Module 2, 3,4 and 5

Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

Standard unit is Pascal, which is N/m2
For liquid pressure, the medium is considered as
a continuous distribution of matter.
For gas pressure, it is calculated as the average
pressure of molecular collisions on the container.
Pressure acts perpendicular on the surface.
Pressure is a scalar quantity – pressure has no
particular direction (i.e. acts in every direction).
Pascal’s Law
Pf = P0 + ρgh
“When there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal
increase at every point in the container.”
In a fluid, all points at the same depth must be at the same pressure.
Consider a fluid in equilibrium.
PA - ρ Ahg – P0A = 0
P = P0 + ρ gh
Hydraulics
You have to push down the piston on the

left far down to achieve some change in
the height of the piston on the right.
Pressure is equal at the bottom of both containers (because it’s the

same depth!)
P = F2/A2 = F1/A1 and since A1 < A2, F2 > F1
There is a magnification of force, just like a lever, but work stays the
same! (conservation of energy). W = F1* D1 = F2 * D2
∴ D1 > D2
Continuity Equation
A = area
v = velocity
A1v1 = A2v2
“What comes in comes out.”
Av= V/s (volume flow rate) = constant
Bernoulli’s Equation
Where p is the pressure, ρ is the density, v is the velocity,

h is elevation, and g is gravitational acceleration
Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation
Restrictions
 Incompressible
 Non-viscous fluid (i.e. no friction)
 Following a streamline motion (no turbulence)
 Constant density
*There exists an extended form of equation that

takes friction and compressibility into account, but
that is too complicated for our level of study.
Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation
Etotal = 1/2mv2 + mgh

W = F/A*A*d = PV
Consider the change in total energy of the fluid as it moves from the inlet to the
outlet.
Δ Etotal = Wdone on fluid - Wdone by fluid
Δ Etotal = (1/2mv22 + mgh1) – (1/2mv12 + mgh2)
Wdone on fluid - Wdone by fluid = (1/2mv22 + mgh1) – (1/2mv12 + mgh2)
P2V2 - P1V1 = (1/2mv22 + mgh1) – (1/2mv12 + mgh2)
P2 – P1 = (1/2ρ v12 + ρ gh1) – (1/2ρ v12 + ρ gh1)
∴ P2 + 1/2ρ v12 + ρ gh1 = P1 + 1/2ρ v12 + ρ gh1

Venturi Tube
A2 < A1 ; V2 > V1
According to Bernoulli’s Law, pressure at A2 is lower.
Choked flow: Because pressure cannot be negative,
total flow rate will be limited. This is useful in
controlling fluid velocity.
P2 + 1/2ρ v12 = P1 + 1/2ρ v12 ; ΔP = ρ/2*(v22 – v12)
Atomizer
(Demonstration)
• This is an atomizer, which uses the Venturi effect to spray

liquid.
• When the air stream from the hose flows over the straw, the
resulting low pressure on the top lifts up the fluid.
Torricelli and his Orifice
In 1843, Evangelista Torricelli proved that the flow of liquid through
an opening is proportional to the square root of the height of the
opening.
Q = A*√(2g(h1-h2)) where Q is flow rate, A is area, h is height
Depending on the contour

and shape of the opening,
different discharge
coefficients can be applied
to the equation
(of course we assume
simpler situation here).
Derivation of Torricelli’s Equation
We use the Bernoulli Equation:
P2 + 1/2ρ v12 + ρ gh1 = P1 + 1/2ρ v12 + ρ gh1
In the original diagram A1 [top] is much larger than A2 [the opening]. Since
A1V1 = A2V2 and A1 >> A2, V1 ≈ 0
Since both the top and the opening are open to atmospheric pressure,
P1 = P2 = 0 (in gauge pressure).
The equation simplifies down to:
ρgh1 = 1/2 ρv22 + ρgh2
1
/2 ρv22 = pg(h1-h2)
V22 = 2g(h1-h2)
∴ V2 = √(2g(h1-h2))
Q = Av2 = A √(2g(h1-h2))
Pitot – Static Tube
Used for aircrafts as

speedometer
Typically 10 inches long
and ½ wide in diameter.
A pressure transducer
measures the difference
between static pressure
and total pressure (by
measuring the strains put
by net force on its metal)
Pitot-Static Tube
There are several holes on the outside and a center hole in
the center. A center hole is connected to one side of the
transducer while the outside holes are connected to the
other side.
Outside holes are perpendicular to the direction of travel and
are pressurized by static pressure (Ps)
The center hole is horizontal to the travel and is pressured by
total pressure (Ps + ½ρv2)
The difference in pressure is equal to ½ρv2.
After finding out the local density of the air by checking
altitude and temperature, we can solve for velocity and this is
registered.
Pitot tube does not work well in low velocity and supersonic
velocity.
Misinterpretation of Bernoulli
Does lower pressure generates faster velocity? Or is it the
other way around?
According to Newton’s Second Law, acceleration is caused by
force.
So when the fluid accelerates in the direction of the fluid,
there must be force, or difference of pressure in this case.
Therefore, lower pressure generates faster velocity, not the
other way around.
The deflection of the streaming is the cause for the
generation of pressure difference.
Streamlines
A streamline is a path traced out by a massless particle as
it moves with the flow.
Velocity is zero at the surface.
As you move away from the surface, the velocity
uniformly approaches the free stream value (fluid
molecules nearby the surface are dragged due to
viscosity).
The layer at which the velocity reaches the free stream
value is called boundary layer. It does not necessarily
match the shape of the object – boundary layer can be
detached, creating turbulence (wing stall in aerodynamic
terms).
Aerodynamic Lift
Lift is the fort that keeps an aircraft in
the air.
In Bernoulli-an view, lift is produced by
the different of pressure (faster
velocity on the top, slower velocity in
the bottom)
In Newtonian view, lift is the reaction
force that results from the downward
deflection of the air.
Both views are correct, but the
current argument arises from the
misapplication of either view.
The most accurate explanation would
take into account the simultaneous
conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy of a fluid, but that involves
multivariable calculus.
Misconceptions of Lift
In many popular literature, encyclopedia, and even textbooks,
Bernoulli’s Law is used incorrectly to explain the aerodynamic lift.
#1: Equal transit time
- The air on the upper side of the wing travels faster because it has to
travel a longer path and must “catch up” with the air on the lower side.
The error lies in the specification of velocity. Air is not forced to “catch
up” with the downside air. Also, this theory predicts slower velocity
than in reality.
#2: “Venturi” Theory
- Upper surface of the airfoil acts like a Venturi nozzle, constricting the
flow. Therefore, velocity is higher on the upper side, and the difference
in velocity results in difference in pressure.
The error lies in the simple assumption that an airfoil is a half-Venturi
nozzle. But the other (phantom) half does not exist!
Coanda Effect
A fluid jet traveling tangential to the surface of a streamlined boundary
remains attached to that surface for some distance as it travels. The
deflection of the stream creates pressure difference.
Henri Coanda, a Romanian scientist, discovered this effect when flames
and smokes from the world’s first-ever jet engine (built by him) attached
to the fuselage as they flew out.
Due to viscosity, adjacent air
molecules are swept and result in
lower pressure.
Then the steam follows the

boundary
This floating ping pong ball owes its levitation to
the Coanda Effect. (DEMO)
INTODUCTION
 Venturimeter
The working of venturimeter is based on the principle of
Bernoulli’s equation.
Bernoulli’s Statement: It states that in a steady, ideal
flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any
point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy or
datum energy.
Mathematically
Construction
It consists of three parts.
 A short converging part
 Throat
 Diverging part
 Short converging part: It is a tapered portion whose radius decreases as
we move forward.(19 to 23 angle)
 Throat: It is middle portion of the venture. Here the velocity of the fluid
increases and pressure decreases. It possesses the least cross section area.
 Diverging part: In this portion the fluid diverges.(5 to 15 angle)
Expression for the rate of flow through Venturimeter
Considered a Venturimeter is fitted to a horizontal pipe

through which fluid ( water) is flowing as shown in the
figure
 Let d1, p1, v1 & a1, are the diameter at the inlet, pressure at
the inlet, velocity at the inlet and area at the cross section
1.
 And d2, p2, v2 and a2 are the corresponding values at
section 2.
 Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1 and 2
As the pipe is horizontal, so z1 = z2
Therefore
(P1 – P2)/ρg is the difference of pressure heads at section 1 and 2 and

it is equal to h. so
Substituting this value of h in equation (1), we get

Now applying continuity equation at section 1 and 2
Substituting this value of v1 in equation (2) and solving, we get
Discharge
Substituting value of v2 in above equation
Q is the theoretical discharge under ideal conditions. Actual discharge will be

less than the theoretical discharge. The actual discharge is given by the
formula
Where Cd is the coefficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1
Value of Cd for a venturimeter usually lies between 0.95 to 0.98

Advantages of venture meter
.
co-efficient of discharge is high
Can be installed vertically, Horizontally, Inclined.
They are more accurate and can be used for a wide range of flows.
Around 90% of pressure drop can be recovered.
Disadvantages of venture meter

They are large in size and hence where space is limited, they cannot be used.
Expensive initial cost, installation and maintenance.
Cannot be used in pipes below 7.5 cm diameter.
Maintenance is not easy.
Orifice meter
is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid

flowing through a pipe.
• It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. This
also work on the same principle as that of venturimeter.
• It consists of flat circular plate which has a circular hole,
in concentric with the pipe. This is called orifice.
• The diameter of orifice is generally 0.5 times the
diameter of the pipe (D), although it may vary from 0.4 to
0.8 times the pipe diameter
The area A0 of the orifice is much smaller than the cross-sectional area of the
pipe.
The flow from an upstream section, where it is uniform,

adjusts itself in such a way that it contracts until a section
downstream the orifice plate is reached, where the vena
contracta is formed
According to Bernoulli’s theorem.....
In an incompressible, ideal fluid when the flow is steady and
continuous, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential
energy will be constant along a stream line.
Assumptions
Assumptions made for deriving the expression of discharge through
the orifice meter is as mentioned here.
1. Fluid is ideal, i.e. in viscid and incompressible.
2. Fluid flow is steady and continuous
3. Fluid flow is irrotational
4. Frictionless inner surface
Expression for the rate of flow through Orifice
,
applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and section 2.
Let A0 is the area of the orifice
Co-efficient of contraction, CC = A2/A0
Let us recall the continuity equation and we will have following equation
Thus we will use the value of CC in above equation of discharge Q and we will
have following result for rate of flow or discharge through orifice meter.
Co-efficient of discharge of the orifice meter will be quite small as

compared to the co-efficient of discharge of the venturimeter. (0.6 to 0.64)
Advantages of orifice meter
Orifices are small plates and easy to install/remove.
Offer very little pressure drop of which 60% to 65% is recovered.
Orifice meter can be easily maintained.
Measures a wide range of flow rates.
They have a simple construction.
They are most suitable for most gases and liquids.
They are inexpensive.
Price does not increase dramatically with size.
Disadvantages of orifice meter

Requires homogeneous fluid.
Requires single phase liquid.
Causes a pressure drop in fluid.
Their accuracy is affected by density, pressure and viscosity fluid.
Fluid viscosity limits measuring range.
Requires straight pipe runs to ensure accuracy is maintained
DIFFERENCE
Industrial applications :
Venturi meter
• To measure the speed of the air around the plane.
• To measure the fuel and air distribution in carburetor
• To measure the Volume flow of blood through vessels.
• To measure the Flow rate of chemical through pipes
Orifice meter
Chemical, petro chemical, water treatment plants,
power generation, gas generation and distribution,etc.
1
VENTURI METER
2
BASIC TERMS
• Velocity of fluid which passes through a
Flow Rate(v) given area per second (m/s).
Volumetric Flow • Volume of the fluid travelled through

a cross sectional area per second
Rate(Q) (m3/s).
• Shape of path of the fluid.

