
The major goal of any communicative action is to promote understanding. In the academic
setting and in the professions, deeper understanding and insight are necessary. Collaborating
with others in learning and at work ensures that quality ideas are shared for more effective
task completion and problem solving. Therefore, the importance of communication and
collaboration for learning and for assisting students prepare for their future careers cannot be
overemphasized. These two competencies form part of the 4Cs (communication,
collaboration, critical and creative thinking) that have been singled out as the core attributes
for success in the 21st century. Communication is multidimensional and comprises all four
language skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing as well as visual, interpersonal,
group and intercultural and multi-disciplinary aspects. Living in a globalizing society with
current advances in technology means that students and graduates experience increased need
to communicate across cultures as they exchange ideas and work on international projects.
Communication and collaboration are core attributes in fostering learning across all subjects
and are highly sought after by employers. Inadequate communication skills and poor team
skills are often seen to undermine the individual and his/her professional qualifications. The
ability to communicate persuasively in presenting one’s point of view and in a manner that is
respectful of others are important for effective collaboration. This first lesson sets the
foundation for the rest of the course in that when learning each of the other lessons, the
fundamental principles of communication and collaboration discussed here will be applicable.
1.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
i. By the end of this Lesson you will be able to:

ii. Explain the role of communication in promoting understanding and insight.
iii. Discuss the key aspects involved in collaborative learning
iv. List the benefits and conditions of collaboration in learning, the professions and
personal life.
v. Discuss the role of persuasion and assertiveness in academic and other contexts.
1.3 The Role of Communication

Communication is an active process of exchanging information between individuals using a
common system of symbols, signs and behaviour (Wilkinson, 1984). It happens at
intrapersonal level (internal monologue or reflection), interpersonal level, group and public
and mass level. In the past, communication was viewed as having four components: sender,
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receiver, message and channel. Current understanding of this process now places emphasis on
additional elements, which include feedback, context, barriers and effect. In addition,
communication is no longer seen as a one-way process, but rather as a transaction and
interaction process. In communication, meaning is not just a good or item that is passed from
one individual to another, but it is more of a process of constructing meaning by taking into
account the different perspectives of participants. Communication has three major functions
no matter the context in which it is applied. First, it assists individuals to understand subject
content, their environment, job related processes as well as themselves and others. Deep level
or critical level understanding is vital in academic pursuits and in the professions where
complex issues and processes need to be understood in order to offer quality services and
solve problems creatively. The second role of communication is persuasion and influence. In
all aspects of our life, we want to be able to persuade others of our views and be able to
influence them by using spoken word, written communication and non-verbally.
Communication is key in our ability to initiate and maintain human relationships at personal
level, in networking and working successfully in teams.
Apart from verbal communication where participants rely on the spoken and written words,
we communicate also through behaviour and non-verbal symbols and signs. Today, non-
verbal competence is given equal if not more importance than verbal communication. Non-
verbal aspects of communication include facial expression, gestures, body movement and
posture, appearance, dressing, space and distance, tone of voice, paralinguistic features, time
and artefacts. In facial expression eye contact and the smile are regarded highly. Appearance
applies to our height, weight, racial features, and grooming. Time communicates powerfully
about our social and intellectual qualities in that how we use time may send a wide range of
meanings to those with whom we interact. What does reporting to duty all or most of the time
tell about a person whether in school or at the work place?
1.4 Fundamentals of Collaboration
Collaboration involves the paring or grouping of individuals in a learning or work

environment for the purpose of reflecting on an issue, completing a task, solving a problem or
creating a product. Through collaboration, individuals achieve higher order levels of thought.
The complexities of the modern globalizing and fast changing society calls for greater need
for individuals to work together on issues of critical concern. In the classroom and other
learning contexts, collaboration presents learners with an opportunity to interact with others,
present ideas and defend their points of view, as well as share resources and exchange
diverse beliefs. It also offers an opportunity to interrogate the perspectives of others and to be
actively engaged in learning. Collaborative learning promotes critical and creative learning
and makes learners more accountable for their own learning in that rather than work
individualistically and in competition, learners in groups assist one another to learn.
Collaboration provides opportunity for learners to apply a variety of skills. Leadership,
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decision-making, trust building, communication, conflict management skills enhance
students’ capabilities to manage their teams effectively as well as monitor task progress. It
means students check how they work together as a team and how well they perform with the
tasks.
E-tivity 1.4 – Fundamentals of Collaboration
Numbering, pacing 1.4
and sequencing
Title Fundamentals of Collaboration
Purpose The purpose of this topic is to get you to find out more on
the benefits of working collaboratively as well as conditions
that foster successful collaboration.
Brief summary of overall task Read the article What is collaborative learning? by
Valamis and summarize the benefits on collaborative
learning.
Spark
Individual task 1. Carry out an internet study on the concepts of

communication and collaboration.
2. Make brief notes on the benefits of collaboration
3. Write your answer in Assignment 4.3.2
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Interaction begins 1. With other members of your class, discuss the
importance of both communication and collaboration in
learning, professions and personal life.
2. Individually, write four sentences that summarise the

importance of collaboration and communication in your
day-to-day living.
3. Post your answers in the discussion forum 4.3.2
E-moderator interventions I will:
1. Summarize learners’ responses on task.
2. Provide direction as necessary
3. Close the e-tivity .
Schedule and time Spend 1 hour on individual tasks and 1 hour for the group
tasks.
Next Persuasion and Assertiveness
1.5 Persuasion
Speaking, writing and even behaving persuasively are very important communication skills.
It is vital for you to note that to be persuasive, words alone may not be enough. Some people
are convincing just from the way they present themselves. They are likely to attract you way
before they speak. They look presentable, walk or sit in a manner that makes you conclude
they are comfortable with being who they are. They display an open inviting quality, and
you may notice this from eye contact, smile or inviting gestures such as open inviting arms
or body language. They choose to keep a distance that is inviting rather than one which tells
that they are aloof and want to be left alone. So non-verbal behaviour does support the
spoken word in our effort to persuade others to agree with our beliefs. Our writing is also a
tool for persuading readers. In the education system, your examiner wants to check how
persuasively you write in order to award you a pass grade. Imagine writing without
following instructions, not researching the topic enough or not proofreading your writing. In
an argument, you write to present evidence that should make the reader accept your
conclusions.
Persuasive language whether written or spoken is used to get others to agree with our facts,
share our values, accept our argument and conclusions and adopt our way of thinking. There
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are many ways of persuading people and they include: presenting evidence, attacking and
presenting opposing views as weaker, use of inclusive language (we, us, our) that shows
solidarity rather than (you, they, them,), use of humour, presenting cause and effect, using
formal language, use of specialized jargon that shows your level of knowledge and
professionalism, use of imagery and metaphors, use facts and expert opinions, statistical data
as well as use of colloquial language that makes you sound down to earth and friendly.
The tone of voice is also a very potent tool in persuasion. Your tone of voice may attract or
put off your listener. Consider a tone that is cheerful, reasonable, assured, tolerant, apologetic,
wise, certain, persuasive, encouraging, respectful and one that is not aloof, angry, critical,
resentful, judgemental, pessimistic, disappointed, biting, impatient, authoritative and
disapproving.
In working with others, the ability to persuade others to pay attention to your ideas in writing
as well as in conversation and even get them to believe them is a key communication skill.
1.6 Assertiveness
While some people are assertive, others are passive or aggressive. Assertiveness is the
quality of being self-assured and confident. It is the ability to stand up for your own rights
and those of others in a calm and positive way without being either aggressive or passively
accepting others’ views. Assertiveness helps you express yourself in a clear, open and
reasonable manner without undermining your own or others’ rights. It means you can get
your point across without upsetting others or getting upset yourself. Individuals who are not
assertive always say yes to others. They fear being judged, find it hard to ask questions,
cannot stand up for themselves, and find it hard to express what they feel. Assertive
behaviour includes the following:
● Being prepared for meetings by seeking to know ahead of time what issues
may be raised and how you may need to respond.
● Being open and honest in expressing your rights, wishes, feelings and giving
others room or encouragement to do the same
● Listening attentively to the views of others and responding appropriately even
if you disagree with them
● Exercising self-control
● Placing yourself at the same level with others and not being authoritative
● Owning to your mistakes and apologizing while allowing others to do the
same
● Appreciating others regularly for their positive actions
● Accept responsibility from others and be able to delegate to them as well
E-tivity 1.6 Assertiveness
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and sequencing
Title Assertiveness
Purpose The purpose of this lesson is to get you to find out more
about your own assertiveness with the intention of finding
out ways of increasing our level of assertiveness. The goal
is find out the assertiveness techniques that may be useful
for you and your team.
Brief summary of overall task 1. Watch this videos, How to talk to Anyone with ease and
Confidence and Go from Passive to Assertive
2. Summarize the key points on how to build assertiveness

in your interactions with others.
Spark
Source: Heart, self-esteem, self-Liberation
Individual task Watch the two videos above and summarize the ways of
developing self-confidence and assertiveness.
Interaction begins 1. List three techniques of developing assertiveness in your

interactions.
2. In one paragraph, explain one disadvantage of being

passive in your interactions. Give one specific example
from your experiences.
2. Read a post from one other student and give constructive

feedback.
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3. Post your answer in discussion forum 1.6
E-moderator interventions 1. Summarize learners’ responses on task.
2. Provide direction as necessary.
3. Close the e-tivity.
Schedule and time Spend 1 hour on individual tasks and 30 minutes for the
group tasks.
Next Assessment.
1.7 Assessment questions
1. The most important goal in communication is to arrive at a common understanding.

True/False
2. Effective communication matters most in a work environment. True/False
3. A collaborative effort in learning cultivates critical thinking. True/False
4. It is wrong to have a team of 6 persons in a team. True/False
5. Conflict management skills are not collaboration skills. True/False
E-References
How to talk to anyone with ease and confidence
What is collaborative learning?
LESSON 2: LISTENING AND NOTE-TAKING
2.1 Introduction
In this section, we shall look at the skills of listening and note taking. These, like many
others you will learn in this course, are very important to your success in academic and other
aspects of life. This means you will need to spend sufficient time in practicing the skills in
order to master them.
2.2 Lesson Outcomes.

By this end of this lesson, you will be able to:
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i. Explain levels of listening.
ii. Discuss characteristics of a good listener.
iii. Identify barriers to effective listening in academic and other contexts and provide
Possible solutions for each.
iv. Take quality notes.

v. Identify and explain different economical means of taking notes.
vi. Take notes that show relative importance of ideas using different formats
Such as Cornell.
vii. Code information in diagrammatic forms such as mind maps, charts, tables,
in addition, social grams among others.
2.3 Definitions
Listening is a very important, yet difficult skill to master. Most people do not even know they
are poor listeners. The good news is that, just like other skills, listening can be mastered.
However, what is listening? Is it the same as hearing?
This is what Psychology Today (2015) says about listening and hearing:
The ability to hear is typically innate, but the ability to listen well is a skill that must
be developed and practiced. Listening means paying attention and making a conscious
effort to process what you hear. It is one of our most important skills and it is one of the most
overlooked.
Listening is defined in various ways. The International Listening Association defines it as

“the process of receiving, constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and /or
nonverbal messages” (International Listening Association, 1996). See more definitions
below:
i. Listening is the active process of receiving aural stimuli (De Vito, 1987:26).
ii. Listening is a voluntary process that goes beyond simply reacting to sounds and
includes understanding, analyzing, evaluating, and responding.
iii. Listening is an active, deliberate, selective process by which a message is
received, critically interpreted, and acted upon by a purposeful listener.
As the definitions above show, listening is voluntary; it is something one consciously chooses
to do. Active listening is hard work because it requires concentration on what the speaker is
saying. It calls for discipline and practice. For you to listen effectively, you must
consciously deal with anything internal or external that might interfere with your
understanding.
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2.4 Levels of Listening
You will find that you listen with varying levels of concentration depending on, for
example, the purpose of listening, your physical and psychological state, your
background knowledge, and the content of the speech or lecture. Therefore, listening
is said to be more than just a single, simple activity. There is, however, no general
agreement among communication experts on a comprehensive list of levels of listening.
E-tivity 2.4 Levels of listening
Numbering 2.4
Spacing and sequencing
Title Levels of listening
Purpose This activity will enable you to recognize different levels of

listening. This will make you aware of how you listen in various
situations.
Brief summary of Read, For goodness sake, listen to me! in addition, discuss the
different levels that you can listen.
Overall task
Think of the difference in the way you listen to your lecturer as

opposed to your parents.
Spark
Individual task Read the text above and summarize the levels of listening.
Interaction begins 1. In one paragraph, explain how your listening can be at the
cosmetic level.
2. Explain two reasons why the deep listening level helps with
emotional connections.
3. Post your responses in discussion forum 2.4.
4. Give constructive comments to student’s post in two
sentences.
E-moderator 1. Focus the group discussions

2. Give feedback with teaching points.
interventions 3. Summarise the key points of the levels of listening.
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Schedule and time The discussion will be closed in four days.
Next Qualities of a good listener and barriers to listening.
2.5 Qualities of a good listener

Effective listening skills are nuggets for your academic and other areas of life. Being an
effective and efficient listener is, therefore, a goal you should aim at achieving. Good
listeners display various characteristics. They listen more and talk less, do not interrupt
others, but are good at turn taking, are aware of their own biases, among many more qualities.
2.6 Barriers to effective Listening

Listening does not always proceed in a smooth manner. Each one of us has filters, some of
which help us to attach meaning to the messages we receive.
Source: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadcom.html
However, filters can also prevent effective listening. Anything that stands in the way of
effective communication is called a barrier. Due to this, it is usually difficult to attach
mirror- image meanings to the messages we receive from others. Consider the following
sayings, which show the level of misunderstanding inherent in listening situations:
Saying a:
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Source: Alan Keen. (2013, June 5). The lost art of effective listening.
Saying b:
Nothing is so simple that it cannot be misunderstood. — Freeman Teague, Jr.
The good news is that whenever there is a potential problem, there is also a solution out there
awaiting tapping by the participants in the communication event.
2.7 Why do we listen?

