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BME 101 201 Fundamental of Mechanical Engg

B.tech (Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University)

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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS_BME-101

Q.1 State principle of transmissibility.
Answer: Principle of transmissibility of forces
Principle of transmissibility states that the state of rest or of motion of a rigid body will be
unaltered if a force acting on the body will be replaced by another force of the same
magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on the body along the same line of action of the
applied forces.
For example the force F acting on a rigid body at point A. According to the principle of
transmissibility of forces, this force has the same effect on the body as a force F applied at
point B.

The principle of transmissibility of forces will be only applicable for rigid bodies. It will not
be applicable for deformable bodies.
Q.2 State and proof Varignon’s theorem.
A. Principle of moment/ Varignon’s theorem
Varignon’s Theorem states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the
algebraic sum of the moments of its components about that point.
Principal of moments states that the moment of the resultant of a number of forces about any
point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces of the system about the
same point.

Mathematically R x AD = P x AB + Q x AC
Taking components of forces
R sin θ = P sin θ1 + Q sin θ2 ………… (i)
Multiplying both side by OA

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R (OA sin θ) = P (OA sin θ1) + Q (OA sin θ2)………… (ii)

R x AD = P x AB + Q x AC ………… (iii)
Q.3 Define free body diagram.
A. A diagram or sketch of the body in which the body under consideration is freed from the
contact surface (surrounding) and all the forces acting on it (including reactions at contact
surface) are drawn is called free body diagram. Free body diagram for few cases are shown in
below

Q.4 Define Equilibrium of bodies. What are the conditions of equilibrium?

A. Equilibrium of coplanar force system
If the force system acting on a body produces no external effect, the forces are said to be in
balance and the body experience no change in motion is said to be in equilibrium.
Conditions of Static Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces
The algebraic sum of all forces in the x-direction or horizontal is zero.
The algebraic sum of all forces in the y-direction or vertical is zero.
Important Points for Equilibrium Forces
Two forces are in equilibrium if they are equal and oppositely directed.
Three coplanar forces in equilibrium are concurrent.
Three or more concurrent forces in equilibrium form a close polygon when connected in
head-to-tail manner.
Conditions of Static Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Force System
There are three equilibrium conditions that can be used for non-concurrent, non-parallel force
system.
The algebraic sum of all forces in the x-direction or horizontal is zero.
The algebraic sum of all forces in the y-direction or vertical is zero.
The algebraic sum of moment at any point O is zero.
The three equilibrium conditions can solved up to three unknowns in the system. If the
system involves more than three unknowns, it is called indeterminate. Indeterminate
structures are beyond the scope of Engineering Mechanics.

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Q.5 What is force system?

A. Forces Systems
When a mechanics problem or system has more than one force acting, it is known as a ‘force
system’ or ‘system of force’.

Q.6 What are the different types of supports, beams & loads?
A. Types of support
Supports are used to provide suitable reactions (Resistive force) to beam or any body.
Following types of supports are used.

Types of beam
(a) Cantilever beam: A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.
(b) Simply supported beam: A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned
support at one end and roller support at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it
undergoes shearing and bending. It is the one of the simplest structural elements in existence.
(c) Overhanging beam: A overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions
extending beyond its supports.
(d) Continuous beam: A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout
its length.
(e) Fixed beam: As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are
fixed.

Types of load

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Value of UDL= load intensity (w) x length (L) acting at midpoint of CD

Value of UVL= (1/2) x load intensity (w) x length (L) acting at CG of triangle formed (2L/3
from C or L/3 from D)
Q.7 Draw stress strain diagram for Mild Steel.
A. Relationship between Stress and Strain are derived on the basis of the elastic behaviour of
material bodies. A standard mild steel specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing pull by
Universal Testing Machine. The stress-strain curve obtained is as shown below.

Elasticity and Elastic Limit

Elasticity of a body is the property of the body by virtue of which the body regains its
original size and shape when the deformation force is removed. Most materials are elastic in
nature to a lesser or greater extend, even though perfectly elastic materials are very rare.
The maximum stress upto which a material can exhibit the property of elasticity is called the
elastic limit. If the deformation forces applied causes the stress in the material to exceed the
elastic limit, there will be a permanent set in it. That is the body will not regain its original
shape and size even after the removal of the deforming force completely. There will be some
residual strain left in it.

