The energy source for the system will determine which type of component is required at each

stage. If the energy source is compressed air the components will need to be pneumatic
components and these will combine to produce a pneumatic system. If the energy source is
electricity the components will need to be electrical or electronic and these will combine to
produce an electronic or electrical system. The energy input into a system can be:

Movement - (mechanical systems),

Oil/water under pressure - (hydraulic systems),
Air under pressure - (pneumatic systems),
Electricity - (electrical or electronic systems).

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

MOVEMENT
There are four basic kinds of motion, or movements:

Linear motion Reciprocating motion Oscillating Rotary motion

movement in a movement backwards motion a circular motion.
straight line and in and forwards in a
one direction straight line a swinging back
and forth

GEARS

Gears are wheels with teeth. Gears can be used to slow things down or speed things up,
change direction and/or control several things at once. Gears are wheels whose perimeter is
made up of evenly sized and spaced teeth. The teeth of one gear mesh with those of an
adjoining one and transmit rotary motion between the two gear . The driven gear always
rotates in an opposite direction to the driving gear. If both gear have the same number of
teeth, they will rotate at the same speed, however if they have different numbers of teeth then
the gear with fewer teeth will rotate more quickly. A gear system is a combination of two or
more gears working together. Two gears connected together turn in opposite directions; the
gear upon which the effort force is being

Grade 8 Systems & Control (Mechanisms) 3

applied is the DRIVER gear and the other gear is the FOLLOWER (driven gear). By placing a
gear (IDLER) between the driver and the follower gear, you can make the driver and follower
gear turn in the same direction. The smaller driver gear connected to a larger follower gear,
results in slower speed, but greater force in the follower gear (gearing down). A larger driver
gear, connected to a smaller follower gear results in faster speed, but less force in the follower
gear (gearing up).
There are different types of gears: spur gear, bevel gear, worm gear, rack and pinion.

Types of gears

Spur gears Multiple gears can be connected together to form a gear

train. If there are an odd number of gears, the output
rotation will be the same direction as the input. If there are
an even number, the output will rotate in the opposite
direction to the input. Note that for the simple type of gear
train shown, the number of teeth on the intermediate gears
does not affect the overall velocity ratio which is governed
purely by the number of teeth on the first and last cog.

Bevel gears
Bevel gears are used to change
rotational movement through an
angle of 90o. Bevel gears will
provide some mechanical
advantage or increase in velocity
ratio.

Rack-and-spur gears The rack-and-spur gear is used to

convert between rotary and linear
motion. Often the spur rotates in a
fixed position and the rack is free to
move - this arrangement is used in
the steering mechanism of most
cars. Alternatively, the rack may be
fixed and the spur rotates moving up
and down the rack. This latter
arrangement on two-handled cork-
pullers.

Rack-and-worm gears
The rack-and-worm gear changes rotational movement into
linear movement. In a shifting spanner, the rack-and-worm
system is used to adjust the position of the jaw of the spanner
—to make the gap wider or narrower. The worm is turned to
adjust the position of the spanner. So for each revolution of
the worm, the rack advances the distance between two
consecutive teeth on the rack.

Grade 8 Systems & Control (Mechanisms) 4

Worm-and-spur A worm-and-spur gear is often used when a large speed reduction is
gears required and not much power is needed. Unlike ordinary gears, the
motion is not reversible, a worm can drive a gear to reduce speed but a
gear cannot drive a worm to increase it. The velocity ratio of two
adjacent cogs can be calculated by dividing the number of teeth on the
driven gear by the number of teeth on the driving gear. The velocity
ratio of a worm-and-spur gears is easily calculated because the worm
has only one tooth. The worm gear is always the drive gear. For
example, if the wheel gear has 60 teeth and the worm gear has 1
tooth, then the velocity ratio is 1/60 = 1:60

LEVERS

A lever helps you do more work with the strength you already have.
A lever is a simple machine. All tools are combinations of the simple
machines. Simple machines are things like: a wheel, a screw, an
incline, a pulley or a lever. All levers have 3 parts, or 3 things we can
find on them. The fulcrum, the load, the effort and of course the lever,
itself.

Here's the key to these different kinds of levers:

The fulcrum (FULL-krum) is the place a lever rocks back and forth. You
could call it a pivot. When it's right in the middle of the lever, the
amount of effort you push down equals exactly the amount of load you
can lift with the other end.

