Major Project

AGRIBOT- A Multipurpose Agricultural Robot
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture plays a very important role in India’s economy. The use of tractor is most
common in the current agricultural trends. This requires a lot of energy and human
interaction. The need for the automation in the field of agricultural sector is mainly due to
the increased need of agricultural products, increased population and shortage of labour in
the agricultural sector. Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design,
construction, operation, and application of robots, as well as computer system for their
control, sensory feedback, and information processing. India record of progress in
agriculture over the past four decades has been quite impressive. The agriculture sector has
been successful in keeping pace with rising demand for food. The contribution of increased
land area under agricultural production has declined over time and increases in production
in the past two decades have been almost entirely due to increased productivity. Contribution
of agricultural growth to overall progress has been widespread. Increased productivity has
helped to feed the poor, enhanced farm income and provided opportunities for both direct
and indirect employment.
“On the one hand agricultural research will increasingly be required to address location
specific problems facing the communities on the other the systems will have to position
themselves in an increasingly competitive environment to generate and adopt cutting edge
technologies to bear upon the solutions facing a vast majority of resource poor farmers. The
robotic systems play an immense role in all sections of societies, organization and industrial
units.
1.1OVERVIEW
In the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), Agricultural robots are a rising trend because they
provide major benefits to the agriculture industry. These robots are intended to do a wide
range of tasks, including sowing, ploughing, grass cutting, harvesting, land levelling and
spraying crops, all while lowering labour costs and increasing efficiency.
MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 1

One of the most significant advantages of agricultural robots is their ability to work around
the clock, regardless of weather conditions, decreasing downtime and increasing
productivity. As they are able to accurately target specific portions of the field, they have the
potential to increase crop yields while reducing the need for harmful pesticides and
herbicides. In recent years, villages are being transferred and manual labour is being reduced
with the growth of technology. Demand for meteorological data is rising in nearby
agricultural areas like rice fields and greenhouse, among other places. Robotic technology
can make the activities of spraying, ploughing and other tasks easier. Local weather stations
have been the subject of intense conventional research. However, weather stations with low
cost, high accuracy and steady observations both indoors and outdoors for extended periods
of time are rarely recorded. Farm machinery like water sprinklers (WS) and pesticide
sprayers (PS) are becoming quite popular in the agricultural sector. Additionally, there is a
dearth of research that simultaneously collects and retains weather data, and provides
weather information to farmers. Moreover, the existing technology for this is costly. With
our prototype, we sought to find a solution to this issue. Robotics for farming is a promising
technology which provides efficient and reliable solutions for the modernization of several
domains.
Farming today is done by machines in a lot of countries. As the world population is
increasing, it will reach 10 billion within 2050 according to the statistics of the United
Nations’ (UN 2019). This will lead to an ever increasing demand for food crops for
consumption. Therefore, multipurpose agricultural robots with smart phone systems will be
more effective in making farming more efficient, sustainable, and profitable. Agricultural
robots are typically equipped with a range of sensors and cameras that allow them to gather
data on soil conditions, crop health, and other important parameters.
The main purpose of agricultural robots is to use robot technology to farming. The
agricultural robot can plough, level the land, grass cut, harvest, plant seeds, and even out the
dirt all on its own. The robot is an automated machine with a wide range of applications that
don't need human intervention. The robot obeys the operator's every order. Along the route
of the robot, several sensors are used to detect and record conditions. The microprocessor at
the heart of the robotic system directs all of its actions. Controlling the DC motors, it limits
the range of motion for the wheel. A motor driving circuit supplies power to the DC motor,
which controls the rate at which the wheel spins.

This data can then be analysed by farmers to make informed decisions about planting,
fertilization, and irrigation. As a result, the significance of agricultural robots in maximizing
the production of crops in large agricultural sectors is far too considerable.
Robotics and artificial intelligence offer in agriculture field to processes related to seeding,
harvesting, to improve productivity and efficiency. The uses of robotics are spreading every
day to accomplished further various agricultural fields, as the opportunity of replacing
human operators provides effective solutions with return on investment. agricultural robots
have been developed and implemented a number of agricultural products in many countries.
This Agricultural robot can perform basic functions like harvesting, planting and spray the
pesticides. The applications of agricultural robot widely used in the investment and research.
autonomous farming is the operation, guidance, and control of autonomous machines to full
fill the agricultural tasks. It motivates agricultural robotics. The main goal of agricultural
robotics is more than just the application of robotics technologies to agriculture.
The multipurpose agricultural robots are designed to perform the basic functions of
agricultural field. by using this robot agricultural operations perform autonomously such as
ploughing, seed sowing, mud closing and water spraying. The main aim of the proposed
system is to check the soil depending on moisture level in the soil, to ploughing the seeds
with teeth like structure at the end to turn the top layer of soil down, to close the seeds and
level the ground automatically and to provide irrigation system by spraying water with a
pump in the field. Recently computing and robotics technologies have seen major
improvements in technologies commonly employed in agricultural robotics: perception,
manipulation, and autonomous vehicles. Main motive of Automation Technology is to
reducing the effort of labour, a phenomenon common in the developed world. The reasons
are the need for improved the process of farmer working. Robotics and artificial intelligence
offer in agriculture field to processes related to seeding, harvesting, to improve productivity
and efficiency. The uses of robotics are spreading every day to accomplished further various
agricultural fields, as the opportunity of replacing human operators provides effective
solutions with return on investment. agricultural robots have been developed and
implemented a number of agricultural products in many countries.

1.2 HISTORY
The first development of robotics in agriculture can be dated as early as the 1920s, with
research to incorporate automatic vehicle guidance into agriculture beginning to take shape.
This research led to the advancements between the 1950s and 60s of autonomous agricultural
vehicles. The concept was not perfect however, with the vehicles still needing a cable system
to guide their path. Robots in agriculture continued to develop as technologies in other
sectors began to develop as well. It was not until the 1980s, following the development of
the computer, that machine vision guidance became possible. Other developments over the
years included the harvesting of oranges using a robot both in France and the US.
Methodology: This project is an Autonomous Agriculture Robot which is controlled over
Bluetooth protocol using an Android App. The Android App consists of buttons in which
keys are used for movement of robot. The actions that would be performed by the robot are
Forward, Backward, Right, Left and Stop. It also consists of list picker for selecting
Bluetooth device connected to the robot.
Once the Android application establishes a secure connection with the robot then the app is
ready for controlling the actions of robot. The robot is capable of Digging, Sowing, Watering
and Soil Levelling. Digging is done using Motor Drill. Sowing action will be performed
using Servo Motor for lock mechanism. Watering will be done by Pump Motor. Levelling is
done using Flat leveller. The Android App has a button for Starting all these processes. The
robot has sensors like soil sensor, water level sensor. The sensor values are automatically
senses and shows on the App. The temperature and humidity sensor are used for measuring
the temperature and humidity in the surrounding of the robot. The water sensor is used for
detecting the water level.
Automation of agricultural operations is the need of the hour to spice up productivity with
the help of tools and technology. In recent years, there has been increased interest in the
incidence of autonomous vehicles in agriculture. Many researchers began to develop more
rational and favourable vehicles for agricultural operations. Some prototypes were produced
by Europe named CROPS, USA-ISAAC2 & Michigan-Hortibot, Australia-AgBot, Finland-
Demeter, India-Agribot and many other countries. The Autonomous Plant Inspection (API)
research platform designed by the Danish Institute of Agriculture (DIAS) was initially
developed within the year 2001 by Madsen and Jakobsen.

Further it was developed exactly by Aalborg University in Denmark. 6 It is a third-

generation autonomous research platform designed for precision agricultural prototyping
with four-wheel drive, four-wheel steering with two motors per wheel, to provide a traction
and conversely induce high mobility within the robot's movement Provides steering to do.
ISAAC 2 from Hohenheim University, Germany This prototype is meant to gather timely
and accurate information within a crop carrying range of sensors to assess crop health and
standing.
For an agricultural sector to be successful one needs to add growing technologies as input
and take care of processes as well as learn about the behaviour and key role of technology
that is going to play in the area of increasing interest is. In the current growing aspect, it has
become a necessity to use the available technologies to get the best results. The seed sowing
vehicle is designed based on two criterions. One is to keep the design in such a way that the
working is as simple as possible and the other is to maintain low weight of the frame and
reducing the number of pulleys used. The machine operates in the forward direction with the
command. The cultivators move the soil as the machine moves forward and the seeds are
dropped into the soil at regular intervals through a distributor mechanism that includes the
hopper and seed flow system. Thus, model construction and its automation have been done
to overcome the difficulties of farmers by obtaining regular distances between rows and
successive seeds.

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
The approach is now to develop smart machines that are intelligent enough to live in
unmistakable or semi-natural environments. These machines should not be intelligent the
way we see people as intelligent, but must display sensible behaviour in recognized contexts.
The approach of selectively visualizing the crop and soil by small autonomous machines
according to their needs is a natural next step within the development of precision farming
(PF) as it is all the way to individual plant or phytotechnology (Shibusawa 1996) Se reduces
the scale of the sector). Existing human operations can be efficient over large areas, with
autonomous machines having the ability to reduce the dimensions of treatment that will also
end up in areas of higher capacity. Modern agriculture makes full use of energy.
It comes in many forms, from fertilizers and chemicals to tractors and fuels. Another
important factor is the phytotechnology approach of focusing energy initiated to increase
efficiency. Any autonomous vehicle travels wrong at any time and therefore the possibility
of catastrophic failure should be minimized within the look process. These machines should
not be intelligent the way we see people as intelligent but must display sensible behaviour
in recognized contexts. The approach of selectively visualizing the crop and soil by small
autonomous machines according to their needs is a natural next step within the development
of precision farming (PF) as it is all the way to individual plant or phytotechnology. Modern
agriculture makes full use of resources. It comes in many forms, from fertilizers and
chemicals to tractors and fuels. Another important factor is the phytotechnology approach
of focusing in resources is initiated to increase efficiency.
This high evacuation platform carries devices above the crop canopy and uses GPS. Proper
seed sowing is a very important part of the farming process and a hand operated seed sowing
machine has been designed and developed for this purpose. Agriculture is one of the most
important areas for determining the development of a country.
Agri business accounts for more than 60% of India. It is the backbone of the Indian economy.

It is very important for farmers to improve the efficiency and productivity of agriculture
along with safe farming. The field of robotics has progressed and has expanded in the field
of application ranging from home automation to military.
Additionally, the proposed design also includes a sprinkler motor enabling spraying of
pesticides, Fertilizers, weedicides, etc. on the crop simultaneously as the crops are being
checked for pests like stem borers using the camera.
This work is based on the implementation of an agricultural robot vehicle that navigates
between crops based on the instructions given by the farmer using a joystick with the help
of a speed switch. The paper was aimed at not just to extend the application of advanced
technology in the field of agriculture, but also to bring the technology close to the reach of
farmers in financial aspect, in a very convenient way. Such projects encourage people to take
up farming as full-time and part-time jobs. This is very important in developing countries,
especially India, where agriculture is the backbone of the economy. 7 The Internet of Things
(IoT) refers to the use of cleverly related devices and structures to use data collected by
sensors and actuators embedded in machines and other physical things. The paper helps
farmers for horticulture information and services. The pro-posed framework is helpful in
addition to viewing field information and controlling field activities which gives flexibility.
In, smart agricultural monitoring systems, various wireless sensors are used. This framework
allows information examination and customized through an application or by page data. All
sensors in the hardware board have been interfered with. The sensors input the controller
and the farmer receives the data in detail on the cloud platform.
The test results show that the hardware can be remotely controlled using wireless network
technology. This clearly gives us information about the sensor level, at what time the crop
status is changing and also the date. Through this data, the common man becomes easy to
understand. This system is used to maintain the optimal conditions of the irrigation system
effectively. Robotics and autonomous systems (RAS) are set to transform many global
industries. The global food chain cannot be taken: it is under pressure from global population
growth and the need to drive productivity. Given these conditions, the global agri-food sector
can be transformed by advanced RAS technologies. Although post-harvest activities are
beyond the main focus of this white paper, we note that the need for new research and
innovations in agri-food does not stop at the farm gate.

