CHAPTER 01 CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

1.1 Characteristics of living organisms

1. Describe the characteristics of living organisms by describing: (Remember Mrs. Gren)
a. movement as an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of
position or place
i. an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or
place
b. respiration as the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and
release energy for metabolism
i. the chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to
release energy for metabolism
c. sensitivity as the ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal or external
environment
i. the ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external environment and to
make appropriate responses
d. growth as a permanent increase in size and dry mass
i. a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell
size or both
e. reproduction as the processes that make more of the same kind of organism
i. the processes that make more of the same kind of organism
f. excretion as the removal of the waste products of metabolism and substances in excess of
requirements
i. the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism
(chemical reactions in cells including respiration) and substances in excess of
requirements
g. nutrition as the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development
i. the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants require
light, carbon dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic compounds, ions and
usually need water

1.2 Concepts and uses of classification systems

1. State that organisms can be classified into groups by the features that they share
2. Describe a species as a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring
3. Describe the binomial system of naming species
a. an internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of an organism is made up
of two parts showing the genus and species
b. The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalized, and the species are not.
4. Construct and use dichotomous keys based on identifiable features supplement
a. use visible features to classify organisms. The classification system will give you a
choice of two features, and you follow the one that applies: each option leads to another
option until the organism is narrowed down to its genus and species.
5. Explain that classification systems aim to reflect evolutionary relationships
6. Explain that the sequences of bases in DNA are used as a means of classification
 7. Explain that groups of organisms which share a more recent ancestor (are more closely
related) have base sequences in DNA that are more similar than those that share only a
distant ancestor