Conduit
• point in a fluid stream where the

Vena Contracta diameter of the stream is the least,
and fluid velocity is at its maximum.
3
Turbulent Flow Fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations,

discontinues.
Laminar Flow No disturbances in the flow, continues.
4
DEFINITION & MAIN PARTS
Venturimeter device used for

measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe.
It consist of three parts,
•Converging part
•Throat
•Diverging part
5
6
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Venturi meter works under the principle of Bernoulli's
equation and Continuity equation.
7
•Bernaulli’s Equation PV = a constant

•Continuity Equation ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2
Where, P Pressure
V Velocity
ρ1 Density of converging fluid
ρ2 Density of throat fluid
A1 Pipe area
A2 Throat area
V1 Velocity of converging fluid
V2 Velocity of throat
8
TYPES OF VENTURIMETER
•Horizontal venturimeter
9
•Inclined venturimeter •Vertical venturimeter

10
SOME ASSUMPTIONS TAKEN
Incompressible fluids
Frictionless inner surfaces
Steady and irrotational flow

11
EXPRESSION FOR RATE OF FLOW
•B(m2,ρ2,p2,v2)
•A(m1,ρ1,p1,v1)
Z2
Z1
Datum
At pt:-A At pt:-B
P.E = g.z1 P.E = g.z2
V.E = ½ v12 V.E = ½ v22
Pre.E = P1/ρ Pre.E = P2/ρ

12
Energy equation (horizontal arrangement)

g(Z1-Z2)+1/2(V12+V22)=(P2-P1)/ρ
If Z1=Z2
½(v12-v22)= (P2-P1)/ρ ----- (1)
As per law at continuity
A1V1=A2V2 (since density is constant)
V1=(A2/A1)V2 & V2=(A1/A2)V1
Sub V1 value in (1)
½[(A2/A1)*V22-V22]=∆P/ρ
V22=(A12/A22-A12) * 2∆P/ρ
13
Q2=A2.V2= A1.A2 * √2∆P/ρ

(√A22-A12)
Q α √2∆P
Theoretical-- Q2=M.√(2∆Pg)/ω
Original-- Q2=CdE M√(2∆P)/ρ
M- velocity approach factor

Q-over all volumetric flow rate
Cd-coefficient of discharge
E- thermal expansion factor
14
Q2 in terms of specific weight
Q2=Cd . E . M . A2 √2g{hm[(wm/w )-1]-(Zx-Zy)}
Q2 in terms of specific gravity
Q2=Cd.E.M.A2√2g {hm(sg-1)-(Zx-Zy)}
15
VENTURI METER V/S FLOW
When a venturimeter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose

flow rate is to be measured, a pressure drop occurs between the
entrance and throat of the venturimeter. This pressure drop is
measured using a differential pressure sensor and when
calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.
16
CONSTRUCTION
The entry of the venture is cylindrical in shape to match the size of
the pipe through which fluid flows. This enables the venture to be
fitted to the pipe.
After the entry, there is a converging conical section with an
included angle of 19’ to 23’.
Following the converging section, there is a cylindrical section
with minimum area called as the throat.
After the throat, there is a diverging conical section with an
included angle of 5’ to 15’.
Openings are provided at the entry and throat of the venturi meter
for attaching a differential pressure sensor.
17
MANOMETER
The differential pressure sensor used here is
Manometer.
Manometer is a device to measure pressure.
A common simple manometer consists of a U shaped
tube of glass filled with some liquid.
Manometers measure a pressure difference by
balancing the weight of a fluid column between the two
pressures of interest. Large pressure differences are
measured with heavy fluids, such as mercury (high
density).
Small pressure differences, such as those experienced in
experimental wind tunnels or venturi flowmeters are
measured by lighter fluids such as water .
18
19
OPERATION
The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the entry

section of the venturi meter with a pressure P1.
As the fluid flows into the converging section, its pressure

keeps on reducing and attains a minimum value P2 when it
enters the throat. That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P2
will be minimum.
20
The Manometer attached between the entry and throat section of

the venturi meter records the pressure difference(P1-P2) which
becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the
pipe when calibrated.
The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to

regain its pressure and hence its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle
of the diverging section, greater is the recovery.
21
converging throat diverging
• P1 • P ses
• p2
• High • P1-p2
• Less
angle angle
22
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A horizontal venturimeter with 15 cm inlet . 7.5 cm throat is used for

measurement of flow of water .The differential pressure between inlet
and throat is 17.5 cm, when measured using U-TUBE manometer. Make
the calculations for the water flow rate where Cd for venturi is 0.97.
Specific gravity =13.6.
Sol: Q2= Cd . E . M . A2 √2g{ hm [(ρm/ρ )-1]}
M=A1/√A12-A22
A1=π*d2/4=π*152/4=176.71 , A2=π*d2/4=π*7.52/4=44.178
M= 1.03
Q2=0.97
* 1* 1.03* 44.178√2*9.8*17.5(13.6-1)
=0.02901 m3/sec
23
PRESSURE IN PIPELINE
24
APPLICATIONS
• used where high pressure recovery is

1 required.
• measuring flow rates of water, gases,

2 suspended solids, slurries and dirty liquids.
• measure high flow rates in pipes having

3 diameters in a few meters.
25
ADVANTAGES
• Less chances of getting clogged with

1 sediments.
• Coefficient of discharge is high.

2
• Its behaviour can be predicted

3 perfectly.
• Can be installed vertically,

4 horizontally or inclinded.
26
DISADVANTAGES
• Highly expensive
1
• Occupies considerable space

2
• Cannot be altered for measuring

3 pressure beyond a maximum velocity
VENTURIMETER
WORKING PRINCIPLE
●
CONSTRUCTION
●
PRINCIPLE
●
NUMERICALS
●
●It is a device used to measure the speed and flow rate or discharge
of fluid through a pipe.” Venturimeter is work on Bernoulli’s
equation.
●Its basic principle also depend on Bernoulli’s equation and

continuity equation. Velocity increases pressure decreases.
●Simple meaning is “When cross sectional area of the flow is
reduces it creates pressure difference between the different areas of
flow. This difference in pressure is measured with the help of
manometer and helps in determining rate of fluid flow or other
discharge from the pipe line.”
History:- The principle of venture meter is firstly developed by
●
G.B. Venturi in 1797 but this principle comes into consideration

with the help of C. Herschel in 1887.
VENTURIMETER
WORKING PRINCIPLE
● PRINCIPLE:
The principle of venturimeter is that when a fluid flows through
the venturimeter,
it accelerates in the convergent section and decelerates in the diverg
resulting in a drop in the static pressure followed by a pressure reco
in the flow direction.
USE OF VENTURIMETER
● A venturi meter is also called a venturi flow meter.

●It is used to calculate the velocity of fluids in running through a
pipeline.
● The fluid may be a liquid or a gas. ...
●The venturi meter calculates velocity by measuring the pressure
head at both points before and after the narrowed throat.
PRINCIPLE BASED ON
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Principle of Venturimeter
●
The working of venturimeter is based on the principle

●
of Bernoulli’s equation.
●Bernoulli’s Statement: It states that in a steady, ideal
flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at
any point of the fluid is constant. The total energy
consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy or datum energy
Mathematically
PRESSURE ENERGY+KINETIC ENERGY+POTIENTAL
●
ENERGY=CONSTANT
●Here all the energies are taken per unit weight of the
fluid.
●The Bernoulli’s equation for the fluid passing through
the section 1 and 2 are given by
●Bernoulli’s equation for the fluid passing through the
section 1 and 2 are given by
p/(rho)*g+v2/2*g+z=contant
●
p1/(rho)*g+v12/2*g+z1=p2/(rho)*g+v22/2*g+z2
●
CONSTRUCTION
●A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a
fluid flowing through a pipe.
● The main parts of a venturimeter are:
● Main parts of Venturimeter:-
● 1. Converging part
● 2. Throat
● 3. Diverging Part
CONVERGENT PART
● It is starting section of venturimeter which attached at inlet pipe.

●The cross sectional area of this cone starts to decrease and the
converging angle is 20 degree.
●Its length is 2.7(D-d). Here (D) is the diameter of inlet section and
(d) is the diameter of throat.
● Other end of converging is attached with throat.
●A short converging part: It is that portion of the venturi where the
fluid gets converges.
● The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of
the fluid and temporarily lower its static pressure. The pressure
difference between inlet and throat is developed.
●In this meter the fluid is accelerated by its passage through a
converging cone of angle 15-20deg
● The fluid is then retarded in a cone of smaller angle
●(5-7degree in which large proportion of kinetic energy is converted
back to pressure energy. .
THROAT
●Throat is middle portion of venturimeter and its cross sectional area

is too small.
● At this point pressure is decreases and velocity is increases.
●One end is connected with converging part and other end is
attached with diverging part. Diameter of throat is ¼ to ¾ of the
diameter of the inlet pipe, but mostly it is ½ of the diameter of the
pipe.
DIVERGENT PART
●Diverging part is last part of venturimeter and its cross sectional

area is increases continually.
●Angle of diverging part is 5 to 15 degree. Its cross sectional area
continuously increases.
●One end is connected to throat and other end is connected to outlet
pipe.
●The main reason behind the low diverging angle is to avoid the
formation of eddies because flow separation and eddies formation
will results in large amount of loss in energy
WORKING
●Venturimeter is work on Bernoulli’s equation and its simple

principle is when velocity increases pressure decreases.
●Cross sectional area of throat section is smaller than inlet section
due to this the velocity of flow at throat section is higher than
velocity at inlet section, this happen according to continuity
equation.
●The increases in velocity at the throat result in decreases in
pressure at this section , due to this pressure difference is developed
between inlet valve and throat of the venturimeter.
Expression for the rate of flow through
venturimeter:-
●Let d1, p1, v1 & a1, are the diameter at the inlet, pressure at the
inlet, velocity at the inlet and area at the cross section 1.
● And d2, p2, v2 and a2 are the corresponding values at section 2.
● p1/(rho)*g+v12/2*g+z1=p2/(rho)*g+v22/2*g+z2
● As the pipe is horizontal, so z1 = z2
● p1/(rho)*g+v12/2*g=p2/(rho)*g+v22/2*g
● p1-p2/(rho)*g=v22-v12/2*g ...............................1
(p1 – p2)/ρg is the difference of pressure heads at section 1 and 2
and it is equal to h. So
h=(p1-p2)/(rho)*g ..................................................2
● Substituting this value of h (2) in equation (1), we get
● h=v22-v12/2*g ...........................3
● Applying Continuity Equation:
● a1*v1=a2*v2
● v1=a2*v2/a1 ......................................4
● Substituting this value of v1 in equation (2) and solving, we get
● v2=a1/sqrt(a12-a22)*sqrt(2*g*h)
● Since Q=a2*v2
● Q={(a1*a2)√(a12-a22)}*√(2*g*h)
Q is the theoretical discharge under ideal conditions. Actual
●
discharge will be less than the theoretical discharge. The actual

discharge is given by the formula
● Qth=(a1*a2/√a12-a22)*(√2*g*h)
● Qact=Cd *[{a1*a2/)√(a12-a22)}*√(2*g*h)]
● Where cd is less than 1 =coefficent of discharge.
Value of ‘h’ is given by differential manometer
●
● Case I: Let differential Manometer contains liquid which is

heavier than liquid flowing through pipe
Sh= Specific gravity of heavier liquid
●
So=specific gravity of light liquid flowing through pipe