However, listening does not always proceed smoothly.
E-tivity 2.6 Barriers to effective listening.
Numbering 2.6
Title Barriers to effective listening.
Purpose 1. For you to be able to recognize barriers to listening in academic

life and beyond.
2. For you to practice and improve on your listening skills
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Brief summary
of overall task
Source: Gwyn Teatro
Read You are Not Boss of Me and discuss various barriers.
Spark Choose any three friends in your locality to carry out this e-tivity.
The first person should whisper a short message to the second
person and the second person to the third person. Then the last
person will say aloud what he/she heard. Find out if it was passed
on correctly. ( Broken telephone)
Individual task 1. Select any two barriers from the reading and suggest what you
will do to rectify this. Post this in discussion forum 2.6.
2. Save this in your portfolio.
Interactions begins From the forum, find out others that have similar barriers to yours
and share ideas on how to overcome these.
E-moderator intervention 1. Ensure that students are discussing the task.

2. Give feedback on their discussion
Schedule and time
Schedule and time. The task should take two days
Next Note- taking.
2.8 Note-taking
Research has shown that between 50- 80% of the content is forgotten within two weeks if no
effort is made to record or to remember the material (University of Waterloo Counselling
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Services n.d). However, the amount and rate of forgetting varies among individuals. This
stresses the importance of active note taking during a listening session and review of the notes
afterwards.
Remember:
● Do not make a copy of the presenter’s material, because it is neither

possible to match the speed of delivery nor necessary to take down everything.
● Note taking helps you to remember both what you heard and what you
understood; just record what will enable you recall the significant ideas.
●-Taking notes enables you to pay closer attention to and become more familiar
with the new information.
2.9 Guidelines to Note Taking
Effective listening is crucial for your success as a university student. More so is the art of
taking useful notes as you listen. A lot of new knowledge is communicated in face-to-face or
virtual classrooms and it is important that you develop effective ways of noting and retrieving
the information you require.
Some important points to Note:
● Record pertinent information such as:
o Date
o Title of the presentation
o Name of presenter or facilitator
● Use economical ways of taking notes such as:
o abbreviations
o Symbols
o Acronyms (words formed from the first letters or syllables of other words)
● Omit some letters such as vowels from words
● Leave out articles (a, and, the)
2.9.1 Note Formats
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Lectures or other forms of presentation vary and so the notes you take should reflect the nature
of the presentation and your purpose for taking the notes. You should give your notes a
structure to make them more intelligible to you. Some of the common formats are Cornell,
diagram, and outline.
Figure 2.9.1a Cornell Notes
Source: lifehacker.com
Figure 2.9.1b Diagram notes Figure 2.9.1c Outline Notes Source:

www.slideshare.net
E-tivity 2.9 Note-taking
Numbering 2.4
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Title Note-taking
Purpose This task will enable you to write notes effectively...
Brief summary Watch the following video on the tutorial on how to write Cornell notes.
of overall task
Spark What method do you use in writing notes during your lectures and is this
effective?
Individual task After watching the video, practise the Cornell format to write notes
during one of your lectures.
Interactions begins In your discussion, groups compare your notes and provide feedback on
each other’s notes.
Rectify after the feedback.
E-moderator Ensure that students do this work in their groups by collecting their
intervention work
Schedule and time Give feedback
Schedule and time. The work should take four days.
Next Oral skills: Public speaking.
2.10 Topic Summary

The topic has covered various aspects of listening and oral skills. We have seen listening
defined variously as an active process receiving aural stimuli and acting on it. Hearing, on the
other hand, is shown as a passive, automatic process of simply perceiving sounds. Effective
listening takes time and effort; it is at times very difficult, but the returns mostly justify the
efforts. Poor listening, on the other hand can be disastrous and costly. The importance of
active listening is underscored and note taking is seen as one of the ways of being engaged
during a presentation.
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Read the following slides and answer the questions below:
Listening and hearing mean the same thing. True/False
1. To get maximum benefits from listening to my facilitator, I should do one of the

following:
a. Write everything that I hear.
b. Listen actively
c. Make sure I hear every word spoken.
2. Psychiatrist and author M. Scott Peck says, “You cannot truly listen to anyone and do
anything else at the same time.” True/False
3. Effective listening requires effort. True/False
4. Taking notes helps you pay more attention to the facilitator. True/False
Hearing Vs. Listening
3.0 LESSON: ORAL SKILLS: PUBLIC SPEAKING
3.1 Introduction
Public speaking is a very important means developing empowerment at personal and societal
levels. Many opportunities for you to deliver speeches are bound to arise in your academic
and other fields. Public speaking, unlike general conversation, requires more systematic and
detailed planning. It also demands that an effective speaker understands the audience, the
context and other constraining factors that could affect the quality of delivery and the
subsequent impact. This topic addresses the main stages of speechmaking: topic selection,
organizing ideas, presentation, and post speech evaluation. There are exercises meant for both
individual and group attention to help you practice the skills. Public speaking involves
sharing your ideas with others. Like other aspects of communication, public speaking is a
complex process, but it can be mastered with practice. Its success is a combination of many
factors.

You will be able to:
1. Select an appropriate topic for a selected purpose, audience and occasion.

2. Conduct analyses of audiences and occasions.
3. Prepare speech outlines on selected topics.
4. Present speeches on selected topics.
5. Do post-speech analysis.
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3.3 Speech Making Process
Speechmaking is a process that involves various stages.
3.3.1 Selecting and narrowing the topic selection

Always see every subject through the eyes of your listeners/audience. It is important to
tailor every topic to suit your particular audience. This should be reflected in the topic
wording, among other things. Use the following criteria:
Criteria Question to ask
Apparent worth Is it important to you and to your audience?
Appropriateness To your personal interests, the audience, and the occasion
Availability of material Do not embark on a topic if researching the content will be a

problem no matter how interesting it is to you.
Sometimes the topic is prescribed, but on a number of occasions, you will need to come up
with your own. A good topic requires that you consider the audience, the purpose of your
speech, and the speech situation, because these factors influence the success of your
presentation.
Audience analysis
Audience analysis is your attempt at gaining some working knowledge of your prospective
audience. There are at least three main areas to consider when doing audience analysis:
demographics, psychological, and content factors. Read to get more information on audience
analysis.
Etivity Audience analysis
Numbering 3.3.1
Title Audience analysis
Purpose This e-tivity will help you in preparing a good speech for any particular
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audience
Brief summary Read A Primer on communication Studies. Chapter 9 and Communication

101 (Dutton) then state why analyzing your audience is important before
of overall task
you prepare a speech.
Spark People walking out of the room while the speech is ongoing
Individual task Discuss the importance of audience analysis based on the education level
and religious affiliation and post a maximum of one 150 words paragraph
response to the forum.
Interactions begins Read two of the responses on the forum and give feedback on what
should be corrected.
Post your response in discussion forum 3.3.1.
E-moderator intervention Stimulate further learning
Schedule and time Provide feedback
Closing the e-tivity
Schedule and time. .This task will take three days.
Next Organizing your ideas.
● Purpose
Your purpose is what you want your audience to carry with them and what you want them to
do with it .As Iacocca says:
There is no way around it – you have to do your homework. A speaker may be

very well informed, but if he hasn’t thought out exactly what he wants to say today, to
this audience, he has no business taking up people’s valuable time (Quoted in
Gamble and Gamble, 1993:304).
Remember, your listeners are going to invest their valuable time and other resources, so the
purpose of your speech should be worth their efforts.
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Some communication experts give three main purpose categories: to entertain, inform, and
persuade, but there are many more direct and subtle ones such as motivate, challenge, inspire,
demonstrate, congratulate, educate and advise.
Remember to tailor your speech to meet the needs of the audience, which are quite diverse.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one way of representing human needs. See figure 3.3.1 for
details.
● Situation
This may also be referred to as context or occasion. Speech situation refers to the physical
surroundings and the whole setup of the speech. You may find it necessary to visit the venue of
the presentation ahead of time to know what to expect. It is possible that you will require
certain adjustments to the physical setting or your speech.
● Speech situation checklist
● Date of the presentation

● Length of the presentation
● Venue/Location
● Nature of the occasion
● Size of the audience
● Any other relevant detail
3.3.2 Narrowing the topic

Consider the situational constraints such as time and the nature of the audience as you go
through the process. Start with a broad subject and brainstorm for ideas to make it manageable:
The universe-the galaxy-the stars-the type of star
Consider the topic ladder in the following example:
● Poverty eradication
○ Poverty eradication in developing countries
■ Poverty eradication in Kenya
● Poverty eradication in the arid and semi- arid areas
After narrowing the topic, do the following to make it easier for you to write out the speech:
● Formulate a purpose statement

This is a general statement, which gives an idea of what your speech is about and it is
Usually stated in the infinitive.
E.g. To inform the audience about the economic steps the government is taking in
eradicating poverty.
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● Write out the thesis statement.
The thesis statement focuses more on the content and the direction of the presentation.
E.g., the government has instituted various economic measures as a way
of eradicating poverty.
3.3.3 Organizing Your Ideas

Organizing your ideas in a systematic way will keep confusion to a minimum and
facilitate communication between you and your audience. There are different
organizational patterns in writing: topical, temporal, spatial, problem-solution, cause-effect
and motivated sequence. Read patterns of organization for more explanation.
Every good speech has three main sections: the introduction, the body, and the
conclusion. The first and the last together occupy approximately 10 to 15 % of the total
speech. In other words, as the adage goes, “ Tell them what you are going to tell them, then
tell them, and finally tell them what you have told them.”
Prepare your speech outline following the three major sections of a speech: the
introduction, body and the conclusion. The number of ideas in your speech will depend on
the time available among other things. Between 4 to 6 ideas are ideal for most speeches.
E-tivity 3.3.3 organizing your ideas
Numbering 3.3.3
Title Organizing your ideas.
Purpose This task will enable you to organize your ideas by effective planning.
Brief summary There are various ways of organizing ideas for speeches. Read the
sources below to help you to do the e-tivity:
of overall task
9.6 Organization & outlines
7.13 Organizing persuasive speeches
Using organizing patterns
Spark From the way you usually organize your ideas is there a pattern of
doing this?
Individual task State when you are required to organize your ideas in:
22
1 )Chronological order
2) Sequential order.
Interactions begins 1. Post your answers in discussion forum 3.3.3.
2. Give positive comments to two students.
E-moderator intervention Ensure that the group work is done offline and work collected for
correction and further learning.
Schedule and time
Schedule and time. The task should take 2 hours.
Next Speech presentation and post speech evaluation.
3.3.4 Speech presentation

Effective and efficient speakers portray certain characteristics:
● Insight
○ They know their strengths and weaknesses and make no presumptions about
the topics of their presentation, the audiences or contexts. An effective speaker
will take time to do thorough research on all these elements and any other that
might affect the quality of the presentation.
● Confidence
○ Research shows that a speaker who displays high confidence is perceived by

the audience as more accurate, competent, credible, intelligent,
knowledgeable, likable, and believable than one who is less confident and
uncertain (Wesson, 2005).
● Connect with their audiences
● Establish eye contact with their audience
● They view the speech as if it was a performance that requires systematic planning,
designing and implementation. They know they have to work hard to keep their
listeners interested in what they have to say. However, they also need to take
public speaking as a way of communicating with their audience. This will help in
overcoming stage fright because not everything needs to be perfect to succeed.
● Are authentic in their presentations.
● Modulate their voices to avoid monotony and adjust their pitch to suit audience size
23
● Avoid distracting body language
● Are passionate about their presentations
● Dress well for the occasion
● Know why they are speaking and what they hope to achieve.
● Prepare well for their presentations and do thorough practice and rehearsal
ahead of time.
● Make a post- speech evaluation or analyze their presentations. They believe this will
feed into the next speech and lead to a better performance.
Always rehearse your presentation or do what is called a “dry run”. This may show you
whether you need to improve on content or on your manner of presentation.
Time yourself in order to ensure that your speech will fit in the time allocated for that
purpose.. Establish the speaker -Audience -Topic S-A-T) connection. Capture their attention.
Deliver the speech with confidence.
3.3.5 Post speech evaluation

Evaluation after any event is important because it helps you to identify what went well and the
areas that need more attention in future. This will help you make better speeches in future.
After all, the adage, “Practice makes perfect” applies very well in all stages of the speech
making process. There are many ways of evaluating a speech.
E-tivity Speech presentation and post speech evaluation.
Numbering 3.3.4 and 3.3.5
Title Speech presentation and post speech evaluation.
Purpose The task will enable you to present a speech using any of the prescribed
methods.
You will be able to carry out a post analysis of your speech.
Brief summary Read 10.1 and 10.2 of A primer on communication studies and prepare a
speech for presentation.
of overall task
24
Spark Think of a situation where you memorized a poem to present in class
and before the presentation, you could not remember a word!
Individual task Prepare a speech of not more than 300 words on “The benefits of
University education’’ to present to your group on the forum using a
method of your choice.
Interactions begins In your group forum, each of you should present their speech in writing.
Give feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of each other’s speech.