2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

Existing Agricultural system depends on human for seeding, watering, pesticide spraying
and grass cutting. Traditionally farming is done by human beings with the help of bullock
carts. The main problem in agricultural field includes lack of labour availability, lack of
knowledge regarding soil testing, increasing labour wages, wastage of seeds and more
wastage of water. 8 Further some driver less tractors are developed also, but their actual
possibility in real scenario is very less.
Further some automatic irrigation system has been implemented to reduce human work load.
But these methods can’t recognize the yield and soil test.
Then after robots were proposed by researchers. The demand of such robots is high, and it
can do single work. And the quantity of production is lesser which make the available robots
expensive, and hence economically tougher for poor farmers to buy it.
2.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM
This project is an Autonomous Agriculture Robot which is controlled over Bluetooth
protocol using an Android App. The Android App consists of five buttons for movement of
robot. The actions that would be performed by the robot are Forward, Backward, Right, Left
and Stop. It also consists of list picker for selecting Bluetooth device connected to the robot.
Once the Android application establishes a secure connection with the robot then the app is
ready for controlling the actions of robot. The robot is capable of Digging, ploughing,
Sowing, harvesting, grass cutting, Watering and Soil Levelling. Digging is done using Motor
Drill. Sowing action will be performed using Motor, for lock mechanism. Watering will be
done by Pump Motor. Levelling is done using Flat leveller. The Android App has a button
for Starting all these processes. The ploughing component of the Agri robot involves a
robotic ploughing mechanism equipped with sensors to navigate the field and determine
optimal ploughing routes.
This automation not only reduces the physical strain on farmers but also ensures precise and
uniform ploughing, contributing to improved soil health. For seed sowing, the Agri robot is
equipped with a precision seeding mechanism that can accurately deposit seeds at predefined
intervals. This enhances planting efficiency, reduces seed wastage, and promotes uniform
crop growth.

The watering module incorporates smart irrigation systems, utilizing sensors to assess soil
moisture levels and deliver water precisely where needed, optimizing resource usage and
promoting sustainable farming practices. Harvesting is automated through specialized
robotic arms equipped with DC motor.
These arms can identify crops, delicately harvest them, and deposit the produce in designated
containers, minimizing damage and increasing harvesting speed. The grass cutting
functionality involves a robotic mower equipped with sharp blades and sensors to navigate
the terrain, ensuring efficient and uniform grass cutting. Additionally, the Agri bot system
incorporates a sprinkling module that automates the distribution of fertilizers or pesticides.
This precision application minimizes wastage and ensures targeted treatment for crops.
Overall, the Agri bot system represents a technological leap in agriculture, offering farmers
a sustainable, efficient, and labour-saving solution for various crucial aspects of crop
cultivation.

CHAPTER-3
ARDUINO
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware and software.
Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor and turn it into an output - activating
a motor, turning on an LED. To do so you use the Arduino programming language (based on
Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based on Processing.
Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday objects
to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers - students, hobbyists,
artists, programmers, and professionals - has gathered around this open-source platform,
their contributions have added up to an incredible amount of accessible knowledge that can
be of great help to novices and experts alike.
Arduino was born at the Vireo Interaction Design Institute as an easy tool for fast
prototyping, aimed at students without a background in electronics and programming. As
soon as it reached a wider community, the Arduino board started changing to adapt to new
needs and challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8- bit boards to products for IOT
applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded environments. All Arduino boards are
completely open-source, empowering users to build them independently and eventually
adapt them to their particular needs.
3.2 ARDUINO
Fig.3.2 Arduino Board

Thanks to its simple and accessible user experience, Arduino has been used in thousands of
different projects and applications. The Arduino software is easy-to-use for beginners, yet
flexible enough for advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux.
Teachers and students use it to build low-cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry and
physics principles, or to get started with programming and robotics designers and architects
build interactive prototypes, musicians and artists use it for installations and to experiment
with new musical instruments. Makers, of course, use it to build many of the projects
exhibited at the Maker Faire, for example. Arduino is a key tool to learn new things. Anyone
- children, hobbyists, artists, programmers - can start tinkering just following the step-by-
step instructions of a kit, or sharing ideas online with other members of the Arduino
community.
There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller platforms available for physical
computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Net media’s BX-24, Phi gets, MIT's Handy board, and
many others offer similar functionality. All of these tools take the messy details of
microcontroller programming and wrap it up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also
simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage for
teachers, students, and interested amateurs over other systems:
Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other microcontroller
platforms. The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled by hand,
and even the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than $50.Cross-platform - The
Arduino Software (IDE) runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux operating systems.
Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows simple, clear programming
environment - The Arduino Software (IDE) is easy-to- use for beginners, yet flexible enough
for advanced users to take advantage of as well. For teachers, it's conveniently based on the
Processing programming environment, so students learning to program in that environment
will be familiar with how the Arduino IDE works.
Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is published as open- source
tools, available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can be expanded
through C++ libraries, and people wanting to understand the technical details can make the
leap from Arduino to the AVR C programming language on which it's based.
Similarly, you can add AVR-C code directly into your Arduino programs if you want to
open source and extensible hardware.

The plans of the Arduino boards are published under a Creative Commons license, so
experienced circuit designers can make their own version of the module, extending it and
improving it. Even relatively inexperienced users can build the breadboard version of the
module in order to understand how it works and save money.
3.3 DESCRIPTION
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (data sheet). It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 Analog inputs, a 16
MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer
with a USB cable or power it with an AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Uno
differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to- serial driver chip.
Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2up to version R2) programmed as a USB-
to-serial converter. Revision 2of the Uno board has a resistor pulling the 8U2 HWB line to
ground, making it easier to put into DFU mode.
Revision 3 of the board has the following new features:
0 pin out: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other new pins
placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the voltage
provided from the board.
In future, shields will be compatible both with the board that uses the AVR, which operate
with 5V and with the Arduino Due that operate with 3.3V. The second one is a not connected
pin that is reserved for future purposes. At mega 16U2 replace the 8U2. "Uno" means one
in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino 1.0. The Uno and version
1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino, moving forward. The Uno is the latest in a
series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for a
comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.
One of the most popular Arduino boards out there is the Arduino Uno. While it was not
actually the first board to be released, it remains to be the most actively used and most widely
documented on the market. Because of its extreme popularity, the Arduino Uno has a ton of
project tutorials and forums around the web that can help you get started or out of a jam.

Fig.3.3 Arduino board breakdown
Here are the components that make up an Arduino board and what each of their functions
are.
Reset Button – This will restart any code that is loaded to the Arduino board.
AREF – Stands for “Analog Reference” and is used to set an external reference voltage.
Ground Pin – There are a few ground pins on the Arduino and they all work the same.
Digital Input/Output– Pins 0-13 can be used for digital input or output.
PWM – The pins marked with the (~) symbol can simulate Analog output.
USB Connection – Used for powering up your Arduino and uploading sketches.
TX/RX – Transmit and receive data indication LEDs.
AT mega Microcontroller– This is the brains and is where the programs are stored.
Power LED Indicator – This LED lights up anytime the board is plugged in a power source.
Voltage Regulator – This controls the amount of voltage going into the Arduino board.
DC Power Barrel Jack – This is used for powering your Arduino with a power supply.
3.3V Pin – This pin supplies 3.3 volts of power to your projects.
5V Pin – This pin supplies 5 volts of power to your projects.

Ground Pins– There are a few ground pins on the Arduino and they all work the same.
Analog Pins– These pins can read the signal from an Analog sensor and convert it into
digital.
3.4 ATMEGA328 PIN DIAGRAM
Fig.3.4 ATMEGA328 PIN DIAGRAM

3.5 ATMEGA328 PIN DESCRIPTION
Note: The Arduino reference design can use an Atmega8, 168, or 328, Current models use
an ATmega328, but an Atmega8 is shown in the schematic for reference. The pin
configuration is identical on all three processors.
Power: The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can come
either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by
plugging a 2.1mm centre-positive plug into the board's power jack.
Leads from a battery can be inserted in the GND and VIN pin headers of the POWER
connector. The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less
than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable.
If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The
recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. The power pins are as follows:
VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as
opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can
supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through
this pin.
5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 -12V), the USB connector (5V), or
the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the
regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.
3V3: A 3.3volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.
GND: Ground pins.
MEMORY: The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the boot loader). It also has
2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM
library). Input and Output each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or
output, using pin Mode (), digital Write (), and digital Read () functions. They operate at 5
volts.

Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50 ohms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX)Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data.
These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to TTL Serial
chip.
External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low
value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attach Interrupt () function for
details.
PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the Analog Write
SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK) These pins support SPI communication
using the SPI library.
LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value,
the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off. The Uno has 6 Analog inputs, labelled, A0
through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By
default they measure From ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end
of their range using the AREF pin and the Analog Reference () function. Additionally, some
pins have specialized functionality:
TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire
library. There are a couple of other pins on the board
AREF: Reference voltage for the Analog inputs. Used with Analog Reference.
3.6 PROGRAMMING
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select
"Arduino Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your
board). For details, see the reference and tutorials. The ATmega328p on the Arduino Uno
comes pre burned with a boot loader that allows you to upload new code to it without the
use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original STK500
protocol (reference, C header files). You can also bypass the boot loader and program the
microcontroller through the ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these
instructions for details.

The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source code is available.
The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU boot loader, which can be activated by: On
Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board (near the map of Italy)
and then resetting the 8U2. On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the
8U2/16U2 HWB line to ground, making it easier to put into DFU mode. You can then use
Atmel's FLIP software (Windows) or the DFU programmer (Mac OS X and Linux) to load
a new firmware. Or you can use the ISP header with an external programmer (overwriting
the DFU boot loader). See this user-contributed tutorial for more information.
Fig.3.6 PROGRAMMING WINDOW
3.7 ARDUINO IDE

Once the software has been installed on your computer, go ahead and open it up. This is the
Arduino IDE and is the place where all the programming will happen.
Take some time to look around and get comfortable with it.
Menu Bar: Gives you access to the tools needed for creating and saving Arduino sketches.
Verify Button: Compiles your code and checks for errors in spelling or syntax.
Upload Button: Sends the code to the board that’s connected such as Arduino Uno in this
case. Lights on the board will blink rapidly when uploading.
New Sketch: Opens up a new window containing a blank sketch.

Sketch Name: When the sketch is saved, the name of the sketch is displayed here.
Open Existing Sketch: Allows you to open a saved sketch or one from the stored examples.
Save Sketch: This saves the sketch you currently have open.
Serial Monitor: When the board is connected, this will display the serial information of your
Arduino
Code Area: This area is where you compose the code of the sketch that tells the board what
to do.
Message Area: This area tells you the status on saving, code compiling, errors and more.
Text Console: Shows the details of an error messages, size of the program that was compiled
and additional info.
Board and Serial Port: Tells you what board is being used and what serial port it’s connected
to.
Automatic (Software) Reset
Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the Arduino Uno
is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a connected computer.
One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the ATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the
reset line of the ATmega328via a 100 Nano farad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken
low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip.
The Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by simply pressing
the upload button in the Arduino environment. This means that the boot loader can have a
shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the upload.
This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a computer running
Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via USB).
For the following half- second or so, the boot loader is running on the Uno.
While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new
code). It will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is
opened.
If a sketch running on the board receives one-time configuration or other data when it first
starts, make sure that the software with which it communicates waits a second after opening
the connection and before sending this data. The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to
disable the auto-reset.

The pads on either side of the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labelled
"RESET-EN". You may also be able to disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 Ohm
resistor from 5V to the reset line; see this forum thread for details.
USB Over current Protection
The Arduino Uno has a resettable poly fuse that protects your computer's USB ports from
shorts and over current. Although most computers provide their own internal protection, the
fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB port,
the fuse will automatically break the connection until the short or overload is removed.
Physical Characteristics
The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches respectively, with
the USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former dimension. Four screw
holes allow the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note that the distance between
digital pins 7 and 8 is 160 mil (0.16"), not an even multiple of the 100 ml spacing of the
other pins.

