Faculty of Engineering

Production Engineering Department

The Iron-Carbon system II

Course Coordinator
Engy Ghoniem, PhD
Assistant Professor
Production Engineering Department
The Iron-Carbon system 1
Critical Temperatures

727°C

A4
727°C 1147°C

A2
727°C 727°C

0.76 %

The Iron-Carbon system Slide 2

Critical Temperatures (Cont.’)
• Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the
temperature, below which ferrite starts to form as a
result of ejection from austenite in the hypoeutectoid
alloys.
• Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the
temperature, below which cementite starts to form as a
result of ejection from austenite in the hypereutectoid
alloys.
• Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the
temperature of the austenite-to-pearlite eutectoid
transformation. Below this temperature austenite does
not exist.
• Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the
temperature below which α-ferrite is ferromagnetic.
The Iron-Carbon system Slide 3
Phase compositions of the iron-carbon
alloys at room temperature
1. Hypoeutectoid steel
(carbon content from 0 to 0.76%) consist of
primary (proeutectoid) ferrite and pearlite.

2. Eutectoid steel
(carbon content 0.76%) entirely consists of
pearlite.

3. Hypereutectoid steels
(carbon content from 0.76 to 2.1%) consist of
primary (proeutectoid)cementite and pearlite.

The Iron-Carbon system Slide 4

Effect of alloying elements on Fe-Fe3C
phase diagram
• For analyzes the effects of alloying elements on iron-
carbon alloys would require analysis of a large
number of ternary alloy diagrams over a wide
temperature range.
• However, “Wever” pointed out that iron binary
equilibrium systems fall into four main categories:
open and closed γ-field systems, and expanded and
contracted γ-field systems.
• This approach indicates that alloying elements can
influence the equilibrium diagram in two ways:
by expanding the γ-field, and encouraging the
formation of austenite over wider compositional
limits. These elements are called γ-stabilizers.
by contracting the γ-field, and encouraging the
formation of ferrite over wider compositional limits.
These elements are called α-stabilizers.
The Iron-Carbon system 5
Effect of alloying elements on Fe-Fe3C
phase diagram
Based on stabilizing Austenite
• Manganese (Mn), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Cupper (Cu), Zinc
(Zn) increase the range in which γ-phase, or austenite is
stable [by raising A4 and lowering A3 temperature] and also
tend to retard the separation of carbides.
• These elements have FCC crystal structure (or similar
structure of γ-phase) in which these elements are more
soluble than ferrite, and that is why, in the (α+γ) two phase
equilibrium, these segregate in austenite in preference to
ferrite.
• Elements like carbon and nitrogen (interstitial solid
solution forming elements) are also austenite stabilizers.

The Iron-Carbon system Slide 6

Effect of alloying elements on Fe-Fe3C
phase diagram
Based on stabilizing Ferrite
• chromium (Cr), tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo), vanadium
(V), titanium (Ti), niobium (Nb), Silicon (Si), Aluminium
(Al), Beryllium (Be), and zirconium (Zr) increase the range
of α-phase (by lowering A4 and raising A3 temperatures).
• These elements have BCC crystal structure (or similar
structureof α phase ).
• These elements decrease the amount of carbon soluble in
austenite, and thus tend to increase the volume of the free
carbide in the steel for a given carbide content.

The Iron-Carbon system Slide 7

Effect of alloying elements on Austenite
phase region Mn, Cr
• Mn is Austenite stabilizer
• Expansion of (γ phase)
field with ↑ Mn

• Cr is Ferrite stabilizer
• Shrinking (γ phase)
field with ↑ Cr

The Iron-Carbon system Slide 8

Effect of alloying elements
Carbide forming – elements forming hard carbides or
nitrides in steels.
• Elements like chromium (Cr), tungsten (W), molybdenum
(Mo), vanadium (V), titanium (Ti), niobium (Nb), tantalum
(Ta), zirconium (Zr) form hard (often complex) carbides,
increasing steel hardness and strength.
• Examples: hot work tool steels, high speed steels.