Yield stress
When a specimen is loaded beyond the elastic limit the stress increases and reach a point at
which the material starts yielding this stress is called yield stress.
Ultimate stress
Ultimate load is defined as maximum load which can be placed prior to the breaking of the
specimen. Stress corresponding to the ultimate load is known as ultimate stress.
Q.8 Derive the equation E = 2G (1+ µ).
A. Consider a square element ABCD of side ‘a’ subjected to simple shear of intensity ‘τ’ as
shown in figure.

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Let ‘τ ' be the shear stress produced in the faces AB and CD due to this shear force. The
complementary shear stress consequently produced in the vertical faces AD and BC is also
equal to same and shown in figure as ‘τ’.
Due to the pure shearing force, the cube is deformed ABCD to ABC'D'. The point D moved
to D' and point C moved to C' as shown in fig.

The shear strain = the angle of distortion ø

ø = CC'/ BC --- (1)
Shear strain = Shear stress /Rigidity modulus
ø = CC'/ BC = τ/G
From C, drop a perpendicular CC” onto distorted diagonal AC'
The normal strain experienced by the diagonal AC is e = C’C”/AC
(Considering that AC” ≈ AC)
e = C’C”/AC
= (CC′/cos 45)/(BC/cos 45) = CC′/(2BC)
Substitute (CC'/BC) form equation (1) in the above expression,
The normal Strain of the Diagonal AC = CC′/(2BC) =τ /2G ----(2)
Due to the action of pure shear stress in the block ABCD, the diagonal AC is subjected to
Direct Tensile Stress σ1 and the diagonal BC is subjected to Direct Compressive Stress σ2.
Both these stresses are equal to shear stress τ.

If the Poisson's ratio is µ, the net Strain in the diagonal AC =(σ1 /E) - µ σ2 /E)
But the normal stress σ1 = + τ and σ2 = - τ
AC =(σ1 /E) - µ σ2 /E)
e = ( τ /E) - µ (- τ /E)
e = (τ /E) (1+ µ) ---(3)
The equation (2) and equation (3) are same, then we equate the both
e = τ /2G = (τ /E) (1+ µ)
E = 2G (1+ µ)
This is the required relationship between E and G.
Q. 9 Discuss various components of I. C. Engine.
A.
 Cylinder: It is the main part of the engine inside which piston reciprocates to and fro.
It should have high strength to withstand high pressure above 50 bar and temperature
above 2000 oC. The ordinary engine is made of cast iron and heavy duty engines are
made of steel alloys or aluminum alloys. In the multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders
are cast in one block known as cylinder block.

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 Cylinder head: The top end of the cylinder is covered by cylinder head over which
inlet and exhaust valve, spark plug or injectors are mounted. A copper or asbestos
gasket is provided between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an air tight
joint.
 Piston: Transmit the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod.
Usually made of aluminium alloy which has good heat conducting property and
greater strength at higher temperature.
 Piston rings: These are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer
surface of the piston and made of steel alloys which retain elastic properties even at
high temperature. 2 types of rings- compression and oil rings. Compression ring is
upper ring of the piston which provides air tight seal to prevent leakage of the burnt
gases into the lower portion. Oil ring is lower ring which provides effective seal to
prevent leakage of the oil into the engine cylinder.
 Connecting rod: It converts reciprocating motion of the piston into circular motion of
the crank shaft, in the working stroke. The smaller end of the connecting rod is
connected with the piston by gudgeon pin and bigger end of the connecting rod is
connected with the crank with crank pin. The special steel alloys or aluminium alloys
are used for the manufacture of connecting rod.
 Crankshaft: It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion
with the help of connecting rod. The special steel alloys are used for the
manufacturing of the crankshaft. It consists of eccentric portion called crank.
 Crank case: It houses cylinder and crankshaft of the IC engine and also serves as
sump for the lubricating oil.
 Flywheel: It is big wheel mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its
speed constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is
returned during other stroke.

Q.10 Discuss the working of Four Stroke Petrol/Diesel Engine.

A.