CHAPTER 4
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Many embedded systems have substantially different design constraints than desktop
computing applications. No single characterization applies to the diverse spectrum of
embedded systems. However, some combination of cost pressure, long life-cycle, real-time
requirements, reliability requirements, and design culture dysfunction can make it difficult
to be successful applying traditional computer design methodologies and tools to embedded
applications. Embedded systems in many cases must be optimized for life-cycle and
business-driven factors rather than for maximum computing throughput. There is currently
little tool support for expanding embedded computer design to the scope of holistic
embedded system design. However, knowing the strengths and weaknesses of current
approaches can set expectations appropriately, identify risk areas to tool adopters, and
suggest ways in which tool builders can meet industrial needs. If we look around us, today
we see numerous appliances which we use daily, be it our refrigerator, the microwave oven,
cars, PDAs etc. Most appliances today are powered by something beneath the sheath that
makes them do what they do. These are tiny microprocessors, which respond to various
keystrokes or inputs. These tiny microprocessors, working on basic assembly languages, are
the heart of the appliances. We call them embedded systems. Of all the semiconductor
industries, the embedded systems market place is the most conservative, and engineering
decisions here usually lean towards established, low risk solutions. Welcome to the world of
embedded systems, of computers that will not look like computers and won’t function like
anything we are familiar with.
4.1 CLASSIFICATION
Embedded systems are divided into autonomous, real time, networked & mobile categories.
Autonomous systems:
They function in standalone mode. Many embedded systems used for process control in
manufacturing units& automobiles fall under this category.
Real-time embedded systems:

These are required to carry out specific tasks in a specified amount of time. These systems
are extensively used to carry out time critical tasks in process control.
Networked embedded systems:

They monitor plant parameters such as temperature, pressure and humidity and send the data
over the network to a centralized system for on line monitoring.
Mobile gadgets:
Mobile gadgets need to store databases locally in their memory. These gadgets imbibe
powerful computing & communication capabilities to perform real time as well as
nonrealtime tasks and handle multimedia applications. The embedded system is a
combination of computer hardware, software, firmware and perhaps additional mechanical
parts, designed to perform a specific function. A good example is an automatic washing
machine or a microwave oven. Such a system is in direct contrast to a personal computer,
which is not designed to do only a specific task. But an embedded system is designed to do
a specific task with in a given timeframe, repeatedly, endlessly, with or without human
interaction.
Hardware:
Good software design in embedded systems stems from a good understanding of the
hardware behind it. All embedded systems need a microprocessor, and the kinds of
microprocessors used in them are quite varied. A list of some of the common microprocessor
families are: ARM family, The Zilog Z8 family, Intel 8051/X86 family, Motorola 68K family
and the power PC family. For processing of information and execution of programs,
embedded system incorporates microprocessor or microcontroller. In an embedded system
the microprocessor is a part of final product and is not available for reprogramming to the
end user. An embedded system also needs memory for two purposes, to store its program
and to store its data. Unlike normal desktops in which data and programs are stored at the
same place, embedded systems store data and programs in different memories. This is simply
because the embedded system does not have a hard drive and the program must be stored in
memory even when the power is turned off.

This type of memory is called ROM. Embedded applications commonly employ a special
type of ROM that can be programmed or reprogrammed with the help of special devices.
4.2 OTHER COMMON PARTS FOUND ON MANY EMBEDDED
SYSTEMS
 UART& RS232
 PLD
 ASIC’s& FPGA’s
 Watch dog timer etc.
4.3 DESIGN PROCESS
Fig.4.3 Embedded system design process

Embedded system design is a quantitative job. The pillars of the system design methodology
are the separation between function and architecture, is an essential step from conception to
implementation. In recent past, the search and industrial community has paid significant
attention to the topic of hardware-software (HW/SW) codesign and has tackled the problem
of coordinating the design of the parts to be implemented as software and the parts to be
implemented as hardware avoiding the HW/SW integration problem marred the electronics
system industry so long. In any largescale embedded systems design methodology,
concurrency must be considered as a first class citizen at all levels of abstraction and in both
hardware and software. Formal models & transformations in system design are used so that
verification and synthesis can be applied to advantage in the design methodology. Simulation
tools are used for exploring the design space for validating the functional and timing
behaviour of embedded systems. Hardware can be simulated at different levels such as
electrical circuits, logic gates, RTL etc using VHDL description. In some environments
software development tools can be coupled with hardware simulators, while in others the
software is executed on the simulated hardware. The later approach is feasible only for small
parts of embedded systems. Design of an embedded system using Intel’s 80C188EB chip is
shown in the figure. In order to reduce complexity, the design process is divided in four
major steps: specification, system synthesis, implementation synthesis and performance
evaluation of the prototype.
4.3.1 SPECIFICATION
During this part of the design process, the informal requirements of the analysis are
transformed to formal specification using SDL.
4.3.2 SYSTEM-SYNTHESIS
For performing an automatic HW/SW partitioning, the system synthesis step translates the
SDL specification to an internal system model switch contains problem graph& architecture
graph. After system synthesis, the resulting system model is translated back to SDL.

4.3.3 IMPLEMENTATION-SYNTHESIS
SDL specification is then translated into conventional implementation languages such as

VHDL for hardware modules and C for software parts of the system.
4.3.4 PROTOTYPING
On a prototyping platform, the implementation of the system under development is executed

with the software parts running on multiprocessor unit and the hardware part running on a
FPGA board known as phoenix, prototype hardware for Embedded Network Interconnect
Accelerators.
4.3.5 APPLICATIONS
Embedded systems are finding their way into robotic toys and electronic pets, intelligent
cars and remote controllable home appliances. All the major toy makers across the world
have been coming out with advanced interactive toys that can become our friends for life.
‘Furby’ and ‘AIBO’ are good examples at this kind. Furbies have a distinct life cycle just
like human beings, starting from being a baby and growing to an adult one. In AIBO first
two letters stands for Artificial Intelligence. Next two letters represent robot. The AIBO is
robotic dog. Embedded systems in cars also known as Telematic Systems are used to provide
navigational security communication & entertainment services using GPS, satellite. Home
appliances are going the embedded way. LG electronics digital DIOS refrigerator can be
used for surfing the net, checking e-mail, making video phone calls and watching TV.IBM
is developing an air conditioner that we can control over the net. Embedded systems cover
such a broad range of products that generalization is difficult. Here are some broad
categories.
Aerospace and defence electronics: Fire control, radar, robotics/sensors, sonar.
Automotive: Autobody electronics, auto power train, auto safety, car information systems.
Broadcast & entertainment: Analog and digital sound products, camaras, DVDs, Set top
boxes, virtual reality systems, graphic products.

Consumer/internet appliances: Business handheld computers, business network

computers/terminals, electronic books, internet smart handheld devices, PDAs.
Data communications: Analog modems, ATM switches, cable modems, XDSL modems,
Ethernet switches, concentrators.
Digital imaging: Copiers, digital still cameras, Fax machines, printers, scanners.
Industrial measurement and control: Hydro electric utility research & management traffic
management systems, train marine vessel management systems.
Medical electronics: Diagnostic devices, real time medical imaging systems, surgical
devices, critical care systems.

CHAPTER-5
WORK PLAN
5.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM
The block diagram of “AGRIBOT – A MULTIPURPOSE AGRICULTURAL ROBOT”
Fig.5.1 AGRIBOT BLOCK DIAGRAM

5.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig.5.2 AGRIBOT Circuit Diagram.

5.3 WORKING
With the capability to perform six functions simultaneously—ploughing, sowing, grass

cutting, watering, and land levelling—the multipurpose Agri robot offers a comprehensive
solution for various agricultural tasks. Here's how the project would work with these
functionalities:
1. Task Selection via App: The farmer selects the desired combination of tasks to be
performed by the Agri robot using a mobile app connected via Bluetooth to the Arduino Uno.
2. Bluetooth Communication: The Arduino Uno receives commands from the app via
Bluetooth, specifying the tasks to be executed simultaneously.
3. Task Execution: Upon receiving the commands, the Arduino Uno triggers the
corresponding actuators and motors to perform the selected tasks concurrently. For example:
- Ploughing: The robot engages ploughing attachments or implements to till the soil.
- Sowing: Simultaneously, seed dispensers are activated to sow seeds in the freshly
ploughed soil.
- Grass Cutting: Blades or cutting mechanisms are deployed to trim grass or weeds in the
designated area.
- Watering: Water irrigation systems are activated to provide hydration to crops or soil as
needed.
- Land Levelling: Levelling equipment is engaged to ensure even distribution of soil across
the field.
4. Sensor Feedback and Data Collection: Throughout the operation, the Arduino Uno
collects data from onboard sensors to monitor environmental conditions and task
performance. This data helps optimize resource usage and ensure task effectiveness.
5. Real-time Feedback via App: The Arduino Uno communicates real-time status updates
and sensor data back to the mobile app, allowing farmers to monitor the progress of each
task and make adjustments if necessary.
6. Safety Measures: The Arduino Uno includes safety features such as emergency stop
buttons and obstacle detection sensors to ensure safe operation during simultaneous tasks.
7. Task Completion and Reporting: Once all tasks are completed, the Arduino Uno sends a
completion signal to the mobile app, along with relevant performance metrics and data
collected during the operation.

By enabling the Agri robot to serve multiple functions simultaneously, farmers can achieve
greater efficiency, reduce labour costs, and optimize resource utilization in agricultural
operations. This comprehensive approach contributes to improved productivity and
sustainability in farming practices.
5.4 ALGORITHM
 First, we have to dump our program in Arduino uno.

 All the connections must be in order.
 Turn on the power supply.
 The Arduino will transfer the power supply to other boards.
 Then all the mechanism of Robot works according to the keys operated in the
Application BT terminal.

CHAPTER -6
HARD WARE COMPONENTS
6.1 D.C. Motor
A dc motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very generally through the
interaction of magnetic fields and current-containing conductors. The reverse process,
producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is carried out by an alternator, source
or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as sources, and vice versa. The input
of a DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque (speed).
Fig 6.1 DC Motor
The DC motor has two basic parts: the rotating part that is called the armature and the stable
part that includes coils of wire called the field coils. The stationary part is also called up the
stator. Figure shows a depict of a distinctive DC motor, Figure shows a picture of a DC
armature, and Figure shows a picture of a distinctive stator. From the picture you can see the
armature is made of coils of wire wrapped around the core, and the core has a covered shaft
that rotates on charges. You should also notice that the ends of each coil of wire on the
armature are finished at one end of the armature. The outcome points are called the
commutator, and this is where's brushes make electrical contact to bring electrical current
from the stationary part to the rotating part of the machine.

6.1.1 Operation
The DC motor you will find in modem industrial applications operates very similarly to the
simple DC motor described earlier in this chapter.
Figure 5.1.1(a) demonstrates an electrical diagram of a simple DC motor. comment that the
DC voltage is applied directly to the field winding and the brushes. The armature and the
area are both shown as a coil of wire. In afterward diagrams, a field resistor will be added in
series with the field to control the motor speed. When voltage is applied to the motor, current
begins to flow by the field coil from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. This sets
up a inviolable magnetic field in the field winding. Current also begins to feed through the
brushes into a commutator segment and then through an armature coil. The current goes
forward to flow through the coil back to the brush that is attached to other end of the coil
and returns to the DC power source. The current flow in the armature coil sets up a strong
magnetic field in the armature.
Fig.6.1.1(a) Simple electrical diagram of DC motor
Fig.6. 1.1(b) Operation of a DC Motor

The magnetic field in the armature and field coil causes the armature to begin to rotate. This
occurs by the dissimilar magnetic poles attracting each other and the like magnetic poles
grossing out each other. As the armature begins to rotate, the commutator sections will also
begin to move beneath the brushes. As an individual commutator segment moves under the
brush connected to positive voltage, it will become positive, and when it impresses under a
brush connected to negative voltage it will turn negative. In this way, the commutator
segments continually change polarity from positive to negative. Since the commutator
segments are associated to the ends of the wires that make up the field winding in the
armature, it induces the magnetic field in the armature to change polarity continually from
north pole to south pole. The commutator sections and brushes are aligned in such a way
that the switch in polarity of the armature coincides with the location of the armature's
magnetic field and the field winding's magnetic field. The switching accomplish is timed so
that the armature will not lock up magnetically with the field. Rather the magnetic fields
tend to build on each other and provide additional torque to keep the motor shaft rotating.
When the voltage is de-energized to the motor, the magnetic fields in that armature and the
field winding will quickly diminish and the armature shaft's speed will begin to drop to zero.
If voltage is enforced to the motor again, the magnetic fields will toughen and the armature
will begin to rotate again.
Types of DC motors:
1. DC Shunt Motor,
2. DC Series Motor,
3. DC Long Shunt Motor (Compound)
4. DC Short Shunt Motor (Compound)
The rotational energy that you get from any motor is usually the battle between two magnetic
fields going after each other. The DC motor has magnetic poles and an armature, to
windward DC electricity is flowed, The Magnetic Poles are electromagnets, and when they
are energized, they develop a strong magnetic field approximately them, and the armature
which is given power with a commutator, invariably repels the poles, and therefore rotates.