1.3 Features of organisms

1. State the main features used to place animals and plants into the appropriate kingdoms
a. Kingdom → Phylum → Classes → Orders → Families → Genus → Species.
2. State the main features used to place organisms into groups within the animal kingdom, limited
to:
a. the main groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish
i. Specified in number 3
b. the main groups of arthropods: myriapods, insects, arachnids, crustaceans.
i. Specified in number 2
3. Classify organisms using the main groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians,
fish
a. Mammals
i. Fur/hair on the skin
ii. External ears (pinna)
iii. Internal fertilization , giving the birth of young
iv. Mammary glands
b. Reptiles
i. Thick, dry, scaly skin
ii. Usually four legs
iii. Internal fertilization, conception from egg
iv. Soft-shelled eggs
c. Fish
i. Wet scales
ii. Streamlined body shape
iii. External fertilization and soft eggs
iv. Uses gills to breathe
d. Amphibians
i. Smooth, moist skin
ii. External fertilization and soft eggs
iii. Gills & Lungs can live on land and water
iv. Most have four legs
e. Birds
i. Feathers on body and scales on legs
ii. Constant internal body temperature
iii. Hard eggs
iv. Internal fertilization, birth through eggs
4. The main groups of arthropods: myriapods, insects, arachnids, crustaceans. All anthropods have
exoskeleton, jointed legs and segmented body
a. Myriapods
i. This includes the centipedes and millipedes.
 ii. Have a long, thin body with many segments for moving easily through soil and
leaf litter
Have no obvious thorax and abdomen
Each segment has jointed legs (less then 9 pairs)
1 pair of antennae used as sense organs in dark habitats
Have simple eys
b. Insect
i. have exoskeleton and tracheae, which are very good at stopping water from
evaporating from insects’s body, so they can live in very dry places.
ii. Have 3 pairs of jointed legs
1 or 2 pair of wings
1 pair of antannei
3 body parts: Head, Thorax, Abdomen
A pair of compound eyes
Breath through tracheae
c. Arachnids
i. These are spiders, ticks and scorpions. They are land-dwelling organisms.
ii. 4 pairs of legs
No wings
Several pairs of simple eyes
All have piercing jaws since all are predator
Have pointed mouthparts for biting and poisoning prey
d. Crustaceans
i. These are the crabs, lobsters and
woodlice. They breath through gills, so
most of them live in wet places and
many are aquatic.
ii. Have less then 4 pairs of legs
2 pairs of antennae
Exostelen hardened to form a
particularly hard for protection
Compound eyes
Breathe via gills and they live in water
5. State the main features used to place all organisms into one of the five kingdoms: animal, plant,
fungus, prokaryote, protoctista
a. Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird,
newt, etc.
b. Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make their food) organism with a
cellulose cell wall and chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
c. Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic and saprotrophic organisms with
cell walls not made of cellulose, spread by spreading spores in moist/dark/warm
environments. Most have hyphae and mycelium in structure. Ex: yeast, mushrooms.
d. Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true nucleus or DNA in the cytoplasm.
Many also have plasmids. Ex: E.coli, Salmonella.
 e. Protist or Protoctist: Single-celled organism with a nucleus. Eukaryotes. Some are
multicellular. Ex: Amoeba, seaweed, flagellum
6. State the main features used to place organisms into groups within the plant kingdom, limited to
ferns and flowering plants (dicotyledons and monocotyledons)
a. Ferns
i. Do not produce flowers/seeds
ii. They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves
iii. Reproduce by spores
b. Flowering plants
i. They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
ii. Reproduce by means of flowers and seeds
iii. Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower
7. Classify organisms using the features identified in 1.3.4 and 1.3.5
8. State the features of viruses, limited to a protein coat and genetic material
a. Viruses are not part of any classification system due to not being considered living things.
b. They do not carry out the seven life processes for themselves; instead, they take over a
host cell’s metabolic pathways to make multiple copies of themselves.
c. Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA or DNA) inside a protein coat.
d. Viruses do not contain mitochondria and ribosomes.
CHAPTER 02 ORGANIZATION OF THE ORGANISMS
2.1 Cell Structure
1. Describe and compare the structure of a plant cell with an animal cell, limited to: cell wall, cell
membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, ribosomes, mitochondria, vacuoles.
a. All living things are made of cells.
b. New cells are produced by
the division of existing cells
c. All typical eukaryotic cells
(multicellular) have:
i. Cell Membrane:
controls movement
in and out of cells
ii. Cytoplasm: where
chemical reactions
take place
iii. Nucleus: contains
DNA (genetic
material) and
controls the cell
iv. Mitochondria:
where aerobic
respiration happens
v. Ribosome: allows protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
vi. Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it looks rough under the
microscope.
Remember a typical animal cell has all of the organelles listed above.
d. Plant cells specifically have (animal cells don't have these organelles):
i. Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid (swollen)
ii. Cell Wall: rigid to hold the
shape of the cell, strengthens
the cell
iii. Chloroplasts: contain
chlorophyll, which absorbs
light energy for photosynthesis
2. Describe the structure of a bacterial cell,
limited to: cell wall, cell membrane,
cytoplasm, ribosomes, circular DNA, plasmids
a. Prokaryotes (Unicellular) DO NOT
have mitochondria and a true nucleus.
i. A bacterial cell only contains
a cell wall made of
peptidoglycan, cell membrane,
cytoplasm, ribosomes, and
plasmids.
 ii. It lacks a nucleus and is represented by a circular chromosome of DNA.
iii. Plasmids are small, circular rings of DNA in the cytoplasm with extra genes
outside the chromosomal DNA.
3. Identify the cell structures listed in diagrams and images of plant, animal and bacterial cells
4. Describe the functions of the structures listed in plant, animal and bacterial cells
5. State that specialized cells have specific functions, limited to:
a. ciliated cells – movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi
b. root hair cells – absorption
c. palisade mesophyll cells – photosynthesis
d. neurones – conduction of electrical impulses
e. red blood cells – transport of oxygen
f. sperm and egg cells (gametes) – reproduction
6. Describe the meaning of the terms: cell, tissue, organ, organ system
and organism
a. Cells: Building Blocks of Life
b. Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
together to perform a shared function
c. Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a
specific function
d. Organ system: Group of organs with related functions
working together to perform body functions.
2.2 Size of specimens
1. State and use the formula: magnification = image size ÷ actual size
a. Image size = magnification x actual size
b. Magnification = image size ÷ actual size
2. Calculate magnification and size of biological specimens using millimeters as units
3. Convert measurements between millimeters (mm) and micrometers (μm)
a. 1cm = 10mm
b. 1mm = 1000μm
c. 1μm = 0.001mm
Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)
CHAPTER 03 MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF CELLS
3.1 Diffusion
1. Describe diffusion as the net movement of particles from a region of
their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration
(i.e. down a concentration gradient), as a result of their random
movement.
2. State that the energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
random movement of molecules and ions
3. State that some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
through the cell membrane
4. Describe the importance of diffusion of gases and solutes in living organisms
a. The diffusion of gases is what makes gas exchange possible
5. Investigate the factors that influence diffusion, limited to: surface area, temperature, concentration
gradient and distance
a. Concentration gradient
b. Temperature
c. Surface area to volume ratio
d. Distance
3.2 Osmosis
1. Describe the role of water as a solvent in organisms with reference to digestion, excretion and
transport.
2. State that water diffuses through partially permeable membranes by osmosis.
a. Net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute
solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially
permeable membrane.
3. State that water moves into and out of cells by osmosis through the cell membrane.
4. Investigate osmosis using materials such as dialysis tubing.
a. Dialysis Tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living, partially permeable membrane made
from cellulose.
b. Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large molecules (such as sucrose) but
allow smaller molecules (such as glucose and water) to pass through by diffusion and
osmosis.
5. Investigate and describe the effects on plant tissues of immersing them in solutions of different
concentrations.
a. Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the cell to become turgid, and the
vacuole fills up. The cell wall can withstand the higher turgor pressure.
b. Decreasing solute concentration inside of the cell causes the cell to become flaccid,
losing water, and the vacuole gets smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from the
cell wall.
c. Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the cells pressing outwards on the cell
wall.
6. Active Transport: Movement of particles through a cell membrane from a lower concentration
region to a higher concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient), using energy from
respiration.
CHAPTER 04 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
4.1 Biological Molecules
1. List the chemical elements that make up: carbohydrates, fats and proteins
2. State that large molecules are made from smaller molecules, limited to:
a. tarch, glycogen and cellulose from glucose
b. proteins from amino acids
c. fats and oils from fatty acids and glycerol
3. Describe the use of:
a. iodine solution test for starch
i. A blue-black color results if starch is present. If starch amylose is not present,
then the color will stay orange or yellow
b. Benedict’s solution test for reducing sugars
i. Benedict's solution turns orange in the presence of a reducing sugar
c. biuret test for proteins
i. If the solution turns purple, it contains protein.
d. ethanol emulsion test for fats and oils
i. A cloudy white emulsion will form if lipids are present. If lipids are absent, no
emulsion will form.
e. DCPIP test for vitamin C Supplement
i. If vitamin C is present, the blue dye, which turns pink in acid conditions, is
reduced to a colorless compound by the ascorbic acid.
4. Describe the structure of a DNA
molecule:
a. two strands coiled together to
form a double helix
b. each strand contains chemicals
called bases
c. bonds between pairs of bases
hold the strands together
d. the bases always pair up in the
same way: A with T, and C
with G
i. Adenine and Thymine
ii. Cytosine and Guanine
CHAPTER 05 Enzymes
1. Describe catalyst
a. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not changed
by the reaction
2. Describe enzymes
a. Enzymes are proteins that are involved in all metabolic reactions, where they function as
biological catalysts
3. Describe why enzymes are important in all living organisms in terms of a reaction rate necessary
to sustain life
a. They act as catalysts, which means that they make biochemical reactions happen faster
than they would otherwise. Without enzymes, those reactions simply would not occur or
would run too slowly to sustain life.
4. Describe enzyme action with reference to the shape of the active site of an enzyme being
complementary to its substrate and the formation of products
a. In a reaction, you generally have two types of chemicals: the reactants and the products.
b. The reactants react together to form the products.
c. In an enzymatic reaction (i.e. a reaction catalysed by an enzyme), the reactants are known
as ‘substrates’.
d. Enzymes work on substrates to form products.
e. Enzymes have an ‘active site’ – this is the part of the enzyme that binds to the substrate.
Every enzyme’s active site is ‘specific’. This means that one particular active site can
only bind to one type of substrate

