IN080527 en

Practical guide for plantain
production using high density

planting
Experiences from Latin America
and the Caribbean
FE Rosales, JM Alvarez and A Vargas

Editor: Franklin E Rosales, PhD
cover_high_density_eng.indd 1 28/07/2010 15:14:40

Bioversity International is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to improve
the well-being of present and future generations of people by enhancing conservation and the deploy-
ment of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests. It is one of 15 centres supported by the
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private
members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve
human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. Bioversity has its headquarters in Maccarese,
near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The organization operates
through four programmes: Diversity for Livelihoods, Understanding and Managing Biodiversity, Global
Partnerships, and Commodities for Livelihoods.
Financial support for Bioversity’s research is provided by more than 150 donors, including
governments, private foundations and international organizations. For details of donors and research
activities please see Bioversity’s Annual Reports, which are available in printed form on request from
bioversity-publications@cgiar.org or from Bioversity’s Web site (www.bioversityinternational.org).
The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Bioversity or the CGIAR concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of these organizations.
Mention of a proprietary name does not constitute endorsement of the product and is given only for
information.
The Plantain and Banana Research and Development Network for Latin America and the
Caribbean (MUSALAC) was established in 2000 in Cartagena, Colombia, by representatives of
14 countries with the support of Bioversity International (formerly INIBAP). The network is managed
by a Steering Committee and operates under the auspices of the Foro Regional de Investigación
y Desarrollo Tecnológico Agropecuario para América Latina y el Caribe (FORAGRO). Its general
objective is to increase the productivity and competitiveness of the plantain and banana commod-
ity chain by developing scientific and technological activities; strengthening national research and
development systems; and prioritizing and coordinating actions in Latin America and the Caribbean.
MUSALAC replaced the Latin America and Caribbean Network for the Improvement of Bananas and
Plantains (LACNET) established by INIBAP in 1987.
Citation: Rosales FE, Alvarez JM, Vargas A. 2010. Practical guide for plantain production using high
density planting - Experiences from Latin America and the Caribbean (Rosales FE, editor). Bioversity
International, Montpellier, France.
ISBN: 978-92-9043-839-7
© Bioversity International, 2010
Bioversity International - HQ Bioversity International – France
Via dei Tre Denari 472/a Parc Scientifique Agropolis
II00057 Maccarese (Fiumicino) 34397 Montpellier, Cedex 5
Roma, Italy France
Bioversity International is the operating name of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
(IPGRI).

Practical guide for plantain
production using high density
planting
Experiences from Latin America
and the Caribbean
FE Rosales, JM Alvarez and A Vargas

Editor: Franklin E Rosales, PhD
inner_cover_high_density_eng.ind1 1 19/07/2010 14:15:40

Acknowledgments
A special and sincere recognition to Dr Sylvio Belálcazar and his team at
the Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario-Corporación Colombiana de
Investigación Agropecuaria (ICA-CORPOICA) for their pioneer work on
High Densities (HD) research in plantain cultivation and also for their
information and dissemination through diverse and ample
communication media. As an Honorary Research Fellow of INIBAP
(International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain -
now Bioversity International), attached to the Regional Office for Latin
America and the Caribbean, Dr Belalcázar was also the mainstay in
spreading this technology at the regional level.
To the Plantain Programme of the Ministry of Agriculture of Cuba,
represented by Ing José Manuel Alvarez, for his many years of research
and for promoting this technology throughout the Cuban territory.
To the different research teams, members of MUSALAC (Plantain and
Banana Development and Research Network for Latin America and the
Caribbean), who have implemented the research and achieved
remarkable research progress and significant adoption of High Density
technologies in their countries, such as: the Corporación Bananera
Nacional (CORBANA) and the Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería
(MAG) from Costa Rica; and the Instituto Dominicano de Investigación
Agrícola y Forestal (IDIAF) from the Dominican Republic.
To Ing Jesús Coto for his support in editing technical aspects of this
document and also for providing us with data and valuable information
about high densities’ state-of-the-art in Nicaragua.
To Bioversity International for its financial and human resources support
to promote this research and mainly for its hard work in disseminating
this knowledge at the regional level in Latin America and the Caribbean.
To MUSALAC for its financial support to edit, design, publish and
distribute this document in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Translation of the original Spanish to English: Lissette Vega

Language editing: Vincent Johnson
Technical editing, layout and coordination: Claudine Picq
high planting densities guide_La2 2 11/10/2010 16:33:47

Contents
Presentation and background ........................................................... 1

1. Introduction ................................................................................... 3
2 Essential requirements for high density plantain planting
(Yes’ and No’s to high densities) .................................................. 3
3 Description of the proposed system ........................................... 4
1. Field preparation and planting system.....................................4
2. Distances and planting arrangements .....................................6
3. Staggered plantings every 1 – 2 months ...............................10
4. Planting material: more recommended types and practices ..11
5. Water demand.......................................................................14
6. Drainage................................................................................16
7. Fertilization ............................................................................17
8. Weeds management .............................................................21
9. Desuckering and deleafing ....................................................21
10. Pre-harvest practices ............................................................22
11. Harvest and post-harvest practices .......................................23
4. Management of pests and diseases .......................................... 24
1. Black Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis)..............................24
2. Nematodes ............................................................................24
3. Banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) ...............................25
Annex 1.............................................................................................. 27
Process for obtaining and applying liquid humus ............................27