Use the link below to evaluate the speech.
http://www.toastmasters.org.nz/files/docs/evaluation_template_pdf.
pdf
You can use Zoom or Google Meet (or any other application for
synchronous meetings for this assignment).
Schedule and time. Writing the speech takes three days and presentation on to group forum
is two hours.
3.4 Assessment questions.
1. The following are important in your speech preparation. Select one or more items.
a. Size of audience
b. Your voice quality
c. Context
d. None of the above
2. Planning your speech is an important step in producing an excellent speech. True/False
3. Effective public speakers do one or more of the following:
a. Connect with their audiences

b. Establish eye contact with their audience
c. Encourage audience participation
`4. One of the key elements of speech preparation is r-h- - r-a-l.
5. In speech writing and presentation, S-A-T means -------------------------------------------

connection.
25
E-References.
Listening and Note-taking
1. Anonymous. (2012). A primer on communication studies (v.1.0).
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/pdfs/a-primer-on-communication-studies.pdf
2. Bachmann, K. (2015, September 21). Listen up! Improving listening skills and
awareness. http://www.slideshare.net/karenbachmann/listen-up-improving-listening-
skills-and-awareness
3. Communication and Leadership.
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadcom.html
4. Keen, A. (2013, June 5). The lost art of effective listening.
http://akeen.empowernetwork.com/blog/the-lost-art-of-effective-listening
5. Listening Chapters: Chapter 5
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-hostos-interpersonalrelations-1/chapter/listening-
chapters-chapter-5/
6. Rich, L.T. (2012, January). Note-Taking Skills.
www.slideshare.net/LauraTRich/note-taking-skills-2
7. Slideshare. (2014, May). Barriers to effective listening.
http://www.slideshare.net/MIHIRDIXIT/barriers-to-effective-listening-34236972
8. University of Leicester. (2010) Note-making Study Guide.
https://cutt.ly/hsG3bj0
LESSON 4.0 STUDY SKILLS
26
Source: http://library.ku.ac.ke/ Source: http://philadelphia.adl.org/2014/07/17/
4.1 Introduction
Students often confuse studying with reading, preparing for examination or doing
assignments. Unfortunately, this misconception is rarely addressed in most of the subject
areas at the university, since studying as a skill is often overlooked. So what is studying?
Without addressing this area, you will find yourself struggling in your academic and other
aspects of life after college The aim of this topic is to help you to think about and plan the
way you should study and to improve your studying, revision and examination techniques. It
will also help you in preparing for your career of choice after your university studies.
4.2 Lesson outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain the difference between study, reading, and preparing for exams in college.
2. Prepare general and specific study schedules/timetables.
3. Identify effective study habits.
4. https://www.wikihow.com/Form-a-Study-Group
5. Organize notes in notebooks, note-cards, and files (hard copy and in a computer).
6. Identify negative influences of procrastination
6. Prepare and take exams efficiently.
4.3 Lesson Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. Explain the relationship between study, reading and preparing for examinations.
2. Budget for relevant items.
3. To design effective filing systems of your notes.
27
4.4 Definitions of Study
Study can be defined in many ways. Sometimes you will find people use ‘study’ and
‘reading’ interchangeably. See some of the definitions given in the Merriam-Webster
dictionary. Whatever the definition, you will need to develop effective study skills in order to
manage your time and other resources effectively and efficiently. You will need to be aware
particularly of the following key aspects among others:
• The importance of effective note keeping and budgeting.

• How to organise notes
• Advantages of using notebooks, A4 papers, cards and computer e-notes
• Advantages of different filing systems
• The importance of budgeting what a student needs
• The dangers of procrastination
E-tivity 4.4
Numbering, pacing 4.4.
and sequencing
Title Requirement For Study
Purpose This e-tivity will enable you to identify major reasons to help you
develop effective study habits.
Brief summary of By reading these two links, you will get information for answers on
overall task activities below.
1. http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-
between-studying-and-reading
2. http://www.merriam-ebster.com/dictionary/study
Spark
28
Individual task 1. Refer to the links above and summarize the difference between
study, reading and preparing for exams.
2. Post your answer in discussion forum4.4.
Interaction begins 1. Give positive and constructive feedback to two other students.
2. Post your response in discussion forum 4.4.
E-moderator 1. Summarize the contributions.

interventions
2.Give feedback and learning points
3. Close the e-tivity a week from its commencement.
Schedule and time Spend 1 hour on individual tasks and 1 hour for the group tasks.
Next Information search
4.4.1 Requirements for Study

The fact that you are learning online does not negate the need for basic learning materials such
as notebooks, note cards, pens, files, staplers and staples, punches, and paper. As an online
student, however, there are added demands on your finances. You will need computer
software and hardware to facilitate your study. For example, a computer or iPad/tablet, and
internet connectivity are basic. It is may be necessary to acquire these before you enroll for
your courses.
29
4.4.2 Keeping Your Notes
Note keeping is certainly not a new thing to you. By now, you must have realized that to learn
from your notes effectively, you must first ensure that they are well organized for easy access.
There are many options available to you for keeping your notes. You are free to choose the
most convenient way for you.
4.4.3 Budgeting
Students are advised to budget all that they need in a given semester. You must take stock of
all your requirements on which you are likely to spend money.
E-tivity 4.4.1
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 4.4.1
Title Requirement for study
Purpose This e-tivity will enable you to identify major reasons for
having effective study habits.
Brief summary of overall task Compare and contrast use of notebooks and other forms of
storage and organization.
Spark
Individual task Briefly explain the advantages and disadvantages of using

notebooks, note-cards, files and computer files to keep
your notes.
30
2. Draw a list of your budget items in order of their
importance. Explain the rationale of your list and post in
Assignment 4.4.1
Interaction begins 1. Comment on four posts from your peers. Have two
from each question.
2. Post your answer in discussion forum 4.4.1
E-moderator interventions 1.Summarize the contributions
3.Close the e-tivity a week from its commencement
tasks
Next Information search.
4.5 Planning a Study Schedule

Effective and efficient studying comes with a keen eye on time management. This means
taking stock of all that surrounds you academically and in all aspects of your life as a
student. This will call for high levels of discipline. Your 24 hours in a day will mostly
appear insufficient when all you have on your hands is considered. So being able to plan for
the day, week and even for a year will be very necessary.
4.5.1 How to prepare the timetable

After making the commitment to work hard, it becomes necessary to make studying part of
your daily routine. When drawing the study timetable, you must consider the time available
for the work and tasks that you will have to do.
4.5.3 Where to study and Time to Study

It is not easy to recommend to students no only best study places but also when to study.
This is because students have unique individual preferences .Some students for example
study while listening to music while others choose to study in very quiet places. Secondly, it
is not possible to prescribe the best time to study since it varies from person to person. As a
student, you are advised to be consistent with the time chosen.
31
4.5.4 How to Study
You will find a plethora of tips on how to study all of which are meant to help you cultivate
effective and efficient study habits. You are advised to choose only those tips that will help
you promote learning that is accompanied with understanding. Remember, “Failing to plan
is planning to fail. However, planning is only half the battle. The harder part is just doing
it.” (http://www.pinterest.com/explore/study-skills/?fromnavigate=true
E-tivity 4.5.4
and sequencing
Title Planning a Study Schedule
Purpose The e-tivity will help you identify important considerations

needed when preparing a study timetable, when choosing a good
study place, and when forming a study group.
Brief summary of Read Organizing your time and A guide for successful students
overall task for more information. The information will help you in providing
answers to the activities below.
“I sit and gaze at books for hours, but I get very little done”
“I can’t get the balance right; I find any excuse to put it off”
Spark “Concentration is my problem; I can’t settle to anything for very
long.
“I just can’t meet the deadlines; the work keeps piling up.”
Francis Casey
Individual task 1. List three advantages of planning.
2. Prepare a timetable for one week covering all your academic

and other activities.
Interaction begins I. Post your answers in discussion forum 4.5
2. Read and give constructive feedback to two students.
E-moderator 1.Summarize the contributions

interventions
32
Schedule and time Spend 1 hour on individual tasks and 1 hour for the group tasks
4.6 Preparing for and taking exams

Examinations are one way of effectively measuring how well you have studied a
certain subject or course. Success or failure in your work is determined almost entirely by
your ability to perform well in your examinations. Examinations do cause anxiety. A little
anxiety is good because it forces you to study, but a lot of anxiety is bad since it can
incapacitate you. You will be surprised to know that though we do not like examinations,
they have some benefits. Many resources address:
• Determination of success in examinations

• When preparation of examination starts
• When to start revising for examinations
• Important examination strategies
• Differences between essay and multiple type of questions

1. Studying is the same as reading. True/False
2. One starts preparing for examinations when the university announces the dates of
examinations. True/False
3. A study timetable should include the study and class hours only. True/False
4. A little anxiety is good because it forces you to study, but a lot of anxiety is bad since
it can i-a-acita-- you.
5. Cheating in an examination can earn one expulsion from college. True/False
7.8 E-References
1. Coffman, J.P. (n.d). Organizing your time.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegesuccess/chapter/2-3-organizing-your-time/
2. A guide to successful students.
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/studyprocaff/chapter/successful-students-get-
it-together/
33
LESSON 5.0 COLLABORATION AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
5.1 Introduction
Teamwork has become the new norm in the 21 st century whether in academics, work, or other
aspects of life. One of the definitions of a team is “a group of people who come together to
work in an interrelated manner towards a common goal” (McChan, et al., 2015). Well
performing groups will have defined roles, and a set of norms to guide their operations. See
Figure 5.0 for a summary.
Figure 5.0
GRIP Model of teamwork dynamics
Source:
https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/technicalwriting/chapter/understandingteamdynamics/
There is need for you to understand aspects of group dynamics such as group formation and
management.
5.2 Lesson Outcomes

1. Identify barriers to effective team performance such as social loafing.
2. Discuss social loafing and its effects in groups.
3. Explain the importance of networking both in college and beyond
34
5.3 Group Formation and collaboration strategies
Groups go through different stages before they ae able to begin working together effectively.
Though these stages appear linear, in real life it is possible for a team to go back to an earlier
stage depending on the prevailing situation. For example, they may move quite well
performing stage and realize they have to retrace the steps to forming in order to gain clarity.
See figure 6.1 and read the Five models for understanding team dynamics for more details.
Figure 5.3 Five models for understanding team dynamics
Source:
5.4 Cohesion and Collaboration strategies

You must have found that working in groups is not easy. Conflicts occur at various levels and
if not properly handled, they can easily derail the group efforts. However, conflicts are not
always negative.
One important element of becoming competent in interpersonal communication is honing the

skills of conflict resolution. Overall, effective communication is at the core of every aspect
of team operations: Empathic listening, and effective speaking and writing among others.
You need also take into account other soft skills like emotional intelligence. Do you
understand yourself? Can you handle your emotions effectively? Can you get into the shoes
of other team members? These are among the questions you need to answer in order to
contribute to effective teamwork. Refer to Technical writing essentials and Team dynamics:
Handling conflict for more information.
E-tivity 5.4 Cohesion and collaborative strategies
35
and sequencing
Title Cohesion and collaborative strategies
Purpose This task will help you identify the role conflict
resolution plays in cohesion and collaboration in
teams.
Brief summary of overall task Read Team dynamics: Handling conflict and
Effective communication for effective conflict
resolution. These will help you to answer the
questions below.
Spark
Source: Business conflict resolution
Individual task 1. Identify three advantages of conflict.
2. In two paragraphs, explain how avoidance as a

conflict resolution strategy could affect your
group performance.
Interaction begins 1. Post your answers in discussion forum 5.4.
2. Read one post from one other student and give

constructive feedback.
E-moderator interventions 1. Summarize the contributions.
2. Give feedback and learning points.
3. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time Spend 30 minutes on individual tasks and 30

minutes for the group tasks.
Next Social loafing
36
5.5 Social loafing
A team, as we saw earlier, is an interdependent group working towards a common goal.
There are times, however, when certain members of the group play the “passenger” role by
exerting little effort towards the accomplishment of the group projects or tasks. This behavior
can affect team performance in many ways. There are many reasons that lead to such
behaviour. Let us examine some of these and the possible solutions in the following e-tivity.
E-tivity 5.5 Social loafing
Numbering, 5.5
pacing
and
sequencing
Title Social loafing
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to help you identify the reasons for social
loafing in teams in order to use this knowledge to have effective and
efficient teams.
Brief Read the information the links provided and summarize the reasons for
summary of social loafing, and the effects on group members.
overall task https://courses.lumenlearning.com/msstate-waymaker-
psychology/chapter/group-behavior/
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Managing_Groups_and_Teams/Social_Loafi
ng
Spark
Source: Social loafing image
37
Individual 1. Read the information in the links provided under summary and:
task
a. List four reasons for social loafing in groups.
b. Explain two effects of social loafing on the team members.
c. List three solutions to social loafing in a group.
Interaction 1. If you noticed social loafers in your project group, what three solutions
begins could you suggest to your team to address this issue? Post your
contribution in discussion forum 5.5. Safe a copy in your e-portfolio
2. Comment on the post of one of your colleagues and give positive and
constructive feedback.
E- 1. Summarize the contributions.

moderator
intervention 2. Give feedback and learning points.
s 3. Close the e-tivity
Schedule Spend 1 hour on individual tasks and 1 hour for the group tasks.
and time
Next Networking skills
5.6 Networking skills