Figure: The periodic table

showing the positions of
strong carbide-forming
elements

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 9

Effect of alloying elements on Fe-Fe3C
phase diagram
Graphitizing elements – decreasing stability of carbides,
promoting their breaking and formation of free Graphite.
• The following elements have graphitizing effect: silicon (Si),
nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), aluminum (Al).

Decrease of the eutectoid concentration.

• The following elements lower eutectoid concentration of
carbon: titanium (Ti), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W),
silicon (Si), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni).

Increase of corrosion resistance.

• Aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and chromium (Cr) form thin an
strong oxide film on the steel surface, protecting it from
chemical attacks.

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 10

Effect of other alloying elements on the
eutectoid alloy
• Additions of other alloying elements (Cr, Ni, Ti, etc.) bring about
rather dramatic changes in the binary iron–iron carbide phase
diagram.
• One of the important changes is the shift in position of the
eutectoid with respect to temperature and carbon
concentration.

• All the elements lower the eutectoid

carbon content. Titanium and
molybdenum are the most effective in
lowering it.
• For example, a steel with 5% Cr has its
eutectoid point at 0.5%C as compared to
0.76% in carbon steels.
• High speed steel has eutectoid point at
0.25% carbon.
The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 11
Effect of other alloying elements on the
eutectoid alloy
• Additions of other alloying elements (Cr, Ni, Ti, etc.) bring about
rather dramatic changes in the binary iron–iron carbide phase
diagram.
• One of the important changes is the shift in position of the
eutectoid with respect to temperature and carbon
concentration.

• Elements like Ni, Mn i.e., the

austenite stabilizers lower the
eutectoid temperature (727°C).
• Ferrite stabilizers like Cr, V,W etc.
raise the eutectoid temperature.

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 12

 Types of Steel
• Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon (less than 2%)
with a small percentage of other metals such as nickel,
chromium, aluminium, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten etc.
• There are many different types of steel classified on the basis
of the type of metal used and the percentage content of the
metal in the particular type of steel.

The Iron-Carbon system 13

Types of Steel
High-Carbon Steel
• Carbon steel is simply composed of iron and carbon with a more
percentage of carbon in it than the iron. It is probably the most
commonly
Mild Steel
• It is composed of iron and carbon but it has a very low content of
carbon.
Medium Carbon Steel
• The medium carbon steels has a normal content of carbon that
means that they are not as hard as the high carbon and neither are
they as strong the Mild carbon steel.
Stainless Steel
• Stain less steel is the most resistant and commonly used steel of all
the types. It apart from carbon contains 11% chromium and some
amount of nickel.
• It is probably the most resistant steel of all the types. The stainless
steel in particular is resistant to any sort of external attack. Even a
scratch cannot stay on the surface of stainless steel.

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 14

Types of Steel (Cont.’)
High Speed Steel
• High speed steel is an alloy of steel which may consists of either of the
following metals: tungsten, cobalt, molybdenum or chromium.
• High speed steel is probably the toughest of all the types.
• The term high speed is given to it due to the fact that it has the ability
to cut the metals.
Cobalt Steel
• Cobalt is much like the high speed steel with an excess of cobalt
present in it.
Nickel Chromium Steel
• Nickel chromium steel is has is a special type of steel which apart
from being strong s also shock resistant

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 15

Types of Steel (Cont.’)
Aluminium Steel
• Aluminium steel is smooth steel with a high content of
aluminium.
• Because of its strong and smooth surface it is used in the
making of furniture.
Chromium Steel
• Chromium steels have a high content of chromium and are
resistant to corrosion.
• They are very strong, tensile and elastic in nature.

