CHEM5519

Testing of Construction Materials

Ferrous Steel

Speaker: John Ho
 Iron steel

Steel (Iron steel) has 90% world production

due to good strength, toughness and
relatively low cost
 Production of Iron steel

Iron ore + coke Fe + CO2

Pigiron with
4% carbon
Production of Iron steel
Steel production
Pigiron oxidize carbon and other impurities
Steel
Production of Iron steel

pure oxygen
Pigiron + steel scrap + lime FeO

FeO carbon inside pigiron Fe + CO + slag

steel with used in
designated cement
carbon content production
Production of Iron steel
Phase diagram
Steel contains 0.8% C is termed
eutectoid steel
Steel contains >0.8% C is
termed hypereutectoid steel
Steel contain <0.8%C is termed
hypoeutectoid steel
Heat treatment
 Heat treatment

Figure shows Austenite (FCC) structure

with a carbon atom in large interstitial hole.
 Heat treatment

Figure shows a-ferrite (BCC). No room for

carbon atom.
 Heat treatment
A. Eutectoid plain carbon steel (0.8% C)
1. Heat up to >750°C for sufficient time to form g-
austenite
2. Cool very slowly to just above 736°C (remain
as austenite)
3. Cool just below eutectoid temperature to form
a-ferrite (pearlite) and Fe3C (cementite)
4. Cool to room temperature
Heat treatment
 Heat treatment
B. Hypoeutectoid plain carbon steel (0.4% C)
1. Heat up to 900°C for sufficient time to form
austenite.
2. Cool slowly to point b (~775°C) to form proeutectoid
ferrite nucleate & grow at austenite boundaries
3. Cool to point c (>723°C), proectectoid ferrite
continue to grow until 50% austenite transformed.
4. Cool below 723°C to form proeutectoid ferrite +
ferrite(pearlite) + Fe3C.
Heat treatment
 Heat treatment
C. Hypereutectoid plain carbon steel (1.2% C)
1. Heat up to 900°C to form austenite.
2. Cool very slowly to point b to form proeutectoid
cementite nucleate which grow at austenite grain
boundaries.
3. Cool to point c (just above 723°C), more
proeutectoid cementite formed.
4. Cool just below 723°C to form matrix of pearlite
+ proeutectoid cementite formed. above 723°C
Heat treatment
 Heat treatment
Pearlite

α
Hypoeutectoid Pearlite Eutectoid

Pearlite
Hypereutectoid
 Heat treatment
D. Rapid quenching - Formation of Fe-C martensite
1. Steel heat to form austenite.
2. Rapid cooled to room temperature with water to
form martensite (metastable phase containing a
supersaturated interstitial solid solution of
carbon).
 Heat treatment

Figure shows Martensite (BCT; distorted

BCC by carbon)
 Heat treatment

Lath martensite contains different but limited orientation.

Plate martensite vary in size and have fine structure and surrounded
by untransformed austenite.
Heat treatment

Loss hardness due to

formation of austenite
(softer than martensite)
 Heat treatment
Heat treatment temperature
• Just below 723°C è coarse pearlite.
• 723 - 550°C è fine pearlite.
• 550-250°C è bainite (intermediate between
pearlite and martensite).
• Room temperature è martensite.
 Annealing and Normalizing of carbon
steel
A. Full annealing
1. Heat hypoeutectoid steel to 40°C above
eutectoid temperature.
2. Cool to form proeutectoid ferrite + pearlite +
cementite.
 Annealing and Normalizing of carbon
steel
B. Normalizing
1. Heat to above eutectoid temperature
2. Air cool to form proeutectoid ferrite + fine
pearlite
Purpose: (i) refine the grain structure
(ii) increase the strength of steel
(compare to annealed steel)
(iii) to produce more uniform structure
 Annealing and Normalizing of carbon
steel
C. Tempering (for martensite steel)
1. Heat to form austenite and quench in water to form
martensite.
2. Heat up to temperature just below eutectoid temperature
to soften the martensite by transforming into fine
cementite particles in matrix of ferrite.
Effect of tempering:
reduce hardness by releasing carbon from BCT to form
second phase of cementite.
 Annealing and Normalizing of carbon
steel

D. Martempering (prevent uneven temperature

during quenching that causes crack)
1. Austenilizing the steel
2. Quench in hot oil or molten salt bath just above
or below temperature of austenite
transformation (Ms)
3. Hold until uniform in temperature but before
austenite-bainite formation
 Annealing and Normalizing of carbon
steel
4. Cool in moderate rate to room temperature.
5. The product is martempered steel, then go
through tempering procedure to form
tempered martensite.