First Class Lever

Pound a nail almost all the way into some wood. Use your
fingers to pull it out. Now try pulling it out with the hammer.
It's a lot easier. The claw on a hammer is a lever. We call
this kind of lever a first-class lever. It does not mean it's a
better lever - just that it's the first kind of lever.

Second Class Lever

Use your first finger and thumb to pop off a metal cap
from a soda bottle. Don't twist it off, pry it off. Now try a
bottle opener. Much easier, right? A bottle opener is a
second-class lever, which means the fulcrum is at the end
of the lever and the load is in the middle.

Third Class Lever

A third-class lever has its fulcrum at one end and
the load at the other end, with the work you do
in the middle. It's how a fishing pole works. You
lift just a short distance at the handle, but the
end of the pole pops up several feet - hopefully
with dinner on the line.

Grade 8 Systems & Control (Mechanisms) 5

Linking levers

Sometimes a number of different levers are connected together to do certain jobs. A

mechanism that is made by connecting levers is called a linkage. A linkage is a system of
levers that is used to transmit motion (e.g., nail clippers, back-hoe, and pedal garbage can).
The levers in a linkage are connected at fixed pivots or moving pivots. (Remember, a pivot is
another word for fulcrum.) A fixed pivot is one which turns around one point. A moving pivot
is one which can move away from its original position.
Linkages are often used to change the direction of force or movement: a push can be changed
to a pull, or a pushing movement can be changed to a turning movement. Linkages can also
change the distance of movement.

How to draw linkages

Different kinds of linkages

Reversing linkages, reverse the direction of a force or

movement. A push-pull linkage is used to get an
output movement which is in the same direction as the
input movement. This type of linkage connects two rods
with two fixed pivots. The linkage makes sure that both
levers move at the same time in the same direction.

Linkages can also be used to make

objects move together in a line at a
fixed distance apart, or to make objects
stay parallel to each other.

Parallel linkages are used in things such as a

tool box. Parallel linkages can also be used
to copy or repeat movement, for example
folding security doors.

Some linkages changes rotary movement

into a to-and-fro movement. Treadle
linkages can also change a to-and-fro
movement into a rotary movement. Rotary
describes something that turns in a circle
around a centre point.

Another linkage which rotates around a fixed

pivot is a bell crank. A bell crank changes the
direction of movement through 90°.

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HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS

Hydraulics and pneumatic systems basically work in the same way. The only difference is that
hydraulic systems use an incompressible liquid to operate, while pneumatic systems use
compressed air to operate.

How do these two systems really work?

In a hydraulic
In a pneumatic system the second
system the second syringe will move
syringe will stay in upwards, when the
place to a certain first syringe is
extent when the first pushed down, even
syringe is pushed air though it is held
down because air is down because water
compressible. liquid can not be
compressed.

Pneumatic systems

Any machine that uses compressed air to do work is a pneumatic system. Compressed air is air
that has been forced into a small space. You compress air every time you pump up a bicycle
tyre or blow up a balloon. In industry, air is compressed by machines called compressors.
Bus doors are opened and closed using a pneumatic system. The piston in the system moves
in and out in a straight line, but is connected to a lever system that makes the door swing open
and closed. The hissing sound you hear when the doors open and close is the movement of
compressed air. Car hoists that lift cars in workshops are also operated by pneumatic
systems. Pneumatic wheel spanners and jackhammers are also examples of pneumatic
systems.

Components of a pneumatic system:

♦ A supply of compressed air, usually from a compressor

♦ Air lines containing the compressed air
♦ Cylinders with pistons for producing force and movement
♦ Valves that control the flow of compressed air

Hydraulic systems

Principles of hydraulics
Hydraulics is based on the principle that a force is transmitted through a liquid. This means
that if a liquid, such as water or oil, is in a cylinder or tube, a force applied to the liquid at one
end will be passed through the liquid. The force will then be exerted by the liquid at the other
end. This happens because a liquid cannot be compressed.

Brakes on many vehicles make use of hydraulic systems. To

slow down the car, the driver steps on the brake pedal. This
pedal pushes a piston into the hydraulic system, which is filled
with brake fluid, this causes pressure in the brake fluid. The
force is then transmitted equally to all the wheels. This exerts
a force on the brake pads in each wheel which press against
the rotating disc inside the car’s wheels. The wheel slows down
and the car eventually stops.

Grade 8 Systems & Control (Mechanisms) 9