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 16

Overview of steel making
Coke making Iron making Steel making

Basic Oxygen
Furnace
Coal Coke oven

Blast Furnace

Electric Arc
Furnace

Steel recycling Steel making

Steel is an alloy produced via two main methods

1. Integrated smelting involving blast furnace iron-making followed by
basic oxygen furnace
2. electric arc furnaces. The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 17
Blast Furnace steel making

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 18

Refinement of Steel from Ore
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2 CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C  2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3  CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3  slag

19
Basic Oxygen furnace
• In the basic oxygen furnace, the iron is
combined with varying amounts of
steel scrap (less than 30%) and small
amounts of flux.
• A lance is introduced in the vessel and
blows 99% pure oxygen causing a
temperature rise to 1700°C.
• The scrap melts, impurities are
oxidised, and the carbon content is
reduced by 90%, resulting in liquid
steel.

• Other processes can follow – secondary

steel-making processes – where the
properties of steel are determined by
the addition of other elements, such as
boron, chromium and molybdenum,
amongst others, ensuring the exact
specification can be met.
The Iron-Carbon system Slide 20
Electric Arc furnace steelmaking

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 21

Electric Arc Furnace
• The furnace is charged with steel
scrap, it can also include some
direct reduced iron (DRI) or pig
iron for chemical balance.
• The EAF operates on the basis of
an electrical charge between two
electrodes providing the heat for
the process.
• The power is supplied through
the electrodes placed in the
furnace, which produce an arc of
electricity through the scrap steel
(around 35 million watts), which
raises the temperature to 1600˚C,
melting the scrap.
• Any impurities may be removed
through the use of fluxes and
draining off slag through the
taphole (spout).
The Iron-Carbon system 22
Classification of steels by composition
Plain Carbon

Low carbon Steel (C < 0.25%);

Steel

Medium carbon Steel (C =0.25% to 0.6%);

High carbon steel (C > 0.6%).

Low alloy Steel

Alloy Steel
"alloy steel" is the standard term (alloying elements
referring to steels with other alloying < 8%)
elements added deliberately in
addition to the carbon to improve its High alloy steel
mechanical properties. (alloying elements
>8%)

The Iron-Carbon system 25

 Steel designation system
• American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) together with Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) have established four-digit designation
system (with additional letter prefixes) :
SAE 1XXX
First digit 1 indicates carbon steel (2-9 are used for alloy steels);
Second digit indicates modification of the steel.
0 - Plain carbon, non-modified
1 - Resulfurized What kind of steel is that?
2 - Resulfurized and rephosphorized AISI B1020
5 - Non-resulfurized, Mn over 1.0%
Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0.01%.
A letter prefix before the four-digit number indicates the steel making
technology: (A - Alloy, basic open hearth , B - Carbon, acid Bessemer, C -
Carbon, basic open hearth, D - Carbon, acid open hearth, and E - Electric
furnace)

The Iron-Carbon system II 26

Alloy steel designation
According to the four-digit classification SAE-AISI system:
• First digit indicates the class of the alloy steel:
2- Nickel steels;
3- Nickel-chromium steels;
4- Molybdenum steels;
5- Chromium steels;
6- Chromium-vanadium steels;
7- Tungsten-chromium steels;
9- Silicon-manganese steels.
• Second digit indicates concentration of the major element in
percents (1 means 1%).
• Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0,01%.
• Example: SAE 5130
means alloy chromium steel, containing 1% of chromium and
0.30% of carbon.

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 27

Classification of steel by application
Stainless steels:
AISI has established three-digit system for the
stainless steels:
2XX series – chromium-nickel-manganese
austenitic stainless steels;
3XX series – chromium-nickel austenitic stainless
steels;
4XX series – chromium martensitic stainless
steels or ferritic stainless steels;
5XX series – low chromium martensitic stainless
steels;
The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 28
Classification of steel by application
Tool and die steels:
Designation system of one-letter in combination with a
number is accepted for tool steels.
The letter means:
W – Water hardened plain carbon tool steels;
O – Oil hardening cold work alloy steels;
A – Air hardening cold work alloy steels;
D – Diffused hardening cold work alloy steels;
S – Shock resistant low carbon tool steels;
T – High speed tungsten tool steels;
M – High speed molybdenum tool steels;
H – Hot work tool steels;
P – Plastic mold tool steels.