●
x=difference of heavier liquid in column

●
h=x[Sh/So-1]
●
●Case II :If differential Manometer contains liquid lighter than liquid
flowing through pipe:
● h=x[1-Sl/So]
● Where
● Sl=Specific Gravity of lighter liquid
● So=Specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe
APPLICATION: Carburettor
●The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves,

the lower its static pressure, and higher the dynamic pressure is. The
throttle (accelerator) linkage does not directly control the flow of
liquid fuel. ... Later engines used an early form of fuel injection
known as a pressure carburetor.
●Venturi in carburettor is to determine air flow in a car engine and to
ensure correct amount of fuel to feed to gas combustion engine
when needed during driving.
PLUMBING:
●Venturi meters are used in pipelines at wastewater collection

systems and treatment plants. They are used in wastewater pipes
because their overall design structure allows for solids to pass
through it instead of collecting in front of it.
●Less build up in the pipes allows for more accurate readings of the
pressure of the wastewater and thus its velocity
Advantages
● Less chance of getting stuck with sediment.

● The discharge coefficient is high.
● Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly.
● It can be installed vertically, horizontally, inclined.
● They are more precise and can be used for a wide range of flows.
● About 90% of the pressure drop can be recovered.
Dis advantages
●They are large in size and, therefore, where space is limited, they
can not be used.
● Initial costs, installation and expensive maintenance.
● Requires a long placement length. ...
● It can not be used in pipes of less than 7.5 cm in diameter.
● Maintenance is not easy
Problems:
●A horizontal Venturimeter with inlet and throat diameter

30cm,15cm respectively is used to measure the flow of water .the
readings of differential manometer connected to inlet and throat is
20cm of Mercury .Determine rate of flow. take Cd =0.98.
● Solution:
● d1=30cm a1=0.07065m2
● d2=15cm a2=0.0176m2
● x=20cm=0.2m
● As differential manometer contains heavy liquid
● h=x[Sh/So-1]=0.2[13.6/1-1]
● Specific gravity of heavy liquid Sh=13.6,So=1
● h=0.2[12.6]=2.52m
● Rate of flow:
● Q=Cd*{[a1*a2/√a12-a22]*√2-g*h}
● =0.98{[0.07065*0.0176/√0.070652-0.01762]*√2*9.81*2.52
● =0.6055 m3/sec
●An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through venturimeter
having inlet diameter 20cm and throat diameter 10cm.The oil -
mercury differential Manometer shows a reading of
0.25m.Calculater discharge of oil through a horizontal venturimeter.
Take Cd=0.98
● Data:
● d1=20cm=0.2m a1=0.0314m2
● d2=10cm=0.1m a2=0.00785m2
● X=0.25m
● Soil=0.8 Cd=0.98
● Since x=0.25m
● h=x{1-Soill/Shg}
● =0.25{1-0.8/13.6}
● =4m
● Rate of discharge:
● Q=Cd[*a1*a2//√a12-a22]*√2*g*h
● = 0.98*[0.0314*0.0078/√0.03142-0.007852]*√2*g*h
●
MQP
● Q)State the purpose of a Venturimeter?

●A)Venturi meters are flow measurement instruments which use a
converging section of pipe to give an increase in the flow velocity
and a corresponding pressure drop from which the flow rate can be
deduced. They have been in common use for many years, especially
in the water supply industry.
● Q)List down Assumptions of Bernoullis Theorem
●A)The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli
equation to apply:
●the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density,
etc...) at any point cannot change with time,
●the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the
density must remain constant along a streamline;
●Q) Write down the usage of Venturimeter in a pipe flow and list out
its parts
●A)Venturi Meter is a device in which pressure energy is converted
into kinetic energy and it is used for measuring the rate of flow of
liquid through pipes.
●It is invented by an American Engineer Clemans Herchel and
named by the Italian physicist Giovanni Venturi.
● It works on the basic principle of Bernoulli’s Equation.
● A Venturi Meter is consisted of:
● Converging cone or Diameter (the area is decreasing).
● Throat Diameter (the area is constant).
● Diverging cone (the area is increasing).
●let’s consider a pipe in which there is a venturi meter is fixed. In the
pipe, fluid is flowing so first it enters into a converging cone then
Thorat and then Diverging Cone.
● Converging Cone:
●When water flowing through this cone the area is decreasing,
therefore, the speed of flowing water increases and pressure
decreases.
●Throat Diameter:When water flowing through this cone the area
remains constant therefore the speed of flowing water and pressure
remains constant.
●Diverging Cone:When water flowing through this cone the area is
increasing, therefore, the speed of flowing water decreases and
pressure decreases.
Working Principle of Venturi Meter:
●Thee quantity of liquid v1 enter to the pipe, as per continuity

equation volume flow rate at the inlet (Q1), is equal to discharge at
the outlet (Q2), so if v1 amount of water enters to the inlet of the
venturi meter the same amount of water should be discharged at the
outlet, that means at unit second v1/t1= v2/t2.
●As the area of section 1 (according to the above diagram) is more

than the area of section 2, that means due to the decrease area the
pressure at throttling section is decreased and velocity will be
increased to maintain the flow (Q1=Q2).
●In the throat position, the velocity of flow is maximum and
pressure is minimum.
●After throttling there again a diverging cone (diffuser) which

restores the pressure as nearly possible to the actual value.
●By this, we can easily determine the volume flow rate with the help
of the U-Tube Manometer which is shown in the above diagram, by
finding the pressure difference between section 1 (converging
section) and section 2 which is throat.
●DERIVATION SIMILAR IN SLIDE 28,slide 29,slide 30,slide 31

slide 32,slide 33
Problems:
●A horizontal Venturimeter with inlet diameter 20cm and throat

10cm is used to measure the flow of specific gravity 0.8.The
discharge of oil through venturimeter is 60l/s..Find reading of oil
mercury differential manometer .Cd=0.981
● Data:
● d1=20cm a1=314cm2
● d2=10cm a2=78.5cm2
● Sf=0.8 Q=60litres/sec h=
● Cd=0.98
● Rate of discharge
● Q=Cid*a1*a2*√√2*g*h/√a12-a22
● On subsituting:
● h=289.98cm
● Since h=x[Sh/Sf-1]
● X=18.12cm
●A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 20cm,throat diameter
10cm is used to measure the flow of water. The pressure at inlet is
17.658N/cm2 and vaccum pressure at throat is 30cm of
mercury.Find discharge of water through venturimeter.Take
Cd=0.98
● Data:d1=20cm a1=0.0314m2
● d2=10cm a2=0.00785m2
● P1=17.658N/cm2=17.658*104N/m2
● Pressure head P1/(ρ*g)=17.658*104/1000*9.81=18m of water
● P2=-30 cm of hg=-30*13.6=-4.08m of water
● h=(P1/ρ*g)-(P2/ρ*g)
● =18-(-4.08)
● =22.08m
● Q=Cd*a1*a2*√√2*g*h/√a12-a22
● On subsituting
● Q=0.15639m3/sec
To be solved in notes
●1)An oil of Specific gravity 0.9 is flowing through Venturimeter
having inlet diameter 200mmand throat diameter 100mm.The oil-
mercury differential manometer shows a reading of
200mm.Claculate discharge of oil through horizontal Venturimeter
.Take Cd=0.98
●2)In a lab experiment it had bee recorded that discharge of water in
a pipe connected with 100mm*60mm Venturimeter was 22.5 lires of
water /sec .U tube differential connected to Venturimeter with
Mercury as Manometeric liquid showed a level differennce of
300mm .Claculate Coefficent of discharge .
INTRODUCTION:
 Laminar Flow: In this type of flow, fluid particles moves along smooth straight parallel
paths in layers or laminas, with one layer gliding smoothly over an adjacent layer, the paths
of individual fluid particles do not cross those of neighbouring particles.
 Turbulent Flow: In turbulent flow, there is an irregular random movement of fluid in
transverse direction to the main flow. This irregular, fluctuating motion can be regarded as
superimposed on the mean motion of the fluid.

Laminar
Transitional
Turbulent
 Types of flow depend on the Reynold number , ρVd
Re = --------
µ
 Re < 2000 – flow is laminar
 Re > 2000 – flow is turbulent
 2000 < Re < 4000 – flow changes from laminar to turbulent.