Presentation and background
This guide has been designed mainly for small and medium size plantain
farmers in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Its main objective is
to gather, analyze and summarize the most significant experiences in
LAC and present them effectively to the reader. The immediate goal is to
ensure that farmers or change technicians widely understand the
proposed system enabling access to the agronomic knowledge and
basic criteria, applying these to achieve optimum plantain productivity in
a cost-effective and environmentally sustainable manner. The proposed
approach is based on managing plantain as an annual crop so that after
harvest the plantation is eliminated to establish a new one in the same
plot or production lot.
This guide is written in a simple way, it does not go deep into details for
which no protocols or known practices of many crop aspects are
provided, with the exception of planting material preparation which
together with water demand and drainage are considered the most
important factors of this technology as such.
This document is based strictly on a High Density planting strategy
development and its application in LAC, mainly on experiences and
adoption in Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Nicaragua and the Dominican
Republic. This concept was developed in each of the above mentioned
countries, adapting it to its own way and style and as a result showing
production differences. The Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, (ICA),
started the High Densities Research Programme in 1985, which was
taken over by the Corporación Colombiana de Investigación
Agropecuaria (CORPOICA). Likewise but with less intensity, some
studies began in Cuba (the Ministry of Agriculture) and in Costa Rica
(CORBANA). The concepts transference was fostered by Bioversity (part
of which was formerly INIBAP), once research in Colombia (ICA-
CORPOICA) reached an appropriate level of development. With the
services of Dr Sylvio Belalcázar as the INIBAP-LAC Honorary Research
Fellow, courses and lectures were delivered in all LAC plantain
producing countries to more than 4000 scientists, extension workers and
farmers (main group). In this sense, the Government of Cuba has made
a remarkable effort so that adoption of this technology at national level is
based on a big training campaign under the “hands-on learning”
approach, supervised by Ing José Manuel Alvarez. In Costa Rica, efforts
have been conducted through a CORBANA-MAG alliance with the
outstanding work of Ing Alfonso Vargas and Ing Sigifredo Rojas. In the

2 Experiences from Latin America and the Caribbean
Dominican Republic leadership was assumed by the Instituto

Dominicano de Investigación Agrícola y Forestal (IDIAF), under the
responsibility of its Musaceae group led by Ing Ramón Jiménez. In
Nicaragua, this technology has developed mainly through private
interests of independent farmers.
High density planting systems with production management units, only
one culture cycle and staggered planting blocks, could become a very
profitable alternative as it offers farmers the following advantages:
• Significant yield increases and costs optimization, leading to higher
profitability per hectare,
• Increased efficiency and exploitation of production factors related to
land, work and capital through more appropriate land and manual
labour use,
• Demand-led production via implementing a range of measures from
staggered planting to harvesting the product during periods of peak
demand and/or when higher prices are offered,
• Shorter harvest intervals (65-90 days period) and minimum ground
work from the second planting cycle onwards,
• Additional income resulting from the larger amount of suckers
available for use as optimum quality planting material,
• Reduction of black Sigatoka/black leaf streak (Mycosphaerella
fijiensis Morelet) incidence and severity as well as of soil and root
pests, due to modification of some environmental conditions within
the plantation (mainly relative humidity and temperature) created by
high density planting, soil movement after each harvest and use of
new planting-material for each cycle,
• Staggered planting reduces risk of plantation destruction by diverse
environmental factors (winds, storms, floods, others),
• It is a production system integrating novel, sustainable agriculture
with highly productive concepts that serve to rationalize inputs.
Despite the economic advantages and other benefits offered by the
proposed production system, farmers remain attached to traditional
production systems and also lack the means for technology transfer,
mainly with regard to key aspects such as plantation renovation after
each planting cycle and excessive increases in population densities. This
guide aims to help to improve plantain production systems in all adopting
countries and to persuade decision makers to adopt or test this
technological alternative in countries with incipient activities.

Practical guide for plantain production using high planting densities 3
1. Introduction
In Latin America and the Caribbean, plantains are cultivated under
different production systems. Intercropping with coffee, cocoa, maize,
beans, or other crops predominates over the whole area planted to
plantains. However, greatest benefit is provided by monoculture.
Because of this and given the excellent results during the last years in
several LAC countries, we present here a monoculture system with
annual production cycles (or a unique cycle).
The system presented here should be considered as a new production
technological alternative whose base is high planting density which
depends on several supporting and complementary activities. It could be
described as a cumulative system where each eliminated component
reduces the total expected production. As a result of the adequate
implementation of the system in Cuba, it has been possible to obtain up
to 78 t/ha of plantain for local consumption, and in Costa Rica more than
a thousand 23 kg boxes/ha of fresh fruit for export. It is therefore
recommended to apply the instructions presented in this document to
achieve the maximum plantain production.
2. Essential requirements for high density

plantain planting (Yes’ and No’s to high
densities)
1. Ensure appropriate water supply (no deficit/excess) at all crop
stages,
2. Use planting densities higher than 2500 plants per hectare,
3. Stagger the planting every 1 or 2 months1 to assure consistent
production,
4. Use uniform, good quality and healthy seed (plantlets in bags
coming from greenhouses and/or vitroplants),
5. No direct field plantings or re-plantings2,
1In some sites more frequent planting blocks are preferred, for example 13 per year, meaning every four
weeks. Staggered planting lowers total crop loss risks in case of climatic disasters, among other
advantages.

6. Only monoculture planting (no intercropping),

7. Only one production cycle (no more than one harvest per
planting),
8. Not recommended for slopes,
9. Without suckers all the time3.
3. Description of the proposed system

Considering the system requirements already listed we present the most
relevant stages or activities of this system according to field sequence:
1. Field preparation and planting system
The field should be prepared preferably using a tractor or oxen, working
according to soil type and humidity. However, mechanized soil
preparation is not always possible as in some cases field topography
does not allow it or makes it very difficult; in this case, the option is to
prepare the planting field manually. This option becomes easier on
volcanic or alluvial soils, but it is very difficult on heavy soils with little
organic matter. Mechanical operations are performed only in the first
year, because once the system is established there is no need to repeat
the process.
If there is machinery available and the field allows it, planting is done in a
furrow. This approach is highly recommended for compacted soils, to
improve their structure and promote a more vigorous and extended root
system. For non-compacted soils, planting is done in holes, especially on
volcanic or alluvial soils where hole-making is very easy.
If there is no machinery, hauling or other appropriate

equipment and if soil type allows it, the field can be prepared
manually (only in the first year) until leaving it soft and loose
for planting.
2There is only one exception to this rule: if replanting is done before two weeks after planting for which
greenhouse plants, specifically prepared for this purpose, will be used.
3 See comments in subsequent sections.