1. The DC Shunt Motor:

In a 2 pole DC Motor, the armature will have two separate sets of winding, connected to a
commutator at the end of the shaft that are in constant touch with carbon brushes. The
brushes are motionless, and the commutator rotates and as the portions of the commutator
touching the respective positive or negative polarity brush will energize the respective part
of the armature with the respective polarity. It is commonly arranged in such a way that the
armature and the poles are always repelling.
The general idea of a DC Motor is, the stronger the Field Current, the stronger the magnetic
field, and faster the rotation of the armature. When the armature revolves between the poles,
the magnetic field of the poles induce power in the armature conductors, and some electricity
is generated in the armature, which is called back emf, and it acts as a resistance for the
armature. Generally an armature has resistance of less than 1 Ohm, and powering it with
heavy voltages of Direct Current could result in immediate short circuits. This back emf
helps us there. when an armature is loaded on a DC Shunt Motor, the speed naturally reduces,
and therefore the back emf reduces, which allows more armatures current to flow. This
results in more armature field, and therefore it results in torque.
Fig.6.1.1(c) Diagram of DC shunt motor
When a DC Shunt Motor is overloaded, if the armature becomes too slow, the reduction of
the back emf could cause the motor to burn due to heavy current flow thru the armature.
The poles and armature are excited separately, and parallel, therefore it is called a Shunt
Motor.

2. The DC Series Motor:
Fig.6.1.1(d) Diagram of DC series motor
A DC Series Motor has its field coil in series with the armature. hence any amount of power
drawn by the armature will be passed through the field. As a result you cannot start a Series
DC Motor without any load affiliated to it. It will either run uncontrollably in full speed, or
it will block.
Fig.6.1.1(e) Diagram of DC series motor graph representation
When the load is increased then its efficiency increases with respect to the load employed.
So these are on Electric Trains and elevators.

Specifications:
DC supply: 4 to 12V
RPM: 300 at 12V
Total length: 46mm
Motor diameter: 36mm
Motor length: 25mm
Brush type: Precious metal
Gear head diameter: 37mm
Gear head length: 21mm
Output shaft: Centred
Shaft diameter: 6mm
Shaft length: 22mm
Gear assembly: Spur
Motor weight: 105gms
We generally use 300 RPM Center Shaft Economy Series DC Motor which is high quality
low cost DC geared motor. It has steel gears and pinions to assure longer life and better wear
and tear places. The gears are fixed on hardened steel spindles polished to a mirror finish.
The output shaft circumvolve in a plastic bushing. The whole assembly is crossed with a
plastic ring. Gearbox is sealed off and lubricated with lithium grease and require no
sustainment. The motor is screwed to the gear box from inside.
Although motor gives 300 RPM at 12V but motor runs smoothly from 4V to 12V and gives
wide range of RPM, and torque. Tables below gives reasonably good idea of the motor’s
performance in terms of RPM and no load current as a function of voltage and stall torque,
stall current as a operate of voltage.
3. DC Compound Motor:
A compound of Series and Shunt excitation for the fields is done in a Compound DC Motor.
This affords the best of both series and shunt motors. Improve torque as in a series motor,
while the possible action to start the motor with no load.

Fig.6.1.1(f) Diagram of DC compound motor
Above is the diagram of a long shunt motor, as in a short shunt, the shunt coil will be
connected after the serial coil.
A Compound motor can be run as a shunt motor absent connecting the serial coil at all but
not vice versa.
6.1.2 APPLICATIONS
BLDC motors full fill many functions originally performed by brushed DC motors, but cost
and control complexity keep BLDC motors from replacing brushed motors completely in
the lowest-cost areas. However, DC motors have come to dominate many applications,
especially devices such as computer hard drives and CD/DVD players. Small cooling fans
in electronic instrumentation are powered exclusively by BLDC motors. They can be
detected in cordless power tools where the increased efficiency of the motor leads to longer
periods of use before the battery needs to be charged. Low speed, low power BLDC motors
are expended in direct-drive turntables for "Analog" audio discs.

Transport:
High power BLDC motors are found in electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles. These motors
are basically AC synchronous motors with permanent magnet rotors.
The Segway Scooter and Vectrix Maxi-Scooter expend BLDC technology.
A number of electric bicycles use BLDC motors that are sometimes built into the wheel hub
itself, with the stator determined solidly to the axle and the magnets attached to and rotating
withstand wheel. The bicycle wheel hub is the motor. This type of electric bicycle as well
has a standard bicycle transmission on pedals, sprockets, and chain that can be pedalled
along with, or absent, the use of the motor as need arises.
Heating and ventilation:
There is a trend in the HVAC and refrigeration industries to use BLDC motors instead of
various types of AC motors. The most significant conclude to switch to a BLDC motor is
the dramatic reduction in power required to operate them versus a typical AC motor. while
shaded-pole and permanent disconnected capacitor motors once dominated as the fan motor
of choice, many fans are immediately run using a BLDC motor. Some fans use BLDC motors
also in govern to increase overall system efficiency.
In increase to the BLDC motor's higher efficiency, certain HVAC systems (especially those
featuring variable-speed and/or load modulation) use BLDC motors because the built-in
microprocessor allows for programmability, better assure over airflow, and serial
communication.
Industrial engineering.
Stepper motor:
The stepper motor is used in microprocessor and micro controller-based and robotic
equipment, as it takes less power and provides accurate movement of robotic arms.
Semiconductor manufacturers include infinite engineering's, Texas Instruments and
Microchip. Infineon offers supposed LIN stepper motors used in applications such as
instrumentation and gauges, CNC machining, multi-axis laying, printers and surveillance
equipment.

Model engineering:
BLDC motors are a popular motor choice for model aircraft including helicopters. Their
prosperous power-to-weight ratios and large range of usable sizes, from under 5 gram to
large motors rated at thousands of watts, have inspired the market for electric-powered
model flight.
Their introduction has redefined performance in electric model aircraft and helicopters,
moving virtually all brushed electric motors. They have also advocated a development of
simple, lightweight electric model aircraft, rather than the premature internal combustion
engines powering larger and greater models. The large power-to-weight ratio of modern
batteries and brushless motors allows models to come up vertically, rather than climb
gradually. The low noise and lack of mess compared to small glow fuel internal combustion
engines that are used is another reason for their popularity.
Legal confinements for the use of combustion engine driven model aircraft in some countries
have also supported the shift to high-power electric systems.
Their popularity has also risen in the Radio Controlled Car, cracked, and Truck scene, where
sensor-type motors (with an extra six wires, connected to Hall effect sensors) allow the
position of the rotor magnet to be detected. Brushless motors have been effectual in RC Car
Racing in accordance to ROAR (the American governing body for RC Car Racing), since
2006. various RC Car Brushless motors, feature expendable and upgradable parts, such as
sintered neodymium-iron-boron (rare earth magnets), ceramic bearings, and exchangeable
motor timing assemblies.
These motors as a result are rapidly rising to be the preferred motor type for electric on and
off-road RC racers and recreational drivers alike, for their low maintenance, high
campaigning reliability and power efficiency (most Sensored motors have an efficiency
rating of 80% or greater).
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM):

Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a commonly used
technique for controlling power to inertial electrical devices, made practical by modern
electronic power switches.

The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch
between supply and load on and off at a fast pace. The longer the switch is on equated to the
off periods, the higher the power provided to the load is.
The PWM switching frequency has to be much faster than what would regard the load, which
is to say the device that uses the power. generally switching have to be done several times a
minute in an electric range, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of
kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and
computer power supplies.
The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of
time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most
significant bit the time. Duty cycle is conveyed in percent, 100% being fully on.
The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When
a switch is off there is much no current, and when it is on, there is nearly no voltage drop
across the switch. Power loss, existence the product of voltage and current, is thus in both
examples close to zero. PWM also works well with digital assures, which, because of their
on/off nature, can easily set the necessitated duty cycle. PWM has also been used in certain
communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information over a
communications channel.
One of the advantages of PWM is that the signal remains digital all the way from the
processor to the controlled system; no digital-to-analog conversion is necessary. By
continuing the signal digital, noise effects are understated. Noise can only affect a digital
signal if it is strong enough to change a logic-1 to a logic-0, or contrariwise.
Increased noise immunity is yet another benefit of choosing PWM over analog control, and
is the principal conclude PWM is sometimes used for communication.
Switching from each one analog signal to PWM can increase the length of a communication
channel dramatically. At the receiving end, a suitable RC (resistor-capacitor) or LC
(inductor-capacitor) network can remove the modulating high frequency square wave and
return the signal to analog form.
PWM finds application in a variety of systems. As a concrete example, conceive a PWM-
assured brake.

To put it simply, a brake is a device that clamps down hard on something. In many brakes,
the quantity of clamping enforced (or stopping power) is controlled with an analog input
signal. The more voltage or current that's enforced to the brake, the more force the brake
will exert.
The output of a PWM controller could be connected to a switch between the supply and the
brake. To develop more stopping power, the software necessitates only increase the duty
cycle of the PWM output. If a particular amount of braking pressure is wanted,
measurements would need to be taken to determine the mathematical relationship between
duty cycle and pressure. (And the ensuing formulae or lookup tables would be tweaked for
functioning temperature, surface wear, and so on.)
To set the pressure on the bracken to, say, 100 psi, the software would do a reverse lookup
to determine the duty cycle that should produce that quantity of force. It would then set the
PWM duty cycle to the new value and the brake would react accordingly. If a sensor is
available in the system, the duty cycle can be tweaked, beneath closed-loop control, until
the desired pressure is precisely achieved.
PWM is economical, space saving, and noise resistant. And it's now in your bag of
deceptions. So use it.
6.2 PWM CONTROLLERS:
Many microcontrollers include on-chip PWM controllers. For example, Microchip's

PIC16C67 admits two, each other which has a selectable on-time and period of time. The
duty cycle is the ratio of the on-time to the period; the modulating frequency is the inverse
of the period. To start PWM procedure, the data sheet suggests the software should:
• Set the period of time in the on-chip timer/counter that provides the modulating
square wave
• Set the on-time in the PWM assure register
• Set the direction of the PWM output, which is one of the general-function I/O pins
• Start the timer
• Enable the PWM controller

Although particular PWM controllers do vary in their programmatic details, the basic idea
is generally the same.
6.3 L293D MOTOR DRIVER
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to
allow for bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D
is planned to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages of 4.5 V to 36
V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and
bipolar maltreating motors, as well as other high-current/high up-voltage loads in positive-
supply applications.
L293D H-bridge driver is the most commonly used driver for Bidirectional motor driving
applications. This L293D IC allows DC motor to drive on either direction. L293D is a 16-
pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors simultaneously in any direction. It means
that you can control two DC motor with a single L293D IC. Because it has two H-Bridge
Circuit inside. The L293D can drive small and quiet big motors as well. There are various
ways of making an H-bridge motor control circuit such as using transistors, relays, and using
L293D/L298. Before going into detail, first we will see what is H-Bridge circuit.
H-Bridge Circuit Working:

A motor driver is basically a current amplifier which takes a low-current signal from the
microcontroller and gives out a proportionally higher current signal which can control and
drive a motor. In most cases, a transistor can act as a switch and perform this task which
drives the motor in a single direction.
Turning a motor ON and OFF requires only one switch to control a single motor in a single
direction. What if you want your motor to reverse its direction? The simple answer is to
reverse its polarity. This can be achieved by using four switches that are arranged in an
intelligent manner such that the circuit not only drives the motor but also controls its
direction. Out of many, one of the most common and clever designs is an H-bridge circuit
where transistors are arranged in a shape that resembles the English alphabet “H”

Fig.6.3 H bridge circuit
A H bridge is an electronic circuit that allows a voltage to be applied across a load in any
direction. H-bridge circuits are frequently used in robotics and many other applications to
allow DC motors to run forward & backward. These motor control circuits are mostly used
in different converters like DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-AC converters, and many other types of
power electronic converters. In specific, a bipolar stepper motor is always driven by a motor
controller having two H-bridges.
A H-bridge is fabricated with four switches like S1, S2, S3 and S4. When the S1 and S4
switches are closed, then a +ve voltage will be applied across the motor. By opening the
switches S1 and S4 and closing the switches S2 and S3, this voltage is inverted, allowing
invert operation of the motor.
Generally, the H-bridge motor driver circuit is used to reverse the direction of the motor and
also to brake the motor. When the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the terminals of the
motor’s are shorted. Or let the motor run free to a stop when the motor is detached from the
circuit. The table below gives the different operations with the four switches corresponding
to the above circuit.

