Chapter 1 Notes

Physical
Quantities, Units
_____ & Measurement
Physical quantities and SI units

Basic Quantity Name of SI Unit SI Unit

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol

Example 1:
What are the derived units of density?

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝒌𝒈
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒎𝟑

Prefixes

Prefix Multiple Symbol Factor Order of

magnitude
Giga 1 000 000 G 109 9
000
Mega 1 000 000 M 106 6
Kilo 1000 K 103 3
Deci 0.1 D 10-1 -1
Centi 0.01 C 10-2 -2
Milli 0.001 M 10-3 -3
Micro 0.000 001  10-6 -6
Nano 0.000 000 N 10-9 -9
001
 Chapter 1: Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement

Example 2:
Express 0.000 0023m in a suitable magnitude

0.000 0023𝑚 = 2.3𝜇𝑚 = 2.3 × 10−6 𝑚

Scalars and vectors

 A scalar quantity has only magnitude but does not have direction.
 A vector has both magnitude and direction

Scalar Vector
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Energy Force
Time Acceleration
Volume Weight
Density
Mass

Addition of Vector

Example 3:
Find the resultant force R at point P due to F = 4N and F = 20N.

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 Chapter 1: Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement

Method 1: Trigonometric Method

Using Pythagoras’ Theorem:

𝑅 = √42 + 202
𝑅 = √416
𝑅 = 20.4𝑁
4
tan 𝜃 =
20
𝜃 = 11.3°
Method 2: Graphical Method

Step 1: select an appropriate scale (E.g. 1cm to 2N)

Step 2: Draw a parallelogram of vectors to scale
Step 3: measure the diagonal to find R
Step 4: Use the protractor to measure angle 𝜃

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 Chapter 1: Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement

Measurement of length and time

Range of length, l Instrument Accuracy Example

l > 100cm Measuring tape ±0.1 cm Waistline of a person
5cm < l < 100cm Metre rule ±0.1cm Height of an object
1cm < l < 10cm Vernier calipers ±0.01cm Diameter of a breaker
l<2cm Micrometer screw ±0.001cm Thickness of a length
gauge of wire

Vernier Callipers

 A pair of vernier callipers can be used to measure the thickness of

solids and the external diameter of an object by using the external
jaws.

 The internal jaws of the calliper are used to measure the internal
diameter of an object.

 The tail of the calliper is used to measure the depth or a hole.

 Vernier callipers can measure up to a precision of ±0.01cm

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 Chapter 1: Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement

Example 4:

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2.55𝑐𝑚

𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = −0.02 𝑐𝑚

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ – 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2.55𝑐𝑚 − (−0.02)𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2.57𝑐𝑚

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 Chapter 1: Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement

Micrometre Screw Gauge

 The jaws of the Micrometre screw gauge are used to measure the
external diameter of an object.

 Micrometre screw gauges can measure up to a precision of ±0.01mm

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 Chapter 1: Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement

Example 5:

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 7.50𝑚𝑚 + 0.39𝑚𝑚

= 7.89𝑚𝑚

𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = +0.05 𝑚𝑚

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ – 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 7.89𝑚𝑚 − (0.05)𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 7.84𝑚𝑚

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 Chapter 1: Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement

Simple Pendulum

 Period is the time taken to move from P > Q > R > Q > P

 One oscillation is when the bob travels from P > Q > R > Q > P

 The amplitude is the distance between the rest position (point Q) of

the bob to the extreme end of the oscillation (either point P or point R)
 The period of the pendulum, T, is affected only by the
o Length of the string, l
o Acceleration due to gravity, g

 T is not affected by the mass of the pendulum bob.

How to find the period:

1. Take the total time for 20 oscillations
2. Repeat step 1
3. Calculate the average of the two timings
4. Divide the average calculated by 20 to obtain the period

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 Chapter 2 Notes
Kinematics

_____

Physical Quantities
- Scalars
- Has only magnitude (length, mass, time, speed, distance, etc.)
- Kinematics: Only positive values are possible
- Vector
- Has both magnitude and direction (velocity, displacement,
acceleration, etc.)
- Requires a defined origin and a defined positive direction
- Distance
- Scalar
- SI Unit: Meter
- Length covered by a moving body
- Displacement
- Vector
- SI Unit: Meter
- Straight-line distance covered by a moving body measured from
a reference point in a stated direction

Difference between speed and velocity:

Speed Velocity
- Scalar - Vector
- SI Unit: Meter per second - SI Unit: Meter per second
- Distance moved per unit time - Rate of change of
displacement
- Direction of Motion (arrows!)
 Chapter 2: Kinematics
Quantities Type Symbol Unit

Distance Scalar d m

Displacement Vector s m

Speed Scalar v m s-1

Velocity Vector u (initial), v m s-1

(final)

Acceleration Vector a m s-2

Time Scalar t s

Average Speed
- Total distance divided by total time taken

Average Velocity
- Change in displacement (final - initial) divided by change in time (final
minus initial)
- △s represents change in position (length and direction from origin to
final position)

2
 Chapter 2: Kinematics
Cheryl runs once around a 0.25km track in 2.0min and comes back to her
starting position. What is the magnitude of her average speed?
Average Speed
= d/t
= 0.25km/2min
= 250m/120s
= 2.08m s-1 [write out if using later]
= 2.1m s-1 (2 s.f.)