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 Cycle of operation completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolution of the
piston.
 Figure shows the working of a 4 stroke engine. During the suction stroke only air (in
case of diesel engine) or air with petrol (in case of petrol engine) is drawn into the
cylinder by the moving piston.
 Suction stroke (suction valve open, exhaust valve closed)-charge consisting of fresh
air mixed with the fuel is drawn into the cylinder due to the vacuum pressure created
by the movement of the piston from TDC to BDC.
 Compression stroke (both valves closed)-fresh charge is compressed into clearance
volume by the return stroke of the piston and ignited by the spark for combustion.
Hence pressure and temperature is increased due to the combustion of fuel
 Expansion stroke (both valves closed)-high pressure of the burnt gases force the
piston towards BDC and hence power is obtained at the crankshaft.
 Exhaust stroke (exhaust valve open, suction valve closed)- burned gases expel out due
to the movement of piston from BDC to TDC.
Q.11 Discuss the working of Two Stroke Petrol/Diesel Engine.
A. A two-stroke engine completes a power cycle in just two strokes of the piston. A 2-stroke
engine works in the following way:
1) Suction and Compression Stroke
 In a 2-stroke engine, the suction and compression strokes take place simultaneously.
 During this stroke, the piston moves upward from the bottom dead center (BDC) to
the top dead center (TDC).
 During this upward movement of the piston, a vacuum starts producing inside the
compression cylinder (combustion chamber) of the engine. Due to the creation of this
vacuum, the air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder via an inlet port.
 After the suction process, the piston continues its upward movement and compresses
the air-fuel mixture.

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 At the end of the compression stroke, the compressed mixture is ignited due to the
spark provided by a spark plug. As the mixture ignites, the power stroke piston starts.
2) Power and Exhaust Stroke
 Like suction and compression strokes, the power and exhaust strokes also take place
at the same time.
 Due to the combustion process, the temperature, internal heat, and pressure of the air-
fuel mixture become very high. The high-pressure gases produced during the
combustion process exert a very high force on the piston due to that piston moves
downward (from TDC to BCD).
 The downward motion of the piston rotates the crankshaft, which further rotates the
flywheel of the vehicle.
 As the power is completed, the piston further moves downward and opens the exhaust
valve.
 As the exhaust valve opens, the piston pushes the exhaust gases out of the combustion
chamber.
 As the piston reaches at BDC, the piston completely expels the exhaust gases and fills
the combustion chamber with the fresh air-fuel mixture, and the whole working cycle
repeats. At BDC, one power stroke of the two-stroke engine is completed, and now
the piston is ready for the next power cycle.

Q.12 Distinguish Four Stroke & Two Stroke Engines.

A.
Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine
1 Two revolution of crankshaft One revolution of crankshaft
2 One power stroke in every two revolution One power stroke in each revolution of
of crankshaft crankshaft
3 Heavier flywheel Lighter flywheel
4 Power produce is less Power produce is more
5 Heavy and bulky Light and compact
6 Lesser cooling and lubrication Greater cooling and lubrication
requirements requirements
7 Lesser rate of wear and tear Higher rate of wear and tear

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8 Contains valve and valve mechanism Contains ports arrangement

9 Higher initial cost Cheaper initial cost
10 Volumetric efficiency is more Volumetric efficiency less
11 Thermal efficiency is high Thermal efficiency is low
12 It is used where efficiency is important. It is used where low cost, compactness and
Ex-cars, buses, trucks, tractors, industrial light weight are important.
engines, aero planes, power generation Ex-lawn mowers, scooters, motor cycles,
etc. mopeds, propulsion ship etc.

Q.13. Distinguish SI & CI Engines.

A.
SI engine CI engine
1 Working cycle is Otto cycle. Working cycle is diesel cycle.
2 Petrol or gasoline or high octane Diesel or high cetane fuel is used.
fuel is used.
3 High self-ignition temperature. Low self-ignition temperature.
4 Fuel and air introduced as a gaseous Fuel is injected directly into the
mixture in the suction stroke. combustion chamber at high pressure at
the end of compression stroke.
5 Carburetor used to provide the Injector and high pressure pump used to
mixture. Throttle controls the supply of fuel. Quantity of fuel regulated
quantity of mixture introduced. in pump.
6 Use of spark plug for ignition Self-ignition by the compression of air
system which increased the temperature required
for combustion
7 Compression ratio is 6 to 10.5 Compression ratio is 14 to 22
8 Higher maximum RPM due to lower Lower maximum RPM
weight
9 Maximum efficiency lower due to Higher maximum efficiency due to higher
lower compression ratio compression ratio
10 Lighter Heavier due to higher pressures

Q.14. Define Refrigeration, Ton of Refrigeration and COP.

