Algebra

Replacing p, q and r with their numerical values gives:

5.1 Basic operations    3
2 1 3
4 p qr = 4(2)
2 3
Algebra is that part of mathematics in which the rela- 2 2
tions and properties of numbers are investigated by 1 3 3 3
means of general symbols. For example, the area of = 4 × 2 × 2 × × × × = 27
2 2 2 2
a rectangle is found by multiplying the length by the
breadth; this is expressed algebraically as A = l × b, Problem 3. Find the sum of: 3x, 2x, −x and −7x
where A represents the area, l the length and b the
breadth. The sum of the positive term is: 3x + 2x = 5x
The basic laws introduced in arithmetic are gener-
The sum of the negative terms is: x + 7x = 8x
alised in algebra.
Let a, b, c and d represent any four numbers. Then: Taking the sum of the negative terms from the sum of
the positive terms gives:
(i) a + (b + c) = (a + b) +c
5x − 8x = −3x
(ii) a(bc) = (ab)c
(iii) a + b = b + a Alternatively

(iv) ab =ba 3x + 2x + (−x) + (−7x) = 3x + 2x − x − 7x

(v) a(b + c) = ab + ac = −3x
a +b a b
(vi) = + Problem 4. Find the sum of: 4a, 3b, c, −2a, −5b
c c c
and 6c
(vii) (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
Each symbol must be dealt with individually.
Problem 1. Evaluate: 3ab −2bc + abc when
For the ‘a’ terms: +4a − 2a = 2a
a = 1, b = 3 and c = 5
For the ‘b’ terms: +3b − 5b = −2b
Replacing a, b and c with their numerical values gives: For the ‘c’ terms: +c + 6c = 7c
3ab − 2bc + abc = 3 × 1 × 3 − 2 × 3 × 5 Thus
4a + 3b + c + (−2a) + (−5b) + 6c
+ 1×3×5
= 4a + 3b + c − 2a − 5b + 6c
= 9 − 30 + 15 = −6
= 2a − 2b + 7c
Problem 2. Find the value of 4 p2 qr 3, given the
1 1 Problem 5. Find the sum of: 5a − 2b, 2a + c,
p =2, q = and r = 1
2 2 4b − 5d and b − a + 3d − 4c

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-096562-8.00005-5

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 40 Engineering Mathematics

The algebraic expressions may be tabulated as shown 3x − 2y 2 + 4x y

Section 1

below, forming columns for the a’s, b’s, c’s and d’s. 2x − 5y
Multiplying
Thus:
by 2x → 6x 2 − 4x y 2 + 8x 2 y
+5a − 2b Multiplying
+2a +c by −5y → − 20x y 2 − 15x y + 10y 3
+ 4b − 5d
Adding gives: 6x2 − 24xy2 + 8x2 y − 15xy + 10y3
−a + b − 4c + 3d
Adding gives: 6a + 3b − 3c − 2d
Problem 9. Simplify: 2 p ÷ 8pq
2p
2 p ÷8pq means . This can be reduced by cancelling
Problem 6. Subtract 2x + 3y − 4z from 8 pq
x − 2y + 5z as in arithmetic.
2p 1 2 × p1 1
Thus: = =
x − 2y + 5z 8 pq 84 × p1 × q 4q
2x + 3y − 4z
Subtracting gives: −x − 5y + 9z Now try the following exercise

Exercise 20 Further problems on basic

(Note that +5z −−4z =+5z + 4z =9z)
operations
An alternative method of subtracting algebraic 1. Find the value of 2xy + 3yz − xyz, when x = 2,
expressions is to ‘change the signs of the bottom line y = −2 and z =4 [−16]
and add’. Hence: 2
2. Evaluate 3pq 3r 3 when p = , q = −2 and
3
x − 2y + 5z r = −1 [−8]
−2x − 3y + 4z 3. Find the sum of 3a, −2a, −6a, 5a and 4a
Adding gives: −x − 5y + 9z [4a]
4. Add together 2a + 3b + 4c, −5a − 2b + c,
4a − 5b − 6c [a − 4b − c]
Problem 7. Multiply 2a + 3b by a + b 5. Add together 3d + 4e, −2e + f , 2d − 3 f ,
4d − e + 2 f − 3e [9d − 2e]
Each term in the first expression is multiplied by a, then 6. From 4x − 3y + 2z subtract x + 2y − 3z
each term in the first expression is multiplied by b, and [3x − 5y + 5z]
the two results are added. The usual layout is shown 3 b b
below. 7. Subtract a − + c from − 4a − 3c
2 3 2 
1 5
2a + 3b −5 a + b − 4c
2 6
a + b
8. Multiply 3x + 2y by x − y
Multiplying by a → 2a 2 + 3ab [3x 2 − x y − 2y 2 ]

Multiplying by b → + 2ab + 3b 2 9. Multiply 2a − 5b + c by 3a + b

[6a 2 − 13ab + 3ac − 5b2 + bc]
Adding gives: 2a2 + 5ab + 3b2
 b ÷ 2a
Simplify (i) 3a ÷ 9ab (ii) 4a
10. 2