Double or single furrows?

Planting can be done in double furrows or in single furrows. For both
cases, field should be completely clean of weeds etc. to allow optimal
planting.
Double furrow is the ideal or more recommended planting system, but
experience shows that this alternative is more difficult to adopt by most
farmers. Double furrow allows growers to keep the same initial
arrangement all the time, and planting is conducted preferably in the
same furrow, moving only the planting position within the furrow between
the two harvested plants.
With the single furrow or square planting, with each new cycle we have
to move to the space between former rows (“inter row”). There the new
furrow is established in the cleanest area, because, as it will be observed
later on, the centre of the “inter row” is utilized for crop and harvest
wastes. In this case, the most convenient is to move next to the initial
furrow using always the same furrow side (same direction) to keep
planting’s symmetry. Besides that with good programming and a little
extra work, planting can be done in the centre by arranging harvest
wastes at both sides of the “inter row”. Those using single furrow planting
should avoid cultivate the land in all the rows (even if there is space to do
it) because this will damage both sides of the plant’s root system.
The furrow or
hole opening
should not be
deeper than
the bag size
together with
the space that
the organic
amendment
will require.

It is recommended to place residues in alternate rows and to use the

other rows for planting. This will not happen with the double furrow
planting because mechanical operations will be conducted only in the
rows and not in the “inter rows”, greatly minimizing root damage.
It is advised to orient rows in the direction of the prevailing wind
(regardless of whether this coincides or not with the sun’s movement or
direction) because in this way furrows will not act as barriers and will
more effectively prevent wind bending.
2. Distances and planting arrangements
We begin with the premise that HD refers to planting densities higher
than 2500 plants per hectare, for both tall and dwarf cultivars. The
farmer’s decision to choose a particular planting density is closely related
to the product’s market-outlet. When production is destined for local
consumption or industry and it commercializes by bunch system, high
densities planting does not present any limitation, because harvested
bunch weight is very similar to that produced by plants using traditional
practices and it also exceeds widely the raw material tonnage per area.
Even when the product is for specialized sectors such as the export
market, population should not be less than 25004 plants/ha, and it is
important to make sure that chosen planting density does not interfere
with the dimension expression (length and width). Thus, it is important to
evaluate carefully this condition when using False Horn type cultivars
(Currare, Macho, Hartón, etc.) every time a grower opts to exceed the
recommended population range.
After many tests in several LAC countries, using many combinations of
planting densities and arrangements, we can say now that for tall
cultivars the most productive range is between 2500-3300 plants per
hectare. In Costa Rica, density has been stabilized in 2500 plants while
in Cuba it is approximately 3300, probably because in Cuba there is
much more luminosity or sunlight (120,000 lux) than in Costa Rica. In the
Dominican Republic the most common is 2500 plants per hectare, but
we estimate that this density can be increased as the country also
benefits of high luminosity, as long as the production outlet allows it.
Growing short or “dwarf” cultivars allows increasing densities slightly
more than those for tall cultivars. In Cuba, they use 4000 plants per
hectare which could be a density indicator for the Caribbean region, but
4 Dehanding assures products delivery according to market demand.

for Central and South America, where sun brightness is less than in the
Caribbean, it would not be advisable to exceed 3200 plants using double
furrow. In Chinandega, Nicaragua, planting density is 3200 plants per
hectare, which has proven very successful. This could be a good
indicator for Central America’s farmers who use dwarf cultivars such as
Dwarf currare, Cocos 1 and 2, Planta baja 1 and 2, or other different
names for this same cultivar. It is important to remember that short
cultivars are less tolerant to unfavourable conditions and produce smaller
fruits than tall cultivars, thus reducing their suitability for the export
market. Growing dwarf varieties successfully requires highly favourable
soil, climate and management conditions, as is the case in Chinandega,
Nicaragua.
As mentioned previously, spatial arrangements and combinations using
double or single furrows are manifold and they can be adapted to
people’s diverse tastes and needs. In the following section we present a
few examples but also recommend arrangements using wider row
furrows.
Table 1. Population densities and spatial arrangements employed.
Planting density m2/plant Spatial arrangement Plant/hectare
2.0 m x 2.0 m 4.00 Single furrow 2500
3.0 m x 2.0 m x 1.6 m 4.00 Double furrow 2500
4.0 m x 1.0 x 1.25 m 3.10 Double furrow 3200

We recommend using small plots to try higher or lower

densities than those used the first time until determining the
best density for the farm according to the market, as this
depends on many factors other than just sun brightness.
Square shape planting Rectangle shape planting
Path
Triangle shape planting Double furrow planting
Options for spatial arrangements


3. Staggered plantings every 1 – 2 months

Staggered planting experiences show us that the most advisable is to
plant in blocks or plots once every month to two months as it reduces
risks of plantation destruction by storms, hurricanes, floods, etc. The
more planting blocks (12-13 per year) the lower the risk; this should
ensure a consistent or stable production during the whole year.
When beginning an HD system, if planting is performed in an already
established plantation, it can be started by the lowest production area,
trying to do it in an orderly manner by blocks or plots, so that planting
with the new system will end in a year. If the user is a new farmer, it is
recommended to start by changing only one area of the farm to compare
the benefits of the new system with the traditional one, and also to use
that lot as a nursery for the rest of the farm. The plot size depends on the
market and opportunities: if it is for export and a commercial window is
available, then planting is programmed so that the biggest block is
harvested at the exact time to exploit that opportunity. If the crop is only
for local or processing markets, where there is a continuous demand and
not too many price variations, then plots can have a similar size each
planting time.
January March May July Sept Nov January