Martemper and temper steel’s impact resistance

≅ 2 x water quench and temper
 Annealing and Normalizing of carbon
steel
E. Austempering
1. Austenilizing the steel.
2. Quench in hot oil or molten salt bath above or
below Ms.
3. Allow isothermal transformation of all
austenite to bainite.
4. Cool to room temperature.
 Annealing and Normalizing of carbon
steel

Purpose: has better ductility and impact resistance

Disadvantage: special salt bath and limit to

number of steel
 Naming of carbon steel
AISI-SAE code 10xx:
“10” represent plain carbon steel; “xx” represent
%C

e.g. AISI-SAE 1030 steel is a plain carbon steel

with 0.30%C

AISI - “American Iron and Steel Institute”

SAE - “Society for Automotive Engineers”
 Application of carbon steel
Low carbon steel 1010 : used for sheet material,
body panels for automobiles (good ductile)

Medium carbon steel 1020-1040 : used for shafts

and gears (stronger in strength but less ductile)

High carbon steel 1060-1095 : used for springs,

die blocks, cutters shear blades (harder)
 Limitation of plain carbon
steel
• Cannot strengthened beyond about 100,000psi without
substantial loss of ductility and impact resistance.
• Large section thickness of plain carbon steel cannot be
produces with a martensite structure.
• Low corrosion and oxidation resistance.
• Medium-carbon plain carbon steel need rapid
quenching -> distortion & crack
• Has poor impact resistance at low temperature
 Alloy Steel
Alloy steel
Fe, C + some alloy elements (up to 50% w/w)

Alloy steel has higher cost but has advantage over

plain carbon steel for certain engineering
requirement.
 Alloy Steel
13xx Manganese 1.75
40xx Molybdenum 0.20 to 0.25; or Molybdenum 0.25 and sulfur 0.042
41xx Chromium 0.50, 0.80 or 0.95, molybdenum 0.12, 0.20 or 0.30
43xx Nickel 1.82, chromium 0.50 to 0.80, molybdenum 0.25
44xx Molybdenum 0.53
46xx Nickel 0.85 to 1.83, molybdenum 0.20 to 0.25
47xx Nickel 1.05, chromium 0.45, molybdenum 0.20 to 0.35
48xx Nickel 3.50, molybdenum 0.25
50xx Chromium 0.40
51xx Chromium 0.80, 0.88, 0.93, 0.95, or 1.00
51xxx Chromium 1.03
52xxx Chromium 1.45
61xx Chromium 0.60 to 0.95, vanadium 0.13 or min 0.15
86xx Nickel 0.55, chromium 0.50, molybdenum 0.20
87xx Nickel 0.55, chromium 0.50, molybdenum 0.25
88xx Nickel 0.55, chromium 0.50, molybdenum 0.35
92xx Silicon 2.00; or silicon 1.40 and chromium 0.70
50Bxx* Chromium 0.28 or 0.50
51Bxx* Chromium 0.80
81Bxx* Nickel 0.30, chromium 0.45, molybdenum 0.12
 Alloy Steel
Dissolved in Combined in Combined as
Element Compound Elemental
ferrite carbide carbide
Nickel Ni Ni3Al
Silicon Si SiO2.MxOy
Manganese Mn Mn (Fe,Mn)3C MnS; MnO.SiO2
Chromium Cr Cr (Fe, Cr)3C
Cr7C3
Cr23C6
Molybdenum Mo Mo Mo2C
Tungsten W W W2C
Vanadium V V V4C3
Titanium Ti Ti TiC
Columbium Cb Cb CbC
Aluminum Al Al2O3; AlN
Copper Cu (small
amount)

Lead Pb
 Alloy Steel
Some elements lower the eutectoid temperature
e.g. Mn & Ni, they are called austenite
stabilising element

Some elements raise the eutectoid temperature

e.g. W, Mo & Ti, they are called ferrite
stabilising element
 Stainless Steel
Stainless steel
• Excellent corrosion resistance due to high
chromium content (>12%).
• Chromium oxide protect the underlying iron-
chromium alloy.
• To protect this protective coating, stainless steel
must be exposed to oxidizing agent.
 Stainless Steel

