Arthropoda

Phylum Arthropoda
1. The epidermis produces a segmented, jointed, hardened chitinous exoskeleton:
o Arthropods, including lobsters, crabs, spiders, insects, and more, possess an external
skeleton made of chitin. This nonliving exoskeleton is secreted by the underlying
epidermis. The exoskeleton provides support, protection, and a framework for
muscle attachment. Its segmentation allows for flexibility and movement.
o it must be periodically shed and replaced during a process called ecdysis.
2. Complete loss of motile cilia in adult and larval stage:
o Unlike some other organisms, arthropods lack locomotory cilia even during their
larval stages. This absence is likely due to the presence of their protective
exoskeleton.
3. Basic segmentation – common in primitive groups
4. Open BVS (Body Vascular System):
o Arthropods have an open circulatory system, where hemolymph (a fluid similar to
blood) bathes the internal organs directly. It’s less centralised than a closed
circulatory system found in vertebrates.
5. Increased cephalization – sensory organs move to anterior body segments:
o Over evolutionary time, arthropods have developed a trend toward cephalization,
concentrating sensory structures (like eyes and antennae) in the head region. This
adaptation enhances their ability to perceive their environment.
6. Ventral nerve cords:
o Arthropods possess a ventral nerve cord. This nerve cord connects to ganglia
(clusters of nerve cells) in each segment, allowing for coordinated movement and
sensory processing.
7. Exoskeleton: The most important evolutionary development:
o The arthropod exoskeleton is a remarkable adaptation. It provides structural
support, prevents desiccation, and serves as a defence against predators. Its rigidity
allows arthropods to exploit various ecological niches.
8. Moulting (Ecdysis):
o Arthropods periodically shed their old exoskeletons through a process called ecdysis
or moulting. During this transformation, they emerge with a new, larger
exoskeleton.
9. Largest group of invertebrates
o 6 classes
o 80 orders
 o 2400 families
o Arthropods are incredibly diverse. They constitute about 84% of all known animal
species. Most of these belong to the class Insecta (insects), but there are also
crustaceans, arachnids, myriapods, and more. The estimated total number of insect
species alone could be as high as 5.5 million.

The cuticle

1. Epicuticle is generally waxy – 3% of cuticle

2. Cuticle is water impermeable – does not allow for gas exchange:
3. Animals very resistant to water loss:
4. Bulk of exoskeleton made up of procuticle:
o The procuticle forms the majority of the arthropod exoskeleton. It lies beneath the
epicuticle and consists of two layers: the exocuticle (outer layer) and the
endocuticle (inner layer). The procuticle provides strength, rigidity, and flexibility to
the exoskeleton.
5. Composed largely of polysaccharide chitin in association with proteins:
o The procuticle’s primary component is chitin, a tough polysaccharide. Chitin
provides structural integrity and rigidity. Proteins are also present, reinforcing the
chitinous matrix. Together, they create a formidable composite material that
supports the arthropod’s body.
6. The procuticle is comprised of exo and endo cuticle:

Subphylum Trilobitomorpha

1. Extinct:
o Trilobitomorphs are an ancient group of arthropods that once roamed the Earth’s
oceans. However, they are now extinct.
2. The body is divided into 3 regions:
o Trilobitomorphs had a distinctive body plan characterized by three main regions:
 Cephalon: The anterior (head) region, housing sensory organs and
appendages.
 Thorax: The middle region, consisting of multiple segments with jointed
appendages.
 Pygidium: The posterior (tail) region, often fused and bearing additional
appendages.
o This tripartite division sets them apart from other arthropods.
3. Effectively a single unit:
o Despite their segmented body, trilobitomorphs functioned as a cohesive whole.
Their exoskeleton, jointed limbs, and specialized features allowed them to navigate
their marine habitats effectively.
Subphylum Chelicerata

1. Absence of antenna and mandibles:

o Chelicerates, which include spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks, and horseshoe crabs,
lack antennae and mandibles. Instead, they have specialised mouthparts called
chelicerae.
o These chelicerae serve various functions, such as grasping prey or piercing it to inject
venom.
2. The body is divided into 2 distinct areas:
o Chelicerates exhibit a clear division between two main body regions:
 Prosoma (Cephalothorax): The anterior part of the body, housing the head
and thorax. It’s like their command centre, where sensory organs and
appendages reside.
 Opisthosoma (Abdomen): The posterior part, often containing vital organs
and sometimes additional appendages.
o This segmentation allows for specialization and efficient functioning.
3. First pair of appendages on the prosoma adapted for feeding – Chelicerata:
o The chelicerae, located in the prosoma, are the first pair of appendages in
chelicerates. They play a crucial role in feeding. Depending on the group, chelicerae
can be modified into fangs (for spiders), pincers (for scorpions), or other specialized
structures.
4. Three classes (Merostomata, Arachnida, and Pycnogonida):
o Chelicerates are classified into three main classes:
 Merostomata (Horseshoe Crabs): These ancient marine arthropods have a
hard, unsegmented carapace and a long tail spine (telson). They’ve been
around since the Cambrian period.
 Arachnida (Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, and Ticks): This diverse class includes
spiders, scorpions, mites, and ticks.
 Pycnogonida (Sea Spiders): These marine arthropods have elongated
bodies, and thin legs, and feed on soft-bodied invertebrates.
Class Merostomata.