4. Planting material: more recommended types and

practices
If there is anything fundamental within the high densities system, it
is the planting material, because production synchronization and
consequently the success of this technological alternative depend on it.
Every possible effort should therefore be made to obtain the most
uniform planting material possible.
Selection of planting material

Using bag plants from a laboratory (in vitro production) or corms (in vivo
production), guarantees optimum planting uniformity, which is an
increasingly important condition as population density increases. Thus,
this would be the most recommended planting option. Experience shows
that in vitro plants offer superior and more homogeneous populations
than in vivo plants; however, most times they are too expensive for most
farmers and often not available. The following therefore describes a
process to obtain corms for planting in bags, which is the best option
after in vitro plants.
The process of preparing planting material begins by selecting mother
plants that will provide planting corms. It is the same for both beginner
farmers and for farmers already benefiting from this system.
As mentioned previously, if the user is a new farmer, it is recommended
to start by changing only one area of the farm to compare the new
system’s benefits with the traditional one, and also to use that plot as a
nursery. In this case, plants presenting the best bunches and plant types
according to genotype are selected within the site to be renovated.
Plants identified in this way then have all their suckers cut to ground
level, leaving them like that until they are harvested. If it is estimated that
selected plants will not be enough to provide the number of planting units
necessary to renovate the chosen site, then plants from other areas of
the farm showing the same characteristics will be identified to conduct
the task already mentioned. The number of mother plants to select can
be estimated by calculating an extraction of 5 to 10 planting units (small
corms) per plant which are completely healthy (without pest or disease
damages). The size of such corms should be appropriate to be planted
without any problem in a coffee nursery bag (B and C calibre). Corms
exceeding this size should not be used. They should neither be cut into
pieces because their meristem or central bud emission would be lost,

causing lateral suckers emission, which significantly delays plantlets’

time in the greenhouse.
If the farmer has used already the HD concept, choosing mother
plants begins when 50% of plants already have bunches and those
selected should have special characteristics that conform to their
genotype such as: good size and well-shaped bunches as well as
healthy plants with good appearance, as previously explained. These
“elite” plants are tagged for easy identification as they will become seed
sources for the following planting cycle. Any surplus plants with bunches
and/or flowers that have not been selected, will be used also as a source
of commercial planting material. Before harvest time all non-flowering
plants will be eliminated (approximately 10% if the whole system has
been managed properly) cutting them at ground level. At harvest time,
once plants that will be used for planting material have been harvested,
their pseudostems are cut at a height above 1 m to distinguish them
more easily from plants which have not flowered or which have already
been eliminated. This is a type of mass selection that allows to improve
clone quality as years go by.
Pre-germinators and greenhouses
Corms are removed once the mother plant is harvested and then
cleaned by eliminating only the roots and dried bracts before transferring
them to greenhouse bags (12 cm x 20 cm or similar). Before planting
them in bags, plants are immersed in a fungicidal solution for 2-
5 minutes to prevent any diseases (mainly Erwinia). Products such as
Vydate, Agromicin 500 or similar can be used. In Cuba, copper based
blends (copper sulphate, oxychloride known as cuproflow) give excellent
results at a very low cost. After treatment corms are left to dry under
shade for 24 hours before planting.
Currently, the most common or routine procedure would be to move the
corms directly to bags, but using a pre-germinator has given very good
results avoiding unnecessary bags and planting substrate losses,
because even under the best corms management conditions, 10% of
them do not germinate or present other problems preventing their
utilization.
Pre-germinators are simple and cheap to handle. They are made using
any type of inert material (dried or “cured” sawdust, rice or coffee husk
and others). Ideally this material should be easy to handle so that with
little effort plantlets can be harvested without breaking their roots.

The pre-germinator size is 1.0 to 1.2 m width; its length depends solely
on the need of planting material and the place where it is built. The pre-
germinator does not require shade but it requires good and constant
water supply. The substrate should remain humid but not saturated to
avoid rot. It should be watered once or twice a day depending on the
temperature. It is recommended to water early in the morning or late in
the afternoon.
Corms should stay in the pre-germinator for 7-10 days. Plants are ready
for transplanting to bags before the “sword” shows true leaves. Only
water is required during the period in the pre-germinator.
Before plantlets are moved to bags, they can be treated to promote
growth or to prevent field pests and diseases. For this purpose,
mycorrhizae, endophytic fungi and others can be used to promote growth
or to protect plantlets.
Transplanting to bags: The substrate mixture depends on its local
availability so recipes cannot be provided. The substrate should be
friable, rich in organic matter and with no inert material.
The time in bags is estimated to be 5-6 weeks, which generally allows
plantlets to have two pairs of leaves. In Cuba, daily applications of foliar
humus has worked very well, reducing plantlets hardening time by
approximately 10 days.
Humus5 preparation is easy. It is prepared in a simple manner under
cover (it should not be exposed to the open air). It is mixed by volume in
equal parts of humus and water. The resulting solution is diluted again in
equal parts 1:1 with water to apply it to the plantlets, trying to cover them
completely with the smallest drops possible. The same dosages are
used in both greenhouse and field. . A 16 litre back pump allows us to
treat an average of 500 plants in the greenhouse and 200 in the field,
depending on their height. It is applied weekly since plantlets arrival to
the field until harvest time. Worm humus is used both for its beneficial
contribution to Sigatoka management and for its qualities as plants
nutritional supplement. Humus is an indispensable requisite for the HD
system to function properly. For this reason, we emphasize its production
and continuous use during all crop cycles.
5 For more details about humus preparation and use please refer to Annex 1.