Networking is the process of building relationships with other people to help one another to
achieve a certain goal. This happens mostly through information exchange. Networking is
social capital that you can use to move from one level to a higher one. It is through
networking that you are likely to meet the ‘Knowledgeable Other’ as Vygotsky puts it. This
person can be your mentor or simply share information that you need in a particular aspect. In
college, such a person could be a student from another year, your facilitator/lecturer, on even
fellow students. It is important to build networks at every level of your life. These make it
easy for you to link up with people who can help you accomplish goals easily.
E-tivity 5.6 Networking skills
38
and sequencing
Title Networking skills
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to help you discuss

the benefits of networking.
Brief summary of overall task Read Theories of collaborative learning and
Professional skills building & Networking to get

more information about networking.
Spark
Source: Professional skills building &

Networking
Individual task 1. Read the sources under brief summary above.
2. Summarize the benefits of networking.
3. In one paragraph, explain how networking will

help you in one area of your academic life.
Interaction begins 1. List three benefits of networking.
2. Read the answers of one other student in the

class.
3. Give constructive feedback.
4. Post your answers in discussion forum5.6
2. In one paragraph,
E-moderator interventions 1. Summarize the contributions.
39
Schedule and time
Next
5.7 Assessment Questions

1. The stage of group formation where there is a likelihood of much conflict is:
a. Forming
b. Storming
c. Norming
d. Performing
2. The stages of group formation are linear. True/False
3. When a team member plays the ‘passenger’ role, this is referred to as --------------
Loafing.
4. A well performing group will have g-a-s, -o-es, p-o-e--es, and interpersonal
relationships to guide them.
5. Networking usually happens through----------------------exchange.
5.8 E-Resources
Group formation and collaborative strategies
1. Last, Susan & Neveu, Candice. (2019). Technical writing essentials: Introduction to
professional communication in the technical fields.
2. Workgroups: Basic considerations
https://opentextbc.ca/organizationalbehavioropenstax/chapter/work-groups-basic-
considerations/#ch09rfin-1
3. Managing effective work groups
40
https://opentextbc.ca/organizationalbehavioropenstax/chapter/managing-
effective-work-groups/
4. A primer o communication studies, 2012).
https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on-communication-studies/s06-02-
conflict-and-interpersonal-com.html#
5. Introduction to psychology: Group behavior
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/msstate-waymaker-psychology/chapter/group-
behavior/
6. Managing groups and teams: Social loafing
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Managing_Groups_and_Teams/Social_Loafing
7. Work groups: Basic considerations.
https://opentextbc.ca/organizationalbehavioropenstax/chapter/work-groups-
basic-considerations/#ch09rfin-1
8. Professional skill building and networking
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-mcc-cos2master/chapter/networking/
LESSON 6 INFORMATION LITERACY AND ETHICS
6.1 Introduction
Information literacy is crucial for effective and efficient functioning in all the areas
of your life. This is more so in the 21st Century, which many refer to as the era of
information and technology due to more reliance on knowledge than industrial
economy. In the recent years, information and information sources have grown
greatly and it is possible for you to feel quite overwhelmed as you try to access and
use information for various academic and other purposes. In this lesson, we shall
discuss ways of addressing this dilemma as we explore together information,
information literacy, information sources, search strategies, and referencing
techniques. These concepts are all important for your scholarly work at the
university and beyond. The overall goal is to develop competences that form the
basis for gaining control over how you interact with information in various
contexts to serve different purposes.
6.2 Lesson Outcomes

i. Explain the role of information literacy in your academic and other contexts.
41
ii. Explain the role of a university library.
iii. Compare and contrast different information sources for tasks in various contexts.
iv. Create a search strategy in order to locate and access appropriate information.
v. Evaluate information sources.
vi. Identify ethical issues related to your use of information from various sources.
6.3 Information Literacy

From the 1980s, a shift occurred that brought about the focus on information and
information technology against the traditional Industrial Revolution, whose main
concentration was on industries and production. More reliance on knowledge economy,
therefore, has seen the explosion of information and the accompanying technological
changes. You will find information in a variety of sources such as libraries, media, and the
Internet. Moreover, it comes in many formats including graphics, audio, and text. To be able
to navigate through this complex environment, therefore, it is important to acquire relevant
skills.
According to the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) (2000) information
literacy is a set of abilities necessary for individuals in all disciplines, learning environments
and levels of education. Currently, one needs the help of information technology to be able
to carry out the activities that involve information. See Figure 5.3 for a summary of
information literacy skills.
Figure 6.3
Source: Van Pelt, R., Opie, R. & Opie, J. (2020). Information Literacy
42
https://www.mtu.edu/library/instruction/information-literacy/
E-tivity 6.3.2 Role of Information Literacy
Numbering, pacing 6.3.2
and sequencing
Title Information Literacy
Purpose This activity will help you explain the role of information
literacy in various contexts.
Brief summary of overall Watch this video, read the text and list the key competencies of
task an information literate person.
Spark
Source: https://www.open.ac.uk/library/services/digital-and-
information-literacy-for-students
Individual task 1. List the key competencies of an information literate person.
2. In a paragraph of not more than 300 words comment on how

information literacy will increase your critical thinking skills in
college. Post your answers in Assignment 6.3.
Interaction begins 1. In two sentences each, make constructive and positive

comments on two posts from other class members.
2. Post your answer in discussion forum 6.3.
E-moderator interventions 1. Summarize and weave the contributions.
2. Give feedback and learning points
43
Schedule and time Spend 1 hour on individual tasks and 1 hour for the group tasks.
6.4 Sources of Information

Since information is a vital commodity in any aspect of life, knowing how to find it, where to
find it, and how to use it is important. There are many sources of information, which you can
visit to meet your various academic and other needs. There is actually an explosion of
information and information sources. Information and communication technology
advancements have made information easily available. It is important, therefore, to learn
where to find information, how to find it efficiently and to gauge what best suits your specific
needs.
Just as information sources are many so are the formats in which it is stored. The commonest
is the book format .However; there are also many non-book formats. Non-book materials
refer to materials that are not very dependent on the printed word to transmit data or
information. Some of these also require some kind of equipment such as computers,
projectors and others to transmit sounds, data, visual images contained in them. The
following are some examples of categories of non-book materials:
• Cartographic materials such as maps and globes

• Music
• Sound recordings
• Motion pictures
• Electronic resources such as computer data or programs
• Three dimensional artefacts and realia
• Continuing resources: journals, newsletters, magazines, annual reports, etc.
E-tivity 6.4 Sources of information
and sequencing
Title Sources of information
Purpose This e-tivity will help you decide on the appropriate sources
of information for a specific task.
44
Brief summary of overall Watch these two videos on Popular and scholarly sources:
task The information cycle, (2015) and Scholarly vs Popular
periodicals (2007). These will help you do the tasks below.
Spark
Individual task In a table, compare and contrast information from magazines

and peer-reviewed journals as sources of information for
your academic essays.
Interaction begins 1. Select two tables and provide positive and useful feedback
to the owners.
2. Write your response in discussion forum 6.4

interventions
tasks.
Next Developing a search strategy
6.5 Developing a Search Strategy

A search strategy is your journey into finding information, which will address various needs.
This could be academic, work related or an inquiry on any aspect of life. Let us take an
example of an academic essay. You need to ask a number of questions about the process.
45
What do I need? Where do I find it? How do I find it? See figure 5. For a summary of the
process.
Figure 6.5 Summary of the search process
Topic/Task
What do I know about the topic/Task?
Gap
How do I fill the gap?
Read appropriate sources of

information and make notes, etc.
How do I find relevant sources?
Do advanced Google search Search databases such as Ebsco,

Emerald, Sage
Using Boolean connectors etc. for peer reviewed journals
“AND”, “OR”, “NOT; ” etc.
6.5.1 Advanced Search

Looking for sources online to address your information needs can be a daunting task. One way
of getting more focused and useful results is by doing advanced search. For example, use
Boolean Operators (AND or +, OR, and NOT). Read Research process: Step by step by
University of Texas Libraries to get detailed information of how to do an advanced search.
46
65.5.2 The Role of the University Library
Source: www.skyscrapercity.ocm Source: www.ku.ac.ke
For many centuries, the university has been the main repository of information sources. Our
commonest view of a library is a building with various sections that store information for
different users. However, the university in the 21 st Century does more than that. For example, it
promotes information literacy in many ways. The focus is more on the user than storage of
information. Remember, libraries are not always in buildings. For example, you can come
across a mobile vehicle libraries or any other form. The libraries fall into different categories
depending on users. The main ones are public, academic, national, academic, school, and
special libraries.
6.5.3 Library Services

There are many services offered by the library staff. The library is divided according to
subjects and other needs. There are subject specialists who will serve you at designated
areas. Some of the services are lending, reservation, and inter library loan (ILL). ILL is
based on the wider concept of library cooperation in which libraries agree to share resources.
Books and journal articles that are unavailable in a particular library can be borrowed on
behalf of the users from other libraries on interlibrary loan (ILL). When you click on the
library website, you will get to know about the services given to the users at the Kenyatta
University Ultra-Modern Library.
6.5.4 Organization of Library Materials

Information is placed in categories to make it easier for users to access it. It is important that
you understand how your library has organized information and where you can locate it.
Familiarize yourself with the various elements of the library: the collections, locations,
among others.
Another guide to finding information easily is the knowledge of the classification schemes.
This is the arrangement of books and other reading material in the way that is most helpful
47
to the users and librarians. This happens by grouping documents on the same subject
together in one class.
There are several classification schemes, but most college, university and research libraries
use the Library of Congress Classification scheme (LCC). This classification scheme derives
its name from the Library of Congress for which it was devised. It consists of twenty-one
classes (20 main and one general) represented by letters of the alphabet (A-Z). Each of the
main classes is further divided into subclasses that represent disciplines (major
branches) of the main class. This is done by introducing an additional letter to the main one.
Read this document on library classification systems to learn more about classification
systems.
6.5.4 The Library Catalogue

A catalogue is a list of available materials in a library arranged in some systematic manner,
either physically or in electronic form. The arrangement facilitates the use of the collections;
it also acts as a guide to the library’s materials. The main uses of the catalogue, therefore, are
to:
● Enable the user find a document of which either the author, the title or the subject
is known.
● Show what resources a library has by a given author, subject, or format. A call
number for each entry is also included.
● Show which editions of a particular work are in the library
6.5.5 Forms of Catalogues

Library catalogues are in different forms. Most libraries hold more than one form of
catalogue. For many centuries, the physical card system dominated the libraries, but the
Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) has overtaken this. Other kinds of catalogues
include the book catalogue. Catalogues are arranged according to author, title, and subject in
alphabetical order. Get further details on the card catalogue and here f or more details on card
catalogues and the OPAC by reading these resources.
E-tivity6.5.2 The role of the university library
and sequencing
Title The role of the university library
48
Purpose The purpose of this activity is to help you reflect on the role
of the university library in your academic and other aspects
of life in the 21st Century.
Brief summary of overall Click on the links below and summarize the role of the
task library in the 21st century.
1. https://cutt.ly/TpVctpi
2. http://www.mjgds.org/library/library21-my-vision-for-a-
21st-century-school-library/
3. https://maktaba.ku.ac.ke/
Spark “When your average citizen thinks of a library they think

of floors filled with shelves of books. How true is that
statement today?”
Keith Webster
Individual task Write a two-paragraph summary of the role of the

university library in your academic and social life using the
links in the summary of overall task.
Interaction begins 1. Write the two-paragraph summary in discussion forum

6.5.2.
2. Read the post by one of your group members and give

positive and constructive feedback.
3. Post your reaction in Keep a copy in your group e-

portfolio for easy access by the moderator/lecturer.
E-moderator interventions 1. Summarize learners’ responses on the task.
Schedule and time 1.5 hours for the individual task and 1 hour got the
interaction (2.5 hours).
Next Organization of library materials.
5.6 Evaluating Sources

Remember, there is a lot of information on almost every subject you choose to work on.
However, not all that information is reliable or will be able to meet your particular needs.
49
Knowing how to select sources that meet your needs effectively and efficiently is a very
important skill, which you need to develop for your academic, work and everyday life. Some of
the elements to look for in a source are accuracy, currency, authority, objectivity, and
audience.
E-tivity 6.6 Evaluating sources of information
and sequencing
Title Evaluating sources of information
Purpose This e-tivity is to help you practice evaluating sources in

order to access relevant information for your various tasks.
Brief summary of overall Read the information from the sources below and evaluate
task those sources for their appropriateness in addressing your
specific task.
1. CABLE Source Credibility Downloadable Slides

CABLES source evaluation form
2. Finding quality texts
3. Evaluating sources
Spark
Source: Wikimedia Commons.
Individual task In a table, compare and contrast information from magazines

and peer-reviewed journals as sources of information for your
academic essays in relation to author, audience, appearance,
content, and references. Post your answer in discussion
forum 5.6.3
50
Interaction begins 1. Select two tables from your team members and give
positive and constructive feedback.
2. Post the reaction in discussion forum 6.6.3.
E-moderator 1. Summarize learners’ responses on the task.

interventions
3. Close the e-tivity a week from the commencement date.
Schedule and time 1.5 hours for the individual task and 1 hour got the interaction
(2.5 hours).
Next Information ethics
6.7 Information Ethics