Table.6.3 motor operations
Fig.6.3(a) H bridge circuit load connections

6.3.1 L293D IC
L293D IC generally comes as a standard 16-pin DIP (dual-in line package). This motor
driver IC can simultaneously control two small motors in either direction; forward and
reverse with just 4 microcontroller pins (if you do not use enable pins).

Fig.6.3.1(a) L293D IC
Fig.6.3.1(b) L293D PIN Diagram

5.3.2 L293D PIN Description
PIN PIN
Description
No NAME
When the enable pin is high, then the left part of the IC will
ENABLE
1 work otherwise it won’t work. This pin is also called as a
1
master control pin of left side.
When the input pin is high, then the flow of current will be
2 INPUT 1
through output 1
OUTPUT This output-1 pin must be connected to one of the terminals

3
1 of the motor
4 GND Connected to Ground
OUTPUT This pin must be connected to one of the terminals of the

6
2 motor
When this pin is HIGH then the flow of current will be

7 INPUT 2
though output 2
This is the voltage pin which is used to supply the voltage

8 VS
to the motor (12v)
When this pin is high, then the right part of the IC will work
ENABLE & when it is low the right part of the IC won’t work. This
9
2 pin is also called as a master control pin for the right part of
the IC.
When this pin is high, then the flow of current will through
10 INPUT 3
output-3

PIN PIN
Description
No NAME

11
3 motor

14
4 motor
When this pin is high, then the flow of current will be

15 INPUT 4
through output-4
16 VSS This pin is the power source to the integrated circuit (5v)
Table.6.3.2 L293D PIN Description

6.3.3 Connection Diagram
Fig.6.3.3 L293D connection diagram

The circuit shown to the right is the most basic implementation of L293D IC. There are 16
pins sticking out of this IC and we have to understand the functionality of each pin before
implementing this in a circuit.

Pin1 and Pin9 are “Enable” pins. They should be connected to +5V for the drivers to
function. If they pulled low (GND), then the outputs will be turned off regardless of the input
states, stopping the motors. If you have two spare pins in your microcontroller, connect these
pins to the microcontroller, or just connect them to regulated positive 5 Volts.
Pin4, Pin5, Pin12, and Pin13 are ground pins that should ideally be connected to the
microcontroller’s ground.
Pin2, Pin7, Pin10 and Pin15 are logic input pins. These are control pins which should be
connected to microcontroller pins. Pin2 and Pin7 control the first motor (left); Pin10 and
Pin15 control the second motor(right).Pin3, Pin6, Pin11, and Pin14 are output pins. Tie Pin3
and Pin6 to the first motor, Pin11 and Pin14 to second motor, Pin16 powers the IC and it
should be connected to regulated +5Volts
Pin8 powers the two motors and should be connected to positive lead of a secondary battery.
As per the datasheet, supply voltage can be as high as 36 Volts.
Suppose you need to control the left motor which is connected to Pin3 (O1) and Pin6 (O2).As
mentioned above, we require three pins to control this motor – Pin1 (E1), Pin2 (I1) & 12
ENABLE INPUT
INPUT2 FUNCTION
1 1
Rotates Anti-clockwise
1 1 0
(Reverse)
1 0 1 Rotates Clockwise (Forward)
1 1 1 OFF
1 0 0 OFF
0 X X OFF
Table.6.3.3 Functionality of L293D motor driver.
X= Either high or low (don't care)

In the above truth table, you can observe that if ENABLE 1 is low then the motor stops,
irrespective of the states on INPUT 1 and INPUT 2. Hence it is essential to hold ENABLE
1 high for the driver to function, or simply connect enable pins to positive 5 volts.
With ENABLE 1 high, if INPUT 1 is set high and INPUT 2 is pulled low, then current flows
from INPUT 1 to INPUT 2 driving the motor in anti-clockwise direction. If the states of
INPUT 1 and INPUT 2 are flipped, then current flows from INPUT 2 to INPUT 1 driving
the motor in a clockwise direction.
The above concept holds true for other side of the IC too. Connect your motor to OUTPUT
3 and OUTPUT 4; INPUT 3 and INPUT 4 are input pins and ENABLE 2 enables the driver.
When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off and in the
high-impedance state. With the thoroughly data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H
(or bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. On the L293,
international high-speed output clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient stifling.
A VCC1 terminal, classify from VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device
power dissolution. The L293and L293D are characterized for operation from 0°C to 70°C.
Features of L293D:
 600mA Output current capability per channel
 1.2A Peak output current (non repetitive) per channel
 Enable facility
 Over temperature protection
 Logical “0” input voltage up to 1.5 v
 High noise immunity
 Internal clamp diodes

Applications of DC Motors:
 1. Electric Train: A kind of DC motor called the DC Series Motor is used in Electric Trains.
The DC Series Motors have the attribute to deliver more power when they are affluent more.
So the more the people get on a train, the more herculean the train becomes.
 2. Elevators: The best bidirectional motors are DC motors. They are expended in elevators.
Compound DC Motors are used for this covering.
 3. DC Fans, CD ROM Drives, and Hard Drives: All these things need motors, very miniature
motors, with great exactness. AC motors can never conceive of any application in these
places.
 4. Starter Motors in Automobiles: An automobile battery supplies DC, so a DC motor is best
fitted here. Also, you cannot start an engine with a small sized AC motor,
 5. Electrical Machines Lab in Colleges.
6.4 BLUETOOTH
Fig 6.4 Bluetooth

Bluetooth is an open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short
distances (using short wavelength radio transmissions) from fixed and mobile devices,
creating personal area networks (PANs) with high levels of security. Created by telecoms
vendor Ericsson in 1994 it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data
cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization.
6.4.1 Bluetooth Overview:

Bluetooth is a short-range radio link intended to replace the cables connecting portable
and/or fixed electronic devices.

Key features are robustness, low complexity, low power and low cost [1]. There are already
similar standards in this market, such as IrDA, Home RF and IEEE 802.11 family. Bluetooth
is designed to offer some unique advantages that none of the others can provide.
For example, IrDA uses infrared as medium, so its range is limited to around 1 meter, and it
requires a line-of-sight communication. In comparison, Bluetooth can operate at a range up
to 10 meters, or even 100 meters with enhanced transmitters. RF signals goes through walls,
so a Bluetooth network can span several rooms.
Compared with Home RF and IEEE 802.11 family, Bluetooth has much lower data rate and
transmission range (10 meter). While Home RF supports 1.6 ~ 10 Mbps data rate and IEEE
802.11a/b supports 54/11 Mbps, Bluetooth supports only 780 Kbps, which can be used for
721 kbps downstream and 57.6 kbps upstream asymmetric data transfer, or 432.6 kbps
symmetric data transfer. Both Home RF and IEEE 802.11 operates at 100 meter range, while
Bluetooth operates at up to 10 meter.
However, as a result of the lower data rate and transmission range, Bluetooth offers much
lower cost per node (approximately 5 ~ 10% of Home RF and IEEE 802.11). So it is more
suitable for applications involving low data rate (data and voice), small number of devices
(8 at maximum), low power consumption and short range (up to 10 meter), such as PC-to-
peripheral networking, home networking, hidden computing, data synchronization (such as
between PC and PDA), mobile phone devices, and future smart devices or entertainment
equipment.
6.4.2 Bluetooth Protocol Architecture:

The Bluetooth architecture and its mapping to OSI model
Bluetooth communication occurs between a master radio and a slave radio. Bluetooth radios
are symmetric in that the same device may operate as a master and also the slave. Each radio
has a 48-bit unique device address (BD_ADDR) that is fixed.
Two or more radio devices together form ad-hoc networks called piconets. All units within
a piconet share the same channel. Each piconet has one master device and one or more
slaves. There may be up to seven active slaves at a time within a piconet. Thus, each active
device within a piconet is identifiable by a 3-bit active device address. Inactive slaves in
unconnected modes may continue to reside within the piconet.

A master is the only one that may initiate a Bluetooth communication link. However, once
a link is established, the slave may request a master/slave switch to become the master.
Slaves are not allowed to talk to each other directly. All communication occurs within the
slave and the master. Slaves within a piconet must also synchronize their internal clocks and
frequency hops with that of the master. Each piconet uses a different frequency hopping
sequence. Radio devices used Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). A master device in a
piconet transmits on even numbered slots and the slaves may transmit on odd numbered
slots.
Fig.6.4.2 Bluetooth protocol architecture.
Multiple piconets with overlapping coverage areas form a scatternet. Each piconet may have
only one master, but slaves may participate in different piconets on a time-division multiplex
basis. A device may be a master in one piconet and a slave in another or a slave in more than
one piconet.

Fig.6.4.2(a) Bluetooth Scatternets and Piconets

6.4.3 Protocols in Bluetooth Architecture:
Bluetooth Core Protocols

Baseband
Link Manager Protocol
Logical Link Control and
Adaptation Protocol
Service Discovery Protocol
Cable Replacement Protocol
Telephony Control Protocol
Adopted Protocols
Table.6.4.3 Bluetooth protocols

Bluetooth technology is designed for and optimized for use in mobile devices.
Mobile computers, cellular handsets, network access points, printers, PDA’s, desktops,
keyboards, joysticks and virtually any other device can have short range Bluetooth radios
operating in the free 2.4GHz Industrial-Scientific-Medical (ISM) band integrated into them
(single chip).
It uses Frequency Hop (FH) spread spectrum, which divides the frequency band into a
number of hop channels. Bluetooth radios use tiny radio-frequency transmitters, no larger
than 1.0 by 0.5 inches, that can run off a watch battery for months.

Power considerations are always important for battery-powered mobile devices, and
Bluetooth’s low power modes meet those requirements with less than 0.1 W active power.
And since Bluetooth is designed for both computing and communications applications, it is
designed to support high quality simultaneous voice and data, with robust data transfer rates
of up to 721 Kbps. IT supports both synchronous and asynchronous services and easy
integration of TCP/IP for networking purposes.
The complete Bluetooth protocol stack has been designed to include the existing
protocols as much as possible (like TCP, UDP, OBEX) as well as Bluetooth specific
protocols like LMP and L2CAP. The protocol reuse ensures smooth interoperability between
existing applications and hardware.
The Specification is also open, thereby allowing vendors to build proprietary applications.
Although different applications may run over different protocol stacks, they all use the
Bluetooth data link and physical layers. The Applications layer lies on top of the vCard
(internal object representation convention) layer.
Fig.6.4.3 Data Transmission Protocols

Topology Supports up to 8 simultaneous links in a piconet
Flexibility Goes through walls, bodies, clothes, ...
Data Rate 1 MSPS, 721 Kbps
Power 0.1 Watts active power
Size/Weight 25 mm × 13 mm × 2 mm, several grams
Cost Long term $5 per endpoint
Range 10 meters or less; up to 100 meters with PA
Universal Intended to work worldwide
Security Very, link layer security, SS radio
Table.6.4.3(a) Bluetooth features

Baseband: The Baseband and Link Control Layer enables the RF link Bluetooth units in a
piconet. This layer uses inquiry and paging procedures to synchronize the transmission
between different Bluetooth devices.
Link Manager Protocol (LMP): The link manager protocol is responsible for setting up link
channels between Bluetooth devices after performing security methods like authentication
and encryption by generating, exchanging and verifying linking and encryption keys and
negotiating baseband packet size.
Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP): L2CAP packets carry payloads
which are carried to the upper layer protocols.
Service Discovery Protocol (SDP): Using SDP, device information, services allowed and
characteristics of the services are queried between Bluetooth enabled devices.
Cable Replacement Protocol (RFCOMM): RFCOMM is a serial line emulation protocol.
Telephony Control Protocol: The Telephony Control - Binary (TCS Binary) and Telephony
Control - AT Commands are used to establish speech and data calls between devices and
control mobile phones and modems respectively.
Adopted Protocols: Bluetooth also supports PPP, TCP/UDP/IP, OBEX and WAP protocols
to maximize interoperability.