Plantlets classification by size: This is a key practice that will

guarantee field growth synchronization to allow the earliest possible
harvests (65-90 days). The first opportunity to classify plantlets by size is
when they are moved from the pre-germinator to the bags, taking
advantage of this situation to transplant them by size.
Then, when plantlets are ready to be taken to the field (when they
have 2 pairs of leaves or are about 30 cm tall) the first to go out will be
those meeting the requisite just mentioned. Remaining plants are
classified by size into 2-3 groups to be used as soon as they reach the
size and leaves number requisites.
5. Water demand
Sufficient water is the basic requirement to obtain favourable results
when planting under the high densities system. Plantains’ annual water
demand is 2000 mm. On hot and sunny days, daily evapotranspiration
ranges between 6 and 7 mm.

Plantains’ natural environment corresponds to boundaries of large,

humid tropical forests where the atmosphere is always close to
saturation and soil remains always humid. Thus, it is considered that
areas with annual precipitations under 2000 mm are not suitable for
plantain cultivation. If plantain culture is successful outside its natural
environment it is due mainly to irrigation practices.
During its maximum demand (hot and sunny days), an adult plantain mat
requires up to 50 L/day of water, because it has an evapotranspiration of
6-7 mm/day. To have an acceptable plantation, a minimum of
180 mm/month of water is necessary which represents about
2000 mm/year spread uniformly. The following chart below shows water
requirement details.
Climate and soil requirements for plantain cultivation

18° 25° 28° 35°
Temperature (°C)
2000 3000
Precipitation (mm)
Low Medium High

Solar radiation
Low Medium High

Fertility
Poor Moderate Fast

Drainage
Long drought periods (four weeks) affect the plant’s normal development
in any growth stage and in any soil type, but if these occur during flower
differentiation or fruit filling, the effect is devastating. Experiences in the
region indicate potential production losses of up to 70% if one of these
periods coincides with fruit filling. Thus, it is not enough to just confirm
available rain millimetres but also their adequate distribution.

Water requirements
Daily consumption
Cloudy 9 litres
Semi-cloudy 18 litres
Sunny
From 25 to 50 litres
If these minimum conditions are not met, an irrigation system

must be installed (the most convenient to your area) otherwise a
High Densities system will provide no benefits.
6. Drainage
The purpose of drainage is to eliminate soil’s excess of internal and
surface water and to provide adequate conditions for plant development.
Bad drainage favour disease and pest development and limits absorption
of water and nutrients. According to its field distribution, the drainage
system can be constituted by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
channels or “banks”. Primary and secondary channels are in charge of
transporting water outside the farm, which has been extracted by tertiary
drainages, which in turn are in charge of managing the phreatic stratum
On the other hand, “banks” control surface water, avoiding puddling and

capping which hinder surface water infiltration. Drain dimensions should

be the minimum necessary to allow adequate superficial waters
movement.
Phreatic stratum fluctuations are directly related to unpredictable rain
events. Before designing and building a drainage system, to manage the
effects of such events it is recommended to install a wells observation
system that monitors the phreatic stratum over time. The amount of wells
required per area depends on soil texture and topography. In general, it
is recommended to have one well every two to four hectares. The
material used to build them is PVC tube (thin wall) of 31 mm (1¼ inches)
diameter and 2.0 m length, perforated every 0.10 m with a 6.4 mm
(1¼ inches) drill.
To install and maintain a system for drainage and the observation and
monitoring of wells, it is recommended to seek technical assistance as
maintenance costs and loss of area due to channel construction will
depend on the system’s dimensions. If dimensions are bigger than those
recommended then a large effective area for the crop is lost, increasing
the channel maintenance area. When dimensions are smaller than those
recommended the drain walls are prone to collapse, increasing
maintenance costs. The channel wall’s inclination depends on the soil
type.
7. Fertilization
We remind the reader that this document is not a textbook on plantain
cultivation but aims to promote more effective use of an interesting
technological alternative based on many years of experience. Thus, the
purpose of this fertilization section is not to cover all possible situations,
but it is a general practical guide based on each country’s particular
services and knowledge complementing diverse situations such as:
volcanic soils, sedimentary and alluvial soils, sites with high or low
rainfall, different levels of soil’s nutritional riches, etc. Thus, use or
recommendation of a general formula is always controversial and this
plantain context is no exception, in which situation the above-mentioned
factors are further complicated by considerations of cultivar appearance
(tall or small), the target or expected yield and the market outlet (local or
export), amongst others.
To decide which and how much fertilizer to apply in your plantation, we
recommend basing it on crop requirement for the three main elements
[nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K)] for optimum expression
of its productive potential (See Table 2 of plantain crop demands).

Adequate fertilization requires soil and foliar analysis during each

growing cycle. If fertilization is done correctly, it will result in a gradual
and sustainable recovery in the soil’s natural fertility.
Table 2. Extraction in g/plant of N P K by a plantain plant.
Elements Extraction Export %
Nitrogen (N) 107 37 35
Phosphorus (P2O5) 8 3 38
Potassium (K2O) 370 116 32
How to do it?
The ideal is to fertilize using as much organic material as possible,
complementing with chemical fertilizers, thus assuring a well-balanced
and cost-effective nutrient profile.
What type of organic amendments?