The Institute of Global Ethics (2016) defines information ethics as “the branch of ethics that
focuses on the relationship between the creation, organization, dissemination, and use of
information, and ethical standards, and moral codes governing human conduct in society.”
Information ethics is a broad area that cuts across disciplines and practices. For example, here
we discuss information ethics mainly in the context of use of information for academic
purposes such as writing papers. We shall also try to relate it to a wider application in
everyday life.
One of the indicators for an information literate person is the ability to use information
effectively and in an ethical manner. One of the major ethical breaches in information use is
plagiarism, whose common signs are:
A. Not giving credit to the author(s) for information borrowed while writing academic
papers.
B. Cut and paste large chunks of information
C. Not observing copyright and fair use laws.
D. Submitting an assignment that is substantially, or entirely, the work of another student
with or without the students’ knowledge
Some of the penalties of plagiarism are low grades, a fail, or discontinuation from a course
altogether. You need to avoid the actions listed in A-D as you use information in your
academic, work, or other aspects of life.
51
You can avoid plagiarism in many ways, such as addressing the unethical issues we raised
earlier on. Let us look at problem A, giving credit to the author for the information you use in
creating your essay, speech presentation, or any other task.
E-tivity 6.7
and sequencing
Title Information ethics
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to help you analyze unethical

use of information.
Brief summary of overall Discuss how to address these unethical practices in writing
task academic papers.
A. Not giving credit to the author(s) for information

borrowed while writing academic papers.
Spark PLAGIARISM! Did I plagiarize in my paper?
Source: Discover 5 free tools for Plagiarism detection
Individual task In a paragraph each, explain how you would address these
plagiarism actions:
A. Not giving credit to the author(s) for information

borrowed while writing academic papers.
Post your answer in discussion forum 6.7
52
Interaction begins Identify postings by two students and make positive
comments on any one of the unethical actions.
E-moderator 1. Summarize learners’ responses on the task.

interventions
3. Close the e-tivity a week from the commencement date.
Schedule and time 1.5 hours for the individual task and 1 hour got the
interaction (2.5 hours).
Next Lesson wrap up and assessment questions.
6.7.1 Referencing Techniques

Academic writing at this level requires that you rely on other people’s ideas to develop your
arguments and other forms of writing. You need to go beyond stating facts and opinions or
showing what you know about a subject by backing up all you write by credible research or
other information from experts in your field of study. This is done through various ways such
as summarizing, paraphrasing, direct quotations within the text (i.e. do in-text
citation/parenthetical references) or at the bottom of the text (footnoting), and at the end of the
text in a bibliography or reference list to avoid being accused of plagiarism. There are many
technique/styles, such as the American Psychological Association (APA), and the Modern
Language Association (MLA), which guide you on how to do this.
Find out the referencing style used by your school or organization and familiarize yourself with
it. Remember to use whatever style you choose, or is recommended, consistently within the
text, when preparing your bibliography or reference list, and in formatting the text. Click here
and here for examples of how to acknowledge sources of information within the essay and to
prepare the lists using APA.
6.7.2 Footnotes
These are often explanatory notes given either at the bottom of the page on which they
appear or listed at the end of a chapter as endnotes (List of references). They indicate the
authority cited or some technical terms that need explanation. They are useful in
authenticating writer’s statements and giving guidance for further reading. They also
indicate what was directly quoted by the writer in amplifying some points in the
53
discussion of the central theme. However, the footnoting technique is very rarely used in
APA unless when deemed necessary to give details on content and copyright.
6.7.3 Preparing a Bibliography

Bibliography is a list of resources used in writing an essay, whether directly referred to (in the
text either in parenthetical references or in footnotes) or simply used indirectly in forming the
argument. Note, however, that different styles have their specifications and even names for
these lists. For example, the American Psychological Association (APA) uses “reference list”
instead of “bibliography”. Generally, a reference list is used when you include only those
sources that you have referred to directly in the essay.
6.7.4 Contents of a Reference

The main title is referred to as the title proper. Some publications have a subtitle, which
is a descriptive phrase that clarifies or explains the title proper. This helps to make a
particular book or publication easily identifiable.
Corporate Authors Date Title proper Sub-title
E.g.
❏ Sherman, H.J. & Wood, J.L. (1982). Sociology: Traditional and radical
Perspective. London: Harper and Row.
Place of Publisher
publication
Note: Where a referencing style requires that you underline a title, underline both the title
proper and the subtitle as if they were one.
E.g.
❏ Sherman, H.J. & Wood, J.L. (1982). Sociology: Traditional and radical
Perspective. London: Harper and Row.
● Parallel title
A parallel title is the title given in a publication, but in another language or script
other than that used in the text. Parallel titles are separated by the = sign.
E.g.
54
❏ Kingala, Y.M. (1985). Nguzo za Kiswahili: Darasa la 8 = Foundation for
Kiswahili : Standard 8. Nairobi: Phoenix.
Note: If you were to underline these titles, you do so as if they were one.
E.g. Kingala, Y.M. (1985). Nguzo za Kiswahili: Darasa la 8 = Foundation for
Kiswahili: Standard 8. Nairobi: Phoenix.
Another thing to note is that the bibliographic details of a published book will be slightly
different from those of a journal article, a book chapter, and many other sources.
E-tivity 6.7.3 Preparing a bibliography
and sequencing
Title Preparing a bibliography
Purpose The purpose of this e-tivity is to help you analyze references

using the American Psychological Association format PA
style.
Brief summary of overall Read the references and arrange their bibliographic
task information using the APA style 7th edition.
Spark 1. (IJER)Catherine Gakii Murungi, 2013, Reasons for

Low Enrolments in Early Childhood Education in
Kenya: The parental perspective. International
Journal of Education and Research , Vol. 1 No. 5,
May 2013, pp. 1-10
2. Nyerere, J. K. A. & Friso, V. 2013. Journal of
Training and Development.37(7):662-677, Forums for
Dialogue between University and Industry: A case of
Kenyatta University, Kenya and University of Padua,
Italy
3. A. M. Karugu (2014), Rights of Children in the
Kenyan Primary School Curriculum, Msingi Journal
Vol. 1 No. 1 2014, pp. 236 – 260, Nairobi CUEA
Press
4. Designing brain-compatible learning (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Corwin, (2006), Gregory, G., & Parry, T.
55
Individual task In a table, arrange the references above using the APA. Safe
your answer in a portfolio that can be easily accessed by the
e-moderator/lecturer.
Interaction begins 1. Post your answer in discussion forum 6.7.3.
2. Comment on one other student’s table.
E-moderator interventions 1. Summarize learners’ responses on the task.
2. Give feedback on learning points and provide direction as

necessary
Schedule and time The task should take one hour to complete.
Next Citation/Bibliography management tools.
6.7.5 Citation/Bibliography Management Tools

There are many programs designed to help writers, including you, prepare their bibliography or
reference lists with ease. They require that you download and install them into your computer.
It is important, however, to note that these programs fall into various categories:
● Free
● Partially free
● Not free so need purchasing
Go for a program that is convenient for you. In case you need to use any of the tools, get help
from the university librarians. Check out for alerts for training posted regularly on the library
website. You will get help particularly with Mendely. Read the Citation managemen t tools:
Overview document for more details.
6.7.5 Plagiarism Checker

Many applications help in detecting levels of plagiarism in texts. Some examples are
Grammarly and Tutnitin. The university librarians will give you guidance on plagiarism
checkers.
56
6.8 Assessment Questions
1 One of the reasons information literacy is important in the 21st century is -----------
overload.
2. According to Van Pelt, Opie & Opie (2020), an information literate person should be
able to:
a. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
e. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
f. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. A------------------ has to be included in order to make a particular book or publication
easily identifiable.
a. Heading
b. Subtitle
c. Main title
4. We evaluate sources of information to test them for ac-u-a-y, c- r-e-cy, o-j-c-i--ty, and
authority, among other qualities.
6.9 E-References
General
1. ACRL Information literacy competency standards for higher education.pdf

https://lair.ala.org
2. Presidential committee on information literacy: Final report.

http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/presidential
3. Macefield, R. (2009). Encyclopedia of information communication technology.
https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/ict-literacy-information-age/13382
3. The official guide to library resources for your English Composition papers
https://libguides.mnsu.edu/c.php?g=4022&p=14263
4. Using footnotes(APA)
https://writingcommons.org/article/using-footnotes-apa/
57
Information sources
1, Types of information: Examples of information sources
https://libguides.astate.edu/c.php?g=14512&p=78160
2. Vincent Library video on Scholarly and Popular Sources. Carnegie
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tN8S4CbzGXU
3. Information sources types
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDmQ5QoIaGQ
4 Examples of information sources
https://libguides.astate.edu/c.php?g=14512&p=78160
5. Library research: An introduction
https://library.triton.edu/research
7. Research process: Types of sources
https://libguides.uaptc.edu/c.php?g=600685&p=4159599
8. Evaluating sources of information
https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/technicalwriting/chapter/4-5-search-strategies/;
Information Ethics
1. Mason, R. O. Four ethical issues of the information age.
https://www.gdrc.org/info-design/4-ethics.html
2. First year seminar readings: Ethical use of information
https://psufys.pressbooks.com/chapter/ethical-use-of-information/
3. The information literacy user’s guide: An open, online textbook. Allison Hosier et.al.
2014, April.
http://www.oercommons.org/courses/the-information-literacy-user-s-guide-an-open-
online-textbook-2/view
4. Purdue Online Writing Lab
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/05/
58
Doing a Library Search
2. Search strategies.
https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/technicalwriting/chapter/4-5-search-strategies/
3. How library stuff work: Boolean operators.

https://libguides.uta.edu/researchprocess/strategy
4. Search Smart-Truncation, Wildcat and Phrase Searching.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=82&v=DsypxBNUyMo&feature=em
b_title )
5. How do I search effectively?
https://libguides.exeter.ac.uk/c.php?g=664993&p=4706849
6. https://writingcenter.tamu.edu/Students/Writing-Speaking-Guides/Alphabetical-List-
of-Guides/Citing-Documenting/Evaluating-Scholarly-Sources
7. Gavin, P. (1985). OPAC: ONLINE PUBLIC ACCESS CATAIDGUE.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-5452-6_18
Evaluating Sources of information
Evaluating scholarly sources.
https://libguides.exeter.ac.uk/c.php?g=664993&p=4706849
Checking for plagiarism
1. http://elearningindustry.com/12-best-free-online-bibliography-and-citation-tools
2. https://www.mendeley.com/
3. https://www.zotero.org/
Citation styles
1. APA 7th edition: Citation
https://libguides.csudh.edu/citation/apa-7
2. APA citation style, 7th edition: General style guidelines
59
https://guides.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/c.php?g=27779&p=170331
Managing the bibliography/Reference list
Citation management tools: An overview
https://findlay.libguides.com/citationmanagment
LESSON 7: READING SKILLS
7.1 Introduction
Life in the age when so much information is available requires individuals to possess the
ability to read and process efficiently large amounts of information on a daily basis to meet a
variety of needs. The ability to read and respond appropriately to academic information, at
work and in other personal contexts is an important prerequisite for living successful and
fulfilled lives in the 21st century. In the current society, new information is being created and
disseminated at a rate never witnessed before in history. To succeed academically and in
other aspects of life, one can only ignore such information at his/her peril. Therefore, the
ability to read effectively and efficiently and to keep abreast with information is key. To be
adaptable and to cope with change in a complex, fast changing, and globalizing world
requires that one is constantly reading. This lesson will discuss reading as an active process of
meaning creation, purposes for reading, styles of reading and reading techniques, note making
and transcoding of graphs and tables.
7.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

i. By the end of this lesson you will be able to:
ii. Explain reading as an active process of creating meaning using examples from both
academic and non- academic materials.
iii. Identify purposes for reading using texts from academic and other contexts.
iv. Discuss various reading styles and techniques.
v. Make notes using different note formats.
vi. Transcode graphs and tables.
7.2.1 Definition of reading

In the past, reading has been viewed as a linear process of looking at and understanding the
written word. Today, reading is seen to be an active as well as interactive process and readers
are engaged both mentally, intellectually, emotionally as well as physically. Reading is not
just a personal process. Readers often interact with others in order to enhance understanding
or apply new gained information. In the course of your studies, these and many other types of
engagement will be expected, many of which will be performed in activities where the learner
is attempting to put to use or to apply information gained from existing background
60
knowledge and the current reading itself. You should notice how you interact with the author
by using information that you already know in reading. You think, ask questions and
challenge the author’s point of view not just on the basis of what is on the page but also what
is in your mind from previous reading, listening and practical experiences. Reading, as you
will discover, is strongly linked to your listening, speaking and writing skills. These skills can
be applied before, during and after the reading of a text. This broad understanding of reading
is important and forms a proper background for what follows in the rest of this lesson.
7.2.2 Purpose for Reading

Having a definite reading purpose helps in better understanding. There are three broad
reasons or purposes for reading. These are academic or learning, functional and
entertainment. In academic contexts, the range of material that we read is wide and covers
academic textbooks, journal articles, conference proceedings, thesis, and other unpublished
material such as newspapers and magazines. Functional purposes include reading various
documents in work and personal contexts. Popular magazines and novels form materials for
leisure reading. When we read for academic purposes, there are varied reasons. Consider
purposes such as reading the following:
● lecture notes in order to prepare for a test or examination

● different sources of information to make notes for use in writing an essay on
emotional intelligence
● a given topic to follow an argument for or against human cloning
● a chapter in order to understand the process of human cloning
● a graph to study the trend in urban growth and settlement in African cities
● a definition to better understand the meaning of homeostasis
What we have here is only a very small list of reasons why we read as learners. The idea is
that you should be specific with your purpose. You can think of many more reasons. Think of
these in terms of cause and effect, definition, comparison and contrast, description,
classification, evidence to support a case and so on. Another way of identifying a reading
purpose is asking the questions what, why, when, who, how about a given topic.
7.2.3 Styles of Reading