 Magnitude of Turbulence :
- It is the degree of turbulence, and measures how strong, violent or intence

the turbulence.
- Magnitude of Turbulence = Arithmetic mean of root mean square of turbulent

fluctuations
=   2
t
 2 dt
=
1
t 0   
 Intensity of turbulence :
- It is the ratio of the magnitude of turbulence to the average flow velocity at a

point in the flow field
C lV 2

f
- So, Intensity of Turbulence = h f
2 gD
From the experimental measurement on turbulent flow through pipes, it has observed
That the viscous friction associated with fluid are proportional to
(1) Length of pipe (l)
(2) Wetted perimeter (P)
(3) Vn , where V is average velocity and n is index depending on the material
(normally, commertial pipe turbulent flow n=2

f – friction factor
L – length of pipe
D – diameter of pipe
v – velocity of flow
p p  Cf lV 2
h  1 2
OR h 
f
g f
2 gD
Moody Diagram :
Developed to provide the friction factor for turbulent flow for various values of Relative roughness and
Reynold’s number!
From experimentation, in turbulent flow, the friction factor (or head loss) depends upon velocity of fluid
V, dia. of pipe D, density of fluid ρ, viscosity of fluid µ, wall roughness height ε.
So, f = f1 (V,D, ρ, µ, ε)
By the dimensional analysis,
f  f1  VD
 
, D  0 , Where

D called relative roughness.
Key points about the Moody Diagram –
1. In the laminar zone – f decreases as Nr increases!
2. 2. f = 64/Nr.
3. 3. transition zone – uncertainty – not possible to predict -
4. Beyond 4000, for a given Nr, as the relative roughness term D/ε increases (less rough), friction
factor decreases
5. For given relative roughness, friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds number till the
zone of complete turbulence
6. Within the zone of complete turbulence – Reynolds number has no affect.
7. As relative roughness increases (less rough) – the boundary of the zone of complete turbulence
shifts (increases)
Co-efficient of friction in terms of shear
stress :
We know, the propelling force = (p1 - p2) Ac ---- (1)
Frictional resistance in terms of shear stress = 0 As Where  0 = shear stress ----(2)
By comparing both equation,
2 0 dF dAvu
(P1 – P2) = f  OR  t    uv
V
2
dA dA
( co-efficient of frictionin terms of shear stress)
Shear stress in turbulent flow
In turbulent flow, fluid particles moves randomly, therefore it is impossible to trace the
Paths of the moving particles and represents it mathematically
u b
= mean velocity of particles moving along layer A    v  t
u = mean velocity of particles moving along layer B  du   du 
b
        
 dy   dy 
 du   du 
u = u b - u a         
 dy   dy 
Shear stress in turbulent flow  du   du 
      
 dy   dy 
It is the shear stress exerted by layer A on b and  t known as
  k 2 y 2
Reynold’s stress.
Prandtl’s mixing length theory :
Prandtl’s assumed that distance between two layers in the transverse direction
(called mixing length l) such that the lumps of fluid particles from one layer could reach the other
Layer and the particles are mixed with the other layer in such a way that the momentum of the
Particles in the direction of x is same, as shown in below figure :

Total shear    v   t
 du  2 2  du 
      k y  
 dy   dy 
 du   du    k 2 y 2
         where , (Viscosity)
 dy   dy 
n = 0 for laminar flow.
 du   du 
For highly turbulent flow,  
 dy     dy  .
   
Hydrodynamically Smooth and
Rough Pipe Boundaries
 Hydronamically smooth pipe :

 The hight of roughness of pipe is less than thickness of
laminar sublayer of flowing fluid.
 K < δ′
 Hydronamically rough pipe :

 The hight of roughness of pipe is greater than the thickness
of laminar sublayer of flowing fluid.
 K > δ′
From Nikuradse’s experiment
 Criteria for roughness:
 Hydrodynamically 
 0.25
smooth pipe 
 Hydrodynamically 
 6
rough pipe 
 Transiton region 
0.25  6
region in a pipe 
 In terms of Reynold number
1. If Re 4→ Smooth boundary
2. If Re ≥100→Rough boundary
3. If 4<Re <100 →boundary is in transition stage.
The Universal Law of The Wall
2
 dv 
 k y 
 dy 
2 2
0 
 
 y
v  V Log *
 C
K e
R
 y
v  vm ax  2.5V * Log  
e
R
v v R
m ax
 2.5V * Log  

V *
e
 y
Velocity Distribution for turbulent
flow
 Velocity Distribution v R

 4.75  2.5 log  
in a hydrodynamically e 
V*  
smooth pipe
 Velocity Distribution v  y
 8.5  2.5 log  
e 
in a hydrodynamically V*  
Rough Pipes
Velocity Distribution for turbulent
flow in terms of average Velocity (V)
 Velocity Distribution V V * R 
 1.75  2.5 log  
in a hydrodynamically V* e
  
smooth pipe
 Velocity Distribution V R

 4.75  2.5 log  
in a hydrodynamically V* e
 
Rough Pipes
Resistance to flow of fluid in smooth and rough
pipes
4 flV 2
h f

2 gD
- Where f = frictional co-efficient or friction factor

- Pressure loss in pipe is given by
V 2   l 
P    Re, , 
2  D D
V  

2
l
 P    Re, 
2 D  D
 f    
 Re, 
 D 
P  D
- But  f friction factor
lV 2
2
  
 f    Re, 
 D
- From equation ,the friction factor f is a function of Re and ratio of ε/D.

 For laminar flow
- We know, in laminar flow the f is function of only re and it is independent of ε/D

ratio.
16
f 
Re
 For terbulent flow

- In terbulent flow, f is a function of Re and type of pipe. So f is also depend on
boudary.
a) Smooth pipe
b) Rough pipe
(a) Smooth pipe
 For smooth pipe ,f is only a function of Re. For 4000<Re< 105

laminar sublayer (δ′>>ε).
- The blasius equation for f as
0.079
 f  5
,For 4000<Re<10 laminar sublayer in smooth pipe.
Re 
1
4
 From Nikuradse’s experimental result for smooth pipe

1
  2.0 log (Re 4 f )  0.8
10
4f
(b) Rough pipe
- In rough pipe δ′<<ε, the f is only function of ratio ε/D and it is

independent of Re.
- From Nikuradse’s experimental result for rough pipe
1 R
  2 log    1.74
4f 10
 
Introduction
 External flows past objects encompass an extremely wide
variety of fluid mechanics phenomena. Clearly the character
of the flow field is a function of the shape of the body.
 For a given shaped object, the characteristics of the flow
depend very strongly on various parameters such as size,
orientation, speed, and fluid properties.
 According to dimensional analysis arguments, the character
of the flow should depend on the various dimensionless
parameters involved.
 For typical external flows the most important of these
parameters are the Reynolds number, Re =UL/ν , where L– is
characteristic dimension of the body.
2
Introduction
 For many high-Reynolds-number flows the flow field may be
divided into two region
i. A viscous boundary layer adjacent to the surface
ii. The essentially inviscid flow outside the boundary layer
 W know that fluids adhere the solid walls and they take the
solid wall velocity. When the wall does not move also the
velocity of fluid on the wall is zero.
 In region near the wall the velocity of fluid particles
increases from a value of zero at the wall to the value that
corresponds to the external ”frictionless” flow outside the
boundary layer
3
Introduction
 Figure 6.1: Visualization of the flow around the car. It is visible the thin
layer along the body cause by viscosity of the fluid. The flow outside
the narrow region near the solid boundary can be considered as ideal
(inviscid).
4
Introduction
 The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by a
German engineer, Prandtl in 1904.
 According to Prandtl theory, when a real fluid flows past a
stationary solid boundary at large values of the Reynolds
number, the flow will be divided into two regions.
i. A thin layer adjoining the solid boundary, called the
boundary layer, where the viscous effects and rotation
cannot be neglected.
ii. An outer region away from the surface of the object
where the viscous effects are very small and can be
neglected. The flow behavior is similar to the upstream
flow. In this case a potential flow can be assumed.
5
Introduction
 Since the fluid at the boundaries has zero velocity, there is a
steep velocity gradient from the boundary into the flow. This
velocity gradient in a real fluid sets up shear forces near the
boundary that reduce the flow speed to that of the boundary.
 That fluid layer which has had its velocity affected by the
boundary shear is called the boundary layer.
 For smooth upstream boundaries the boundary layer starts out as
a laminar boundary layer in which the fluid particles move in
smooth layers.
 As the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness, it becomes
unstable and finally transforms into a turbulent boundary layer
in which the fluid particles move in haphazard paths.
 When the boundary layer has become turbulent, there is still a
very thon layer next to the boundary layer that has laminar
motion. It is called the laminar sublayer.
6
Introduction
 Fig. 6.2 The development of the boundary layer for flow over a
flat plate, and the different flow regimes. The vertical scale has
been greatly exaggerated and horizontal scale has been shortened.
7
Introduction
 The turbulent boundary layer can be considered to consist
of four regions, characterized by the distance from the wall.
 The very thin layer next to the wall where viscous effects
are dominant is the viscous sublayer. The velocity profile
in this layer is very nearly linear, and the flow is nearly
parallel.
 Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer layer, in which
turbulent effects are becoming significant, but the flow is
still dominated by viscous effects.
 Above the buffer layer is the overlap layer, in which the
turbulent effects are much more significant, but still not
dominant.
 Above that is the turbulent (or outer) layer in which
turbulent effects dominate over viscous effects.
8
Boundary layer thickness, δ
 The boundary layer thickness is defined as the vertical
distance from a flat plate to a point where the flow velocity
reaches 99 per cent of the velocity of the free stream.
 Another definition of boundary layer are the
➢ Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*
➢ Boundary layer momentum thickness, θ
Boundary layer displacement thickness, δ*
 Consider two types of fluid flow past a stationary horizontal
plate with velocity U as shown in Fig. 6.3. Since there is no
viscosity for the case of ideal fluid (Fig. 6.3a), a uniform
velocity profile is developed above the solid wall.
 However, the velocity gradient is developed in the boundary
layer region for the case of real fluid with the presence of
viscosity and no-slip at the wall (Fig. 6.3b).
9
Figure 6.3 Flow over a horizontal solid surface for the case of (a)
Ideal fluid (b) Real fluid
 The velocity deficits through the element strip of cross
section b-b is U - u . Then the reduction of mass flow rate is
obtained as where b is the plate width.
 The total mass reduction due to the presence of viscosity
compared to the case of ideal fluid
(6.1)
10
 However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance at
section a-a to give mass reduction of , then the deficit
of flow rates for the both cases will be identical if
(6.2)
 Here, is known as the boundary layer displacement

thickness.
11
 Figure 6.4: Definition of boundary layer thickness:(a)

standard boundary layer(u = 99%U),(b) boundary layer
displacement thickness .
12
 The displacement thickness represents the vertical distance
that the solid boundary must be displaced upward so that the
ideal fluid has the same mass flow rate as the real fluid.
Figure 6.5 boundary layer displacement thickness
13
Boundary layer momentum thickness, θ
 Another definition of boundary layer thickness, the boundary
layer momentum thickness θ, is often used to predict the drag
force on the object surface.
 By referring to Fig. 6.3, again the velocity deficit through the
element strip of cross section b-b contributes to deficit in
momentum flux as
(6.3)
 Thus, the total momentum reductions
 However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance θ at

section a-a to give momentum reduction of , then the
momentum deficit for the both cases will be identical if
14
Boundary layer momentum thickness, θ
(6.4)
 Here, θ is known as the boundary layer momentum