An organic amendment is any organic substance or product able to
modify or improve soil’s physical, chemical, biological or mechanical
characteristics. We recommend to use the best source or organic
substrate available in your area (bocashi6, compost, chicken manure,
horse manure, pig manure, etc.), but it is vital to know its chemical
nutrient analysis to decide how much organic material to use. Table 3
shows an example of the nutrient input of three different organic
materials widely used in several places where it can be observed that
applying 1.5 kg/plant of any of such materials only P extraction is
satisfied.
Table 3. Input in g/plant of N, P, K, applying 1.5 kg/plant of cattle, chicken manure
or bagasse (sugarcane manure) organic substrate.
Elements Extraction Organic substrate input Deficit
Cattle Chicken Bagasse Cattle Chicken Bagasse
manure manure
Nitrogen 107 25.7 29.2 36.0 81.3 77.8 71.0
Phosphorus 8 10.5 20.6 39.8 -- -- --
Potassium 370 15.9 17.1 21.1 354 353 349
6 The ‘boscashi’ is an highly effective natural fertilizer commonly used in Central America and
composed of manure, coffee pulp or rice hulls, yeast and molasses mixed with healthy soil and
fermented during 15 days (source: http://www.sustainableharvest.org/Bocashi.cfm).

Note: Table 3 only considers total extraction and average input

of the different organic substrate types. Richness of each soil
type is not considered.
If only 1.5 kg/plant per production cycle can be applied, it is advisable to

apply it at planting time, placing the organic substrate in the bottom of the
furrow or planting hole. If the application is more than to 1.5 kg/plant, we
suggest dividing it, in order to improve nitrogen efficiency (the second
element than can be fully satisfied by applying organic materials to
plantain). This is possible if 9 kg/plant per harvest cycle are applied as
explained in the following section. Table 3 serves as reference to calculate
how much of the crop’s requirements can be satisfied, using as
comparison the amounts presented there, which are calculated based on
1.5 kg/plant applications.
How and when to apply soil nutrients?

To apply optimum levels of nutrients, mainly on high rainfall sites, the
best recommendation is to divide the most mobile soil elements. Thus,
number of divisions depends on climatic conditions, soil type and mobility
(slow or fast) of the element in question (N, P, K). In many places weekly
applications are reported but this implies high labour hand availability
and extra costs requiring an efficient accounting-administrative system to
determine the profitability of this practice.
Depending on the amount and quality of the organic substrate to be
used, phosphorus (P) application from chemical sources could be easily
avoided as mentioned in the previous section. Nitrogen (N) requirements
are much more difficult to supply using only organic amendments,
although it is not impossible, since applying 9 kg/plant of any organic
substrate mentioned in Table 3 this need can be satisfied.
If a considerable amount of organic substrate, such as 6 or

9 kg/plant cycle is used, it is recommended to apply the major
quantity at planting time and the rest before flowering. In the
above example, we could then apply 4 kg at planting and 2 kg
at flowering, or 6 kg at planting and 3 kg at flowering,
respectively.

This may be unpractical for most situations due to low availability of

organic materials as well as transportation and application costs, but the
same effect could be also obtained if there is humus availability (see
Annex 1). If that is the case, calculations should considered that 1.5 kg of
humus equals to 9 kg of organic substrate or that 1 kg of humus yields
the same as 6 kg of organic substrate.
In the case of using humus, the aforementioned logic for split-

application would be applied: 1 kg of humus would be used at
planting and 0.5 kg before flowering. This application
corresponds to 9 kg of organic substrate for plant by
crop cycle.
However, although organic matter (OM) can supply the entire N that
plantains require for normal development, it is recommended to
supplement it with a chemical product at flowering time when N is in
peak demand.
Potassium (K) needs are impossible to meet by organic means. In sites
with high potassium availability such as Central America, application of
this element will not be necessary, but in places such as Cuba where K
availability in the soil is very low, it is almost impossible for practical
reasons to incorporate all its crop demands using only organic substrates
(Table 3). Humus utilization in the amount mentioned above (1.5 kg/plant
per culture cycle) not only supplies 100% of N and P and 50% of K
extracted by a plantain plant but it also cover minor elements
requirements (Annex 1).
Because of the many different situations than can happen in LAC and
considering the suggestions and notes already mentioned, we can only
offer our recommendations in a general manner within contextual
limitations, but they can be used as a starting point or reference:
1. When only N needs to be complemented (as in Central America)
a) All organic substrate is applied at planting time in the bottom of the
furrow or hole.
b) 60 days after planting (dap) 50% of a chemical N formula is applied.
c) 45-60 days after the first N application, the other 50% is applied.
d) One month before flowering each plant is complemented with 30 g
of Urea.

2. When it is necessary to complement N and K

a) Same as item 1, but adding K during steps b) and c): 50% each time
3. When N, P and K need to be complemented
a) A complete formula is employed with required proportions to be
applied as in the previous mentioned case (item 2).
In any of the 3 cases, application of 30 g Urea a month before

flowering is highly recommended as well as to apply all
Phosphorus at planting time. This is due to plants slow
Phosphorus absorption. Remember that larger is the number
of applications, greater is the efficiency of N and K.
If in the country it is possible to make special dosage formulas such as

combining N and K, this would facilitate the application work avoiding
physical mixture of both elements by field workers.
In all cases it is not necessary to incorporate fertilizers to the soil. These
can be applied at random in semicircle or half moon, 30 cm from the
pseudostem base of the production unit. In double furrow, application is
done in the internal part of the narrow row and in the single furrow it is
applied inside the furrow and not toward the row.
8. Weeds management
The system proposed here does not allow crop coexistence with weeds.
The crop should be kept weed free as they compete mainly for water and
nutrients. Weeds can be eliminated with manual or mechanical tools.
The use of a harrow or a “Rotavator” in the big rows helps to chop
residues, facilitating weeds management after each crop cycle. If there is
not enough labour or adequate equipment available in the production
area, a selective herbicide could be used. However, as it is said in the
plantain “jargon”, “in the HD system the best herbicide is a healthy and
vigorous plantain plantation”.
9. Desuckering and deleafing
Desuckering: The HD system yields optimum production when the whole
crop cycle is kept free of competition by suckers. It is not recommended
to desucker traditionally by deep sucker elimination but to maintain a
clean crop by cutting suckers at ground level and weeding. This is done
once a month. Indiscriminate sucker extraction (not pruning or weeding),
weakens the production unit anchorage and makes it more prone to