A. Refrigeration is defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below
ambient, with the aim of cooling a product or space to the required temperature. It is also
defined as artificial cooling.
Generally, refrigeration is the action of cooling, and in practice, this requires the removal of
heat and discarding it at a higher temperature. Therefore, refrigeration is the device of
moving heat from a lower temperature to a higher temperature.
Unit of refrigeration
Rating for Refrigeration indicates the rate of removal heat. The unit of refrigeration is
expressed in terms of ton of refrigeration (TR). One ton of refrigeration is defined as the
amount of refrigeration effect (heat transfer rate) produced during uniform melting of one ton
(1000kg) of ice at 0°C to the water at the 0°C in 24 hours.
Calculation for one ton of refrigeration

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Latent heat of ice is 335KJ/kg (heat absorbed during melting of one kg ice)
1 Ton of refrigeration, 1TR= 1000*335 in 24 hours = (1000×335)/(24×60) in one minute =
232.6 kJ/min
Theoretically one Ton of refrigeration taken as 232.6kJ/min, however in actual practice, it is
taken as 210kJ/min. 1 ton of refrigeration approximately equal to 3.5kW or 12,000 BTU/h
The Coefficient of performance (K or COP)

 The Coefficient of performance (K or COP) is a number that describes the

effectiveness of heat pumps, refrigerators or air conditioners.
 The coefficient of performance is different for heating and cooling systems.
 For a heat pump (a heating system), the coefficient of performance is the ratio
of energy delivered to the hot reservoir to the work input. Thus, it is called
a heating coefficient of performance.
Q.15 Discuss construction & working of Domestic Refrigerator.

 A. The heat of the items, to be cooled is carried to the evaporator coils by means of air
trapped in the cabinet. The working fluid, known as a refrigerant, used in refrigerator
readily evaporates and condenses or changes alternately between the vapor and liquid
phases without leaving the refrigerator. The refrigerant keeps circulating from
evaporator coil to condenser till compressor motor is connected to the supply. During
evaporation, it absorbs heat from items placed in the refrigerator and in condensing or
cooling or liquefying it rejects heat outside the refrigerator. The heat absorbed from
items placed in the refrigerator during evaporation is used as its latent heat for
converting it from liquid to vapor. Thus a cooling effect is created in the working
fluid. And this decreases the temperatureinside the refrigerator.
When a predetermined value of the temperature is achieved inside the refrigerator,
thermostat switch operates and disconnects the compressor motor from the electric
supply. Further circulation of refrigerant and its cooling effect stops.
 After some time, when the temperature increases and reaches up to a predetermined
value, thermostat operates again and connects the compressor motor to the supply.
And the cooling process starts again. This cycle is repeated continuously to maintain
the temperature in a predetermined temperature range.
In this way, the refrigerant is circulated through the coils of the refrigerator to
maintain the temperature in the required temperature range.

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Q.16 Define Air-Conditioning. Discuss various terms in relation to Psychrometric.