1
(i) (ii) 2ab
3b
Problem 8. Multiply 3x − 2y 2 + 4xy by 2x − 5y

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 Algebra 41

Section 1
5.2 Laws of indices p 1/2 q 2 r 2/3
Problem 13. Simplify: and
p 1/4 q 1/2r 1/6
The laws of indices are: evaluate when p =16, q = 9 and r = 4, taking
am
(i) a m × a n = a m+n (ii) = a m−n positive roots only
an √
(iii) (a m )n = a mn (iv) a m/n = n a m
1 Using the second law of indices gives:
(v) a −n = n (vi) a 0 = 1
a
p (1/2)−(1/4)q 2−(1/2)r (2/3)−(1/6) = p1/4 q3/2 r1/2
Problem 10. Simplify: a 3 b 2 c × ab3 c5 When p = 16, q = 9 and r = 4,

p1/4 q 3/2r 1/2 = (16)1/4 (9)3/2 (4)1/2

Grouping like terms gives:
√4
√ √
= ( 16)( 93 )( 4)
a 3 × a × b 2 × b3 × c × c5
= (2)(33 )(2) = 108
Using the first law of indices gives:
a 3+1 × b2+3 × c1+5 x 2 y3 + x y2
Problem 14. Simplify:
i.e. a 4 × b5 × c6 = a4 b5 c6 xy

a+b
Problem 11. Simplify: Algebraic expressions of the form can be split
c
a b
a 1/2b 2 c−2 × a 1/6b 1/2c into + . Thus
c c
Using the first law of indices, x 2 y3 + x y2 x 2 y3 x y2
= +
a 1/2b 2c−2 × a (1/6)b(1/2) c xy xy xy
= x 2−1 y 3−1 + x 1−1 y 2−1
= a (1/2)+(1/6) × b 2+(1/2) × c−2+1
2/3 5/2 −1
= xy2 + y
=a b c
(since x 0 = 1, from the sixth law of indices).
a 3 b 2 c4
Problem 12. Simplify: and evaluate x2 y
abc−2 Problem 15. Simplify:
1 x y2 − x y
when a = 3, b = and c = 2
8
The highest common factor (HCF) of each of the three
Using the second law of indices, terms comprising the numerator and denominator is xy.
Dividing each term by xy gives:
a3 b2
= a 3−1 = a 2 , = b 2−1 = b
a b x2 y
x2 y xy x
c4 = =
and = c4−(−2) = c6 x y2 − x y x y2 xy y−1
c−2 −
xy xy
a 3 b 2 c4
Thus = a2 bc6
abc−2
Problem 16. Simplify: ( p3 )1/2 (q 2 )4
1
When a = 3, b = and c = 2,
8 Using the third law of indices gives:
   
1 1
a bc = (3)
2 6 2 (2) = (9)
6 (64) = 72 p3×(1/2)q 2×4 = p(3/2) q8
8 8

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 42 Engineering Mathematics

Using the second law of indices gives:

Section 1

(mn 2 )3
Problem 17. Simplify: 1/2 1/4 4
(m n ) d 2−3 e2−2 f (1/2)−5 = d −1 e0 f −9/2

The brackets indicate that each letter in the bracket must = d −1 f (−9/2) since e0 = 1
be raised to the power outside. Using the third law of from the sixth law of indices
indices gives: 1
=
df 9/2
(mn 2 )3 m 1×3 n 2×3 m3 n6
= ×4 =
(m 1/2 n 1/4)4 m (1/2)×4 n (1/4) m2 n1 from the fifth law of indices.

Using the second law of indices gives: √ 

(x 2 y 1/2 )( x 3 y 2 )
Problem 20. Simplify:
m3n 6 (x 5 y 3 )1/2
= m 3−2 n 6−1 = mn5
m2 n1
Using the third and fourth laws of indices gives:
Problem 18. Simplify: √ 
√ √ √ √ 1 (x 2 y 1/2 )( x 3 y 2 ) (x 2 y 1/2 )(x 1/2 y 2/3 )
3
(a 3 b c5 )( a b 2 c3 ) and evaluate when a = , =
4 (x 5 y 3 )1/2 x 5/2 y 3/2
b = 6 and c = 1
Using the first and second laws of indices gives:
Using the fourth law of indices, the expression can be
x 2+(1/2)−(5/2) y (1/2)+(2/3)−(3/2) = x 0 y −1/3
written as:
= y −1/3
(a b
3 1/2 5/2
c )(a c )
1/2 2/3 3
b
1 1
or or √
Using the first law of indices gives: y 1/3 3 y

a 3+(1/2)b(1/2)+(2/3)c(5/2)+3 = a 7/2b 7/6c11/2 from the fifth and sixth law of indices.

It is usual to express the answer in the same form as the

question. Hence Now try the following exercise
  6

a 7/2b 7/6c11/2 = a7 b7 c11 Exercise 21 Further problems on laws of
1 indices
When a = , b = 64 and c = 1,
4 1. Simplify (x 2 y 3 z)(x 3 yz2 ) and evaluate when
 1
    7  √  √  x = , y = 2 and z = 3
6 1 6
2
a b c =
7 7 11 647 111  
4 1
x y z , 13
5 4 3
 7 2
1
= (2)7 (1) = 1
2 2. Simplify (a 3/2bc−3 )(a 1/2bc−1/2 c) and eval-
uate when a = 3, b = 4 and c = 2
 
d 2 e2 f 1/2 −2 1
Problem 19. Simplify: expressing a b c , ±4
2 1/2
(d 3/2 e f 5/2)2 2
the answer with positive indices only
a 5 bc3 3
3. Simplify: 2 3 2
and evaluate when a = ,
Using the third law of indices gives: a b c 2
1 2
d 2 e2 f 1/2 d 2 e2 f 1/2 b = and c = [a 3 b −2c, 9]
= 2 3
(d 3/2 e f 5/2 )2 d 3 e2 f 5

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 Algebra 43

Collecting similar terms together gives:

Section 1
In Problems 4 to 10, simplify the given
expressions: 3a + 3b − 2c − 4d

x 1/5 y 1/2 z 1/3

4. [x 7/10 y 1/6 z 1/2 ] Problem 22. Simplify:
x −1/2 y 1/3 z −1/6
a 2 − (2a − ab) − a(3b + a)
 
a2b + a3b 1+a
5.
a 2 b2 b When the brackets are removed, both 2a and −ab in the
  first bracket must be multiplied by −1 and both 3b and
p 3q 2 p2q a in the second bracket by −a. Thus:
6.
pq 2 − p2 q q−p
a 2 − (2a − ab) − a(3b + a)
7. (a 2 )1/2 (b 2 )3 (c1/2 )3 [ab 6 c3/2 ] = a 2 − 2a + ab − 3ab − a 2
(abc)2 Collecting similar terms together gives: −2a − 2ab
8. [a −4 b 5 c11 ] Since −2a is a common factor, the answer can be
(a 2 b−1 c−3 )3
expressed as: −2a(1 +b)
√  √ √  √ √
9. ( x y 3 3 z 2 )( x y 3 z 3 ) 6
[x y 3 z 13 ]
Problem 23. Simplify: (a + b)(a − b)
3 1/2 −1/2
(a b c )(ab) 1/3
10. √ √ Each term in the second bracket has to be multiplied by
( a bc)
3
 √6 11 √
 each term in the first bracket. Thus:
a 3b
a 11/6 b 1/3c−3/2 or √ (a + b)(a − b) = a(a − b) + b(a − b)
c3
= a 2 − ab + ab − b 2
= a2 − b 2
5.3 Brackets and factorisation Alternatively a + b
a − b
When two or more terms in an algebraic expression con-
Multiplying by a → a 2 + ab
tain a common factor, then this factor can be shown
Multiplying by −b → − ab − b 2
outside of a bracket. For example
Adding gives: a2 − b2
ab + ac = a(b + c)
which is simply the reverse of law (v) of algebra on
page 34, and Problem 24. Simplify: (3x − 3y)2

6 px + 2 py − 4 pz = 2 p(3x + y − 2z)
(2x − 3y)2 = (2x − 3y)(2x − 3y)
This process is called factorisation.
= 2x(2x − 3y) − 3y(2x − 3y)
Problem 21. Remove the brackets and simplify = 4x 2 − 6x y − 6x y + 9y 2
the expression:
= 4x2 − 12xy + 9y2
(3a + b) + 2(b + c) − 4(c + d)
Alternatively, 2x − 3y
2x − 3y
Both b and c in the second bracket have to be multiplied
by 2, and c and d in the third bracket by −4 when the Multiplying by 2x → 4x 2 − 6x y
brackets are removed. Thus: Multiplying by −3y → − 6x y + 9y 2
(3a + b) + 2(b + c) − 4(c + d) Adding gives: 4x 2 − 12x y + 9y 2
= 3a + b + 2b + 2c − 4c − 4d

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 44 Engineering Mathematics

For each part of this problem, the HCF of the terms will
Section 1

Problem 25. Remove the brackets from the

become one of the factors. Thus:
expression: 2[ p 2 − 3(q +r) + q 2 ]
(a) xy − 3xz = x(y − 3z)
In this problem there are two brackets and the ‘inner’
one is removed first. (b) 4a 2 + 16ab3 = 4a(a +4b3 )

Hence, 2[ p 2 − 3(q +r) + q 2] (c) 3a 2 b − 6ab2 + 15ab =3ab(a −2b + 5)

= 2[ p 2 − 3q − 3r + q 2 ]
Problem 29. Factorise: ax − ay + bx − by
= 2p2 − 6q − 6r + 2q2
The first two terms have a common factor of a and the
Problem 26. Remove the brackets and simplify last two terms a common factor of b. Thus:
the expression:
ax − ay + bx − by = a(x − y) + b(x − y)
2a − [3{2(4a − b) − 5(a + 2b)} + 4a]
The two newly formed terms have a common factor of
(x − y). Thus:
Removing the innermost brackets gives:
2a − [3{8a − 2b − 5a − 10b} + 4a] a(x − y) + b(x − y) = (x − y)(a + b)

Collecting together similar terms gives:

Problem 30. Factorise:
2a − [3{3a − 12b} + 4a]
2ax − 3ay + 2bx − 3by
Removing the ‘curly’ brackets gives:
2a − [9a − 36b + 4a] a is a common factor of the first two terms and b a
Collecting together similar terms gives: common factor of the last two terms. Thus:

2a − [13a − 36b] 2ax − 3ay + 2bx − 3by

Removing the outer brackets gives: = a(2x − 3y) + b(2x − 3y)
2a − 13a − 36b (2x − 3y) is now a common factor, thus:
i.e. −11a + 36b or 36b −11a
a(2x − 3y) + b(2x − 3y)
(see law (iii), page 39)
= (2x − 3y)(a + b)
Problem 27. Simplify:
Alternatively, 2x is a common factor of the original
x(2x − 4y) − 2x(4x + y) first and third terms and −3y is a common factor of
the second and fourth terms. Thus:
Removing brackets gives:
2ax − 3ay + 2bx − 3by
2x 2 − 4x y − 8x 2 − 2x y
= 2x(a + b) − 3y(a + b)
Collecting together similar terms gives:
(a + b) is now a common factor thus:
−6x 2 − 6x y
2x(a + b) − 3y(a + b) = (a + b)(2x − 3y)
Factorising gives:
as before.
−6x(x + y)
(since −6x is common to both terms). Problem 31. Factorise: x 3 + 3x 2 − x − 3

Problem 28. Factorise: (a) xy − 3xz x 2 is a common factor of the first two terms, thus:
(b) 4a 2 + 16ab3 (c) 3a 2 b − 6ab2 + 15ab
x 3 + 3x 2 − x − 3 = x 2 (x + 3) − x − 3

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 Algebra 45

−1 is a common factor of the last two terms, thus:

Section 1
5.4 Fundamental laws and
x 2 (x + 3) − x − 3 = x 2 (x + 3) − 1(x + 3) precedence
(x + 3) is now a common factor, thus:
The laws of precedence which apply to arithmetic also
x 2 (x + 3) − 1(x + 3) = (x + 3)(x2 − 1) apply to algebraic expressions. The order is Brackets,
Of, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction
Now try the following exercise (i.e. BODMAS).