bending. In this way a strong plant anchorage is maintained, assuring

also a higher amount of seeds per plant for later use in the system or to
sell to the neighbours (production of up to 20-30 seeds per plant).
Deleafing: The deleafing system proposed is different to that used
traditionally in LAC because it is considered as a prevention strategy
and not a cure against black Sigatoka/black leaf streak. It begins when
plantlets are around 1 m tall. It consists of eliminating for the first and
only time some 20 cm from the leaf tip of all leaves starting from the
third leaf down. Then every week the new third leaf is blunted and lower
leaves are checked to eliminate any affected part (necrotic) when
necessary.
This system has demonstrated better black Sigatoka management than
traditional deleafing practices. If it is necessary, fungicide applications
should be made to maintain adequate health and to guarantee optimum
production.
It is also necessary to cut bent or aging leaves as well as those that can
compromise bunch quality. Cut foliar sheets are piled up in the centre of
the narrow row when planting is in double furrow and in the alternate
rows when single furrow is employed. Leaves are placed one on top of
the other to reduce disease pressure and inoculum dispersion on the
crop.
10. Pre-harvest practices
Dehanding and male bud elimination: This activity is necessary only for
“French” or “female” type cultivars, including FHIA-20 and FHIA-21
hybrids. In any cultivar within this classification, dehanding should be
determined by those hands whose fruits do not meet industry or export
market demands or requisites, for which it is necessary that the farmer
knows his/her cultivar growth potential to obtain the maximum from each
bunch. Dehanding is not necessary for “False horn” cultivars (Horn,
Macho, Harton, others) because all fruits meet export requirements and
do not cause any increase in fruit dimensions or harvest time reduction
but this does reduce bunch weight and fruit numbers.
Bagging: It is recommended only for export or specialized markets such
as supermarkets that demand high-quality products because bags
prevent insect damage, improve fruits appearance and helps the bunch
reach its cutting stage or physiological maturity more rapidly.
Tagging: This is indispensable to control fruit maturity and to plan
harvest well. This activity is conducted at flowering or male bud emission

using colour tags. It is also useful to quantify or count possible profits or

selling contracts.
Propping: Plantain plants are susceptible to bending by wind or by the
bunch’s own weight, especially those with a weak pseudostem. Propping
may be necessary according to each area’s conditions and especially
with very tall cultivars.
11. Harvest and post-harvest practices

Harvest or fruit cutting is conducted according to market requirements,
trying always not to damage bunches. It is preferable to work in teams or
at least in pairs. As harvest takes place, pseudostems are cut in large
sections that allow their orderly arrangement along the narrow row
(double furrow) or the alternate row (if single furrow is employed). In the
double furrow, pseudostems are placed perpendicular to the furrows,
leaving wastes about 50 cm away from each line of harvested plants,
allowing making furrows again without moving the residues (see picture
hereafter). A thorough “re-chopping” is not required (which is required
with bananas). This arrangement of crop residues will facilitate new
planting work.
Lot or plot renovation: when the system is routinely established,
renovation tasks begin when most bunches are ready to harvest, making
the selection of mother plants (as explained in the planting material
selection section) or a negative selection which consists on identifying
and eliminating weak, sick, off-type or poor plants. Renovation per se (or
new planting) cannot begin until harvest has completely ended.

4. Management of pests and diseases

The high densities system allows better management of main pests and
diseases affecting plantain crop due to constant renovation of planting
material, soil movement at planting, breaking off life cycles (as it is an
annual crop), special micro-climate conditions unfavourable to the black
Sigatoka/Black leaf streak pathogen and adequate weed management,
among others. The three main plantain phytosanitary problems in Latin
America and the Caribbean are black Sigatoka, nematodes and black
borer, but as with the fertilizing topic mentioned above, they are not the
object of this publication. However, we present a general description of
each of them.
1. Black Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis)7
Black Sigatoka/black leaf streak is the main plantain fungal disease, and
its control represents an important part of its production costs mainly in
high rainfall areas. Most commercial plantain cultivars used in Latin
America, with the exception of FHIA-20 and FHIA-21, are susceptible to
this disease. Because of that, it is not possible to produce export quality
fruits with “False horn” type cultivars without an integrated black Sigatoka
management programme that includes alternative use of systemic
fungicide mixtures or protectants. Susceptibility of these materials to the
disease is however less than that displayed by the Cavendish subgroup
in bananas. Disease susceptibility will determine the frequency of
chemical control measures required by each cultivar.
2. Nematodes
Plantain cultivation in Latin America and the Caribbean is economically
affected by phyto-nematodes, mainly Radopholus similis. To guarantee a
plantation where no nematicide applications are necessary, in high
population density systems, there must be total plantation renovation
after each cycle, with fresh and healthy planting material harvested in the
same farm, where any material showing damages or lesions is
eliminated,. This, together with the use of organic amendments, assures
healthy soil over time and adequate management both economically and
environmentally.
7 Please refer to the deleafing section as it is shown as a prevention practice for black Sigatoka
control

3. Banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus)

The banana weevil is an economically important pest for plantains and
high populations of this insect cause corm tunnels or galleries that affect
the plant’s base and pseudostem. Again, in high population density
systems, total plantation renovation after each culture cycle with fresh
planting material makes it difficult for the insect to complete its life-cycle.
This can be integrated with sampling and control systems that include
use of bait-traps constructed from pseudostem discs and/or aggregation
pheromones.