 A. Air conditioning can be defined as the treatment of indoor air in order to control
certain conditions required for human comfort. The desirable conditions may be
temperature, humidity, dust particle level, odor level, and air motion.
 It is known that the physical properties of air can be controlled by cooling, heating,
humidification, and dehumidification. These processes may be employed to maintain
specific conditions desirable for comfort. Thus, simultaneous control of temperature,
humidity, air motion, and cleanliness is known as air conditioning.
 Dry Air: The pure dry air is a mixture of a number of gases such as nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon, helium etc. But the nitrogen and oxygen have
the major portion of the combination.
 Moist air: It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The amount of water vapour,
present in the air, depends upon the absolute pressure and temperature of the mixture.
 Saturated air: It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour, when the air has diffused the
maximum amount of water vapour into it. The water vapours, usually, occur in the
form of superheated steam as an invisible gas. However, when the saturated air is
cooled, the water vapour in the air starts condensing, and the same may be visible in
the form of moist, fog or condensation on cold surfaces.
 Degree of saturation: It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a unit mass of
dry air to the mass of water vapour in the same mass of dry air when it is saturated at
the same temperature.
 Humidity: It is the mass of water vapour present in 1 kg of dry air, and is generally
expressed in terms of gram per kg of dry air (g / kg of dry air). It is also called
specific humidity or humidity ratio.
 Absolute humidity: It is the mass of water vapour present in 1 m3 of dry air, and is
generally expressed in terms of gram per cubic-meter of dry air (g/m3 of dry air). It is
also expressed in terms of grains per cubic meter of dry air.

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 Relative humidity: It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapourin a given volume of
moist air to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at the same
temperature and pressure. It is briefly written as RH.
 Dry bulb temperature: It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when it
is not affected by the moisture present in the air. The dry bulb temperature (briefly
written as DBT) is generally denoted by td or tdb.
 Wet bulb temperature: It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when its
bulb is surrounded by a wet cloth exposed to the air. Such a thermometer is called wet
bulb thermometer. The wet bulb temperature (briefly written as WBT) is generally
denoted by tw or twb.
 Dew Point Temperature: It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when
the moisture (water vapour) present in it begins to condense. In other words, the dew
point temperature is the saturation temperature (tsat) corresponding to the partial
pressure of water vapour (P). It is, usually, denoted by tdp.
Q.17 Discuss the construction and working of Window Air-Conditioner.
A. Window air conditioner is a simple air conditioning unit fitted with the room wall or
window. In this unit air is not supplied to the room through duct system. This consists of a
complete vapor compression system having compressor, condenser, evaporator and
expansion device with motor, blower, fan, air filter, grills, fresh air damper, and control
panels as shown in Fig.
•The unit draws air continuously from the space to be cooled and it is cooled by cooling the
coil of the unit and delivered back into the same space to be cooled. The process of drawing,
cooling, and recirculation cools the space at a lower temperature required for the comfort.
Regarding the installation of this unit, the evaporator unit should be mounted inside the room
and the condenser will be mounted on the outer side of room wall.
•The air supply grills have adjustable louvers or deflectors for changing the direction of air
flow. It is generally operated with a 220-V single phase ac supply. The cooling capacities for
such unit are available in market between 0.5 TR and 3 TR.
Constructions detail

 Window air conditioner is sometimes referred to as room air conditioner as well. It is

the simplest form of an air conditioning system and is mounted on windows or walls.
It is a single unit that is assembled in a casing where all the components are located.
 This refrigeration unit has a double shaft fan motor with fans mounted on both sides
of the motor. One at the evaporator side and the other at the condenser side.
 The evaporator side is located facing the room for cooling of the space and the
condenser side outdoor for heat rejection. There is an insulated partition separating
these two sides within the same casing.
Indoor Side Components: The indoor parts of a window air conditioner include:

 Cooling Coil with an air filter mounted on it. The cooling coil is where the heat
exchange happens between the refrigerant in the system and the air in the room.
 Fan Blower is a centrifugal evaporator blower to discharge the cool air to the room.

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 Capillary Tube is used as an expansion device. It can be noisy during operation if

installed too near the evaporator.
 Operation Panel is used to control the temperature and speed of the blower fan. A
thermostat is used to sense the return air temperature and another one to monitor the
temperature of the coil. Type of control can be mechanical or electronic type.
 Filter Drier is used to remove the moisture from the refrigerant.
 Drain Pan is used to contain the water that condensate from the cooling coil and is
discharged out to the outdoor by gravity.
Outdoor Side Components: The outdoor side parts include:

 Compressor is used to compress the refrigerant.

 Condenser Coil is used to reject heat from the refrigeration to the outside air.
 Propeller Fan is used in air-cooled condenser to help move the air molecules over the
surface of the condensing coil.
 Fan Motor is located here. It has a double shaft where the indoor blower and outdoor
propeller fan are connected together.

Q.18 State Pascal law and discuss continuity equation.