The way you read a text is what we refer to here as the style of reading. The style of reading
is determined by two things namely; the purpose for your reading and secondly the nature of
the material being read. One cannot separate styles of reading and reading purpose because
they go hand in hand. If l am reading in order to defend a particular point of view, l will not
read in the same way if l was reading to pass time while waiting for the bus. The following
are common ways of reading:
61
● Skimming,
● Scanning,
● Comprehension,
● Critical reading
● Word for word reading
● Light reading
Skimming and scanning are both referred to as anti-reading techniques because much of the
written text is skipped. In skimming, the reader is looking for the gist or the main point or
theme of a given text and is less interested in most of the minute details such as examples,
descriptions, explanations and narratives. In scanning, the purpose is to look for specific
information such a definition of a concept, some specific explanation, and name of a person
or place, a formula or an important historical date. A lot of text is skipped in so doing.
Comprehension aims at understanding the material but critical reading requires the reader to
evaluate or analyze the material. Critical reading requires a thorough appraisal of the views of
an author, which may be compared to the views of other authors who have written on the
same issue or topic. Word for word reading is applied where material is difficult or one is
learning a foreign language and light reading is mainly a leisure way of reading where it is
not important to remember information.
When we talk of reading styles, we cannot ignore the term strategies or techniques. There are
different strategies of reading. Many of them are presented as reading formulas. You are
familiar with these formulas, the oldest of which is the SQ3R formula. Reading formulas are
widely acclaimed for their success in supporting reading and especially in aiding
memorization. You may want to do your own research of the SQ3R and other formulas and
how best to apply them for effective reading.
There are other reading techniques where the reader makes use of their background
knowledge and linguistic and non-linguistic clues for better understanding. Searching your
mind for information you already have is useful. Just one little idea in your mind can be
useful in trying to interpret a non-familiar text. You move from known to unknown and
language clues such as references and transition signals help a lot. Being able to predict what
a text is about based on the title is also a reading technique.
7.2.4 Reading and Note Making Formats

There are many ways of making notes from textbooks and other reading materials. We
distinguish between formal and informal note making formats. You will come across terms as
point note format, sentence note formats, outline notes, standard notes, flow chart method,
tree diagram, mind maps and the Cornell format. The terms linear and patterned notes are also
used. The idea is that there is a lot of flexibility when it comes to note making. The main goal
of note making is to select and organize key points and the main details in a manner that
makes sense for further study or use.
62
E-tivity 7.2.4 Note- Making Formats
and sequencing
Title Note Making Formats
Purpose The purpose of this topic is to get you to find out more on
what note-making formats will be most applicable as you
navigate different academic and non-academic material
and as you listen to lectures and in other contexts.
Brief summary of overall task Carry out a google search on note making formats and
summarize the key features of both linear and patterned
(non-linear) note formats.
Spark
Individual task 1. Carry out an internet study of the top three note-making
formats.
2. Make brief notes under each of the three formats listing

advantages and disadvantages. Base your answer on your
project topic.
63
Interaction begins 1. In your project groups brainstorm what you understand
by the following statement: “At the heart of each note-
making activity is an attempt to structure and
remember information”. Use the information from your
individual task above to guide the session.
2. In two sentences each, comment on the contributions of

two other groups.
Post your answers in the discussion forum 7.4.3.
E-moderator interventions I will:
1. Summarize learners’ responses on task.
3. Close the e-tivity a week from the commencement

date.
tasks.
Next Transcoding of Graphs and Tables
7.2.5 Transcoding of Graphs, Tables and Charts
Graphs, tables and charts are common visual aids in academic texts and are used extensively
in research communication contexts such as conferences where presenters use Power Point
slides. Writers and conference presenters use them to help their readers understand complex
data. Outside the academic world, these images have wide application and they form a big
part in annual reports of financial organizations, government and non-government
organizations. Tables, graphs and charts arrest the attention of the reader and they make the
information communicated more interesting. Information on health, food expenditure,
imports and exports can be conveyed easily in graphic form. Variables measured include
quantities in litres or tons, percentages or numbers. Time variables are also presented in
months or years. Of key interest to writers is to present a trend by showing how data changes
over a given period in that it may increase or fall, fluctuate or remain stable.
64
E-tivity 7.2.5- Transcoding Tables and Graphs
and sequencing
Title Transcoding Graphs and Tables
Purpose In this e-tivity, we look at images in graphical, tabular and

chart formats in order to appreciate the importance of visual
aids in the interpretation of academic and non-academic
information.
Brief summary of overall task Learner will study various graphs

(www.google.com/search/graphs) and make a list of five
variables measured in the visual aids.
Spark
Individual task 1. Using data from three graphs on health, list the three
topics covered by the three graphs.
2. Using the same graphs, summarize in two sentences the

key impression conveyed by each graph.
3. Write your answers in assignment 7.2.5
Interaction begins 1. Comment on the topics from the responses of two other
groups. Use a maximum of two sentences per comment.
2. Post the responses in the discussion forum 4.3.5.
65
E-moderator interventions Ensure learners correctly interpret task and remain focused
Provide feedback on learner progress with tasks.
Close the e-tivity at the end of the 10 days.
Schedule and time Individual activities to take 2 hours.
Group activity to take 2 hours
Next Assessment questions

1. In reading, meaning usually lies on the written page and the reader has to pick it.
True/False
2. Linear note format is applicable in science study only. True/ False
3. Skimming is used in reading newspapers only. True/False
4. A variable is a measure that has a tendency to change with time. True/False
5. Not every type of information can be presented in graph form. True/ False
7.4 E-references
1. Developing searching, skimming, and scanning skills with Internet Bingo
2. Mind pictures: Strategies that enhance mental imagery while reading
3. Reading strategy: Determining a purpose for reading
4. Critical reading skills for the 21st century: The role of universities
5. How to learn like a pro
LESSON 8.0 ADVANCED WRITING SKILLS
8.1 Introduction
Academic essay writing is fundamentally a thinking process. For example, it involves
such stages as interpreting a topic, discriminating between relevant and irrelevant
ideas, differentiating key ideas from less important ones, evaluating the views of
other writers, arguing logically, selecting relevant evidence, drawing valid conclusions from
given data as well as summarizing and paraphrasing among others. Remember also
that your writing is a mirror of your reading habits.
66
Writing is a very practical skill. Remember that your success as a student will be assessed
mainly through your writing. Consider what Thornton (1980:17) has said: “The mastery of
the writing system is the greatest gift that schools [universities] can bestow on those who
pass through them…because it is upon [their]ability to write that judgments with the most
important consequences are made.”
In this topic, we cover various aspects of writing such as writing in academic and non-
academic contexts, features of academic writing, argumentation, acknowledging sources of
information and collaborative research and writing skills.

1. Explain the main features of academic writing.
2. Do collaborative research and select an essay topic on a given genre.
3. Collaboratively plan for the essay.
4. Write the essay in the given genre.
6 Use a recommended referencing style to acknowledge sources of information and

prepare a reference list/bibliography.
8.3 Writing in academic and non- academic contexts.

There are many kinds of genres produced by different writers to address various needs.
Consider for example, a letter to a friend, memoranda, newspapers, novels, business writing
and the like. Each type of writing is different from others in relation to the style, the
vocabulary, purpose and the reader it is meant for. Academic writing is writing among
university professors and their students. It is serious writing, guided by certain conventions
or rules such that you do not have the freedom to present your ideas in any way you like or
are comfortable with.
8.3.1 Uses of Academic Writing

Writing is a way of thinking about a subject. When you write essays on any given topic, you
are doing several things to help you master the subject, understand your academic
community, and many more. The following are some of the reasons Budd (2005, p.3) gives
for writing essays at this level:
● they make you think about an issue in depth;

● they help you develop the ability to think logically, to argue a case;
● they make you relate theoretical knowledge to particular issues;
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● they help you to write cogently and fluently;
● they help you to write according to the demands of a particular discipline….
8.3.2 Features of Academic Writing.

As we have said earlier, academic writing is peculiar and is identified by certain
characteristics. For example:
● Writers usually avoid the use of personal pronouns, I, you, he, me, she, him, and so
rely more on the passive as opposed to the active voice.
❏ Examples
Passive voice Active Voice

The examination results are amazing. I am amazed by the examination results.
The operation on the young girl was It took me two hours to operate on the young girl
completed in two hours. I took two hours to operate on the young girl.
● It avoids contractions such as “can’t”, “don’t”, “won’t”, “shouldn’t”, etc. or clichés,

slang, colloquialism. These are expressions such as “The poor folks” “the kids”, etc.
“kudos to our dear country”, “too many idlers”.
● It is aimed at other academics. The academic audience is usually regarded as
skeptical: one that is hard to convince or one that does not accept other people's
ideas without seriously considering their intellectual value. It means then as a
writer for this audience, you have to take extra caution in order to present
information in a manner that will win approval from your audience.
• It is a lengthy as well as creative process involving various stages such as choosing a
topic, focusing the topic, gathering ideas, determining a structure , drawing an
outline, drafting, revising, editing and proof-reading.
8.3.3 The Stages of the academic writing Process

Writing can be described as a process of discovering ideas, developing and organizing them.
The process is not simple, and neither does it take place in a linear manner. It is, therefore,
dynamic and recursive. Good writing takes a lot of time and practice.
Every successful journey starts with a good plan and so is your writing project. Before you set
out to write, make sure you have a roadmap for the different stages of the project and specific
dates for every activity.
No two people write in the same way. Some outline ideas before writing about them, while
others do not. Some write their introduction first, while others do it at the end. Some revise
their essay as they go along; some do it at a later point. Not all writers follow the same
method, and different writers use different methods in writing for different purposes.
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As a student writer, you must discover the approach that works best for you on any particular
occasion.
Still, most experienced writers have reported that to produce a good piece of writing, you
have to pass through certain stages while writing an essay. Note, however, that there is also
no concrete agreement on the names of these stages. One example is:
● Exploring and planning: discovering a topic, focusing, finding support details and
organizing ideas.
● Drafting: getting ideas and supporting details down on paper in rough form.
● Revising: rethinking and rewriting drafts to improve content, focus and structure
and the general flow of ideas.
● Editing and proofreading: checking for effective word choice and sentence
structure, correct grammar, spelling, punctuation and mechanics.
E-tivity 8.3.2 &8.3.3 Features of academic writing and the writing process
Numbering spacing 8.3.2 and 8.3.3

and sequencing
Title Features of academic writing and the stages of the academic writing
process.
Purpose 1. This is to let you identify and use features of academic writing
2. To practice the stages of the academic writing process.
Brief summary of Read Features of academic writing and Academic writing.

overall task
1. Features of academic writing.
2. The stages in the writing process.
Spark 1. What does academic writing mean to you?
2. What stages do you go through when writing your academic essays?
Individual task 1. In point form, write five features of academic writing.
2. In two sentences, enumerate the stages of academic writing.
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3. Post your answers on the forum.
Interaction begins Read answers from two students and provide constructive feedback.
Post your work in discussion forum 8.3.2 and 8.3.3.
Schedule and time The e-tivity should take two hours.
Next Understanding essay questions.
8.4 Understanding Essay Topics
Although as a student, you may be given freedom to think of your own topic to write
an essay on, many times you will find that your course instructor will ask you to write
on prescribed topics. The ability to understand your essay topic well is an important
step in all types of essay writing. If you are going to write a good essay, you must
begin by taking a careful look at the topic in order to make correct judgment as to what
exactly your instructor requires of you. To do this, you need to be aware that essay topics are
usually presented in two forms: open-ended or closed essay topics.
8.4.1 Open-Ended Topics

Such topics give a lot of freedom to you as a writer. How you respond to the topic is usually
a matter of your own creativity and imagination. Consider the following.
1. Causes of amnesia.
2. “People are what they eat.” Discuss.
3. It is better to live a single life than to marry.
4. “A human being’s chief business on earth is to communicate.” Discuss.
5. “You don’t need a college degree today to be successful in life.” Discuss.
6. “Thinking being: unique being.” Discuss
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8.4.2 Closed Topics.
Closed topics are more specific and often set a limit as to what you should say or do
as a writer. Look at the following examples:
1. Identify three major environmental problems facing Kenya today. Explain their
nature. Say which is the most serious and why.
2. Using any relevant model of communication identify and explain five essential
elements of the communication process.
3. Discuss the role of women in environmental conservation in a country of your
choice.
8.4.3 Parts of an Essay Topic

In order to decide accurately the kind of ideas, information, explanations, or facts to include
in your essay, you need to identify the following from your topic be it a closed or open-ended
one:
● Directive/instructional verbs (E.g. Describe, analyze, discuss, compare and contrast,

etc.)
● Content words/Subject (E.g. Tourism, culture, environment, etc.).
● Aspect (Usually signaled by a phrase ending in ‘of’ e.g. economic effects of)
● Scope/limit/extent ((E.g. “three”, “four”, “never”, “always”, “in 1000 words”,
“facing”, “before”, “ during”, “between 1800 and 1960”, “greatest impact”, etc.
E.g.
Directive word Aspect Subject Limit
Discuss the socio-economic effects of tourism in Kenya.
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8.5 Planning the Essay
In order to create strong, clear and logically structured paragraphs, you are advised to first
prepare an outline or plan which will serve as a tool for ordering ideas in your essay.
The important thing to note is that plans or outlines will differ from writer to writer
although at the centre each planning activity is the need to structure ideas for the essay in a
suitable, logical manner.
Planning is a very important stage in writing an academic essay. It is a mental activity and
must be differentiated from a ‘plan’ or ‘outline’, which is a physical or written product of the
mental activity. As a process, planning begins when you start analyzing your essay topic. It
continues as you gather information and make notes, as you formulate a tentative
structure in which you will organize your ideas and does not end until you complete the
essay. Planning integrates very closely with all your writing activities. It does not progress
linearly but is a rather recursive process – meaning that as a writer you are not a
slave to your plan. You produce a plan to use as a tool for writing and you can change or
alter sections of it as you continue to discover more information about your subject.
There is not one way of planning. At the center of each planning process, however, is the
need to look for a suitable structure in which to order or organize information. How
you order the material itself as well as your purpose in writing the essay will determine
information. Whereas some essay topics have an inherent structure, others will require that
you seriously consider which the best mode of presenting your ideas is. In writing an
essay that describes a process, you cannot, for example impose your own order. In an
argument, however, you will order your points of view and other evidence in the manner you
feel will be most convincing to the reader. For example, you may choose order of most to
least important or least important to most important. You could use a different order
altogether.
To arrive at a useful plan, consider the following planning strategies:
● Analyze your essay topic.