6.4.4 Bluetooth Topology

There can be only 2 ~ 8 Bluetooth devices talking to each other. This is called a piconet.
Among these devices, there can be only one master device, all the rest are slave devices. A
device can belong to two piconets meantime, serving as slaves in both piconet or a master
in one and slave in another. This is called a bridging device. Bridging devices connect
piconets together to form a scatternet:
Fig.6.4.4 Single-slave piconet (a), multiple-slave piconet(b), and scatternet (c)
6.4.5 BLUE TOOTH DONGLE
Fig.6.4.5 Blue Tooth Dongle

Bluetooth is an open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances
(using short wavelength radio transmissions) from fixed and mobile devices, creating
personal area networks (PANs) with high levels of security. Created by telecoms vendor
Ericsson in 1994, it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables.

It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization. Today Bluetooth

is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group.
6.4.6 HC-05 Bluetooth module
Fig.6.4.6 HC-05 Bluetooth module

The HC-05 has two operating modes, one is the Data mode in which it can send and receive
data from other Bluetooth devices and the other is the AT Command mode where the default
device settings can be changed. We can operate the device in either of these two modes by
using the key pin as explained in the pin description.
It is very easy to pair the HC-05 module with microcontrollers because it operates using the
Serial Port Protocol (SPP). Simply power the module with +5V and connect the Rx pin of
the module to the Tx of MCU and Tx pin of module to Rx of MCU as shown in the figure
below
6.4.7 HC-05 Bluetooth Pin Configuration
Pin Pin Name Description

Number
1 Enable / Key This pin is used to toggle between Data Mode (set low)
and AT command mode (set high). By default it is in
Data mode

2 Vcc Powers the module. Connect to +5V Supply voltage
3 Ground Ground pin of module, connect to system ground.
4 TX – Transmits Serial Data. Everything received via

Transmitter Bluetooth will be given out by this pin as serial data.
5 RX – Receive Serial Data. Every serial data given to this pin

Receiver will be broadcasted via Bluetooth
6 State The state pin is connected to on board LED, it can be

used as a feedback to check if Bluetooth is working
properly.
7 LED Indicates the status of Module

Blink once in 2 sec: Module has entered Command
Mode
Repeated Blinking: Waiting for connection in Data
Mode
Blink twice in 1 sec: Connection successful in Data
Mode
8 Button Used to control the Key/Enable pin to toggle between

Data and command Mode
Table.6.4.7 HC-05 Bluetooth Pin Configuration

HC-05 Default Settings
Default Bluetooth Name: “HC-05”
Default Password: 1234 or 0000
Default Communication: Slave
Default Mode: Data Mode
Data Mode Baud Rate: 9600, 8, N, 1
Command Mode Baud Rate: 38400, 8, N, 1

HC-05 Technical Specifications

Serial Bluetooth module for Arduino and other microcontrollers
Operating Voltage: 4V to 6V (Typically +5V)
Operating Current: 30mA
Range: <100m
Works with Serial communication (USART) and TTL compatible
Follows IEEE 802.15.1 standardized protocol
Uses Frequency-Hopping Spread spectrum (FHSS)
Can operate in Master, Slave or Master/Slave mode
Can be easily interfaced with Laptop or Mobile phones with Bluetooth
Supported baud rate: 9600,19200,38400,57600,115200,230400,460800.
Other Bluetooth Modules

HC-04, HC-06, HM-11, ESP32, CSR8645
Applications
1. Wireless communication between two microcontrollers
2. Communicate with Laptop, Desktops and mobile phones
3. Data Logging application
4. Consumer applications
5. Wireless Robots
6. Home Automation
6.5 LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)
The term LCD stands for liquid crystal display. It is one kind of electronic display
module used in an extensive range of applications like various circuits & devices like mobile
phones, calculators, computers, TV sets, etc. These displays are mainly preferred for
multisegment light-emitting diodes and seven segments.

The main benefits of using this module are inexpensive; simply programmable, animations,
and there are no limitations for displaying custom characters, special and even animations,
etc.
Fig.6.5 16*2 LCD DISPLAY
6.5.1 LCD 16×2 PIN CONFIGURATION
Pin1 (Ground/Source Pin): This is a GND pin of display, used to connect the GND terminal
of the microcontroller unit or power source.
Pin2 (VCC/Source Pin): This is the voltage supply pin of the display, used to connect the
supply pin of the power source.
Pin3 (V0/VEE/Control Pin): This pin regulates the difference of the display, used to
connect a changeable POT that can supply 0 to 5V.
Pin4 (Register Select/Control Pin): This pin toggles among command or data register, used
to connect a microcontroller unit pin and obtains either 0 or 1(0 = data mode, and 1 =
command mode).
Pin5 (Read/Write/Control Pin): This pin toggles the display among the read or writes
operation, and it is connected to a microcontroller unit pin to get either 0 or 1 (0 = Write
Operation, and 1 = Read Operation).
Pin 6 (Enable/Control Pin): This pin should be held high to execute Read/Write process,
and it is connected to the microcontroller unit & constantly held high.

Pins 7-14 (Data Pins): These pins are used to send data to the display. These pins are
connected in two-wire modes like 4-wire mode and 8-wire mode. In 4-wire mode, only four
pins are connected to the microcontroller unit like 0 to 3, whereas in 8-wire mode, 8-pins
are connected to microcontroller unit like 0 to 7.
Pin15 (+ve pin of the LED): This pin is connected to +5V
Pin 16 (-ve pin of the LED): This pin is connected to GND.
6.5.2 SPECIFICATIONS OF LCD 16X2
The operating voltage of this display ranges from 4.7V to 5.3V

The display bezel is 72 x 25mm
The operating current is 1mA without a backlight  PCB size of the module is 80L x 36W
x 10H mm  HD47780 controller.
LED colour for backlight is green or blue
Number of columns – 16
Number of rows – 2
Number of LCD pins – 16
Characters – 32
It works in 4-bit and 8-bit modes
Pixel box of each character is 5×8 pixel
Font size of character is 0.125Width x 0.200height

6.5.3 PIN DIAGRAM OF 16*2 LCD
Fig.6.5.3 16*2 LCD Pin Diagram

LCD 16×2 COMMANDS
HexCode1: This command will remove data displaying on the screen of LCD.
HexCode2: It used to move return home.
HexCode4: It is used to modify a cursor location to the left side.
HexCode6: It is used to change the cursor location to the right side.
HexCode5: It is used to shift the display to right.
HexCode7: It used to shift the display to left.
HexCode8: It is used to turn off the display & the cursor will be turned off.
HexCode0A: It is used to turn ON the cursor &turn off the display.
HexCode0C: It is used to turn OFF the cursor & turn ON the display.
HexCode0E: It is used to turn ON the display & blink the cursor.
HexCode0F: It is used to turn ON display & blink the cursor.
HexCode10: It changes the cursor location to left.
HexCode14: It changes the cursor location to right.
HexCode18: It changes the display location to the left side.
HexCode1C: It changes the display location to the right side.
HexCode80: It is used to shift the cursor to the primary line.
HexCodeC0: It moves the cursor to the beginning of the next line.
HexCode38: 2- lines & 5×7 matrix.
6.5.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The basic working principle of LCD is passing the light from layer to layer through modules.
These modules will vibrate & line up their position on 90o that permits the polarized sheet
to allow the light to pass through it. These molecules are accountable for viewing the data
on every pixel. Every pixel utilizes the method of absorbing light to illustrate the digit.
To display the value, the position of molecules must be changed to the angle of light.

So this light deflection will make the human eye notice the data that will be the ingredient
wherever the light gets absorbed.
Here, this data will supply to the molecules & will be there till they get changed. At present,
LCDs are used frequently in CD/DVD players, digital watches, computers, etc.
In screen industries, LCDs have replaced the CRTs (Cathode Ray Tubes) because these
displays use more power as compared to LCD, heavier & larger.
The displays of LCDs are thinner as compared to CRTs. As compared to LED screens, LCD
has less power consumption because it functions on the fundamental principle of blocking
light instead of dissipating.
REGISTERS OF LCD
The registers used in LCD are two types like data register & command register. The
register can be changed by using the RS pin out. If we set ‘0’ then it is command register
and if it is ‘1’ then it is data register.
COMMAND RIGISTER
The main function of the command register is to save instructions illustrated on
LCD.
That assists in data clearing & changes the cursor location & controls the display.
DATA REGISTER
The data register is used to save the date to exhibit on the LCD. Once we transmit data to
LCD, then it shifts to the data register to process the data. If we fix the register value at one
that the data register will start working.
INERFACING UNIT
Interfacing of a 16X2 LCD with Arduino is discussed to display “Hello World!” on the
screen. A library like Liquid Crystal permits you to manage the displays that are well-
matched through the driver like Hitachi HD44780 driver. Here, the following example
circuit displays “Hello World!” on the LCD & displays the time in sec once the Arduino
board was reset.

The 16×2 display includes a parallel interface which means that the microcontroller used in
this has to control different interface pins immediately to control the LCD. The interface
includes mainly these pins like RS (Register Select) pin, Read/Write pin, Enable Pin, Data
pins from D0 to D7, display contrast pin, LED backlight pins, power supply pins.
The display controlling process mainly involves placing the data to form the picture of what
you desire to show into the data registers, after that placing instructions within the instruction
register.
A library like Liquid Crystal will simplify this for you so you don’t require identifying the
instructions in low-level The controlling of LCDs compatible with Hitachi can be done using
two modes like 4-bit/8-bit. Here, the 4-bit mode needs 7 I/O pins using the Arduino board,
whereas the 8-bit mode needs 11 pins. To display the text on the LCD, the 4-bit mode is
used. The following example will explain how to control an LCD using 4-bit mode
The required components of interfacing 16X2 LCD with Arduino include the following.
Arduino Board
Breadboard
LCD Screen
Hook-up Wires
Pin headers for soldering the display pins of LCD
Resistor – 220 ohm  Potentiometer – 10k ohm
6.5.5 INTERFACING OF LCD TO ARDUINO UNO
Before interfacing the LCD screen to the Arduino board, a pin header strip need to be solder
to pin-14 or 16 of the LCD. We can notice this in the following circuit diagram. The
following pins need to connect to wire the LCD to an Arduino board.

Fig.6.5.5 INTERFACING OF LCD TO ARDUINO UNO
RS pin of LCD to digital pin-11

Enable pin is connected to digital pin-10
D4 pin is connected to digital pin -7
D5 pin is connected to digital pin- 6
D6 pin is connected to digital pin-5
D7 pin is connected to digital pin-4
Read/Write pin is connected to GND
VSS pin is connected to the GND terminal
VCC pin is connected to 5V
A 220-ohm resistor is connected from LED+ to 5V
LED is connected to the GND terminal
In addition, connect a 10k pot toward +5V & GND through its wiper to LCD pin3.
Thus, this is all about LCD16×2, used in a wide range of applications such as different
devices and circuits such as calculators, mobile phones, TV sets, computers, etc. These
displays are mostly selected for multi-segment LEDs & 7- segment displays.

6.6 SERVO MOTOR

A servo motor is a self-contained electrical device, that rotate parts of a machine with high
efficiency and with great precision. The output shaft of this motor can be moved to a
particular angle, position and velocity that a regular motor does not have.
Most of the hobby Servo motors operates from 4.8V to 6.5V, the higher the voltage higher
the torque we can achieve, but most commonly they are operated at +5V. Almost all hobby
servo motors can rotate only from 0° to 180° due to their gear arrangement so make sure you
project can live with the half circle if no, you can prefer for a 0° to 360° motor or modify
the motor to make a full circle. The gears in the motors are easily subjected to wear and tear,
so if your application requires stronger and long running motors you can go with metal gears
or just stick with normal plastic gear.
Fig.6.6 SERVO MOTOR (9G)

6.6.1 SERVO MOTOR WORKING
Servo motors (or servos) are self-contained electric devices that rotate or push parts of a
machine with great precision. Servos are found in many places: from toys to home
electronics to cars and airplanes. If you have a radio-controlled model car, airplane, or
helicopter, you are using at least a few servos.
In a model car or aircraft, servos move levers back and forth to control steering or adjust
wing surfaces. By rotating a shaft connected to the engine throttle, a servo regulates the
speed of a fuel-powered car or aircraft. Servos also appear behind the scenes in devices we
use every day. Electronic devices such as DVD and Blu-ray players use servos to extend or
retract the disc trays.