A. According to Pascal’s Law, “The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is
distributed or transmitted evenly throughout the liquid in all directions”.
According to the continuity equation, the product of the cross-sectional area of the pipe and
the velocity of the fluid at any given point along the pipe is constant.
Q = A v = constant
Where, Q is the volume flow rate, A is the flow area, v is the flow velocity
Assumption of Continuity Equation
 The tube is having a single entry and single exit
 The fluid flowing in the tube is non-viscous
 The flow is incompressible
 The fluid flow is steady

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Q.19 Distinguish Impulse Turbine and Reaction Turbine.

A.
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

1. In impulse turbine the steam flows 1. In the reaction turbine, first the steam
through flows through the guide mechanism and then
flows through the moving blades.
the nozzle and strike on the moving
blades.

2. Steam strikes on the buckets and all 2. The steam glides over the moving blades
hydraulic energy is converted to kinetic and only a part of hydraulic energy is
energy. converted to KE and rest remain in Pressure
energy.

3. During the flow of steam through 3. During the flow of steam through moving
moving blades, its pressure remains blades its pressure reduces.
constant.

4. The steam may or may not be admitted 4. The steam must be admitted over the
to the whole circumference. whole circumference.

5. The blades of impulse turbine are 5. The blades of reaction turbine are not
symmetrical. symmetrical.

6. While gliding over the blades the 6. In reaction turbine, while gliding over the
relative velocity of steam remains constant. blades the relative velocity of steam
increases.

7. The direction of steam flow is 7. The direction of steam flow is radial and
tangential to the turbine wheel. axial to the turbine wheel.

8. It requires less maintenance work. 8. It requires more maintenance work.

9. It is suitable for low discharge. 9. It is suitable for medium and high

discharge.

10. Pelton wheel turbine is the example of 10. Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine etc. are
impulse turbine. the examples of reaction turbine.

11. Hydraulic efficiency is more. 11. Hydraulic efficiency is less.

12. Impulse turbine operates at high head. 12. It operates at medium and low head.

13. It does not use draft tube. 13. It always use draft tube.

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Impulse Turbine

Q.20 Distinguish centrifugal & Reciprocating Pumps.

A.
S. No. Centrifugal pump Reciprocating pump

1. It is one of the rotary pumps which used kinetic It is a positive displacement type pump which
energy of impeller. is forced by piston.

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2. It continuously discharges the fluid. It does not discharge the fluid continuously.

3. In centrifugal pump the flow rate decreases which The pressure does not affect flow rate in
increasing the pressure. reciprocating pumps.

4. It is used for pumping high viscous fluid. It is used for pump low viscous fluid.

5. In this pumps discharge is inversely promotional In reciprocating pump viscosity of fluid does
to the viscosity of fluid. not affect the discharge rate.

6. Efficiency of these pumps are low compare to Efficiency is high.

reciprocating pump.

7. Centrifugal pumps have problem of priming. It does not have any problem of priming.

8. It uses impellers to transfer energy to fluid. It uses piston cylinder device to transfer
energy to fluid.

9. They are lighter than reciprocating pumps. These are heavier compare to centrifugal
pump.

10. It gives higher discharge at low heads. These gives higher heads at low discharge.

11. It is less costly. These are costly.

12. These pumps required less maintenance. These required higher maintenance.

13. Centrifugal pumps are easy to install. These These pumps are difficult to install. These
required less floor space. required more floor area.

14. It is mostly used for domestic purpose and where These are mostly used in industries and high
higher discharge at low head required. viscous fluid pumped at a high head.

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CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

RECIPROCATION PUMPS
Q.21 Classify different types of Turbines?
A. The following are the important classification of the turbines.

1. According to the type of energy at inlet:

a. Impulse turbine (Pelton Wheel), b. Reaction turbine (Francis Turbine)

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2. According to the direction of flow through the runner:

a. Tangential flow turbine (Pelton), b. Radial flow turbine (Francis), c. Axial flow turbine
(Kaplan),
d. Mixed flow turbine (Modern Francis).

3. According to the head at inlet of the turbine:

a. High head turbine (Pelton, H>250 m), b. medium head turbine (Modern Francis, H= 45
– 250 m),
and c. Low head (Kaplan, H<45 m).