There are four types of stainless steel:

• Ferritic
• Martensitic
• Austenitic
• Precipitation-hardening
 Stainless Steel
A. Ferritic Stainless Steel (430 type SS)
• ~12-30% Cr + Fe (binary system)
• contains mostly ferritic (BCC, a-iron type) since
Cr also form BCC crystal structure
Advantage
• Low cost since not contain Nickel
• Good corrosion and heat resistance
• Annealed ferritic SS has carbides as precipitate
that reduce its corrosion resistance
 Stainless Steel
B. Martensitic Stainless Steel (410 & 440C type SS)
• ~12-17% Cr + 0.15 to 1% C.
• contains carbon. Austenitizing followed by
quenching to form martensitic structure.
• Better control of strength and hardness.
• Corrosion resistance is relatively poor than
ferritic and austenitic steel.
• Highest hardness among all corrosion resisting
steel.
 Stainless Steel
C. Austenitic SS
• contains 16-25% Cr and 7 to 20% Ni
• has austenitic structure (FCC, g-iron type) at
all normal heat treatment temperature since
Ni has FCC structure retained at room
temperature
• better corrosion resistance than both ferritic &
martensitic SS
 Stainless Steel
• better ductility
• solid solution of carbon can be retained even
by rapid cooling to room temperature
• when welded or cooled slowly through 870 to
600°C, Cr carbide will be precipitates at the
grain boundaries intergranular
corrosion. Problem can be reduced by adding
Nb to combine the carbon
 Stainless Steel
D. Precipitation hardening SS
• addition of copper, molybdenum, aluminium
and titanium either singly or in combination.
• three main types - low carbon martensitic, semi-
austenitic and austenitic
‣ The martensitic PH steels transform to
martensite at low temperatures, typically
around 250°C, and are further strengthened
by ageing at between 480 and 620°C.
 Stainless Steel
‣ The austenitic-martensitic PH steels are essentially fully
austenitic after solution treatment and require a second heat
cycle to 750°C/2 hours before cooling to room temperature
to form martensite. Some of these alloys need to be
refrigerated (-50/-60°C for eight hours) following this heat
treatment to ensure full transformation to a stable
austenitic/martensitic structure.
‣ Ageing of these alloys occurs at temperatures between 500
to 600°C. The austenitic grades are stable down to room
temperature, improvements in strength being from the
precipitates formed by ageing at 650 to 750°C. These fully
austenitic grades can exhibit good toughness.
 Stainless Steel

• has combination of high strength, corrosion

resistance.
• used in the oil and gas, nuclear and aerospace
industries.
 Elements in
Stainless Steel
• Carbon (C): Iron is alloyed with carbon to
make steel and has the effect of increasing the
hardness and strength of iron. Pure iron
cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat
treatment but the addition of carbon enables a
wide range of hardness and strength. In
Austenitic and Ferritic stainless steels a high
carbon content is undesirable, especially for
welding due to the threat of carbide
precipitation.
 Elements in
Stainless Steel

• Manganese (Mn): Manganese is added to steel

to improve hot working properties and
increase strength, toughness and
hardenability. Manganese, like nickel, is an
Austenite forming element and has been used
as a substitute for nickel in the AISI200 Series
of Austenitic Stainless Steels, e.g. AISI 202 as a
substitute for AISI 304.
 Elements in
Stainless Steel
• Chromium (Cr): Chromium is added to steel to
increase resistance to oxidation. This resistance
increases as more chromium is added. 'Stainless
Steels have a minimum of 10.5% Chromium
(traditionally 11 or 12%). This gives a very marked
degree of general corrosion resistance when
compared to steels with a lower percentage of
Chromium. The corrosion resistance is due to the
formation of a self-repairing passive layer of
Chromium Oxide on the surface of the stainless
steel.
 Elements in
Stainless Steel

• Nickel (Ni): Nickel is added in large amounts,

over about 8%, to high Chromium stainless steels
to form the most important class of corrosion and
heat resisting steels. These are the Austenitic
stainless steels, typified by 18-8 (304/1.4301),
where the tendency of Nickel to form Austenite is
responsible for a great toughness (impact
strength) and high strength at both high and low
temperatures. Nickel also greatly improves
resistance to oxidation and corrosion.
 Elements in
Stainless Steel