Acceleration
- Vector
- SI Unit: Meter per second per second (ms-2)
- Rate of change of velocity (final minus initial speed, and time)
- △v/△t or vf-vi/tf-ti
- v = u + at where a = acceleration, v = final velocity, u = initial velocity

Velocity of a body changes from 2.50m s-1 to 6.75m s-1 in 3.00s. Determine
its acceleration.
Acceleration
= △v/△t
= (6.75 - 2.50)m s-1/3.00s
= 1.42m s-2 (3s.f.)

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 Chapter 2: Kinematics

Velocity-Time Graphs
- When an object gains speed, the acceleration has the same sign and
direction as the velocity (graphs = ＜)
- Positive velocity and positive acceleration
- Negative velocity and negative acceleration
- When an object slows down, the acceleration has the opposite sign
and direction as the velocity (graphs = ＞)
- Positive velocity and negative acceleration
- Negative velocity and positive acceleration
- The graph gets closer to 0, meaning the object slows down

Signs of Velocity and Acceleration

- Case 1: Speeding up → v(+) a(+) vf＞vi = a(+)

- Case 2: Slowing down → v(+) a(-) vf＜vi = a(-)

- Case 3: Speeding up (opp. Dir.) ← v(-) a(-) -vf＞-vi = a(-)

- Case 4: Slowing down (opp. Dir.) ← v(-) a(+) -vf＜-vi = a(+)

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 Chapter 2: Kinematics

Displacement-Time Graphs
- Constant Displacement: v = 0m s-1
- Increasing Velocity: Gradient increases (ref. graph below)
- Decreasing Velocity: Gradient decreases (ref. graph below)

- Displacement/Distance
= Area under velocity/speed-time graph
= Area of triangle/square
- Instantaneous Velocity/Speed
= Gradient of displacement/distance-time graph
- Instantaneous Acceleration
= Gradient of velocity-time graph

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 Chapter 2: Kinematics
‘Describe Motion’ Questions
- Divide the graph into sections based on the shape of the graph
- X moves in the positive / negative direction from reference point / from
point… to… at a constant / increasing / decreasing speed of __ms-1 from
t = __s to t = __s

Relationships between Graphs

- A curved velocity-time or speed-time graph means acceleration is
increasing or decreasing (non-uniform) at a constant rate.

6
Chapter 2: Kinematics

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 Chapter 2: Kinematics
Acceleration of Free Fall on Earth:
● About 10ms- 2
○ Objects falling with negligible air resistance
○ If air resistance is present, objects fall with a constant speed

Air resistance:
● Opposes the motion of moving object
● Increases with the speed of the object
● Increases with surface area
● Increases with density of air
● With air resistance, it will reach TERMINAL VELOCITY

8
 Chapter 2 Notes
Kinematics

_____

Physical Quantities
- Scalars
- Has only magnitude (length, mass, time, speed, distance, etc.)
- Kinematics: Only positive values are possible
- Vector
- Has both magnitude and direction (velocity, displacement,
acceleration, etc.)
- Requires a defined origin and a defined positive direction
- Distance
- Scalar
- SI Unit: Meter
- Length covered by a moving body
- Displacement
- Vector
- SI Unit: Meter
- Straight-line distance covered by a moving body measured from
a reference point in a stated direction

Difference between speed and velocity:

Speed Velocity
- Scalar - Vector
- SI Unit: Meter per second - SI Unit: Meter per second
- Distance moved per unit time - Rate of change of
displacement
- Direction of Motion (arrows!)
 Chapter 2: Kinematics
Quantities Type Symbol Unit

Distance Scalar d m

Displacement Vector s m

Speed Scalar v m s-1

Velocity Vector u (initial), v m s-1

(final)

Acceleration Vector a m s-2

Time Scalar t s

Average Speed
- Total distance divided by total time taken

Average Velocity
- Change in displacement (final - initial) divided by change in time (final
minus initial)
- △s represents change in position (length and direction from origin to
final position)

2
 Chapter 2: Kinematics
Cheryl runs once around a 0.25km track in 2.0min and comes back to her
starting position. What is the magnitude of her average speed?
Average Speed
= d/t
= 0.25km/2min
= 250m/120s
= 2.08m s-1 [write out if using later]
= 2.1m s-1 (2 s.f.)