The simplicity of a servo is among the features that make them so reliable. The heart of a
servo is a small direct current (DC) motor, similar to what you might find in an inexpensive
toy. These motors run on electricity from a battery and spin at high RPM (rotations
per minute) but put out very low torque. An arrangement of gears takes the high speed of the
motor and slows it down while at the same time increasing the torque. The gear design inside
the servo case converts the output to a much slower rotation speed but with more torque (big
force, little distance). The amount of actual work is the same, just more useful. Gears in an
inexpensive servo motor are generally made of plastic to keep it lighter and less costly.
Next comes the most important parameter, which is the torque at which the motor operates.
Again there are many choices here but the commonly available one is the 2.5kg/cm torque
which comes with the Torpor SG90 Motor. This 2.5kg/cm torque means that the motor can
pull a weight of 2.5kg when it is suspended at a distance of 1cm. So if you suspend the load
at 0.5cm then the motor can pull a load of 5kg similarly if you suspend the load at 2cm then
can pull only 1.25. Based on the load which you use in the project you can select the motor
with proper torque. The below picture will illustrate the same.
Fig.6.6.1 SERVO MOTOR WEIGHING
6.6.2 HOW TO USE A SERVO MOTOR

After selecting the right Servo motor for the project, comes the question how to use it. As
we know there are three wires coming out of this motor.

The description of the same is given on top of this page. To make this motor rotate, we have
to power the motor with +5V using the Red and Brown wire and send PWM signals to the
Orange colour wire. Hence, we need something that could generate PWM signals to make
this motor work, this something could be anything like a 555 Timer or other Microcontroller
platforms like Arduino, PIC, ARM or even a microprocessor like Raspberry Pie. Now, how
to control the direction of the motor? To understand that let us a look at the picture given in
the datasheet.
Fig.6.6.2 SERVO MOTOR PLUSE WIDTH MODULATION
TABLE.6.6.2(a) SERVO MOTOR CONNECTIONS
From the picture we can understand that the PWM signal produced should have a frequency
of 50Hz that is the PWM period should be 20ms.

Out of which the On-Time can vary from 1ms to 2ms. So when the on-time is 1ms the motor
will be in 0° and when 1.5ms the motor will be 90°, similarly when it is 2ms it will be 180°.
So, by varying the on-time from 1ms to 2ms the motor can be controlled from 0° to 180°.
SG90 Servo Motor Dimensions
Fig.6.6.2(a) SERVO MOTOR DIMENSIONS
6.6.3 APPLICATIONS
Used as actuators in many robots like Biped Robot, Hexapod, robotic arm etc.
Commonly used for steering system in RC toys
Robots where position control is required without feedback
Less weight hence used in multi DOF robots like humanoid robots
6.6.4 SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE.6.6.4 SERVO MOTOR SPECIFICATION

6.6.5 INTERFACING OF SERVO MOTOR TO ARDUINO UNO

The Servo Motor has 3 pins. Connect the yellow one to a pin on the Arduino board; in this
tutorial my pin of choice was 9. Connect the red pin to 5V, and black pin to Ground.
Fig. 6.6.5 INTERFACING OF SERVO MOTOR TO ARDUINO UNO

CHAPTER-7
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
7.1 PROGRAMMING
Once the Circuit has been created on the breadboard, you will need to upload the program
to the Arduino. The sketch is a set of instructions that tells the board what functions need to
perform. An Arduino board can only hold and perform one sketch at a time. The software is
used to create Arduino sketches is called the IDE which stands for Integrated Development
Environment.
Every Arduino sketch has two main parts to the program:
Void setup() – Sets things up that have to be done once and Don’t happen again.
Void loop() – Contains the instructions that get repeated over and over until the board is
turned off.
7.2 ARDUINO IDE
Once the software has been installed on your computer, go ahead and open it up. This is the
Arduino IDE and is the place where all the programming will happen.
Take some time to look around and get comfortable with it.
Menu Bar: Gives you access to the tools needed for creating and saving Arduino sketches.

Verify Button: Compiles your code and checks for errors in spelling or syntax.
Upload Button: Sends the code to the board that’s connected such as Arduino Uno in this
case. Lights on the board will blink rapidly when uploading.
New Sketch: Opens up a new window containing a blank sketch.
Sketch Name: When the sketch is saved, the name of the sketch is displayed here.
Open Existing Sketch: Allows you to open a saved sketch or one from the stored examples.
Save Sketch: This saves the sketch you currently have open.
Serial Monitor: When the board is connected, this will display the serial information of
your Arduino
Code Area: This area is where you compose the code of the sketch that tells the board what
to do.
Message Area: This area tells you the status on saving, code compiling, errors and more.
Text Console: Shows the details of an error messages, size of the program that was
compiled and additional info.
Board and Serial Port: Tells you what board is being used and what serial port it’s
connected to.
Automatic (Software) Reset
These are the steps you need to follow in order to be up and running:
Get an Arduino board
Download the Arduino environment
Install the USB drivers
Connect the board
Upload a program
1. Get an Arduino board
The Arduino I/O board is a simple circuit featuring the ATmega8 processor from Atmel. The
board is composed of a printed circuit board (PCB) and electronic parts.
There are a few ways to get an Arduino board:
Buy a readymade board. See how you can buy a board or just the PCB.
European distributor
US distributor
Build your own board. If you want you can build your own PCB just by downloading the
CAD files from the Hardware page. Extract the .bard file and send it to a PCB manufacturer.

Be aware that manufacturing a single PCB will be very expensive. It's better to get together
with other people and make 20 or 30 at a time. Since you get the full CAD files you can
make your own customized version of Arduino. If you make modifications or fix bugs please
send us your changes!
Purchase parts. Purchase the parts from any electronics store. The Serial version in particular
has been designed to use the most basic parts that can be found anywhere in the world. The
USB version on the other hand requires some advanced soldering skills because of the FTDI
chip that is ansmd part. Here is a list of parts for the serial board.
Assemble the board. We put together a step by step guide on how to build an Arduino board.
Newbies: never soldered before? Afraid of trashing thousands of boards before getting one
properly soldered? Fear not :) learn to master the art of soldering.
Program the boot loader. In order for the development environment to be able to program
the chip, this has to be programmed with a piece of code called boot loader. See the boot
loader page on how to program it on your chip.
2. Download the Arduino environment
To program the Arduino board you need the Arduino environment.
Download Arduino: From the software page.
Linux note: For help getting the Arduino IDE running on Debian, please see the FAQ ("How
can I run the Arduino IDE under Linux?").
Mac OS X note: After downloading the IDE, run the macosx_setup.command. It corrects
permission on a few files for use with the serial port and will prompt you for your password.
You may need to reboot after running this script.
For more information, see the guide to the Arduino environment.

3. Install the USB drivers

If you are using a USB Arduino, you will need to install the drivers for the FTDI chip on the
board. These can be found in the driver’s directory of the Arduino distribution.
On Windows, you will need to unzip FTDI USB Drivers.zip. Then, when you plug in the
Arduino board, point the Windows Add Hardware wizard to the FTDI USB Drivers
directory.
On the Mac, mount the FTDIUSBSerialDriver_v2_1_6.dmg (on PPC machines) or the
FTDIUSBSerialDriver_v2_2_6_Intel.dmg (on Intel machines) disk image and run the
included FTDIUSB Serial Driver.
The latest version of the drivers can be found on the FTDI website.
4. Connect the board

If you're using a serial board, power the board with an external power supply (6 to 25 volts
DC, with the core of the connector positive). Connect the board to a serial port on your
computer.
On the USB boards, the power source is selected by the jumper between the USB and power
plugs. To power the board from the USB port (good for controlling low power devices like
LEDs), place the jumper on the two pins closest to the USB plug. To power the board from
an external power supply (needed for motors and other high current devices), place the
jumper on the two pins closest to the power plug.

Either way, connect the board to a USB port on your computer. On Windows, the Add New
Hardware wizard will open; tell it you want to specify the location to search for drivers and
point to the folder containing the USB drivers you unzipped in the previous step.
The power LED should go on.
5. Upload a program
Open the LED blink example sketch: File > Sketchbook > Examples >led_blink.
Here's what the code for the LED blink example looks like.

Select the serial device of the Arduino board from the Tools | Serial Port menu.
On Windows, this should be COM1 or COM2 for a serial Arduino board, or COM3, COM4,
or COM5 for a USB board. On the Mac, this should be something like /dev/cu.usbserial-
1B1 for a USB board, or something like /dev/cu.USA19QW1b1P1.1 if using a Key span
adapter with a serial board (other USB-to-serial adapters use different names).

Push the reset button on the board then click the Upload button in the IDE. Wait a few
seconds. If successful, the message "Done uploading." will appear in the status bar.
If the Arduino board doesn't show up in the Tools | Serial Port menu, or you get a error while
uploading, please see the FAQ for troubleshooting suggestions. A few seconds after the
upload finishes, you should see the amber (yellow) LED on the board start to blink.

7.3 SOURCE CODE

AGRIBOT - A MULTIPURPOSE AGRICULTURAL ROBOT SOURCE CODE
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
#include <stdio.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(6, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2);
#include <Wire.h>
#include "dht.h"
int tempc=0,humc=0;
char robos='s',gchr='x';
int sti=0;
String inputString = ""; // a string to hold incoming data
boolean stringComplete = false; // whether the string is complete
int m1a = A0;

int m1b = A1;
int m2a = A2;
int m2b = A3;
int relay = 12;

int buzzer = 13;
int mos = 9;
int fire = 10;
int pir = 11;

#define dht_apin 8
dht DHT;
void okcheck0()
{
unsigned char rcr;
do{
rcr = Serial.read();
}while(rcr != 'K');
}
void beep()
{
digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW);delay(2500);digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH);delay(100);
}
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);serialEvent();
pinMode(m1a, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m1b, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m2a, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m2b, OUTPUT);
pinMode(relay, OUTPUT);
pinMode(buzzer, OUTPUT);
pinMode(mos, INPUT);
pinMode(fire, INPUT);pinMode(pir, INPUT);

digitalWrite(m1a, LOW);
digitalWrite(m1b, LOW);
digitalWrite(m2a, LOW);
digitalWrite(m2b, LOW);
digitalWrite(relay, LOW);
digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH);
lcd.begin(16, 2);
lcd.print(" Solar Powered");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("Agriculture Robo");
delay(2000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("T:");
lcd.print("H:");
lcd.print("F:"); //2-3-4,1
lcd.print("M:"); //8-9-10,1
lcd.print("P:"); //14,15,1
serialEvent();
}
void loop()
{

DHT.read11(dht_apin);
tempc = DHT.temperature;
humc = DHT.humidity;
lcd.setCursor(2,0);lcd.print(tempc);lcd.print(" ");
lcd.setCursor(10,0);lcd.print(humc);lcd.print(" ");
Serial.print("T:");Serial.print(tempc);
Serial.print(" H:");Serial.println(humc);
if(digitalRead(fire) == HIGH)
{
lcd.setCursor(2,1);lcd.print("ON ");
Serial.print("Fire-ON\r\n");
digitalWrite(relay, HIGH);
}
if(digitalRead(fire) == LOW)
{
lcd.setCursor(2,1);lcd.print("OFF");
digitalWrite(relay, LOW);
}
if(digitalRead(mos) == LOW)
{
lcd.setCursor(8,1);lcd.print("Wet");
Serial.print("Mos-Wet\r\n");
}
if(digitalRead(mos) == HIGH)
{
lcd.setCursor(8,1);lcd.print("Dry");
}

if(robos == 'm')
{
lcd.setCursor(14,1);lcd.print("--");
}
if(robos == 's')
{
if(digitalRead(pir) == HIGH)
{
lcd.setCursor(14,1);lcd.print("ON");
beep();
Serial.print("PIR-ON\r\n");
}
if(digitalRead(pir) == LOW)
{
lcd.setCursor(14,1);lcd.print("OF");
}
}
delay(1000);
}
void serialEvent()
{
while (Serial.available() < 0)
{
char gchr = (char)Serial.read();
// Serial.write(gchr);
if(gchr == 'f')
{gchr='x';//lcd.setCursor(0,1);lcd.print("Front ");
robos='m';
digitalWrite(m1a, HIGH);digitalWrite(m1b, LOW);
}

if(gchr == 'b')
{gchr='x';//lcd.setCursor(0,1);lcd.print("Back ");
robos='m';
digitalWrite(m1a, LOW);digitalWrite(m1b, HIGH);
}
if(gchr == 'l')
{gchr='x';//lcd.setCursor(0,1);lcd.print("Left ");
robos='m';
}
if(gchr == 'r')
{gchr='x';//lcd.setCursor(0,1);lcd.print("Right ");
robos='m';
}
if(gchr == 's')
{gchr='x';robos='s';
digitalWrite(m1a, LOW);digitalWrite(m1b, LOW);
digitalWrite(m2a, LOW);digitalWrite(m2b, LOW);
}
}
}