● Go over all the information you have collected i.e. your notes.
● Identify all key points.
● Think about an approximate sequence for your material.
● Draw up a tentative plan or outline.
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Outlining can be done manually or using computer software such as Omnioutliner, Inspiration
8.6 Gathering Information

Once you have a topic, you will need supporting material such as facts, ideas, examples,
observations, memories, views from experts, and stories. If you are writing on a familiar
topic, you can use your original material to support the ideas. This you can do using a
technique known as brainstorming. However, it is rare that you will be able to produce a
forceful, vivid, interesting academic essay by drawing upon only what is in your head. When
your topic is unfamiliar, talking with people who are knowledgeable on the topic can also
produce useful results. One of the things you will notice is that brainstorming alone cannot
yield adequate information for a scholarly essay. You need to read widely.
8.6.1 Reading and Note-Making

Reading is the best way for you to grapple with an unfamiliar topic. Your course facilitators
will usually give you a reading or reference list. However, even if such help is not there, it is
important that you search the university E-catalogue or Online Public Access Catalog
(OPAC) and other resources for useful sources of information. Look through each to find and
jot down any information that looks useful, as direct quotations, either paraphrases or
summaries. Whenever you use a direct quotation or you paraphrase or summarize material
from a source, you must give proper credit to the source. This means that your notes and
finally the essay should show that the ideas you have used are not simply yours but also from
authorities in the field under investigation. After all, that is what academic writing at this
level is all about; it is associated with other authors. See quoting, summarizing, and
paraphrasing for details. Ensure that you keep a clear record of what you have read for ease in
drafting your essay and preparing your reference list/bibliography.
E-tivity 8.4
Numbering spacing 8.4,

and sequencing
8.5, 8.6
Title Understanding essay topics &Planning and gathering information.
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Purpose These e-tivities will enable you to formulate clear essay topics, plan an
essay and gather content for your academic essays.
Brief summary of http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/dept/crim/planning-essa

overall task
http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/dept/fpsyc/copy_of_writing-
essays
Read the information on above links and carry out the tasks below.
Spark 1. Do you understand essay topics before you begin to write?
2. Think of ways of getting information also how you plan the content.
Individual task ‘Challenges of the boy child.’
1. Improve on this topic by providing directive verbs.
2. Find and write down the relevant sources of the content for your
improved topic.
Post these on your group’s e-portfolio.
Interactions begins -Compare your answers in the group and provide feedback.
E-moderator -Ensure that the learners carry out the e-tivity

interventions
- Give feedback that will enhance learning.
Schedule and time This should take two hours.
Next Developing effective paragraphs.
8.7 Sections of the essay and Developing Effective Paragraphs

An academic essay has three main subdivisions: the introduction, the body, and the
conclusion. Each one of these contains main ideas and supporting details, all developed
using paragraphs.
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8.7.1 Introduction
The introduction plays a very important role in your academic essay. It is usually
written mainly in order to announce to your reader your main intention or purpose for
writing the essay. As academic essays are written in order to inform or to persuade an
audience, therefore, your introduction should aim at making you are the reader to be
interested in reading the essay. The most important sentence in the introduction is the
thesis statement or your statement of intention. It is this sentence more than any other that
determines what you will say in the rest of the essay. It is usually referred to as the
controlling sentence of the entire essay. It is usually the last sentence in the introduction and
it establishes a smooth link between the introduction and the body.
E-tivity 8.5
and sequencing
Title Developing Effective Paragraphs
Purpose This e-tivity will enable you to acquire necessary skills

needed when writing effective essay paragraphs
Brief summary of overall Watch the following Videos and list key qualities of a well-
task argued essay:
1.http://yutube.com/watch?v=FGu5TK-Rvg
2.http://yutube.com/watch?v=TZQplyk
3.http://yutube.com/watch?y=NBiiRgZjfk
Spark WRITE TO LEARN
“25 or 6 to 4”
Waiting for the break of day,
Searching for something to say,
Flashing lights against the sky,
Giving up, I close my eyes,
Sitting cross-legged on the floor,
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Twenty five or six to four,
Staring blindly into space,
Getting up to splash my face,
Wanting just to stay awake,
Wondering how much I can take,
Should I try to do some more
Twenty five or six to four,
Feeling like I ought to sleep,
Spinning room is sinking deep,
Waiting for the break of day,
Searching for something to say,
Twenty five or six to four;
Twenty five or six to four.
BY -ROBERT LAMM; from: College

Learning and Study Skills by
;Longman,G.D&Atkinson,H.R
Individual task 1. Which patterns of idea development appeal to you

most and why?
76
2. Study the two paragraphs and for each identify the
main idea
Write your answers in assignment 8.5.0
Interaction begins 1. Briefly discuss the difference between and

argumentative and informative purpose
2. Study the two paragraphs above and discuss the
different methods of paragraph development used to
explain the main idea of each paragraph.
3. Discuss the roles of a topic sentence and other sentences
in a paragraph of an academic essay. Post the responses
in the discussion forum 8.5.0 and save a copy in the
group portfolio.
E-moderator interventions I will summarize and provide feedback to the responses
within the week of the e-tivity then close the e-tivity at the
end of the 7days.
Schedule and time • Individual activities to take 2 hours

• Group activities to take 2 hours
Next Writing Argument
8.7.2 The Body Paragraphs

The body of an essay is made up of several paragraphs. Each paragraph attempts to
advance or develop in more details the main idea that is stated or implied in the
introduction. Each paragraph does this by methods that are determined by the overall
purpose for writing that essay. There are various patterns used by writers to develop the
idea in a given paragraph. These include definition, description, classification, argument,
and cause and effect exemplification.
8.7.3 What Is A Paragraph?

A paragraph is a group of sentences developing a main idea. A well-written paragraph
in an informative or argumentative essay should be:
• Unified: All sentences clearly relate to the main idea of the paragraph.
• Coherent: All sentences should be logically connected to each other.
• Fully developed: Paragraphs should have sufficient details to explain or expand the
point or claim made in the paragraph. Use examples, facts, opinions, statistics,
quotations, definitions, and so on.
• Appropriately organized: Paragraphs should have a clear logical pattern of
organization such as chronological, spatial, emphatic, narrative, cause-effect and
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comparison-contrast. Writers do not always use topic sentences because they
have the skill to carry the reader along without explicit signals.
As a student writer, though, you are required to use explicit topic sentences so that your
essay will stay organized.
See examples of two supporting paragraphs
1.
Probably the most difficult problem for people living alone is dealing with feelings of
loneliness. First, they have to understand the feeling. Some people confuse being alone
with feeling lonely. They need to remember that unhappily married people can feel very
lonely with spouses, and anyone can suffer from loneliness in a room crowded with
friends. Second, people living alone have to fight any tendencies to get depressed.
Depression can lead to much unhappiness, including compulsive behaviours like overeating
or spending too much money. Third, people living alone need to get involved in useful and
pleasurable activities such as volunteering their services to help others.
2.
Throughout history we humans have tried to manipulate the food chain to provide ever-
greater outputs of energy .On the one hand, we have tried, by whatever means we could
employ, to rid our fields of harmful birds, insects and rodents, and our animals of diseases
and parasites. On the other, we have constantly striven to produce healthier and more
productive strains of plants and animals. Often these attempts have been spectacularly
successful. Sometimes, though, the results have proved disastrous, as with the insecticide
DDT.
8.7.4 The Topic Sentence

A topic sentence is the sentence that gives the main idea the writer intends to make and
cohesion in a paragraph in which it appears. A good topic sentence does two things:
• It tells the reader what you are going to discuss in the paragraph (the topic)
• It establishes control so that you do not wander away from the basic purpose of your
paragraph (controlling idea).In the examples below, the part in bold is the topic and the
one in bold tells you what aspect of the topic the paragraph will focus on.
Colour filters offer three advantages in black-and- white photography.
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Overeating, which is becoming an attractive pastime for the affluent of the world, has
several dangerous effects.
However, not every paragraph begins with a topic sentence. Some professional
writers do not always use topic sentences because they have the skill to carry the
reader along without explicit signals. As a student writer, though, you are required to use
explicit topic sentences so that your essay will stay organized. See the links below for
more information on topic sentences.
8.7.5 Using Facts and Opinions

Among the different types of details used to develop paragraphs are facts and
opinions. A fact has to do with anything you say that is an actuality, a certainty or truth. It
represents an act, deed, or event that can be easily verified especially physically. An
opinion on the other hand has to do more with a feeling, a view, or a belief. Click on the
links below for more information.
1. http://www.umt.edu/writingcenter/docs/resourcesforwriters/waystosupportanargument.
pdf
2. http://www.uefap.com/writing/function/argue.htm
3. http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/evidence.htm
Assessment Questions
Read the sentences below and indicate whether it is a fact or opinion by ticking the correct
option.
1. Warthogs are the ugliest animals on earth. (Fact/Opinion)
2. All cultures have greeting rituals. (Fact/Opinion)
3. That law was amended in 2015. (Fact/Opinion)
4. Football is more interesting to watch than rugby. (Fact/Opinion)
5. 2016 is leap year. (Fact/Opinion)
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8.7.6 Transitional Paragraphs
If you are writing a lengthy essay, you may need a short paragraph or sentence that indicates
a shift from one group of ideas to another. Transitional paragraphs play a number of functions
such as to summarize the ideas that have so far been discussed, repeat the key ideas of the
essay and indicate how new ideas may follow with the information presented in the
preceding paragraph(s).
❏ Example of a transitional paragraph
Although the three factors we have examined above- illiteracy, disease

and malnutrition, help - explain the magnitude of the problems facing children in
difficult circumstances there is a fourth problem that seems to override all the rest.
War now poses the greatest challenges of all.
❏ Note:
A transition paragraph stands on its own, separating as it were, two different sections of the
essay, while a transition sentence is usually part of the paragraph that is concluding or
introducing a new section. For more information read /watch the following links
1. http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/transitions/
2. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/technicalwriting/chapter/appendixd-transitionalwords/
3. http://literarydevices.net/transition/
8.7.7 The Concluding Paragraph

The purpose of a conclusion is to bring the essay “home to rest” by signaling that the
discussion has been completed. Not all papers require a separate conclusion.
Narratives or descriptions stop when the writer finishes the story. The academic essay,
however, does benefit from a conclusion that echoes the main point. To be effective, a
conclusion must logically and stylistically connect with what the paper is all about. A long
complex essay may end with a summary of key points, but shorter papers can end using
some of the methods such as restating the thesis statement. That means repeating the
80
purpose that was at first mentioned in the introduction in different wording, for example-
question, a prediction or a warning.
Example of a conclusion:
As seen from the above discussion, practicing good listening skills is difficult. The
important lesson, however, is that if we are going to initiate and maintain good
human relationships with others, we have no choice but to strive and improve our
listening habits.
8.7.8 Creating Coherence in Your Paragraphs

Your paragraphs should be written in such a manner that all sentences logically relate to one
another. We define coherence as that quality of the essay that makes it ‘hang’ together or feel
connected. One creates coherence in a variety of ways such as using reference words and
pronouns, repeating key words or their synonyms and using transitional signals.
Therefore, a good paragraph has unity (develops one main idea) and coherence (ideas
logically hang together as one). Follow the links below for more information on coherence.
1. http://www.wheaton.edu/Academics/Services/Writing-Center/Writing-
Resources/Paragraph-Unity-Coherence-and-Development
2. https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/606/01/
8.7.9 Transitional Signals

Transitional signals are words or phrases that connect your ideas and ensure unity and logical
flow of your text. These signals indicate the direction of your thoughts or ideas to your reader.
The signals fall into various categories of those that: show cause and effect, indicate sequence
or order, and introduce additional ideas, compare, and contrast. For more information on
transitional signals, see the links below
1. https://www.uts.edu.au/sites/default/files/HELPS%20Transition%20Signals_0.pdf
2. https://student.unsw.edu.au/transition-signals-writing
8.8 Writing an Argument

E-tivity 8.8
and sequencing
81
Title Writing An Argument
Purpose
This activity will help you to acquire skills on how to write

well-argued essays.
Brief summary of Watch the following video

overall task
(https:www.yutube.com/watch?V=liyFKUFCQno) and list key
qualities of a well-argued essay.
Spark
Individual task 1. Differentiate between informal and formal arguments

2. Why is academic essay writing considered as a form of
argument?
3. Why is inclusion of evidence and effective use of
concrete arguments important in academic writing?
Interaction begins 1. What is plagiarism and why is it a serious academic
offence. Post in discussion forum 8.6.0.
1. Why is acknowledging of sources an important requirement
when you are writing an academic essay? Post in discussion
forum 8.8
2. What is the difference between:
• Intext – citation and footnotes

• Reference list and a bibliography
• Reference list and a bibliography.
4. Comment on the answers of one of your group members.
Post in discussion forum 8.8
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interventions 2. Give feedback and learning points.
3. Close the e-tivity a week from its commencement
Schedule and time Spend one hour on individual tasks and another one on
group tasks
Next Revision
8.8.1 What is an Argument?