Exercise 22 Further problems on brackets Problem 32. Simplify: 2a + 5a × 3a − a

and factorisation
Multiplication is performed before addition and subtrac-
In Problems 1 to 9, remove the brackets and tion thus:
simplify where possible: 2a + 5a × 3a − a = 2a + 15a 2 − a
1. (x + 2y) + (2x − y) [3x + y] = a + 15a2 or a(1 + 15a)

2. 2(x − y) − 3( y − x) [5(x − y)] Problem 33. Simplify: (a + 5a) × 2a − 3a

3. 2( p +3q −r) − 4(r − q + 2 p) + p The order of precedence is brackets, multiplication, then

subtraction. Hence
[−5 p + 10q − 6r]
(a + 5a) × 2a − 3a = 6a × 2a − 3a
4. (a + b)(a + 2b) [a 2 + 3ab +2b 2 ] = 12a 2 − 3a
or 3a(4a − 1)
5. ( p + q)(3 p −2q) [3 p2 + pq − 2q 2 ]
Problem 34. Simplify: a + 5a × (2a − 3a)
6. (i) (x − 2y)2 (ii) (3a −
 b)
2

(i) x 2 − 4x y + 4y 2
The order of precedence is brackets, multiplication, then
(ii) 9a 2 − 6ab +b2 subtraction. Hence
a + 5a × (2a − 3a) = a + 5a × −a
7. 3a + 2[a − (3a − 2)] [4 −a]
= a + −5a 2
8. 2 − 5[a(a − 2b) −(a − b)2 ] [2 + 5b 2 ] = a − 5a 2 or a(1 − 5a)

9. 24 p −[2{3(5 p − q) − 2( p + 2q)} + 3q] Problem 35. Simplify: a ÷ 5a + 2a − 3a

[11q − 2 p]
In Problems 10 to 12, factorise: The order of precedence is division, then addition and
subtraction. Hence
10. (i) pb + 2 pc (ii) 2q 2 + 8qn a
a ÷ 5a + 2a − 3a = + 2a − 3a
[(i) p(b + 2c) (ii) 2q(q + 4n)] 5a
1 1
11. (i) 21a 2 b2 − 28ab (ii) 2xy2 + 6x 2 y + 8x 3 y = + 2a − 3a = − a
5 5
 
(i) 7ab(3ab −4)
Problem 36. Simplify:
(ii) 2x y(y + 3x + 4x 2
a ÷ (5a + 2a) − 3a
12. (i) ay + by + a + b (ii) px + q x + py + q y
(iii) 2ax + 3ay − 4bx − 6by The order of precedence is brackets, division and
⎡ ⎤ subtraction. Hence
(i) (a + b)(y + 1)
⎢ ⎥ a ÷ (5a + 2a) − 3a = a ÷ 7a − 3a
⎣ (ii) ( p + q)(x + y) ⎦
(iii) (a − 2b)(2x + 3y) a 1
= − 3a = − 3a
7a 7

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 46 Engineering Mathematics
Section 1

Problem 37. Simplify: Problem 40. Simplify:

3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ 5c − 8c (2a − 3) ÷ 4a + 5 × 6 − 3a

The order of precedence is division, multiplication, The bracket around the (2a − 3) shows that both 2a and
addition and subtraction. Hence: −3 have to be divided by 4a, and to remove the bracket
the expression is written in fraction form.
3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ 5c − 8c
c Hence, (2a − 3) ÷ 4a + 5 × 6 − 3a
= 3c + 2c × 4c + − 8c
5c 2a − 3
1 = + 5 × 6 − 3a
= 3c + 8c2 + − 8c 4a
5 2a − 3
1 1 = + 30 − 3a
= 8c − 5c +
2
or c(8c − 5) + 4a
5 5
2a 3
= − + 30 − 3a
Problem 38. Simplify: 4a 4a
1 3
3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ (5c − 8c) = − + 30 − 3a
2 4a
The order of precedence is brackets, division, multipli- 1 3
= 30 − − 3a
cation and addition. Hence, 2 4a

3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ (5c − 8c) Problem 41. Simplify:

= 3c + 2c × 4c + c ÷ −3c 1
c of 3 p + 4 p(3 p − p)
= 3c + 2c × 4c + 3
−3c
c 1 Applying BODMAS, the expression becomes
Now =
−3c −3
1
Multiplying numerator and denominator by −1 gives: of 3 p + 4 p × 2 p
3
1 × −1 1
i.e. − and changing ‘of’ to ‘×’ gives:
−3 × −1 3
Hence: 1
× 3p +4p × 2p
c 3
3c + 2c × 4c +
−3c i.e. p +8p2 or p(1 +8p)
1
= 3c + 2c × 4c −
3
1 1 Now try the following exercise
= 3c + 8c2 − or c(3 + 8c) −
3 3
Exercise 23 Further problems on
Problem 39. Simplify: fundamental laws and
(3c + 2c)(4c + c) ÷ (5c − 8c) precedence
Simplify the following:
The order of precedence is brackets, division and  
1
multiplication. Hence 1. 2x ÷ 4x + 6x + 6x
2
(3c + 2c)(4c + c) ÷ (5c − 8c)  
1
= 5c × 5c ÷ −3c = 5c ×
5c 2. 2x ÷ (4x + 6x)
−3c 5
5 25
= 5c × − = − c 3. 3a − 2a × 4a + a [4a(1 −2a)]
3 3

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 Algebra 47

proportional to its thermodynamic temperature T ,

Section 1
4. 3a − 2a(4a + a) [a(3 −10a)] i.e. V α T or V = kT .
 