7.4 ADVANTAGES
1. Increased Efficiency: Performing multiple tasks simultaneously reduces the time needed
to complete agricultural operations, leading to higher efficiency and increased
productivity.
2. Labor Savings: By automating various tasks, the Agri robot reduces the need for manual
labour, which can help alleviate labour shortages and lower labour costs for farmers.
3. Resource Optimization: Optimal resource utilization, including water, seeds, and fuel, is
achieved through real-time monitoring and data-driven decision-making, leading to cost
savings and environmental benefits.
4. Customization: Farmers can customize the robot's tasks based on specific field
conditions, crop types, and operational requirements, allowing for greater flexibility and
adaptability.
5. Improved Safety: Incorporating safety features such as emergency stop buttons and
obstacle detection sensors enhances operational safety, reducing the risk of accidents and
injuries.
6. Data Collection and Analysis: Onboard sensors collect valuable data on environmental
conditions and task performance, enabling farmers to make informed decisions and
optimize farming practices over time.
7.5 DISADVANTAGES
1. Initial Investment: The upfront cost of acquiring and implementing the agri robot
technology may be prohibitive for some farmers, especially those with limited financial
resources.
2. Maintenance Requirements: Regular maintenance and calibration of the robot's
components and systems are necessary to ensure optimal performance, which may require
additional time, effort, and expertise.
3. Technological Dependence: Dependence on technology introduces risks associated with
software glitches, hardware failures, and compatibility issues, which could disrupt
operations and require technical support.

4. Limited Adaptability: While the robot offers customization options, its capabilities may be
limited by factors such as terrain, crop diversity, and field size, which could restrict its
applicability in certain agricultural settings.
5. Skill Requirements: Operating and managing the Agri robot effectively may require
specialized skills and training, which could pose challenges for farmers without access to
appropriate education and resources.
6. Seed container and water container needs to be refilled frequently.
7.6 APPLICATIONS
1. Field Preparation: The Agri robot can plow, sow, and level the soil in preparation
for planting, saving time and labour during the pre-planting stage.
2. Crop Maintenance: Tasks such as grass cutting, weeding, and watering can be
automated to ensure timely and efficient crop maintenance throughout the
growing season.
3. Harvesting: Depending on the crop type, the robot may be equipped with
harvesting tools to automate the harvesting process, increasing efficiency and
reducing manual labour requirements.
The major Applications include:
 Ploughing.
 Sowing seeds.
 Watering.
 Soil levelling.
 Soil Moisture Analysis.
 . Field Analysis.

CHAPTER -8
RESULT
8.1 RESULT
This project is an Autonomous Agriculture Robot which is controlled over Bluetooth
protocol using an Android App. The Android App consists of buttons in which keys are used
for movement of robot. The actions that would be performed by the robot are Forward,
Backward, Right, Left and Stop. It also consists of list picker for selecting Bluetooth device
connected to the robot. Once the Android application establishes a secure connection with
the robot then the app is ready for controlling the actions of robot.
8.2 HARD WARE OUTPUT
Fig.8.2 AGRIBOT- A MULTIPURPOSE AGRICULTURAL ROBOT


CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE
9.1 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the development of a multipurpose Agri robot capable of personally
performing tasks such as harvesting, ploughing, sowing, grass cutting, watering, and land
levelling marks a significant advancement in agricultural technology. By harnessing the
power of Arduino Uno and integrating advanced functionalities, this project has created a
comprehensive solution to address various challenges faced by farmers.
Through its versatility and autonomous capabilities, the Agri robot offers farmers a
cost-effective and efficient alternative to traditional farming methods. By automating labour-
intensive tasks such as harvesting, ploughing, and sowing, the robot helps reduce labour
costs and increase productivity, enabling farmers to optimize their resources and improve
their yields. The inclusion of features such as grass cutting, watering, and land levelling
further enhances the robot's utility and value, allowing it to perform a wide range of
agricultural activities with precision and consistency. This not only saves time and effort for
farmers but also promotes sustainable farming practices by optimizing resource usage and
minimizing waste.
Despite encountering challenges during development, including software
integration issues and hardware compatibility concerns, these obstacles were overcome
through diligent troubleshooting and collaboration with experts in robotics and agricultural
engineering.
The successful implementation of the multipurpose Agri robot underscores its potential to
revolutionize farming practices and contribute to food security and environmental
sustainability. By streamlining agricultural operations and reducing reliance on manual
labour and chemical inputs, the robot offers a promising solution to the challenges facing
modern agriculture.
Looking ahead, there is vast potential for further innovation and expansion of this
technology.

Future iterations of the Agri robot could incorporate advanced features such as machine
learning algorithms for predictive analytics, remote monitoring and control capabilities, and
integration with other smart agricultural systems.
In conclusion, the multipurpose Agri bot represents a transformative tool for farmers,
providing them with the means to increase efficiency, reduce costs, and improve
sustainability in agricultural production.
9.2 FUTURE SCOPE
The future scope of the multipurpose Agri robot project is vast and holds tremendous
potential for further advancements in agricultural technology. Some key areas for future
development and expansion include:
1. Integration of Advanced Sensing Technologies: Enhance the robot's capabilities by
integrating advanced sensors such as hyperspectral imaging and LiDAR for more accurate
and comprehensive crop monitoring, pest detection, and soil analysis.
2. Autonomous Navigation and Operation: Develop robust algorithms and navigation
systems to enable the robot to operate autonomously in diverse and complex farm
environments, including variable terrain and obstacles.
3. AI-driven Decision Making: Incorporate artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
learning algorithms to analyse data collected by the robot and provide actionable insights
for optimizing farming practices, including crop management, resource allocation, and pest
control.
4. Integration with Agricultural Drones and Satellites: Collaborate with aerial drone
technology and satellite imaging systems to provide comprehensive and real-time
monitoring of large-scale farm operations, enabling more informed decision-making and
resource management.
5. Energy Efficiency and Sustainability: Explore alternative energy sources such as solar
power and implement energy-efficient components to reduce the environmental footprint of
the robot and enhance its autonomy and sustainability.

6. Remote Monitoring and Control: Develop user-friendly interfaces and communication

protocols to enable remote monitoring and control of the Agri robot via mobile devices or
web platforms, allowing farmers to manage farm operations from anywhere, anytime.
7. Collaborative Farming Networks: Foster collaboration and data sharing among farmers
by creating networks of interconnected Agri robots, enabling collective decision-making and
resource optimization at the community level.
 A camera can be added for image processing feature.
 Image processing will help in added functionalities like harvesting, weed control,
disease identification etc.
 The robot can be also modified in order to spray pesticides
By continuously innovating and expanding the capabilities of the multipurpose Agri robot
project, we can contribute to a more efficient, sustainable, and resilient agricultural system,
ensuring food security and prosperity for future generations.

APPENDEX-A
ABBREVIATIONS:
LED Light emitting diode.

IDE Integrated development environment.
PWM Pulse width modulation
USB Universal serial bus.
ICSP In-circuit serial programming.
SDA Serial data acquisition.
AREF Analog reference.
TX Transmission.
RX Receiving.
TTL Transistor –Transistor Logic.
SPI Serial Peripheral Interface.
SS System Security.
MOSI Microprocessor operating system
TWI Two wire interface.
LCD Liquid crystal display.
TDMA Time division multiple access.
CDMA Code division multiple access.

REFERENCES
[1]. Simon blackmore, bill stout, maohua wang, borisrunov (2005), robotic agriculture – the
future of agriculture mechanism, agro technology, the royal veterinary and agriculture
university.
[2]. Agricultural census: all india report on number and area of operational holdings.
Agricultural census division, department of agriculture and cooperation,ministry of
agriculture, government of india 2014.
[3]. R. Eaton, r. Eaton, j. Katupitiya, s.d. pathirana(2008), autonomous farming: modeling
and control of agricultural machinery in a unified framework,15th international conference
on mechatronics and machine vision in practice, new zealand.
[4]. Simon blackmore, bill stout, maohuawang, borisrunov (2005), “a systems view of
agricultural robotics”, agro technology, the royal veterinary and agriculture university.
[5]. R. Eaton, r. Eaton, j. Katupitiya, s d pathirana(2008), “autonomous farming: modeling
andcontrol of agricultural machinery in a unifiedframework
[6]. Akhila gollakota, "a multipurpose agriculturalrobot ", birla institute of technology and
science,hyderabad campus.
[7] md. Didarul islam sujon, rumman nasir, mahbube mozammel ibne habib, majedul islam
nomaan, jayasree baidya, md. Rezaul islam department of electrical and computer
engineering international conference on intelligent autonomous systems volume: 06 issue:
03 | mar 2019
[8] payal srivastava, neda, ms.kriti student, student, assistant professor electronics and
instrumentation engineering galgotias college of engineering and technology, gr. Noida,
india ijedr | volume 5, issue 2 | issn: 2321-9939, 2018 international conference on intelligent
autonomous systems
[9] sami salama hussen hajjaj khairul salleh mohamed sahari centre for advanced
mechatronics and robotics universiti tenaga nasional 43000 kajang, selangor, malaysia 2018
[10] m. Kavithra, s. Shalini, a. Dhanusha, t. Vanikamatchi, s. Suresh international journal of
engineering research & technology (ijert) issn: 2278-0181 special issue – 2018 iconnect -
2k18 conference

[11] neha d. Kherade,jyoti kute, pooja pashte pranita marye, prof. Dr. Saurabh mehta 5head
of the department, dept. Of extc, vidyalankar institute of technology, mumbai e-issn (o):
2348-4470 p-issn (p): 2348-6406 scientific journal of impact factor (sjif): 4.72 volume 4
issue -3 march 2017
[12] ag-robot design and analysis to light weight mr. K. Rajesh assistant professor stanley
college of engineering And technology for women, hyderabad, india ijsrd - International
journal for scientific research & development| Vol. 5, issue 09, 2017 | issn (online): 2321-
0613.
[13] https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2004102.pdf.
[14] https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2402419.pdf.
[15]https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375888628_Agribot_A_Multipurpose_Intelli
gent_Robotic_solution_for_Maximizing_Crop_Yields_in_Large_Agricultural_Projects.

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AGRIBOT- A Multipurpose Agricultural Robot

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 1

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 2

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 3

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 4

Further it was developed exactly by Aalborg University in Denmark. 6 It is a third-

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 5

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 6

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 7

2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 8

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 9

Fig.3.2 Arduino Board

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 10

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Fig.3.3 Arduino board breakdown

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3.4 ATMEGA328 PIN DIAGRAM

Fig.3.4 ATMEGA328 PIN DIAGRAM

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 14

3.5 ATMEGA328 PIN DESCRIPTION

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 15

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 16

Fig.3.6 PROGRAMMING WINDOW

3.7 ARDUINO IDE

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 17

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 18

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Networked embedded systems:

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 21

4.3 DESIGN PROCESS

Fig.4.3 Embedded system design process

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 22

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 23

SDL specification is then translated into conventional implementation languages such as

On a prototyping platform, the implementation of the system under development is executed

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 24

Consumer/internet appliances: Business handheld computers, business network

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 25

Fig.5.1 AGRIBOT BLOCK DIAGRAM

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 26

5.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig.5.2 AGRIBOT Circuit Diagram.

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 27

With the capability to perform six functions simultaneously—ploughing, sowing, grass

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 28

 First, we have to dump our program in Arduino uno.

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 29

6.1 D.C. Motor

Fig 6.1 DC Motor

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 30

Fig.6.1.1(a) Simple electrical diagram of DC motor

Fig.6. 1.1(b) Operation of a DC Motor

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 31

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1. The DC Shunt Motor:

Fig.6.1.1(c) Diagram of DC shunt motor

MNR College of ENGG & TECH. 33