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 29

 - ferrite
Liquid

Eutectic point
L+γ
L+Fe3C
γ - Austenite

γ+Fe3C

 - ferrite
+Fe3C

The Iron-Carbon system Slide 31

Eutectic reaction:
@1148 °C and 4.3% wt Carbon
L  γ+Fe3C
The liquid (melt) will transform into the eutectic structure
(Ledoburite) which is layers of austenite γ and cementite
Fe3C

Ledeburite develop under

relatively fast cooling conditions
and is known as white cast iron
because of its shiny cross
section.

Ledoburite mixture

The Iron-Carbon system II Slide 32

 727°C

A4
727°C 1147°C

A2

727°C 727°C

0.76 %

The Iron-Carbon system Slide 33

Cast Irons
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
• more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
• Low melting – relatively easy to cast
• Generally brittle

• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe (α) + C (graphite)

• generally a slow process

• For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite, and
both microstructure and mechanical behavior depend on
composition and heat treatment.
• The most common cast iron types are gray, nodular, white,
malleable, and compacted graphite.

34
 Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
T(°C)
1600

Graphite formation L
1400 Liquid +
promoted by Graphite
γ+L
1200 γ
• Si > 1 wt% Austenite
1153°C
4.2 wt% C

• slow cooling 1000

+γ γ + Graphite
800
740°C
0.65
600
Fig. 13.2, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
 + Graphite
[Adapted from Binary Alloy Phase
Diagrams, T. B. Massalski (Editor-in-
400
Chief), 1990. Reprinted by permission of
0 1 2 3 4 90 100
ASM International, Materials Park, OH.] (Fe) C, wt% C

35
Types of Cast Iron
Figs. 13.3(c) & (d),
White iron

Courtesy of Amcast Industrial Corporation

Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
• < 1 wt% Si
• pearlite + cementite
• very hard and brittle
• Not machinable
• App.: rollers in rolling mills

Malleable iron

Iron Castings Society, Des Plaines, IL

Reprinted with permission of the
• heat treat white iron at 800-900°C
• graphite in rosettes in ferrite or pearlite
Matrix.
• reasonably strong and ductile
• App.: connecting rods, transmission gears

36
 Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Gray iron
• graphite flakes

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD]

Smith, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC (now the National Institute of Standards
Figs. 13.3(a) & (b), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [Courtesy of C. H. Brady and L. C.
• weak & brittle in tension
• stronger in compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant
• App.: Base structures for machines and heavy
equipment

Ductile (Nodular) iron

• add Mg and/or Ce
• graphite as nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite – stronger and more
ductile than gray iron
• Typical applications for this material include
valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and
other automotive and machine components.
37
 Production of Cast Irons

Fig.13.5, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Adapted from W. G. Moffatt, G. W.
Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p.
195. Copyright © 1964 by John Wiley &
Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

39
Non equilibrium cooling
• In this discussion of the microstructural development of
iron–carbon alloys, it has been assumed that, upon
cooling, conditions of metastable equilibrium have been
continuously maintained; that is, sufficient time has been
allowed at each new temperature for any necessary
adjustment in phase compositions and relative amounts
as predicted from the Fe–Fe3C phase diagram.
• In most situations these cooling rates are impractically
slow and unnecessary; in fact, on many occasions
nonequilibrium conditions are desirable.
• Two nonequilibrium effects of practical importance are
(1) the occurrence of phase changes or transformations at
temperatures other than those predicted by phase
boundary lines on the phase diagram, and
(2) the existence at room temperature of nonequilibrium
phases that do not appear on the phase diagram.

The Iron-Carbon system Slide 40