2 (iii) Ohm’s law, which states that the current I flowing
5. 2y + 4 ÷6y + 3 × 4 −5y − 3y + 12 through a fixed resistor is directly proportional to
3y
the applied voltage V , i.e. I α V or I = kV.
 
2
6. 2y + 4 ÷6y + 3(4 − 5y) + 12 −13y (iv) Boyle’s law, which states that for a gas at constant
3y temperature, the volume V of a fixed mass of a gas
  is inversely proportional to its absolute pressure
5
7. 3 ÷ y + 2 ÷ y + 1 +1 p, i.e. p α (1/ V ) or p =k/ V , i.e. pV = k.
y

8. p 2 − 3 pq × 2 p ÷6q + pq [ pq] Problem 42. If y is directly proportional to x and

y = 2.48 when x = 0.4, determine (a) the coefficient
 
1 of proportionality and (b) the value of y when
9. (x + 1)(x − 4) ÷ (2x + 2) (x − 4) x = 0.65
2
  
1 1 (a) y α x, i.e. y = kx. If y = 2.48 when x = 0.4,
10. of 2y + 3y(2y − y) y + 3y
4 2 2.48 = k(0.4)
Hence the coefficient of proportionality,
2.48
k= = 6.2
0.4

5.5 Direct and inverse (b) y = kx, hence, when x = 0.65,

proportionality y = (6.2)(0.65) =4.03

An expression such as y = 3x contains two variables. Problem 43. Hooke’s law states that stress σ is
For every value of x there is a corresponding value of y. directly proportional to strain ε within the elastic
The variable x is called the independent variable and limit of a material. When, for mild steel, the stress is
y is called the dependent variable. 25 ×106 Pascals, the strain is 0.000125. Determine
When an increase or decrease in an independent (a) the coefficient of proportionality and (b) the
variable leads to an increase or decrease of the same pro- value of strain when the stress is 18 ×106 Pascals
portion in the dependent variable this is termed direct
proportion. If y = 3x then y is directly proportional to (a) σ α ε, i.e. σ = kε, from which k = σ/ε. Hence the
x, which may be written as y α x or y = kx, where k is coefficient of proportionality,
called the coefficient of proportionality (in this case,
k being equal to 3). 25 × 106
k= = 200 × 109 pascals
When an increase in an independent variable leads to 0.000125
a decrease of the same proportion in the dependent vari- (The coefficient of proportionality k in this case is
able (or vice versa) this is termed inverse proportion. called Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.)
1
If y is inversely proportional to x then y α or y = k/x. (b) Since σ = kε, ε = σ /k
x
Alternatively, k = x y, that is, for inverse proportionality Hence when σ = 18 ×106 ,
the product of the variable is constant.
18 × 106
Examples of laws involving direct and inverse pro- strain ε = = 0.00009
portional in science include: 200 × 109

(i) Hooke’s law, which states that within the elastic Problem 44. The electrical resistance R of a
limit of a material, the strain ε produced is directly piece of wire is inversely proportional to the cross-
proportional to the stress, σ , producing it, i.e. ε α σ sectional area A. When A = 5 mm2 , R = 7.02 ohms.
or ε = kσ . Determine (a) the coefficient of proportionality
and (b) the cross-sectional area when the resistance
(ii) Charles’s law, which states that for a given mass
is 4 ohms
of gas at constant pressure the volume V is directly

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 48 Engineering Mathematics

1
Section 1

(a) Rα , i.e. R = k/ A or k = R A. Hence, when 2. Charles’s law states that for a given mass of
A gas at constant pressure the volume is directly
R = 7.2 and A = 5, the coefficient of proportional-
proportional to its thermodynamic tempera-
ity, k = (7.2)(5) =36
ture. A gas occupies a volume of 2.25 litres at
(b) Since k = R A then A = k/R 300 K. Determine (a) the constant of propor-
When R = 4, the cross-sectional area, tionality, (b) the volume at 420 K, and (c) the
temperature when the volume is 2.625 litres
36 [(a) 0.0075 (b) 3.15 litres (c) 350 K]
A= = 9 mm2
4
3. Ohm’s law states that the current flowing in
a fixed resistor is directly proportional to the
Problem 45. Boyle’s law states that at constant
applied voltage. When 30 volts is applied
temperature, the volume V of a fixed mass of gas is
across a resistor the current flowing through
inversely proportional to its absolute pressure p. If
the resistor is 2.4 ×10−3 amperes. Determine
a gas occupies a volume of 0.08 m3 at a pressure of
(a) the constant of proportionality, (b) the
1.5 × 106 Pascals determine (a) the coefficient of
current when the voltage is 52 volts and
proportionality and (b) the volume if the pressure is
(c) the voltage when the current is 3.6 × 10−3
changed to 4 ×106 Pascals
amperes  
(a) 0.00008 (b) 4.16 × 10−3 A
1
(a) Vα i.e. V = k/ p or k = pV (c) 45 V
p
Hence the coefficient of proportionality, 4. If y is inversely proportional to x and y = 15.3
when x = 0.6, determine (a) the coefficient of
k = (1.5 × 106 )(0.08) = 0.12 × 106 proportionality, (b) the value of y when x is
1.5, and (c) the value of x when y is 27.2
k 0.12 × 106
(b) Volume V = = = 0.03 m3 [(a) 9.18 (b) 6.12 (c) 0.3375]
p 4 ×106
5. Boyle’s law states that for a gas at constant
temperature, the volume of a fixed mass of gas
Now try the following exercise is inversely proportional to its absolute pres-
sure. If a gas occupies a volume of 1.5 m3 at a
Exercise 24 Further problems on direct and pressure of 200 ×103 Pascals, determine (a)
inverse proportionality the constant of proportionality, (b) the volume
when the pressure is 800 ×103 Pascals and
1. If p is directly proportional to q and p = 37.5 (c) the pressure when the volume is 1.25 m 3
when q = 2.5, determine (a) the constant of 
(a) 300 ×10 3 (b) 0.375 m 3
proportionality and (b) the value of p when q
is 5.2 [(a) 15 (b) 78] (c) 240 ×103 Pa