4. According to the specific speed of the turbine:

a. Low specific speed turbine (Pelton, 10 - 35), b. Medium specific speed turbine (Francis,
60 – 300),
c. High specific speed turbine (Kaplan, 300 – 1000).
Note: The specific speed value for a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar
turbine which would produce
unit power (one kilowatt) under unit head (one meter).

5. According to the position of shaft of the turbine:

a. Horizontal shaft turbine, b. Vertical shaft turbine.

6. According to the name of originator:

a. Pelton turbine b. Francis turbine c. Kaplan turbine.

Q. 22 Define hydraulic lift.

Answer: Hydraulic lift
Hydraulic lift is a device used for carrying passenger or goods from one floor to another in
multi- storied building to raise heavy objects.
Working Principle of Hydraulic Lift
Pascal's law is a principle in fluid mechanics that states that pressure exerted anywhere in a
confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid such
that the pressure variations (initial differences) remain the same. This law is applied to lifts.
Types of Hydraulic Lift
1) Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift
2) Suspended Hydraulic Lift
Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift: When fluid under pressure is forced into the cylinder, the ram
gets a push upward. The platform carries loads or passengers and moves between the guides.
At required height, it can be made to stay in level with each floor so that the good or
passengers can be transferred. In direct acting hydraulic lift, stroke of the ram is equal to the
lift of the cage.

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Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift

Suspended Hydraulic Lift: When fluid under pressure is forced into the cylinder, the ram gets
reciprocate to the movable pulleys. With the help of arrangement of hydraulic jigger; pulley
can rotates; with the help of wire rope the cage is maintain there pressure force with there
floor. At required height, it can be made to stay in level with each floor so that the good or
passengers can be transferred. Working period of the lift is ratio of the height of lift to the
velocity of lift. Idle period of lift is the difference of the total time for one operation and the
working period of the lift.

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Q.23 What do you understand by errors in measurements, explain?

Answer: Measurement is an act or the result of comparison between the quantities at a
predefined standard and the possible differences in quantities are called as errors in
measurements.
Error in Measurement: Measurements done with an instrument always involve errors and
its possible types are given as,

Static Error: Static error is defined as the difference between the best measured value and
the true value of the quantity. Then:

Es = Am - At

Where, Es = error (absolute static error),

Am = measured value of quantity, and

At = true value of quantity.

Dynamic Error: The dynamic error is the difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.

Overshoot: Moving parts of instruments have mass and thus possess inertia. When an input
is applied to instruments, the pointer does not immediately come to rest at its steady state
position which is termed as overshoot.

Error Analysis

Gross errors: arise due to human mistakes, such as, reading of the instrument value before it
reaches steady state, mistake of recording the measured data in calculating a derived
measured, etc.

Parallax error: in reading on an analogue scale is also is also a source of gross error. Careful
reading and recording of the data can reduce the gross errors to a great extent.

Systematic errors: are those that affect all the readings in a particular fashion. Zero error and
bias of an instrument are examples of systematic errors.

Random errors: there are few errors, the cause of which is not clearly known, and they
affect the readings in a random way. These types of errors are known as Random error, and
as the causes of random errors are not exactly known, so they cannot be eliminated. They can
only be reduced and the error ranges can be estimated by using some statistical operations.

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Q. 25 Explain bourdon tube pressure measurement device.

Bourdon tube pressure measurement device: The Bourdon tube is also an elastic-element
type of pressure transducer. It is relatively cheap and is commonly used for measuring the
gauge pressure of both gaseous and liquid fluids. It consists of a specially shaped piece of
oval-section, flexible, metal tube that is fixed at one end and frees to move at the other end. It
is made up of an elliptical section tube formed into a C-shape and sealed at one end. The
sealed end, which is free to move, has a linkage arrangement which will move a pointer over
a scale. The applied pressure acts within the tube entering through the open end. When
pressure is applied at the open, fixed end of the tube, the oval cross-section becomes more
circular. In consequence, there is a displacement of the free end of the tube. This
displacement is measured by some form of displacement transducer, which is commonly a
potentiometer and displayed accordingly.