Acceleration
- Vector
- SI Unit: Meter per second per second (ms-2)
- Rate of change of velocity (final minus initial speed, and time)
- △v/△t or vf-vi/tf-ti
- v = u + at where a = acceleration, v = final velocity, u = initial velocity

Velocity of a body changes from 2.50m s-1 to 6.75m s-1 in 3.00s. Determine
its acceleration.
Acceleration
= △v/△t
= (6.75 - 2.50)m s-1/3.00s
= 1.42m s-2 (3s.f.)

3
 Chapter 2: Kinematics

Velocity-Time Graphs
- When an object gains speed, the acceleration has the same sign and
direction as the velocity (graphs = ＜)
- Positive velocity and positive acceleration
- Negative velocity and negative acceleration
- When an object slows down, the acceleration has the opposite sign
and direction as the velocity (graphs = ＞)
- Positive velocity and negative acceleration
- Negative velocity and positive acceleration
- The graph gets closer to 0, meaning the object slows down

Signs of Velocity and Acceleration

- Case 1: Speeding up → v(+) a(+) vf＞vi = a(+)

- Case 2: Slowing down → v(+) a(-) vf＜vi = a(-)

- Case 3: Speeding up (opp. Dir.) ← v(-) a(-) -vf＞-vi = a(-)

- Case 4: Slowing down (opp. Dir.) ← v(-) a(+) -vf＜-vi = a(+)

4
 Chapter 2: Kinematics

Displacement-Time Graphs
- Constant Displacement: v = 0m s-1
- Increasing Velocity: Gradient increases (ref. graph below)
- Decreasing Velocity: Gradient decreases (ref. graph below)

- Displacement/Distance
= Area under velocity/speed-time graph
= Area of triangle/square
- Instantaneous Velocity/Speed
= Gradient of displacement/distance-time graph
- Instantaneous Acceleration
= Gradient of velocity-time graph

5
 Chapter 2: Kinematics
‘Describe Motion’ Questions
- Divide the graph into sections based on the shape of the graph
- X moves in the positive / negative direction from reference point / from
point… to… at a constant / increasing / decreasing speed of __ms-1 from
t = __s to t = __s

Relationships between Graphs

- A curved velocity-time or speed-time graph means acceleration is
increasing or decreasing (non-uniform) at a constant rate.

6
Chapter 2: Kinematics

7
 Chapter 2: Kinematics
Acceleration of Free Fall on Earth:
● About 10ms- 2
○ Objects falling with negligible air resistance
○ If air resistance is present, objects fall with a constant speed

Air resistance:
● Opposes the motion of moving object
● Increases with the speed of the object
● Increases with surface area
● Increases with density of air
● With air resistance, it will reach TERMINAL VELOCITY

8
 Chapter 3 Notes
Dynamics

_____

Dynamics
- The study of how objects move and the relationship of this motion to
physical concepts e.g. force, mass
Force
● A force is something capable of changing an object’s state of motion

Field Forces (non-contact forces)

Contact Force
- between 2 disconnected objects
physical contact between 2 objects

Frictional Force Magnetic Force

Only occurs when there is a capability for

something to move

Normal force Electrical Force

Must always be perpendicular to surface

Spring force Gravitational Force

Tensional force

Air resistance force

Applied force
 Chapter 3: Dynamics
Free Body Diagrams

Addition of Vectors
● When a number of forces act on an object, we can replace these forces
with a single force → NET/RESULTANT force

Vector Diagrams
2 methods:
● PParallelogram
a ra lle log ra m Method
m e thod

● TTriangle
ria ng le Method
me thod

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 Chapter 3: Dynamics
Net force
When net force is…
● Zero
○ Forces of equal magnitude act in opposite direction
○ referred to as balanced forces
○ Combined effect of all the forces is zero, does not mean that there
are no forces acting on an object
● Non-zero
○ Forces of unequal magnitude act in different direction
○ referred to as unbalanced forces

Newton’s 1st Law (Balanced Forces)

● An object will remain at rest OR continue to move at a constant velocity
if there is no resultant force acting on it
● Implies that matter has a built-in reluctance to change its state of
rest/motion → INERTIA
○ The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia.
○ A smaller mass will have a smaller inertia.

Newton’s 2nd Law (Unbalanced Forces)

● The acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it
and occurs in the direction of the force.

F net = ma where Fnet = net force (N)

m = mass (kg)

a = acceleration (ms- 2)

● The acceleration produced by the net force will be in the direction of the
net force

Newton’s 3rd Law

● For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
● These forces act on mutually opposite bodies

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 Chapter 3: Dynamics
○ action = -reaction
○ force = -opposite force
Note: - sign represents opposite direction

Friction

 When f (frictional force) is equal to F (applied force), there is no net

force acting on the object, so there is no acceleration, and it has a
constant velocity
 Applied force = Frictional force + Net force (force applied has to
overcome friction)

Summary