Annex 1
Process for obtaining and applying liquid humus
Humus
It corresponds to synthesis of products from soil organic matter
decomposition, mainly proteins, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, etc.
that when polymerizing form the humic fraction or soil humus. There is a
constant organic material decomposition caused by organisms’ action
and soil enzymatic activities to obtain a nutritious material whose carbon
is employed as an energy source and as final substances condensation
and mineralization products. In general, humus is based on its chemical
composition (humic acids, fulvic acids, humin) and soil distribution which
depend on the pH and type of existing vegetation.
Thus, humus can be prepared as a liquid containing mineralization
products, that is to say, dissolved nutrients as aqueous ions. This
product possesses energetic and nutritious materials besides having
adhesion qualities at the foliar level and plants are also able also absorb
them.
In the presence of humus the plant can absorb higher levels of nutrients
as cells permeability to ions increases. It has been demonstrated that
with liquid humus foliar application, nitrogen and phosphorus absorption
increases as well as the plant’s respiration activity and root growth.
With humus application there is a growth acceleration resulting from the
stimulation of different processes. Liquid humus also provides and
maintains a multitude of microorganisms living in it, contributing to its
transformation and acting against foliar diseases affecting crops such as
black Sigatoka on plantain.
Analysis of average contents found in liquid humus

Soluble potassium 3.06%
Assimilable Phosphorus 1.89%
Total Nitrogen 4.72%
Fulvic and humic compounds 12.52%
Water 80.00%

Analysis of average contents found in liquid humus (cont’d)

Minor elements (ppm)
Calcium 173.00
Magnesium 93.00
Sodium 48.24
Iron 4.20
Copper 0.05
Cobalt 0.07
Zinc 0.14
Manganese 3.00
Bacteria
The humus has a high bacterial content - in the order of one million units
forming colonies (u.f.c) per millilitre of product, amongst which there are
some bacterial populations hindering black Sigatoka/Black leaf streak
development.
How to obtain it?
a) Worm humus prepared and finished under cover is utilized. An under
cover preparation is indispensable to avoid loss of main elements
soluble by rain water.
b) As a conventional measure, a 55 gallon capacity tank is used to which
50% humus is added and the rest is water.
c) This solution is well mixed during one week so that most humus
dilutes in water.
d) The content filtrates using a mesh and the liquid is collected in a
suitable container.
Application method
a) Mix 8 litres of liquid humus with 8 litres of water in a 16 litre capacity
back pump. The ratio is always 1:1 liquid humus and water.
b) Apply weekly on the plant’s foliage. During the first field development
stages, it is possible to spray 200 to 220 plants with the content of one
back pump.
Explanatory note
Liquid humus should not be used on leafy horticulture crops which are
directly eaten due to the high bacterial content in it. Among these crops
are: lettuce, watercress, cabbage, chard, and others.

ISBN: 978-92-9043-839-7

IN080527 en

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

IN080527 en

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

IN080527 en

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Practical guide for plantain

production using high density

FE Rosales, JM Alvarez and A Vargas

cover_high_density_eng.indd 1 28/07/2010 15:14:40

cover_high_density_eng.indd 2 28/07/2010 15:14:40

FE Rosales, JM Alvarez and A Vargas

inner_cover_high_density_eng.ind1 1 19/07/2010 14:15:40

Translation of the original Spanish to English: Lissette Vega

high planting densities guide_La2 2 11/10/2010 16:33:47

Presentation and background ........................................................... 1

high planting densities guide_La3 3 11/10/2010 16:33:47

high planting densities guide_La5 5 11/10/2010 16:33:47

Dominican Republic leadership was assumed by the Instituto

high planting densities guide_La6 6 11/10/2010 16:33:47

2. Essential requirements for high density

high planting densities guide_La7 7 11/10/2010 16:33:47

6. Only monoculture planting (no intercropping),

3. Description of the proposed system

If there is no machinery, hauling or other appropriate

high planting densities guide_La8 8 11/10/2010 16:33:47

Double or single furrows?

high planting densities guide_La9 9 11/10/2010 16:33:47

It is recommended to place residues in alternate rows and to use the

4 Dehanding assures products delivery according to market demand.

high planting densities guide_La10 10 11/10/2010 16:33:47

2.5 m x 1.6 m 4.00 Single furrow 2500

2.75 m x 1.25 m 3.44 Single furrow 2909

2.5 m x 1.30 m 3.25 Single furrow 3077

3.0 m x 1.0 m 3.00 Single furrow 3333

3.0 m x 2.0 m x 1.6 m 4.00 Double furrow 2500

3.0 m x 2.0 m x 1.4 m 3.50 Double furrow 2857

4.0 m x 1.0 x 1.25 m 3.10 Double furrow 3200

3.0 m x 2.0 m x 1.2 m 3.00 Double furrow 3333

3.0 m x 2.0 m x 1.0 m 2.50 Double furrow 4000

high planting densities guide_La11 11 11/10/2010 16:33:47

We recommend using small plots to try higher or lower

Square shape planting Rectangle shape planting

Triangle shape planting Double furrow planting

Options for spatial arrangements

high planting densities guide_La12 12 11/10/2010 16:33:47

high planting densities guide_La13 13 11/10/2010 16:33:47

3. Staggered plantings every 1 – 2 months

January March May July Sept Nov January

high planting densities guide_La14 14 11/10/2010 16:33:47

4. Planting material: more recommended types and

Selection of planting material

high planting densities guide_La15 15 11/10/2010 16:33:47

causing lateral suckers emission, which significantly delays plantlets’

high planting densities guide_La16 16 11/10/2010 16:33:47

high planting densities guide_La17 17 11/10/2010 16:33:47

Plantlets classification by size: This is a key practice that will

high planting densities guide_La18 18 11/10/2010 16:33:47

Plantains’ natural environment corresponds to boundaries of large,

Climate and soil requirements for plantain cultivation

Low Medium High

Low Medium High

Poor Moderate Fast

high planting densities guide_La19 19 11/10/2010 16:33:48

If these minimum conditions are not met, an irrigation system