Q. 26 Define flow measurement and explain Orifice meter to measure mass flow rate.
Answer: Flow Measurement is the process of measuring fluid flowing into pipelines in any
plant or industry. Through a suitable flow measurement device, accurate measurement of

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flow rate of liquids and gases can be measured which essentially maintains the quality of
industrial processes.
Orifice meter: Orifice meter is a differential pressure type flow measurement device. In the
orifice type flow meter, an orifice plate is placed in the pipe line, as shown in fig.2. If d1 and
d2 are the diameters of the pipe line and the orifice opening, then the flow rate can be
obtained measuring the pressure difference (p1-p2).

Orifice meter contains a circular disc termed as orifice Plate which is of low cost and simple
in construction, easy to install in the pipeline as shown in fig.3. The orifice plate is a circular
plate with a hole in the center. Pressure tappings are normally taken distances D and 0.5D
upstream and downstream the orifice respectively (D is the internal diameter of the pipe). But
there are many more types of pressure tappings those are in use.

Q.27 Define strain gauge, its working principle, construction and applications.
Answer: STRAIN GAUGES

Working principle: Strain gauges have strain-sensitive materials whose electrical resistance
is proportional to the instantaneous strain over its surface. When such a material is stretched,
its length increases and its cross-section decreases; consequently, there is an increase in its

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electrical resistance. This change in resistance is a measure of its mechanical motion. Thus, a
strain gage is a device which uses change in electrical resistance to measure strain.

Construction: Strain gauges are of two types: metallic (i.e., foil or wire) or semiconductor.
The resistance strain gage may be employed in shock or vibration instrumentation in either of
two ways. In order to handle such a delicate filament, it is either mounted on, encapsulated in,
or bonded to some type of carrier material and is known as the bonded strain gage. Bonded
strain gages are available in a wide range of sizes and resistances. Unbonded strain gages,
where the wire is free, are rarely used because of their limited frequency range and lack of
sensitivity. Most strain gages are of foil construction, although fine-wire strain gages are used
for special purposes, such as at high temperatures. Foil strain gages are usually made by a
printed-circuit process. Since the foil used in a strain gage must be very fine or thin to have a
sufficiently high electrical resistance (usually between 60 and 350 ohms), it is difficult to
handle. For example, the foil used in gages is often about 0.1 mil in thickness. In order to
handle this foil, it must be provided with a carrier medium or backing material, usually a
piece of paper, plastic, or epoxy. The backing material performs another very important
function in addition to providing ease of handling and simplicity of application. The cement
provides so much lateral resistance to the foil that it can be shortened significantly without
buckling; then compressive as well as tensile strains can be measured. Lead wires or
connection terminals are often provided on foil gages, as illustrated in the typical foil gage
shown in Fig. 17.1.A protective coating, recommended or supplied by the manufacturer, is
usually applied over the strain gage, especially where the lead wires are attached.

Q. 28 Write a short note on accuracy, precision and resolution.

Answer: Accuracy: Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches
the true value of the quantity being measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement means
conformity to truth.

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Precision: This indicates the closeness to with which the scale of an analog type of instrument
can be read. The precision of an instrument depends upon following factors:
i) Number of graduations
ii) Spacing between the graduations
iii) Size of the pointer
iv) Discriminating power of the observer
Resolution: When the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, which is
non-zero, the output does not change at all until certain increment is exceeded. This
increment is called resolution or discrimination of the instrument. Thus, the resolution refers
to the smallest change of input for which there will be a change output.
Q. 29 Define evolution Level of mechatronics.
Answer: Evolution Level of Mechatronics:
• Primary Level Mechatronics: This level incorporates I/O devices such as sensors and
actuators that integrates electrical signals with mechanical action at the basic control
levels. Examples: Electrically controlled fluid valves and relays.
• Secondary Level Mechatronics: This level integrates microelectronics into electrically
controlled devices. Examples: Cassette players
• Third Level Mechatronics: This level incorporates advanced feedback functions into
control strategy thereby enhancing the quality in terms of sophistication called smart
system.
• Fourth Level Mechatronics: This level incorporates intelligent control in mechatronics
system. It introduces intelligence and fault detection and isolation (FDI) capability
systems.

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