f. The shape of the active site is ‘complementary’ to its substrates – this means that the
substrate(s) fits into the enzyme in the same way a key fits into a lock. This
complementary nature is what makes the enzyme specific to a substrate.
g. So, in a reaction, the substrate will be randomly moving around. As a result of this
random motion, the substrate will collide with and bind to an enzyme that it is specific to.
This results in the formation of an enzyme-substrate complex. The enzyme then catalyses
the reaction – either breaking up a substrate (a catabolic reaction) or joining two
substrates together (an anabolic reaction).
h. It then releases the products, to make space for more substrates, so that the enzyme can
catalyse more reactions.
 5. Investigate and describe the effect of changes in temperature and pH on enzyme activity with
reference to optimum temperature and denaturation
a. Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and lowering temperature slows
down a reaction. However, extreme high temperatures can cause an enzyme to lose its
shape (denature) and stop working. pH: Each enzyme has an optimum pH range.
Changing the pH outside of this range will slow enzyme activity.
6. Explain enzyme action with reference to: active site, enzyme-substrate complex, substrate and
product
a. The induced fit model states an substrate binds to an active site and both change shape
slightly, creating an ideal fit for catalysis. When an enzyme binds its substrate it forms an
enzyme-substrate complex
7. Explain the specificity of enzymes in terms of the complementary shape and fit of the active site
with the substrate
a. The positions, sequences, structures, and properties of these residues create a very
specific chemical environment within the active site. A specific chemical substrate
matches this site like a jigsaw puzzle piece and makes the enzyme specific to its
substrate.
8. Explain the effect of changes in temperature on enzyme activity in terms of kinetic energy, shape
and fit, frequency of effective collisions and denaturation
a. Above a certain temperature (above the optimum point ~37 degrees) the high temp breaks
the Hydrogen bonds in the active sight, changing the shape of the enzyme, so it can no
longer bind to its substrate . The reaction slows and stops. The enzyme no longer works,
this is known as DENATURING.
9. Explain the effect of changes in pH on enzyme activity in terms of shape and fit and denaturation
a. Enzymes function best at their optimum pH. The further away the pH of the environment
is from the enzyme's optimum pH, the more enzymes slow down and denature. This
causes the active site to lose its shape, so the substrate(s) can no longer fit into the active
site. This causes enzyme activity to fall.