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 Week 2
Further algebra
175 7 7
6.1 Polynomial division Hence = 11 remainder 7 or 11 + = 11
15 15 15
Before looking at long division in algebra let us revise Below are some examples of division in algebra, which
long division with numbers (we may have forgotten, in some respects, is similar to long division with
since calculators do the job for us!) numbers.
208 (Note that a polynomial is an expression of the form
For example, is achieved as follows:
16
f (x) = a + bx + cx 2 + d x 3 + · · ·
 13
16 208 and polynomial division is sometimes required when
16 resolving into partial fractions — see Chapter 7).
__
48
Problem 1. Divide 2x 2 + x − 3 by x − 1
48
__
..
__
2x 2 + x − 3 is called the dividend and x − 1 the divi-
(1) 16 divided into 2 won’t go sor. The usual layout is shown below with the dividend
(2) 16 divided into 20 goes 1 and divisor both arranged in descending powers of the
(3) Put 1 above the zero symbols.
 2x + 3
(4) Multiply 16 by 1 giving 16
(5) Subtract 16 from 20 giving 4
x − 1 2x 2 + x − 3
(6) Bring down the 8
(7) 16 divided into 48 goes 3 times 2x 2 − 2x
_______
(8) Put the 3 above the 8 3x − 3
(9) 3 × 16 = 48 3x −3
_____
(10) 48 − 48 = 0 .
_____.
208 Dividing the first term of the dividend by the first term
Hence = 13 exactly
16 2x 2
of the divisor, i.e. gives 2x, which is put above the
172 x
Similarly, is laid out as follows: first term of the dividend as shown. The divisor is then
15
multiplied by 2x, i.e. 2x(x − 1) = 2x 2 − 2x, which is
11 placed under the dividend as shown. Subtracting gives

3x − 3. The process is then repeated, i.e. the first term
15 172
of the divisor, x, is divided into 3x, giving +3, which is
15
__ placed above the dividend as shown. Then 3(x − 1) =
22 3x − 3 which is placed under the 3x − 3. The remainder,
15
__ on subtraction, is zero, which completes the process.
7
__ Thus (2x2 + x − 3) ÷ (x − 1) = (2x + 3)
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-096562-8.00006-7

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 50 Engineering Mathematics

[A check can be made on this answer by multiplying (7) x into xy2 goes y 2 . Put y 2 above divided
Section 1

(2x + 3) by (x − 1) which equals 2x 2 + x − 3] (8) y 2 (x + y) = x y 2 + y 3

(9) Subtract
Problem 2. Divide 3x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 5 by x + 1
x 3 + y3
Thus = x2 − xy + y2
x+y
(1) (4) (7)
The zero’s shown in the dividend are not normally
 3x − 2x + 5
2
shown, but are included to clarify the subtraction process
x + 1 3x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 5 and to keep similar terms in their respective columns.
3x 3 + 3x 2
________
−2x 2 + 3x + 5 Problem 4. Divide (x 2 + 3x − 2) by (x − 2)
−2x 2 − 2x
_________
5x + 5  x +5
5x + 5
______ x − 2 x 2 + 3x − 2
. .
______ x 2 − 2x
______
(1) x into 3x 3 goes 3x 2 . Put 3x 2 above 3x 3 5x − 2
(2) 3x 2 (x + 1) = 3x 3 + 3x 2 5x − 10
______
(3) Subtract ______8
(4) x into −2x 2 goes −2x. Put −2x above the
dividend x 2 + 3x − 2 8
(5) −2x(x + 1) = −2x 2 − 2x Hence = x+5+
x −2 x−2
(6) Subtract
(7) x into 5x goes 5. Put 5 above the dividend Problem 5. Divide 4a 3 − 6a 2 b + 5b 3 by 2a − b
(8) 5(x + 1) = 5x + 5
(9) Subtract
 2a 2 − 2ab − b 2
3x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 5
Thus = 3x2 − 2x + 5 2a − b 4a 3 − 6a 2 b + 5b3
x +1 3 − 2a 2 b
4a
_________
−4a 2 b + 5b3
x 3 + y3
Problem 3. Simplify: −4a 2 b + 2ab 2
____________
x+y
−2ab2 + 5b 3
−2ab 2 + b3
(1) (4) (7) ___________
2 2 4b 3
___________
 x − xy + y
x + y x3 + 0 + 0 + y3 Thus
3 + x2 y
x________ 4a 3 − 6a 2 b + 5b 3 4b3
−x 2 y +y3 = 2a2 − 2ab − b2 +
2a − b 2a − b
−x 2 y − x y2
__________
x y2 + y3
x y2 + y3
_______ Now try the following exercise
.
_______.