thickness.
 The momentum thickness represents the vertical distance
that the solid boundary must be displaced upward so that
the ideal fluid has the same mass momentum as the real
fluid
15
Reynolds Number and Geometry Effects
 The technique of boundary layer (BL) analysis can be used to
compute viscous effects near solid walls and to “patch” these onto
the outer inviscid motion.
 This patching is more successful as the body Reynolds number
becomes larger, as shown in Fig. 6.6.
 In Fig. 6.6 a uniform stream U moves parallel to a sharp flat plate of
length L. If the Reynolds number UL/ ν is low (Fig. 6.6a), the
viscous region is very broad and extends far ahead and to the sides
of the plate. The plate retards the oncoming stream greatly, and
small changes in flow parameters cause large changes in the
pressure distribution along the plate.
 There is no existing simple theory for external flow analysis at
Reynolds numbers from 1 to about 1000. Such thick-shear-layer
flows are typically studied by experiment or by numerical modeling
of the flow field on a computer
16
 Fig. 6.6.
Comparison of flow
past a sharp flat
plate at low and
high Reynolds
numbers: (a)
laminar, low-Re
flow; (b) high-Re
flow.
17
 A high-Reynolds-number flow (Fig. 6.6b) is much more
amenable to boundary layer patching, as first pointed out by
Prandtl in 1904.
 The viscous layers, either laminar or turbulent, are very thin,
thinner even than the drawing shows.
 We define the boundary layer thickness δ as the locus of points
where the velocity u parallel to the plate reaches 99 percent of
the external velocity U.
 The accepted formulas for flat-plate flow, and their approximate
ranges, are
(6.5)
18  .
 where Rex = Ux/ν is called the local Reynolds number of the flow
along the plate surface. The turbulent flow formula applies for Rex
greater than approximately 106 .
 Some computed values are shown below
 The blanks indicate that the formula is not applicable. In all

cases these boundary layers are so thin that their displacement
effect on the outer inviscid layer is negligible.
 Thus the pressure distribution along the plate can be
computed from inviscid theory as if the boundary layer were
not even there.
19
Example 1
 A long, thin flat plate is placed parallel to a 20-ft/s stream of
water at 68F. At what distance x from the leading edge will the
boundary layer thickness be 1 in?
Solution
 Approach: Guess laminar flow first. If contradictory, try turbulent
flow.
 Property values: From Table for water at 68F, ν =1.082E-5 ft2/s.
 Solution step 1: With δ = 1 in = 1/12 ft, try laminar flow
20
Example 1
 This is impossible, since laminar boundary layer flow only persists

up to about 106 (or, with special care to avoid disturbances, up to
3 x 106).
 Solution step 2: Try turbulent flow
21
Boundary Layer: Momentum Integral Estimates
 A shear layer of unknown thickness grows along the sharp flat plate
in Fig. 6.7. The no-slip wall condition retards the flow, making it
into a rounded profile u(x,y), which merges into the external
velocity U = constant at a “thickness” y = δ(x).
 Fig. 6.7 Growth of a boundary layer on a flat plate.
22
 The drag force on the plate is given by the following momentum
integral across the exit plane:
(6.6)
 where b is the plate width into the paper and the integration
is carried out along a vertical plane x = constant.
 Equation (6.6) was derived in 1921 by Kármán, who wrote it
in the convenient form of the momentum thickness as:
(6.7)
 Momentum thickness is a measure of total plate drag which

also equals the integrated wall shear stress along the plate:
23
(6.8)
 Meanwhile, the derivative of Eq. (6.7), with U = constant, is
 By comparing this with eq. (6.8), the momentum integral

relation for flat-plate boundary layer flow is given by
(6.9)
 It is valid for either laminar or turbulent flat-plate flow.

24
 To get a numerical result for laminar flow, assuming that the
velocity profiles have an approximately parabolic shape
(6.10)
 which makes it possible to estimate both momentum

thickness and wall shear:
(6.11)
 By substituting these values into the momentum integral

relation (eq. (6.9) and rearranging we obtain
(6.12)
25
 where ν = μ /ρ. We can integrate from 0 to x, assuming that

δ = 0 at x = 0, the leading edge
(6.13)
 This is the desired thickness estimate. It is only 10 percent

higher than the known accepted solution for laminar flat-plate
flow (eq. (6.5)).
 We can also obtain a shear stress estimate along the plate from
the above relations
(6.14)
26
 This is only 10 percent higher than the known exact laminar-
plate-flow solution cf = 0.664/Rex1/2
 The dimensionless quantity cf, called the skin friction coefficient,
is analogous to the friction factor f in ducts.
 A boundary layer can be judged as “thin” if, say, the ratio δ/x is
less than about 0.1. This occurs at δ/x = 0.1 = 5.0/Rex1/2 or at Rex
= 2500.
 For Rex less than 2500 we can estimate that boundary layer
theory fails because the thick layer has a significant effect on the
outer inviscid flow.
 The upper limit on Rex for laminar flow is about 3 x106, where
measurements on a smooth flat plate show that the flow
undergoes transition to a turbulent boundary layer.
 From 3 x106 upward the turbulent Reynolds number may be
arbitrarily large, and a practical limit at present is 5 x 1010 for oil
27
supertankers
 For parallel flow over a flat plate, the pressure drag is zero,
and thus the drag coefficient is equal to the friction drag
coefficient, or simply the friction coefficient).
 Once the average friction coefficient Cf is available, the
drag (or friction) force over the surface is determined from
 where A is the surface area of the plate exposed to fluid

flow. When both sides of a thin plate are subjected to flow,
A becomes the total area of the top and bottom surfaces.
28
Example 2
 Are low-speed, small-scale air and water boundary layers really
thin? Consider flow at U =1 ft/s past a flat plate 1 ft long.
Compute the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge for (a)
air and (b) water at 68F.
Solution
 From Table νair = 1.61 E-4 ft2/s. The trailing-edge Reynolds
number thus is
 Since this is less than 106, the flow is presumed laminar, and
since it is greater than 2500, the boundary layer is reasonably
thin. The predicted laminar thickness is
29
Example 2
 From Table νwater = 1.08 E-5 ft2/s. The trailing-edge Reynolds

number is
 This again satisfies the laminar and thinness conditions.

The boundary layer thickness is
30
Part II
Laminar and Turbulent Pipe Flow
31
Introduction
 Fluid flow in circular and noncircular pipes is commonly
encountered in practice.
 The hot and cold water that we use in our homes is pumped
through pipes. Water in a city is distributed by extensive
piping networks. Oil and natural gas are transported
hundreds of miles by large pipelines. Blood is carried
throughout our bodies by arteries and veins. The cooling
water in an engine is transported by hoses to the pipes in
the radiator where it is cooled as it flows.
 The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a
fan or pump through a flow section.
 We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly
related to the pressure drop and head loss during flow
through pipes and ducts.
32
Introduction
 The pressure drop is then used to determine the pumping
power requirement.
 A typical piping system involves pipes of different diameters
connected to each other by various fittings or elbows to
route the fluid, valves to control the flow rate, and pumps to
pressurize the fluid.
 The terms pipe, duct, and conduit are usually used
interchangeably for flow sections.
 In general, flow sections of circular cross section are
referred to as pipes (especially when the fluid is a liquid),
and flow sections of noncircular cross section as ducts
(especially when the fluid is a gas) Small diameter pipes are
usually referred to as tubes.
33
Introduction
 Most fluids, especially liquids, are
transported in circular pipes. This is
because pipes with a circular cross
section can withstand large pressure
differences between the inside and the
outside without undergoing significant
distortion.
 Noncircular pipes are usually used in
applications such as the heating and
cooling systems of buildings where the
pressure difference is relatively small,
the manufacturing and installation
costs are lower, and the available space
is limited for ductwork.
34
Introduction
 The fluid velocity in a pipe
changes from zero at the surface
because of the no-slip condition
to a maximum at the pipe center.
 In fluid flow, it is convenient to
work with an average velocity
Vavg, which remains constant in
incompressible flow when the
cross-sectional area of the pipe is
constant.
 The change in average velocity
due to change in density and
temperature and due to friction is
usually small and is thus
35 disregarded in calculations.
Introduction
36
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
 Fluid flow in a pipe is streamlined at low
velocities but turns chaotic as the velocity is
increased above a critical value.
 A laminar flow is characterized by smooth
streamlines and highly ordered motion, and
turbulent flow is characterized by velocity
fluctuations and highly disordered motion.
 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow
does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs over
some region in which the flow fluctuates between
laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes
fully turbulent.
 Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent.
Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous
fluids such as oils flow in small pipes or narrow
37 passages.
Reynolds Number
 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the
geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity, surface temperature,
and type of fluid, among other things.
 After exhaustive experiments in the 1880s, Osborne Reynolds
discovered that the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid. This ratio is called
the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal flow in a
circular pipe as
38
Reynolds Number
 where Vavg = average flow velocity (m/s), D = characteristic
length of the geometry (diameter in this case, in m), and ν =
μ/ρ = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).
 Note that the Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity.
 At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces, which are
proportional to the fluid density and the square of the fluid
velocity, are large relative to the viscous forces, and thus
the viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid
fluctuations of the fluid.
 At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, however, the
viscous forces are large enough to suppress these
fluctuations and to keep the fluid “in line.”
 Thus the flow is turbulent in the first case and laminar in
the second.
39
Reynolds Number
 The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent
is called the critical Reynolds number, Recr .
 The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for
different geometries and flow conditions. For internal flow
in a circular pipe, the generally accepted value of the
critical Reynolds number is Recr = 2300.
 For flow through noncircular pipes, the Reynolds number is
based on the hydraulic diameter Dh defined as
 where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the pipe and p is its

wetted perimeter. The hydraulic diameter is defined such
that it reduces to ordinary diameter D for circular pipes,
40
Reynolds Number
 For circular pipes
 For flow in circular pipes
41
The Entrance Region
 Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity.
Because of the no-slip condition, the fluid particles in the
layer in contact with the surface of the pipe come to a
complete stop.
 This layer also causes the fluid particles in the adjacent layers
to slow down gradually as a result of friction.
 The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous
shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt is called the
velocity boundary layer or just the boundary layer.
 The hypothetical boundary surface divides the flow in a
pipe into two regions: the boundary layer region, in which
the viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant,
and the irrotational (core) flow region, in which the
frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains
42 essentially constant in the radial direction.
The Entrance Region
 The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow
direction until the boundary layer reaches the pipe center and thus
fills the entire pipe.
 The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary
layer merges at the centerline is called the hydrodynamic
entrance region, and the length of this region is called the
hydrodynamic entry length Lh.
43
The Entrance Region
 Flow in the entrance region is called hydrodynamically
developing flow since this is the region where the velocity
profile develops.
 The region beyond the entrance region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged
is called the hydrodynamically fully developed region.
44
The Entrance Region
 The velocity profile in the fully developed region is
parabolic in laminar flow and somewhat flatter (or fuller) in
turbulent flow due to eddy motion and more vigorous
mixing in the radial direction.
Entry Lengths
 The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be the
distance from the pipe entrance to where the wall shear
stress (and thus the friction factor) reaches within about 2
percent of the fully developed value.
 In laminar flow, the hydrodynamic entry length is given
approximately as
45
Fig. The variation of wall shear stress in the flow direction for
flow in a pipe from the entrance region into the fully developed
46 region.
The Entrance Region
 In turbulent flow, the intense mixing during random
fluctuations usually overshadows the effects of molecular
diffusion.
 The hydrodynamic entry length for turbulent flow can be
approximated as [see Bhatti and Shah (1987) and Zhi-qing
(1982)]
 The entry length is much shorter in turbulent flow, as