As a writing strategy, an argument involves the presentation of reasoning, evidence and
logic in order to convince a reader to accept a particular point of view on a debatable topic.
Generally, there are two types of arguments: informal and formal. Informal arguments take
place mainly in day- to- day conversation in which case the speaker attempts to convince
the listener to change his/her mind at whatever cost including using exaggeration to
achieve that aim. This type of argument is called persuasion. Formal argumentation, on the
other hand, relies more on authoritative opinion and logic to support a point of view and it
appeals to the faculties of reasoning rather than emotions to convince the reader about an
idea. You will notice, however, that some writers use the terms, argument and persuasion,
interchangeably.
To succeed in argumentation, you will be required to parade carefully selected evidence,

which may be in form of startling statistics, research findings, or views of experts in the field
in which you are writing.
8.6.3 Strategies for Argumentation
Arguments have a conventional way in which they should be presented. This can be
simplified as Claim (proposition) - Evidence - Argument and Counterargument. This
involves:
a. Making a claim or proposition (the statement of opinion that is presented for

debate), e.g. most teenagers joining university today do so for reasons completely
different from those for which universities have been established.
b. Using supporting reasons and evidence (facts, cases, statistics, examples,
authorities, anecdotes, scenarios, etc.).
83
c. Handling counterarguments (involves acknowledging, accommodating and meeting
opposing points of view).
8.8.2 The Claim

The claim, sometimes referred to as proposition or statement, is a declarative statement that is
either true or false, but not both. The first step in preparing a convincing argument is to
structure a clear, limited proposition. In the essay introduction, it is called a thesis
statement, while in a paragraph it is a topic sentence. You could do several things with your
proposition. For example, you can attempt to convince the reader that something is or is not a
fact and to take a particular action. Therefore, in order to generate an effective proposition
make sure that, among other things, the point you intend to make is debatable. Avoid the
following pitfalls in choosing topics for argumentative essays:
1. Presenting matters of fact. For example, “Girls mature faster than boys.”
2. Choosing issues that are simply a matter of personal taste. For example, “Watching
soccer is more interesting than hunting.”
3. The proposition is clear. This means it is free of any ambiguous words that could
allow for two or more meanings. In other words, it should not be open to
misinterpretation.
4. The proposition deals with only one point, especially at the paragraph.
5. You define any words that need defining immediately in the next sentence. An
argument cannot achieve its aim unless both you and the reader are clear about the
meaning you attach to the terms you are using.
8.8.3 Qualifying Your Claim

If as a writer, you are very certain that your case is so strong that readers will accept your
argument easily; you will need to state your position emphatically and
unconditionally. Nevertheless, if on the other hand you have a feeling that your judgment or
conclusion might be challenged, then you will be wise to qualify your claim. Readers tend to
take a claim that is qualified seriously. However, if you over qualify your argument becomes
shaky.
8.8.4 Checklist for Argument

As you edit your essay it is important that you make your argument is convincing. You do
this by asking yourself the following questions.
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1. Do I have a strong and clear statement in the introduction (thesis statement) that
announces to the reader my proposition (the view I intend to put forth for debate)?
2. Are there words that I need to define before getting into the argument?
3. Have I paraded, in a logical manner, sufficient evidence to support my point of view?

(facts, statistics, definitions, examples, anecdotes and so on).
4. Have I handled objections wisely by acknowledging the opposing side and attempting to
show why it is weaker than the side I am proposing?
5. Have I acknowledged sources of information for any ideas that are not from my own
head?
6. Have I used words appropriately; that is the right words for the intended meaning?
7. Have I avoided distorting information by presenting it accurately and completely?
8. Have I used the right tone of voice? For example, using a light warm tone for a light-
hearted subject and serious tone for subjects such as war or ethnicity
9. Have l avoided over-simplifying a complex issue by suggesting rather simple answers

to resolve the issue.
8.9 Acknowledging Sources

Academic writing in college depends heavily on the ideas of others. If you do not
acknowledge these sources, you will be accused of plagiarism, which is a serious academic
offence. Some universities will have you fail a particular unit or even the whole course if
you plagiarize. Actually, plagiarism is a form of theft, which takes many forms. For
example, you will be said to have plagiarized if you:
1. Do not acknowledge texts or sections of texts borrowed from others in parenthetical

references in the text or use footnotes.
2. Copy another student’s paper and present it as if it were your own composition.
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3. Do not provide a bibliography or list of references at the end of the essay/paper.
8.9.1 Checking for plagiarism in your writing

Fortunately, there are programs that can help you check if your work has percentages of
plagiarism, so you do not have to do it manually. As it is with many programs, some are free
while others require a subscription fee. Find out what is available in your university library.
For example, the Kenyatta University Post Modern Library has Turnitin anti plagiarism
monitor and training on its use is available.
8.9.2 Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

We have already said earlier on that to write a good academic essay, you ought to rely
substantially on ideas from authorities in your field of study. Incorporating these ideas is done
through quoting (short and long blocked quotations), paraphrasing, and summarizing.
See Summarizing and Paraphrasing in the Reading Skills section of this module.
8.9.3 The Bibliography or Reference List

You may tend to think that your essay ends with your concluding paragraph but this is not
the case. After your conclusion the “Bibliography”, sometimes referred to as the “Reference
List” follows. This is the list of all materials you used in writing the essay and includes
both published and unpublished documents such as books/ebooks, periodicals such as
peer reviewed journals, and seminar papers. It includes both what you have referred to
directly in the essay in form of summaries, paraphrases or direct quotations and also those
sources you consulted in developing the work. Reference list also refers to the list that
follows the conclusion and is derived only from to the materials that the writer has used in
the in the body of the essay.
8.10 Collaborative Research and Writing
8.10.1 Collaborative Research.

Lee, Y.S. & Schottenfeld, M.A. (2014) define collaboration as “a process of shared creation
for a common goal, based on diverse perspectives and expertise in a group.” Need for
collaborative research has grown in the 21st century. Collaboration is actually one of the core
competencies for the 21st century workplace. The reasons for this are many. For example, the
research environments are becoming more competitive, forcing people to look beyond their
disciplines, organizations, and sectors. This helps them to share knowledge and skills in order
to gain a competitive edge. Secondly, prevailing knowledge economy demands that societal
needs are addressed through multi-sectoral approaches. Since collaboration offers an
environment for creativity and critical thinking, collaboration is used as one of the
approaches of promoting learning. Other than improving learning outcomes, it acts as a good
avenue to practice work related skills, values and attitudes.
86
It is important to note that collaboration does not always flow smoothly. Problems could arise
from lack of role clarity, coordination and performance of task and social aspects of the
research. Collaboration creates a democratic space for members to contribute their ideas,
which might lead t. Success is, therefore, dependent on a number of factors such as role
clarity.
8.10.2 Collaborative Roles

Having clear expectations from the start will facilitate smooth operations. Check chapter 4.3
in Technical writing essentials for more information on roles. Check table 4.3.4 in particular.
8.10.3 Collaborative Writing

Most writing is born of different types of collaboration. Academic essays at the university
are no different. For you to turn in a quality products, it is important that you share your work
with others for review. Your facilitators usually assign collaborative writing tasks as one of
the requirements for a pass in the units. This is the case in UCU 110: Communication and
Collaboration Skills, where you will be expected to write essays in a specified genre.
8.10.4 The Writing Project

The aim of the collaborative writing project is to help you research on a recommended topic
in groups that are either pre-determined or formed by the students. The project takes the
process approach, where you are given a chance to practice various skills introduced in
different sections of the lesson. The assignments are phased in these corresponding sub-
sections of the lesson. For example, the note-making task is under reading skills in 7.2.4.
Read chapter 4.3 in Technical writing essentials for an example of collaborative writing
stages.
You will be provided with two spaces in Google Drive to help you collaborate. The links
directing you to the spaces will be in the Learning Management System:
Space 1: Working
Space 2: Planning
The essay length is 1500-200 words written in APA style. Refer to 5.7.3 in this lesson for
more details on APA style. Read APA guide: 7th edition for more details. Write in continuous
prose without subheadings.
WEEK TASK GROUP/IND WORKING PLANNING

IVIDUAL
87
SPACE SPACE
(Google (Google docs

Docs)
1&2 a. Get to know each other. Group (a,b,c) a. b.
b. Discuss how to work together.
c. Brainstorm on possible
argumentative essay topic based on
one of your core units.
3&4 a. Search for two relevant sources of a. Individual Working

information related to the topic and space
summarize key points. Write the
sources using APA style b. Group
b. Discuss how each of the
contributions address the proposed
topic.
5 Write the thesis statement and prepare Group Working

the essay outline space
6 Make notes from two sources using Group Working

linear notes
7&8 a. Write the first draft. a &b Group Group(a) b. Post

details of the
b. Select a peer reviewer from another peer reviewer
group or year of study.
9 Post the first essay draft for guidance Group Working
10 a. Arrange for peer review by a. Group b a. Post details

someone outside the project group. of the peer
reviewer.
b. The peer reviewer posts the
comments b. Peer
reviewer
11 Group Working
Refine the document using comments

from the peer reviewer and your
views.
88
12 Submit the essay Group Working
Table 8.10.4 Group project schedule. Adapted from Nykopp, M., Marttunen, M. & Erkens,
G. Coordinating collaborative writing in an online environment. J Comput High Educ
31, 536–556 (2019).
8.11 Summary
In this lesson, we have presented information that will help you enhance adequate
understanding of writing as a communication tool for learning at the university. The key
features of academic writing, together with the stages one goes through to develop essays,
have been examined. Because writing forms the primary means through which your
performance as a student will be assessed, the lesson has highlighted those features and
stages of writing that you have to come to terms with in order to write the kind of papers that
will appeal to your assessors. Although skills in use of correct grammar and vocabulary are
admired by your university examiners, they will be more pleased to see that you can interpret
essay topics effectively; gather the relevant material for a given topic, especially through
reading. Structure the ideas in your essay logically and demonstrate you can think clearly
through the arguments you write. Furthermore, we have discussed the main parts of the essay
and how they can be written in order to achieve a strong essay. Writing well-developed
paragraphs are seen as some of the ways of achieving those goals. Once more we reiterate
that good writing is achieved through collaboration and practice and that this lesson is
concerned with illuminating some of the areas in which practice should be concentrated.
Lastly, we want to note that writing skills are interdependent with the other skills covered in
this module. You will need in particular to pay careful attention to the information contained
in reading and information and literacy skills.
1. Academic writing is guided by certain c-n-e-t-o-s or rules.
2. Academic writing is a linear process. True/False
3. Lee, Y.S. & Schottenfeld, M.A. (2014) define collaboration as “a process of shared c-
e-t-on for a common goal, based on diverse perspectives and e-p-r-ise in a group.”
4. Collaboration does not always flow smoothly. True/False
5. Plagiarism is also known as academic d-s-o-e-ty.
8.13 E-Resources
A primer on communication studies (v.1.0)(2012).
89
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on-communication-studies/index.html
Collaborative Research and Writing Skills
1. College success: Strategies for answering questions.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-collegesuccess/chapter/text-strategies-
for-question-types/
3. Nykopp, M., Marttunen, M. & Erkens, G. Coordinating collaborative writing in an

online environment. J Comput High Educ 31, 536–556 (2019).
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12528-018-9203-3
4. Janssen, J., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P.A. & Kanselaar, G. (2012). Task-related and
social regulation during online collaborative learning. Metacognition Learning 7, 25–
43 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-010-9061-5
5. How to collaborate and write with others.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-sanjac-englishcomp2/chapter/chapter-four-
how-to-collaborate-and-write-with-others/
6. Smith, J. (2019). Communication at work: A college-to- career guide to success.
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/communicationatwork/
90

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY

UCU 110 : COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATIVE SKILLS

WRITTEN BY: Mrs. Doris Kangai Njoka

Mr. Thomas M. Rimbui

Miss Beatrice N. Murila

Dr. Sophia M. Ndethiu

VETTED BY: Dr. Harrison Mulwa

Welcome to the course.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, the learner should be able to:

1. Tips for success in online classes during coronavirus outbreak

3. Making the most of your learning style

Duration of Course: The course will run for one semester.

LESSON 1.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATION

1.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

i. By the end of this Lesson you will be able to:

1.3 The Role of Communication

1.4 Fundamentals of Collaboration

Collaboration involves the paring or grouping of individuals in a learning or work

E-tivity 1.4 – Fundamentals of Collaboration

Numbering, pacing 1.4

Title Fundamentals of Collaboration

Individual task 1. Carry out an internet study on the concepts of

2. Make brief notes on the benefits of collaboration

3. Write your answer in Assignment 4.3.2

2. Individually, write four sentences that summarise the

3. Post your answers in the discussion forum 4.3.2

E-moderator interventions I will:

1. Summarize learners’ responses on task.

2. Provide direction as necessary

3. Close the e-tivity .

Next Persuasion and Assertiveness

E-tivity 1.6 Assertiveness

2. Summarize the key points on how to build assertiveness

Source: Heart, self-esteem, self-Liberation

Interaction begins 1. List three techniques of developing assertiveness in your

2. In one paragraph, explain one disadvantage of being

2. Read a post from one other student and give constructive

E-moderator interventions 1. Summarize learners’ responses on task.

2. Provide direction as necessary.

3. Close the e-tivity.

1.7 Assessment questions

1. The most important goal in communication is to arrive at a common understanding.

How to talk to anyone with ease and confidence

What is collaborative learning?

LESSON 2: LISTENING AND NOTE-TAKING

2.2 Lesson Outcomes.

iv. Take quality notes.

Listening is defined in various ways. The International Listening Association defines it as

E-tivity 2.4 Levels of listening

Spacing and sequencing

Title Levels of listening

Purpose This activity will enable you to recognize different levels of

Think of the difference in the way you listen to your lecturer as

E-moderator 1. Focus the group discussions

Next Qualities of a good listener and barriers to listening.

2.5 Qualities of a good listener

2.6 Barriers to effective Listening