(1) x into x 3 goes x 2 . Put x 2 above x 3 of dividend Exercise 25 Further problems on

polynomial division
(2) x 2 (x + y) = x 3 + x 2 y
(3) Subtract 1. Divide (2x 2 + x y − y 2 ) by (x + y) [2x − y]
(4) x into −x 2 y goes −x y. Put −x y above dividend
(5) −x y(x + y) = −x 2 y − x y 2 2. Divide (3x 2 + 5x − 2) by (x + 2) [3x − 1]
(6) Subtract

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 Further algebra 51

we could deduce at once that (x − 2) is a factor of the

Section 1
3. Determine (10x 2 + 11x − 6) ÷ (2x + 3) expression x 2 + 2x − 8. We wouldn’t normally solve
[5x − 2] quadratic equations this way — but suppose we have
to factorise a cubic expression (i.e. one in which the
14x 2 − 19x − 3 highest power of the variable is 3). A cubic equation
4. Find: [7x + 1]
2x − 3 might have three simple linear factors and the difficulty
of discovering all these factors by trial and error would
5. Divide (x 3 + 3x 2 y + 3x y 2 + y3 ) by (x + y) be considerable. It is to deal with this kind of case that
[x 2 + 2x y + y 2 ] we use the factor theorem. This is just a generalised
version of what we established above for the quadratic
6. Find (5x 2 − x + 4) ÷ (x − 1)  expression. The factor theorem provides a method of
8 factorising any polynomial, f (x), which has simple
5x + 4 +
x −1 factors.
A statement of the factor theorem says:
7. Divide (3x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x
 + 4) by (x + 2) 
2 ‘if x = a is a root of the equation f (x) = 0,
3x − 4x + 3 −
3
then (x − a) is a factor of f (x)’
x +2
The following worked problems show the use of the
5x 4 + 3x 3 − 2x + 1 factor theorem.
8. Determine:
 x −3 
481
5x + 18x 2 + 54x + 160 +
3
x −3 Problem 6. Factorise: x 3 − 7x − 6 and use it to
solve the cubic equation: x 3 − 7x − 6 = 0

Let f (x) = x 3 − 7x − 6
6.2 The factor theorem If x = 1, then f (1) = 13 − 7(1) − 6 = −12

There is a simple relationship between the factors of If x = 2, then f (2) = 23 − 7(2) − 6 = −12
a quadratic expression and the roots of the equation If x = 3, then f (3) = 33 − 7(3) − 6 = 0
obtained by equating the expression to zero.
For example, consider the quadratic equation If f (3) = 0, then (x − 3) is a factor — from the factor
x 2 + 2x − 8 = 0 theorem.
To solve this we may factorise the quadratic expression We have a choice now. We can divide x 3 − 7x − 6 by
x 2 + 2x − 8 giving (x − 2)(x + 4) (x − 3) or we could continue our ‘trial and error’ by sub-
Hence (x − 2)(x + 4) = 0 stituting further values for x in the given expression —
Then, if the product of two number is zero, one or both and hope to arrive at f (x) = 0.
of those numbers must equal zero. Therefore, Let us do both ways. Firstly, dividing out gives:
either (x − 2) = 0, from which, x = 2
2
or (x + 4) = 0, from which, x = −4  x + 3x + 2
x − 3 x 3 + 0 − 7x − 6
It is clear then that a factor of (x − 2) indicates a root
3 − 3x 2
x_______
of +2, while a factor of (x + 4) indicates a root of −4.
In general, we can therefore say that: 3x 2 − 7x − 6
3x 2 − 9x
a factor of (x − a) corresponds to a root of x = a ___________
2x − 6
In practice, we always deduce the roots of a sim- 2x −6
______
ple quadratic equation from the factors of the quadratic . .
______
expression, as in the above example. However, we could
reverse this process. If, by trial and error, we could deter- x 3 − 7x − 6
Hence = x 2 + 3x + 2
mine that x = 2 is a root of the equation x 2 + 2x − 8 = 0 x −3

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 52 Engineering Mathematics

i.e. x 3 − 7x − 6 = (x − 3)(x 2 + 3x + 2) Alternatively, having obtained one factor, i.e. (x − 1)

Section 1

we could divide this into (x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6) as

x 3 + 3x + 2 factorises ‘on sight’ as (x + 1)(x + 2)
follows:
Therefore
 x −x −6
2
x3 − 7x − 6 = (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 2)
x − 1 x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
3 − x2
x_______
A second method is to continue to substitute values of
x into f (x). − x 2 − 5x + 6
Our expression for f (3) was 33 − 7(3) − 6. We can see − x___________
2 + x

that if we continue with positive values of x the first −6x + 6

term will predominate such that f (x) will not be zero. −6x +6
Therefore let us try some negative values for x: ______
. .
______
f (−1) = (−1)3 − 7(−1) − 6 = 0; hence (x + 1) is a
factor (as shown above).
Also, f (−2) = (−2)3 − 7(−2) − 6 = 0; hence (x + 2) Hence x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
is a factor (also as shown above).
To solve x 3 − 7x − 6 = 0, we substitute the factors, i.e. = (x − 1)(x 2 − x − 6)
= (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2)
(x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 2) = 0

from which, x = 3, x = −1 and x = −2 Summarising, the factor theorem provides us with a

Note that the values of x, i.e. 3, −1 and −2, are all method of factorising simple expressions, and an alter-
factors of the constant term, i.e. the 6. This can give us native, in certain circumstances, to polynomial division.
a clue as to what values of x we should consider.
Now try the following exercise
Problem 7. Solve the cubic equation
x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6 = 0 by using the factor theorem Exercise 26 Further problems on the factor
theorem
Let f (x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6 and let us substitute Use the factor theorem to factorise the expressions
simple values of x like 1, 2, 3, −1, −2, and so on. given in problems 1 to 4.