expected, and its dependence on the Reynolds number is
weaker.
 In many pipe flows of practical engineering interest, the
entrance effects become insignificant beyond a pipe length
of 10 diameters, and the hydrodynamic entry length is
47
approximated as
The Entrance Region
 The pipes used in practice are usually several times the

length of the entrance region, and thus the flow through the
pipes is often assumed to be fully developed for the entire
length of the pipe. This simplistic approach gives
reasonable results for long pipes but sometimes poor results
for short ones since it under predicts the wall shear stress
and thus the friction factor.
48
Laminar Flow in Pipes
 Flow in pipes is laminar for Re ≤ 2300, and that the flow is
fully developed if the pipe is sufficiently long (relative to
the entry length) so that the entrance effects are negligible.
 In this section we consider the steady laminar flow of an
incompressible fluid with constant properties in the fully
developed region of a straight circular pipe.
 In fully developed laminar flow, each fluid particle moves
at a constant axial velocity along a streamline and the
velocity profile u(r) remains unchanged in the flow
direction. There is no motion in the radial direction, and
thus the velocity component in the direction normal to flow
is everywhere zero. There is no acceleration since the flow
is steady and fully developed.
49
 Consider a ring-shaped
differential volume element of
radius r, thickness dr, and length
dx oriented coaxially with the
pipe, as shown in the Fig.
 The volume element involves
only pressure and viscous effects
and thus the pressure and shear
forces must balance each other.
 The pressure force acting on a
submerged plane surface is the
product of the pressure at the
centroid of the surface and the
surface area.
50
 A force balance on the volume element in the flow
direction gives
 which indicates that in fully developed flow in a horizontal

pipe, the viscous and pressure forces balance each other.
Dividing by 2πdrdx and rearranging,
51
 The quantity du/dr is negative in pipe flow, and the negative

sign is included to obtain positive values for τ.
(Or, du/dr = -du/dy since y = R - r)
 Rearranging and integrating twice gives
52
 Writing a force balance on a

volume element of radius R
and thickness dx (a slice of
the pipe), gives
 Here τw is constant since the

viscosity and the velocity
profile are constants in the
fully developed region.
 Therefore, dP/dx = constant.
53
 The velocity profile u(r) is obtained by applying the
boundary conditions at r = 0 (because of
symmetry about the centerline) and u = 0 at r = R (the
no-slip condition at the pipe surface). We get
 Therefore, the velocity profile in fully developed laminar

flow in a pipe is parabolic with a maximum at the
centerline and minimum (zero) at the pipe wall.
 Also, the axial velocity u is positive for any r, and thus the
axial pressure gradient dP/dx must be negative (i.e.,
pressure must decrease in the flow direction because of
viscous effects).
54
 The average velocity is determined from its definition by
substituting u(r) and performing the integration. It gives
 Combining the last two equations, the velocity profile is

rewritten as
 This is a convenient form for the velocity profile since Vavg

can be determined easily from the flow rate information.
 The maximum velocity occurs at the centerline and is
determined by substituting r = 0,
55
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
 A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the
pressure drop P since it is directly related to the power
requirements of the fan or pump to maintain flow.
 We note that dP/dx = constant, and integrating from x = x1
where the pressure is P1 to x = x1 + L where the pressure is
P2 gives
 Substituting this into the Vavg expression, the pressure drop

can be expressed as
56
 Pressure drop due to viscous effects represents an
irreversible pressure loss, and it is called pressure loss PL
to emphasize that it is a loss.
 Pressure drop is proportional to the viscosity μ of the fluid,
and P would be zero if there were no friction. Therefore,
the drop of pressure from P1 to P2 in this case is due
entirely to viscous effects.
 In practice, it is found convenient to express the pressure
loss for all types of fully developed internal flows (laminar
or turbulent flows, circular or noncircular pipes, smooth or
rough surfaces, horizontal or inclined pipes) as
57
 where ρV2avg/2 is the dynamic pressure and f is the Darcy
friction factor also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction
factor
 For fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe solving

for f gives
 This equation shows that in laminar flow, the friction factor

is a function of the Reynolds number only and is
independent of the roughness of the pipe surface.
58
 In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are
commonly expressed in terms of the equivalent fluid
column height, called the head loss hL.
 Noting from fluid statics that P = ρgh and thus a pressure
difference of P corresponds to a fluid height of h = P/ρg,
the pipe head loss is obtained by dividing PL by ρg to give
 The head loss hL represents the additional height that the

fluid needs to be raised by a pump in order to overcome the
frictional losses in the pipe. The head loss is caused by
viscosity, and it is directly related to the wall shear stress.
59
 Once the pressure loss (or

head loss) is known, the
required pumping power
to overcome the pressure
loss is determined from
60
 The average velocity for laminar flow in a horizontal

pipe is
 Then the volume flow rate for laminar flow through a

horizontal pipe of diameter D and length L becomes
61
Inclined Pipes
 Relations for inclined
pipes can be obtained in
a similar manner from a
force balance in the
direction of flow. The
only additional force in
this case is the
component of the fluid
weight in the flow
direction, whose
magnitude is
where θ is the angle between the horizontal and the flow

62 direction
Inclined Pipes
 The force balance now becomes
 Following the same solution procedure, the velocity profile

can be shown to be
63
Inclined Pipes
 It can also be shown that the average velocity and the volume
flow rate relations for laminar flow through inclined pipes
are, respectively,
 which are identical to the corresponding relations for

horizontal pipes, except that P is replaced by P – ρgLsin θ.
 Therefore, the results already obtained for horizontal pipes
can also be used for inclined pipes provided that P is
replaced by P – ρgL sin θ.
 Note that θ > 0 and thus sin θ > 0 for uphill flow, and θ < 0
and thus sin θ < 0 for downhill flow.
64
Inclined Pipes
 In inclined pipes, the

combined effect of pressure
difference and gravity
drives the flow. Gravity
helps downhill flow but
opposes uphill flow.
Therefore, much greater
pressure differences need to
be applied to maintain a
specified flow rate in uphill
flow although this becomes
important only for liquids,
because the density of
gases is generally low.
65
EXAMPLE 1.
Flow Rates in Horizontal and Inclined Pipes
 Oil at 20°C (ρ = 888 kg/m3 and μ

= 0.800 kg/m · s) is flowing
steadily through a 5-cm-diameter
40-m-long pipe . The pressure at
the pipe inlet and outlet are
measured to be 745 and 97 kPa,
respectively. Determine the flow
rate of oil through the pipe
assuming the pipe is (a)
horizontal, (b) inclined 15°
upward, (c) inclined 15°
downward. Also verify that the
flow through the pipe is laminar.
66
(a) The flow rate for all three cases can be determined from
67
68
69
EXAMPLE 2. Pressure Drop and Head Loss in a Pipe
 Water at 40°F (ρ = 62.42 lbm/ft3 and μ = 1.038 x 10-3 lbm/ft · s)
is flowing through a 0.12-in (= 0.010 ft) diameter 30-ft-long
horizontal pipe steadily at an average velocity of 3.0 ft/s.
Determine (a) the head loss, (b) the pressure drop, and (c) the
pumping power requirement to overcome this pressure drop.
70
71
72
Turbulent Flow in Pipes
 Most flows encountered in engineering practice are turbulent,
and thus it is important to understand how turbulence affects
wall shear stress.
 However, turbulent flow is a complex mechanism dominated
by fluctuations, and despite tremendous amounts of work
done in this area by researchers, the theory of turbulent flow
remains largely undeveloped.
 Therefore, we must rely on experiments and the empirical or
semi-empirical correlations developed for various situations.
 Turbulent flow is characterized by random and rapid
fluctuations of swirling regions of fluid, called eddies,
throughout the flow. These fluctuations provide an additional
mechanism for momentum and energy transfer.
73
 In laminar flow, fluid particles flow in an orderly manner
along pathlines, and momentum and energy are transferred
across streamlines by molecular diffusion.
 In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies transport mass,
momentum, and energy to other regions of flow much more
rapidly than molecular diffusion, greatly enhancing mass,
momentum, and heat transfer.
 As a result, turbulent flow is associated with much higher
values of friction, heat transfer, and mass transfer
coefficients.
 The eddy motion in turbulent flow causes significant
fluctuations in the values of velocity, temperature, pressure,
and even density (in compressible flow).
74
 Fluctuations of the velocity component u with time at a
specified location in turbulent flow shown in fig below.
 Instantaneous values of the velocity fluctuate about an average

value, which suggests that the velocity can be expressed as the
sum of an average value and fluctuating component u’,
75
Turbulent Shear Stress

 The turbulent shear stress consists of two parts: the laminar
component, which accounts for the friction between layers
in the flow direction (expressed as , and
the turbulent component, which accounts for the friction
between the fluctuating fluid particles and the fluid body
(denoted as τturb and is related to the fluctuation
components of velocity).
 Then the total shear stress in turbulent flow can be
expressed as
76
 The total shear stress can be expressed conveniently as
 where μt is the eddy viscosity or turbulent viscosity,

which accounts for momentum transport by turbulent
eddies.
 is the kinematic eddy viscosity or kinematic
turbulent viscosity.
77
 The velocity gradients at the
wall, and thus the wall shear
stress, are much larger for
turbulent flow than they are
for laminar flow.
78
Turbulent Velocity Profile
 The velocity profile is parabolic
in laminar flow but is much
fuller in turbulent flow, with a
sharp drop near the pipe wall.
 Turbulent flow along a wall can
be considered to consist of four
regions, characterized by the
distance from the wall. The very
thin layer next to the wall where
viscous effects are dominant is
the viscous (or laminar or
linear or wall) sublayer.
79
 The velocity profile in this layer is very nearly linear, and the
flow is streamlined.
 Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer layer, in which
turbulent effects are becoming significant, but the flow is still
dominated by viscous effects.
 Above the buffer layer is the overlap (or transition) layer,
also called the inertial sublayer, in which the turbulent effects
are much more significant, but still not dominant.
 Above that is the outer (or turbulent) layer in the remaining
part of the flow in which turbulent effects dominate over
molecular diffusion (viscous) effects.
 Flow characteristics are quite different in different regions, and
thus it is difficult to come up with an analytic relation for
the velocity profile for the entire flow as we did for laminar
80
flow.
 Numerous empirical velocity profiles exist for turbulent
pipe flow. Among those, the simplest and the best known is
the power-law velocity profile expressed as
 where the exponent n is a constant whose value depends on

the Reynolds number. The value of n increases with
increasing Reynolds number.
 The value n = 7 generally approximates many flows in
practice, giving rise to the term one-seventh power-law
velocity profile.
81
 The turbulent velocity
profile is fuller than the
laminar one, and it becomes
more flat as n (and thus the
Reynolds number)
increases.
 The power-law profile
cannot be used to calculate
wall shear stress since it
gives a velocity gradient of
infinity there, and it fails to
give zero slope at the
centerline.
82
The Moody Chart
 The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow
depends on the Reynolds number and the relative
roughness ε/D, which is the ratio of the mean height of
roughness of the pipe to the pipe diameter.
 Colebrook equation
 The Moody chart presents the Darcy friction factor for

pipe flow as a function of the Reynolds number and ε/D
over a wide range.
 It is probably one of the most widely accepted and used
charts in engineering. Although it is developed for circular
pipes, it can also be used for noncircular pipes by replacing
83 the diameter by the hydraulic diameter.
84
The Moody Chart
 The Moody chart for friction factor for fully developed
flow in circular pipes for use in the head loss relation
 Friction factors in the turbulent flow are evaluated from the