• Molybdenum (Mo): Molybdenum, when

added to chromium-nickel austenitic steels,
improves resistance to pitting and crevice
corrosion especially in chlorides and sulphur
containing environments.
 Elements in
Stainless Steel

• Nitrogen (N): Nitrogen has the effect of

increasing the Austenite stability of stainless
steels and is, as in the case of Nickel, an
Austenite forming element. Yield strength is
greatly improved when nitrogen is added to
stainless steels as is resistance to pitting
corrosion.
 Elements in
Stainless Steel

• Phosphorus (P): Phosphorus is usually added

with sulphur, to improve machinability. The
Phosphorus present in Austenitic stainless
steels increases strength. However, it has a
detrimental effect on corrosion resistance and
increases the tendency of the material to crack
during welding.
 Elements in
Stainless Steel

• Sulphur (S): When added in small amounts

Sulphur improves machinability. However,
like Phosphorous it has a detrimental effect on
corrosion resistance and weldability.
• Silicon (Si): Silicon is used as a deoxidising
(killing) agent in the melting of steel and as a
result most steels contain a small percentage
of Silicon.
 Chemical analysis of Steel

Stainless steel
• C, S, Si, P, Mn, Ni, Cr and Mo
• Methods include wet chemistry (C-S analyzer,
AAS, UV/Vis and ICP-OES); spectrometric
(Electric arc OES spectrometer, X-ray
fluorescence analyzer)
 Chemical analysis of Steel
A. Wet chemistry analysis
• Carbon content (ASTM E350)
Sample reacts with pure oxygen to form
carbon dioxide which is determined by
volumetric method or infrared detector.
 Chemical analysis of Steel
• Sulfur content (ASTM E350)
Sample reacts with pure oxygen to form
sulfur dioxide which is determined by
titrimetric method or infrared detector.
• Silicon content (ASTM E350)
Sample is dissolved in acid, silicic acid is
dehydrated by perchloric acid. The separated
impure silica reacts with HF. The weight loss
represent the silicon content.
 Chemical analysis of Steel
• Phosphorus content (ASTM E350)
Sample is dissolved and fumed with
perchloric acid. Phosphorus forms complex
with ammonium molybdate and determined
by UV/Vis spectrometer.
 Chemical analysis of Steel
• Mo, Mn, Cr and Ni content (ASTM E350)
Sample is dissolved and the individual metal
content is determined by AAS or ICP-OES.
 Chemical analysis of Steel
B. Electric arc OES spectrometer
• Polished metal surface material is evaporated
by high voltage electric arc under Argon
atmosphere. The excited elements emits their
characteristic wavelength light.
 Chemical analysis of Steel
C. X-ray Fluorescence analyzer
• Sample material is excited by bombarding
high energy X-ray and then emit their
characteristic “secondary” (or fluorescence) X-
ray. The concentration of individual elements
is proportional to the intensity of the emitted
light.
 Comparison of methods
Method Pros Cons

Wet chemistry Continuous dynamic range

‣ Higher technical skill
‣ Long turn around time

Spark ‣ Discrete dynamic range

Spectrometer, High efficiency ‣ Not accurate for certain
XRF elements
Chemical analysis of Steel
% in Weight
Elements Maximum unless range is specified
304 316
Carbon 0.08 0.08
Manganese 2 2
Phosphorus 0.045 0.045
Sulfur 0.03 0.03
Silicon 0.75 0.75
Chromium 18.00 - 20.00 16.00 - 18.00
Nickel 8.00 - 10.50 10.00 - 14.00
Aluminum 0.1 -
Molybdenum - 2.00 - 3.00
Nitrogen - 0.1
Chemical analysis of Steel
% in Weight
Maximum unless range is specified
Elements

Y 250

Carbon 0.24

Phosphorus 0.055

Sulfur 0.055

Copper 0.85

Nitrogen 0.014
 Chemical analysis of Steel
Carbon Equivalent Value
• convert other alloy element to carbon equivalent content
since Fe/C steel system is better understood. CE value is
commonly used in welding.
Chemical analysis of Steel

Carbon Equivalent (CE) Weldability

Up to 0.35 Excellent

0.36 - 0.40 Very good

0.41 - 0.45 Good

0.46 - 0.50 Fair

Over 0.50 Poor