f (1) = 13 − 2(1)2 − 5(1) + 6 = 0, 1. x 2 + 2x − 3 [(x − 1)(x + 3)]

hence (x − 1) is a factor 2. x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 4 [(x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 2)]

f (2) = 23 − 2(2)2 − 5(2) + 6 = 0 3. 2x 3 + 5x 2 − 4x − 7
[(x + 1)(2x 2 + 3x − 7)]
f (3) = 33 − 2(3)2 − 5(3) + 6 = 0,
hence (x − 3) is a factor 4. 2x 3 − x 2 − 16x + 15
[(x − 1)(x + 3)(2x − 5)]
f (−1) = (−1)3 − 2(−1)2 − 5(−1) + 6 = 0
5. Use the factor theorem to factorise
f (−2) = (−2)3 − 2(−2)2 − 5(−2) + 6 = 0, x 3 + 4x 2 + x − 6 and hence solve the cubic
hence (x + 2) is a factor equation x 3 + 4x 2 + x − 6 = 0
⎡ 3 ⎤
x + 4x 2 + x − 6
Hence, x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2) ⎣ = (x − 1)(x + 3)(x + 2); ⎦
x = 1, x = −3 and x = −2
Therefore if x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6 = 0
then (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2) = 0 6. Solve the equation x 3 − 2x 2 − x + 2 = 0
[x = 1, x = 2 and x = −1]
from which, x = 1, x = 3 and x = −2

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 Further algebra 53

In this case the other factor is (2x + 3), i.e.

Section 1
6.3 The remainder theorem
(2x 2 + x − 3) = (x − 1)(2x − 3).
Dividing a general quadratic expression (ax2 + bx + c)
by (x − p), where p is any whole number, by long The remainder theorem may also be stated for a cubic
division (see Section 6.1) gives: equation as:

 ax + (b + ap) ‘if (ax3 + bx2 + cx + d) is divided by (x − p), the

x − p ax 2 + bx +c remainder will be ap3 + bp2 + cp + d’
ax 2 − apx
________
(b + ap)x + c As before, the remainder may be obtained by substitut-
(b + ap)x − (b + ap) p
__________________
ing p for x in the dividend.
For example, when (3x 3 + 2x 2 − x + 4) is divided by
c + (b + ap) p
__________________ (x − 1), the remainder is: ap3 + bp 2 + cp + d (where
The remainder, c + (b + ap) p = c + bp + ap2 or a = 3, b = 2, c = −1, d = 4 and p = 1), i.e. the
ap 2 + bp + c. This is, in fact, what the remainder remainder is:
theorem states, i.e. 3(1)3 + 2(1)2 + (−1)(1) + 4 = 3 + 2 − 1 + 4 = 8.
‘if (ax2 + bx + c) is divided by (x − p), Similarly, when (x 3 − 7x − 6) is divided by (x − 3),
the remainder will be ap2 + bp + c’ the remainder is: 1(3)3 + 0(3)2 − 7(3) − 6 = 0, which
mean that (x − 3) is a factor of (x 3 − 7x − 6).
If, in the dividend (ax 2 + bx + c), we substitute p for x Here are some more examples on the remainder
we get the remainder ap 2 + bp + c theorem.
For example, when (3x 2 − 4x + 5) is divided by
(x − 2) the remainder is ap2 + bp + c, (where a = 3, Problem 8. Without dividing out, find the
b = −4, c = 5 and p = 2), remainder when 2x 2 − 3x + 4 is divided by (x − 2)
i.e. the remainder is:
3(2)2 + (−4)(2) + 5 = 12 − 8 + 5 = 9 By the remainder theorem, the remainder is given by:
We can check this by dividing (3x 2 − 4x + 5) by ap 2 + bp + c, where a = 2, b = −3, c = 4 and p = 2.
(x − 2) by long division: Hence the remainder is:
 3x + 2
x − 2 3x 2 − 4x + 5 2(2)2 + (−3)(2) + 4 = 8 − 6 + 4 = 6
3x 2 − 6x
_______
2x + 5 Problem 9. Use the remainder theorem to
2x −4
______ determine the remainder when (3x 3 − 2x 2 + x − 5)
9 is divided by (x + 2)
______

Similarly, when (4x 2 − 7x + 9) is divided by (x + 3), By the remainder theorem, the remainder is given
the remainder is ap 2 + bp + c, (where a = 4, b = −7, by: ap 3 + bp2 + cp + d, where a = 3, b = −2, c = 1,
c = 9 and p = −3) i.e. the remainder is: d = −5 and p = −2
4(−3)2 + (−7)(−3) + 9 = 36 + 21 + 9 = 66
Also, when (x 2 + 3x − 2) is divided by (x − 1), the Hence the remainder is:
remainder is 1(1)2 + 3(1) − 2 = 2
3(−2)3 + (−2)(−2)2 + (1)(−2) + (−5)
It is not particularly useful, on its own, to know the
remainder of an algebraic division. However, if the = −24 − 8 − 2 − 5 = −39
remainder should be zero then (x − p) is a factor. This
is very useful therefore when factorising expressions. Problem 10. Determine the remainder when
For example, when (2x 2 + x − 3) is divided by (x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6) is divided by (a) (x − 1) and
(x − 1), the remainder is 2(1)2 + 1(1) − 3 = 0, which (b) (x + 2). Hence factorise the cubic expression
means that (x − 1) is a factor of (2x 2 + x − 3).

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