Colebrook equation
85
The Moody Chart
86
 The Colebrook equation is implicit in f, and thus the
determination of the friction factor requires some iteration
unless an equation solver is used.
 An approximate explicit relation for f was given by S. E.
Haaland in 1983 as
 The results obtained from this relation are within 2 percent

of those obtained from the Colebrook equation.
87
Types of Fluid Flow Problems
 In the design and analysis of piping systems that involve the
use of the Moody chart (or the Colebrook equation), we
usually encounter three types of problems (the fluid and the
roughness of the pipe are assumed to be specified in all
cases)
1. Determining the pressure drop (or head loss) when the
pipe length and diameter are given for a specified flow
rate (or velocity)
2. Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and
diameter are given for a specified pressure drop (or head
loss)
3. Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length
and flow rate are given for a specified pressure drop (or
88 head loss)
 Problems of the first type are straightforward and can be
solved directly by using the Moody chart.
 Problems of the second type and third type are commonly
encountered in engineering design (in the selection of pipe
diameter, for example, that minimizes the sum of the
construction and pumping costs), but the use of the Moody
chart with such problems requires an iterative approach
unless an equation solver is used.
 To avoid tedious iterations in head loss, flow rate, and
diameter calculations, Swamee and Jain proposed the
following explicit relations in 1976 that are accurate to
within 2 percent of the Moody chart:
89
90
EXAMPLE 3. Determining the Head Loss in a Water Pipe
 Water at 60°F (ρ = 62.36 lbm/ft3 and μ = 7.536 x 10-4 lbm/ft · s)

is flowing steadily in a 2-in-diameter horizontal pipe made of
stainless steel at a rate of 0.2 ft3/s. Determine the pressure drop,
the head loss, and the required pumping power input for flow
over a 200-ft-long section of the pipe.
91
which is greater than 4000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent. The
92
relative roughness of the pipe is calculated using the Table
93
 The friction factor could also be determined easily from the
explicit Haaland relation. It would give f = 0.0172, which
is sufficiently close to 0.0174.
94
Minor Losses
 The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various
fittings, valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits,
enlargements, and contractions in addition to the pipes.
 These components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid
and cause additional losses because of the flow separation
and mixing they induce.
 In a typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor
compared to the total head loss in the pipes (the major
losses) and are called minor losses.
 Although this is generally true, in some cases the minor
losses may be greater than the major losses. This is the
case, for example, in systems with several turns and valves
in a short distance.
95
Minor Losses
 The head loss introduced by a completely open valve, for
example, may be negligible. But a partially closed valve may
cause the largest head loss in the system, as evidenced by the
drop in the flow rate.
 Flow through valves and fittings is very complex, and a
theoretical analysis is generally not plausible.
 Therefore, minor losses are determined experimentally, usually
by the manufacturers of the components.
 Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss
coefficient KL (also called the resistance coefficient), defined
as
 where hL is the additional irreversible head loss in the piping

system caused by insertion of the component, and is defined as
96
hL = PL/ρg.
Minor Losses
 Once all the loss coefficients are available, the total head
loss in a piping system is determined from
 where i represents each pipe section with constant diameter

and j represents each component that causes a minor loss.
 If the entire piping system being analyzed has a constant
diameter
 where V is the average flow velocity through the entire

system (note that V = constant since D = constant).
97
98
99
100
EXAMPLE 4. Head Loss and Pressure Rise
during Gradual Expansion
 A 6-cm-diameter horizontal water pipe expands gradually

to a 9-cm-diameter pipe . The walls of the expansion
section are angled 30° from the horizontal. The average
velocity and pressure of water before the expansion section
are 7 m/s and 150 kPa, respectively. Determine the head
loss in the expansion section and the pressure in the larger-
diameter pipe. Ans. 0.175m, 168 KPa
101
→ α1 and α2 are kinetic energy correction factors
102
103
Example 5. Determine Head Loss
 As shown in Fig. below, crude oil at 140 °F with γ =53.7 lb/ft3
and μ = 8 x 105 lb . s ft2 (about four times the viscosity of
water) is pumped across Alaska through the Alaskan pipeline, a
799-mile-long, 4-ft-diameter steel pipe, at a maximum rate of
Q = 2.4 million barrels day = 117 ft3 /s. Determine the
horsepower needed for the pumps that drive this large system.
104
Solution
 From the energy equation we obtain
105
106
Example 6. Minor losses
 Water at 10°C flows from a large reservoir to a smaller
one through a 5-cm diameter cast iron piping system,
as shown in Fig. below. Determine the elevation z1 for
a flow rate of 6 L/s.
107
108
109
Example 7
 A horizontal pipe has an abrupt expansion from D1= 8 cm
to D2 = 16 cm. The water velocity in the smaller section is
10 m/s and the flow is turbulent. The pressure in the
smaller section is P1 = 300 kPa. Taking the kinetic energy
correction factor to be 1.06 at both the inlet and the outlet,
determine the downstream pressure P2, and estimate the
error that would have occurred if Bernoulli’s equation had
been used.
110
111
112
PIPING NETWORKS
 Most piping systems encountered in practice such as the
water distribution systems in cities or commercial or
residential establishments involve numerous parallel and
series connections.
Pipes in Series
 When the pipes are connected in series, the flow rate
through the entire system remains constant regardless of the
diameters of the individual pipes in the system. This is a
natural consequence of the conservation of mass principle
for steady incompressible flow.
 The total head loss in this case is equal to the sum of the
head losses in individual pipes in the system, including the
minor losses.
113
PIPING NETWORKS
 For a pipe that branches out into two (or more) parallel pipes
and then rejoins at a junction downstream, the total flow rate
is the sum of the flow rates in the individual pipes. The
pressure drop (or head loss) in each individual pipe connected
in parallel must be the same since and the
junction pressures PA and PB are the same for all the individual
pipes.
114
PIPING NETWORKS
 For a system of two parallel pipes 1 and 2 between

junctions A and B with negligible minor losses, this can be
expressed as
115
PIPING NETWORKS
116
PIPING NETWORKS
 Another type of multiple pipe system called a loop is shown in
Fig. In this case the flowrate through pipe (1) equals the sum
of the flowrates through pipes (2) and (3), or
 As can be seen by writing the energy equation between the

surfaces of each reservoir, the head loss for pipe (2) must
equal that for pipe (3), even though the pipe sizes an flowrates
may be different for each. That is,
117
PIPING NETWORKS
for fluid that travels through pipes (1) and (3). These can be
combined to give This is statement of the fact that fluid
particles that travel through pipe (2) and particles that travel
through pipe (3) all originate from common conditions at the
junction (or node, N) of the pipes and all end up at the same
final conditions.
118
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
(OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND HYDRAULIC
MACHINERY)
UNIT – II
BVRIT Rambabu Palaka, Assistant Professor

Learning Objectives
1. Introduction to Dimensions & Units
2. Use of Dimensional Analysis
3. Dimensional Homogeneity
4. Methods of Dimensional Analysis
5. Rayleigh’s Method
Learning Objectives
6. Buckingham’s Method
7. Model Analysis
8. Similitude
9. Model Laws or Similarity Laws
10. Model and Prototype Relations
Introduction
 Many practical real flow problems in fluid mechanics can be solved by using
equations and analytical procedures. However, solutions of some real flow
problems depend heavily on experimental data.
 Sometimes, the experimental work in the laboratory is not only time-consuming,

but also expensive. So, the main goal is to extract maximum information from
fewest experiments.
In this regard, dimensional analysis is an important tool that helps in correlating
analytical results with experimental data and to predict the prototype behavior from
the measurements on the model.
Dimensions and Units
In dimensional analysis we are only concerned with the nature of the
dimension i.e. its quality not its quantity.
 Dimensions are properties which can be measured.

Ex.: Mass, Length, Time etc.,
 Units are the standard elements we use to quantify these dimensions.
Ex.: Kg, Metre, Seconds etc.,
The following are the Fundamental Dimensions (MLT)

 Mass kg M
 Length m L
 Time s T
Secondary or Derived Dimensions
Secondary dimensions are those quantities which posses more than one
fundamental dimensions.
1. Geometric
a) Area m2 L2
b) Volume m3 L3
2. Kinematic
a) Velocity m/s L/T L.T-1
b) Acceleration m/s2 L/T2 L.T-2
3. Dynamic
a) Force N ML/T M.L.T-1
b) Density kg/m3 M/L3 M.L-3
Problems
Find Dimensions for the following:
1. Stress / Pressure
2. Work
3. Power
4. Kinetic Energy
5. Dynamic Viscosity
6. Kinematic Viscosity
7. Surface Tension
8. Angular Velocity
9. Momentum
10.Torque
Use of Dimensional Analysis
1. Conversion from one dimensional unit to another
2. Checking units of equations (Dimensional
Homogeneity)
3. Defining dimensionless relationship using
a) Rayleigh’s Method
b) Buckingham’s π-Theorem
4. Model Analysis
Dimensional Homogeneity
Dimensional Homogeneity means the dimensions in each
equation on both sides equal.
Problems
Check Dimensional Homogeneity of the following:
1. Q = AV
2. EK = v2/2g
Rayeligh’s Method
To define relationship among variables
This method is used for determining the

expression for a variable which depends upon
maximum three or four variables only.
Rayeligh’s Method
Methodology:
Let X is a function of X1 ,X2, X3 and mathematically it can be written as
X = f(X1, X2, X3)
This can be also written as
expression
X = K (X , X , X for
1
a
2
b a variable
) where
3
c which
K is constant and a, b anddepends upon
c are arbitrarily powers
maximum
The values of a, bthree
and c areor fourby variables
obtained only.
comparing the powers of the fundamental
dimension on both sides.
Rayeligh’s Method
Methodology:
Problem: Find the expression for Discharge Q in a open channel flow when Q is
To
depends on Arearelationship
define A and Velocity V. among variables
X = f(X1, X2, X3)
Solution:
Q = K.Aa.Vb  1
This can
where K is
beaalso
Non-dimensional
written as constant
expression for a variable which depends upon
X = K (X1a the
Substitute , X2bdimensions
, X3c ) whereon K
both
is constant
sides of equation
and a, b and
1 c are arbitrarily powers
M0 L3 T-1 = K. (L2)a.(LT-1)b
maximum three or four variables only.
The values
Equating powers
of a, bofand
M, cL,are
T on
obtained
both sides,
by comparing the powers of the fundamental
of T,on both sides. -1 = -b  b=1
dimension
Power
Power of L, 3= 2a+b  2a = 2-b = 2-1 = 1
Substituting values of a, b, and c in Equation 1m
Q = K. A1. V1 = V.A
Rayeligh’s Method
Methodology:
X = f(X1, X2, X3)
expression
1
a
2
b a variable
) where
3
c which
maximum
obtained only.
Rayeligh’s Method
Methodology:
X = f(X1, X2, X3)
expression
1
a
2
b a variable
) where
3
c which
maximum
obtained only.
Buckingham’s π-Theorem
This method of analysis is used when number of variables are more.
Theorem:
If there are n variables in a physical phenomenon and those n variables contain m dimensions,
then variables can be arranged into (n-m) dimensionless groups called Φ terms.
Explanation:
If f (X1, X2, X3, ……… Xn) = 0 and variables can be expressed using m dimensions then
f (π1, π2, π3, ……… πn - m) = 0 where, π1, π2, π3, … are dimensionless groups.
Each π term contains (m + 1) variables out of which m are of repeating type and one is of non-
repeating type.
Each π term being dimensionless, the dimensional homogeneity can be used to get each π term.
π denotes a non-dimensional parameter