CHAPTER 06 Plant Nutrition

6.1 Photosynthesis
1. Describe photosynthesis
a. the process by which plants synthesise carbohydrates from raw materials using energy
from light
2. State the word equation and chemical equation for photosynthesis
a. carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen in the presence of light and chlorophyll
b. 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
3. State what chlorophyll is
a. a green pigment that is found in chloroplasts
 b. Chlorophyll is a green dye that traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy to
form carbohydrates and their subsequent storage.
4. State that chlorophyll transfers energy from light into energy in chemicals, for the synthesis of
carbohydrates
5. Outline the subsequent use and storage of the carbohydrates made in photosynthesis, limited to:
a. starch as an energy store
b. cellulose to build cell walls
c. glucose used in respiration to provide energy
d. sucrose for transport in the phloem (e) nectar to attract insects for pollination
6. Explain the importance of:
a. nitrate ions for making amino acids
b. magnesium ions for making chlorophyll
7. Investigate the need for chlorophyll
a. Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
leaves.
b. De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness
for about 48 hours.
c. Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
d. Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell
walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier
penetration by ethanol.
e. Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation
f. Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf
g. The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added.
h. If starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it will remain brown
8. Investigate light for photosynthesis using, appropriate controls
a. De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 hours
b. Place a stencil over part of a leaf
c. Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
d. Remove the stencil and test for starch
e. If light is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it will remain brown.
9. Investigate carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, using appropriate controls
a. Take two de-starched potted plants.
b. Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and B.
c. Inside A, keep NaHCO3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It produces CO2.
Inside B, keep NaOH (Sodium Hydroxde). It produces CO2.
d. Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight for at least 6 hours
e. The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch test
10. Investigate and describe the effects of varying light intensity
a. As the amount of light increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases
b. The limiting factor is light
c. Increasing the amount of light after a certain point does not affect the rate
 d. The limiting factor is now carbon dioxide or temperature
11. Investigate and describe the effect of light and dark conditions on gas exchange in an aquatic
plant using hydrogencarbonate indicator solution
a. Hydrogencarbonate indicator: measures the carbon dioxide concentration
i. Key: purple being the lowest carbon dioxide concentration, and yellow the
highest.