Buckingham’s π-Theorem
Selecting Repeating Variables:
1. Avoid taking the quantity required as the repeating variable.
2. Repeating variables put together should not form dimensionless group.
3. No two repeating variables should have same dimensions.
4. Repeating variables can be selected from each of the following
properties.
 Geometric property  Length, height, width, area
 Flow property  Velocity, Acceleration, Discharge
 Fluid property  Mass density, Viscosity, Surface tension
Example
Example
Example
Model Analysis
For predicting the performance of the hydraulic structures (such as dams, spillways
etc.) or hydraulic machines (such as turbines, pumps etc.) before actually
constructing or manufacturing, models of the structures or machines are made and
tests are conducted on them to obtain the desired information.
Model is a small replica of the actual structure or machine

The actual structure or machine is called as Prototype
Models can be smaller or larger than the Prototype
Model Analysis is actually an experimental method of finding solutions of

complex flow problems.
Similitude or Similarities
Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and prototype in
every aspect, which means that the model and prototype have similar
properties.
Types of Similarities:
1. Geometric Similarity  Length, Breadth, Depth, Diameter, Area,
Volume etc.,
2. Kinematic Similarity  Velocity, Acceleration etc.,
3. Dynamic Similarity  Time, Discharge, Force, Pressure Intensity,
Torque, Power
Geometric Similarity
The geometric similarity is said to be exist between the model and
prototype if the ratio of all corresponding linear dimensions in the model
and prototype are equal.
L P
 B
P
 D
P
 Lr A P
 Lr
2 V P
 Lr
3
L m B
m D
m A m V m
where Lr is Scale Ratio

Kinematic Similarity
The kinematic similarity is said exist between model and prototype if the
ratios of velocity and acceleration at corresponding points in the model and
at the corresponding points in the prototype are the same.
V P
 Vr a P
 ar
V m a m
whereVr is Velocity Ratio where ar is Acceleration Ratio
Also the directions of the velocities in the model and prototype should be same
Dynamic Similarity
The dynamic similarity is said exist between model and prototype if the
ratios of corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points are
equal
FP
 Fr
Fm
where Fr is Force Ratio

It means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the
Also the directions of the velocities in the model and prototype should be same
dimensionless numbers should be same for model and prototype.
Types of Forces Acting on Moving Fluid
1. Inertia Force, Fi
 It is the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and acts in the
direction opposite to the direction of acceleration.
 It always exists in the fluid flow problems
2. Viscous Force, Fv
 It is equal to the product of shear stress due to viscosity and surface area of the
flow.
 It is important in fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important role
to play
3. Gravity Force, Fg
 It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing
fluid.
 It is present in case of open surface flow
4. Pressure Force, Fp
 It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional area of
flowing fluid
 It is present in case of pipe-flow
5. Surface Tension Force, Fs
 It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of the flowing
fluid
5. Surface Tension Force, Fs
6. Elastic Force, Fe
 It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid
Dimensionless Numbers
Dimensionless numbers are obtained by dividing the inertia force by
viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or
elastic force.
Inertia Force VL VD
 or
Viscous Force  
1. Reynold’s number, Re =
InertiaForce V

Gravity Force Lg
2. Froude’s number, Fe =
InertiaForce V

PressureForce p/
3. Euler’s number, Eu =
InertiaForce V

Surface Tension Force  / L
4. Weber’s number, We =
Inertia Force V

Elastic Force C
3V 2L 2 2
 ρL  ρL V  ρL V
T T
Model Laws
The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are
called model laws or laws of similarity.
1. Reynold’s Model
Models based on Reynolds’s Number includes:
a) Pipe Flow
b) Resistance experienced by Sub-marines, airplanes, fully immersed bodies
etc.
Model Laws
2. Froude Model Law
Froude Model Law is applied in the following fluid flow problems:
a) Free Surface Flows such as Flow over spillways, Weirs, Sluices, Channels
etc.,
b) Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle
c) Where waves are likely to formed on surface
d) Where fluids of different densities flow over one another
Model Laws
2. Froude Model Law
3. Euler Model Law
Euler Model Law is applied in the following cases:
a) Closed pipe in which case turbulence is fully developed so that viscous forces
are negligible and gravity force and surface tension is absent
b) Where phenomenon of cavitations takes place
Model Laws
2. Froude Model Law
3. Euler Model Law
4. Weber Model Law
Weber Model Law is applied in the following cases:
a) Capillary rise in narrow passages
b) Capillary movement of water in soil
c) Capillary waves in channels
d) Flow over weirs for small heads
Model Laws
2. Froude Model Law
3. Euler Model Law
4. Weber Model Law
5. Mach Model Law
Mach Model Law is applied in the following cases:
a) Flow of aero plane and projectile through air at supersonic speed ie., velocity
more than velocity of sound
b) Aero dynamic testing, c) Underwater testing of torpedoes, and
d) Water-hammer problems
Reynold’s Model Law
If the viscous forces are predominant, the models are designed for dynamic
similarity based on Reynold’s number.
Re  Re
m p tr
 Time Scale Ratio  L r
Velocity, V = Length/Time  T = L/V
V r
ρ V L ρVL  Acceleration Scale Ratio  V r

m m m
 P P P
a
 
r
m p
t r
Acceleration, a = Velocity/Time  L = V/T

Problems
1. Water flowing through a pipe of diameter 30 cm at a velocity of 4 m/s. Find the
velocity of oil flowing in another pipe of diameter 10cm, if the conditions of
dynamic similarity is satisfied between two pipes. The viscosity of water and oil
is given as 0.01 poise and 0.025 poise. The specific gravity of oil is 0.8.
Froude Model Law
If the gravity force is predominant, the models are designed for dynamic
similarity based on Froude number.
Fe  Fe
m p
V m

V p
V r
 VelocityScale Ratio  L
r
g L
m m gL
p P
Tr  Scale Ratio for Time 

3
L r F r
 Scale Ratio for Force  L r
T  Scale Ratio for Accele ration  1  Scale Ratio for Pressure Intensity  Lr
r
F r
2.5
Qr  Scale Ratio for Discharge  Lr P r
 Scale Ratio for Power  Lr
3.5
Problems
1. In 1 in 40 model of a spillway, the velocity and discharge are 2 m/s and 2.5
m3/s. Find corresponding velocity and discharge in the prototype
2. In a 1 in 20 model of stilling basin, the height of the jump in the model is

observed to be 0.20m. What is height of hydraulic jump in the prototype? If
energy dissipated in the model is 0.1kW, what is the corresponding value in
prototype?
3. A 7.2 m height and 15 m long spillway discharges 94 m3/s discharge under a

head of 2m. If a 1:9 scale model of this spillway is to be constructed,
determine the model dimensions, head over spillway model and the model
discharge. If model is experiences a force of 7500 N, determine force on the
prototype.

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Pressure

Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

You have to push down the piston on the

Pressure is equal at the bottom of both containers (because it’s the

Where p is the pressure, ρ is the density, v is the velocity,

*There exists an extended form of equation that

Etotal = 1/2mv2 + mgh

∴ P2 + 1/2ρ v12 + ρ gh1 = P1 + 1/2ρ v12 + ρ gh1

• This is an atomizer, which uses the Venturi effect to spray

Depending on the contour

Used for aircrafts as

Then the steam follows the

Considered a Venturimeter is fitted to a horizontal pipe

(P1 – P2)/ρg is the difference of pressure heads at section 1 and 2 and

Substituting this value of h in equation (1), we get

Substituting this value of v1 in equation (2) and solving, we get

Q is the theoretical discharge under ideal conditions. Actual discharge will be

Where Cd is the coefficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1

Value of Cd for a venturimeter usually lies between 0.95 to 0.98

Disadvantages of venture meter

is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid

The flow from an upstream section, where it is uniform,

Co-efficient of discharge of the orifice meter will be quite small as

Disadvantages of orifice meter

Volumetric Flow • Volume of the fluid travelled through

• Shape of path of the fluid.

• point in a fluid stream where the

Turbulent Flow Fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations,

DEFINITION & MAIN PARTS

Venturimeter device used for

It consist of three parts,

•Bernaulli’s Equation PV = a constant

•Inclined venturimeter •Vertical venturimeter

SOME ASSUMPTIONS TAKEN

Frictionless inner surfaces

Steady and irrotational flow

EXPRESSION FOR RATE OF FLOW

P.E = g.z1 P.E = g.z2

V.E = ½ v12 V.E = ½ v22

Pre.E = P1/ρ Pre.E = P2/ρ

Energy equation (horizontal arrangement)

A1V1=A2V2 (since density is constant)

V1=(A2/A1)V2 & V2=(A1/A2)V1

Sub V1 value in (1)

Q2=A2.V2= A1.A2 * √2∆P/ρ

Original-- Q2=CdE M√(2∆P)/ρ

M- velocity approach factor

Q2 in terms of specific weight

Q2=Cd . E . M . A2 √2g{hm[(wm/w )-1]-(Zx-Zy)}

Q2 in terms of specific gravity

VENTURI METER V/S FLOW

When a venturimeter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose

The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the entry

As the fluid flows into the converging section, its pressure

The Manometer attached between the entry and throat section of

The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to

converging throat diverging

A horizontal venturimeter with 15 cm inlet . 7.5 cm throat is used for

Sol: Q2= Cd . E . M . A2 √2g{ hm [(ρm/ρ )-1]}

• used where high pressure recovery is