1. Head and thorax fused – form prosoma or cephalothorax:

o Merostomata, also known as horseshoe crabs, have a unique body structure where
the head (cephalon) and thorax are fused into a single unit called the prosoma or
cephalothorax.
2. Book lungs external:
o These remarkable arthropods possess external respiratory organs known as book
lungs. These specialised structures allow them to extract oxygen from the air. The
name “book lungs” comes from their leaf-like appearance when opened.
3. The terminal part of the body forms an elongated spine:
o At the end of their body (the opisthosoma), horseshoe crabs bear an elongated
spine. This spine serves various purposes, including stability and perhaps even
defence.
4. Opisthosoma bears 6 pairs of appendages:
o The opisthosoma, located behind the prosoma, is home to six pairs of appendages.
These include specialized structures for locomotion, feeding, and other essential
functions.
5. Includes extinct sea scorpions up to 4 m in length:
o Merostomata not only include the living horseshoe crabs (such as the genus
Limulus) but also their ancient relatives, the extinct sea scorpions (scientifically
known as Eurypterida). These sea scorpions were formidable creatures, some
reaching lengths of up to 4 meters! Their fossils provide a glimpse into the distant
past.

Class Arachnida

1. Terrestrial Lifestyle:
 o While their earliest ancestors were marine, most arachnids now inhabit terrestrial
environments.
o Approximately 70,000 species of arachnids exist today.
2. Body Structure:
o The body of an arachnid is divided into two main regions:
 Cephalothorax (Prosoma)
 Abdomen
3. Legs and Lungs:
o Arachnids typically have four pairs of walking legs attached to the cephalothorax.
o For respiration, they utilize specialized respiratory organs called book lungs.
4. Diverse Members:
o The class Arachnida includes a wide variety of fascinating creatures:
 Spiders
 Scorpions
 Ticks and Mites
 Harvestmen (Daddy Longlegs)
 Whip Spiders, Camel Spiders, and Vinegaroons
5. Origins of the Name:
o The term “arachnid” comes from the Greek word ἀράχνη (arachne), which means
“spider.”
o It originates from the myth of Arachne, a skilled human weaver who was
transformed into a spider.

Class Pycnogonida (commonly known as sea spiders)

1. Body Structure:
o The body of a sea spider is divided into distinct regions.
o It consists of two main parts:
 Cephalothorax (Prosoma)
 Abdomen
2. Proboscis:
o Sea spiders possess a unique proboscis at their anterior end.
o This elongated structure has an opening at its tip, which serves various functions.
3. Legs:
o Sea spiders have a variable number of walking legs.
o Typically, they have four pairs of long, slender legs, although some species may
have additional leg pairs.
4. Marine Habitat:
o Sea spiders are exclusively marine organisms.
o They inhabit various ocean environments, from shallow coastal waters to deep-sea
regions.
5. Reduced Abdomen:
o In most sea spiders, the abdomen is greatly reduced.
o Often, the abdomen does not bear any appendages, emphasizing the importance of
their specialized legs.
6. Additional Notes:
o Sea spiders also have simple eyes dorsally located on their cephalothorax.
o Their respiratory system is usually absent, and they rely on other mechanisms for
gas exchange.
Subphylum Mandibulata

1. Mandibles for Chewing:

o Members of Mandibulata possess specialized mouthparts called mandibles.
o These modified appendages are used for chewing and processing food.
2. Compound Eyes:
o Arthropods in this subphylum typically have compound eyes.
o These eyes consist of multiple individual lenses, allowing them to perceive their
surroundings effectively.
3. Antennae:
o Mandibulates also feature antennae.
o These sensory structures play a crucial role in detecting environmental cues such as
touch, chemicals, and vibrations.
4. Diverse Group:
o The Mandibulata subphylum is highly diverse.
o It encompasses various arthropod groups, each adapted to different ecological
niches.
5. Leg Pairs:
o Mandibulates exhibit a large number of leg pairs.
o These legs serve various functions, including locomotion, prey capture, and sensory
exploration.

Class Myriapoda

o Myriapods are members of the subphylum Myriapoda, which contains arthropods

such as millipedes and centipedes.
o There are approximately 13,000 species of myriapods, all of which are terrestrial.
 o The fossil record of myriapods dates back to the late Silurian period, around 428
million years ago. Notably, the earliest known evidence of an air-breathing animal is
the myriapod species Pneumodesmus from this time.

Order Chilopoda (Centipedes):

o Contains around 3,000 species.

o Body covered by a cuticle, but it is not waxy.
o Centipedes are restricted to moist environments.
o They have a long, segmented body with one pair of legs per segment.

Order Diplopoda (Millipedes):

o Encompasses approximately 10,000 species.

o The cuticle of millipedes is also not waxy.
o Each segment of a millipede bears two pairs of walking legs.
o Unlike centipedes, millipedes are generally less agile and are often associated with
decaying organic matter.

Class Crustacea

1. General Characteristics:
o Crustaceans belong to the subphylum Crustacea, which includes approximately
45,000 species distributed worldwide.
o They are distinguished by having two pairs of antenna-like appendages in front of
the mouth and other paired appendages near the mouth that function as jaws.
o Most crustaceans are marine, although some inhabit freshwater environments as
well.
2. Head Appendages:
o The head of crustaceans bears five pairs of appendages.
o These appendages serve various functions, including sensory perception, feeding,
and locomotion.
3. Antennae:
o Crustaceans are unique among arthropods because they possess two pairs of
antennae.
o These antennae play essential roles in detecting environmental cues and navigating
their surroundings.
4. Naupliar Larvae:
 o During their life cycle, crustaceans often go through a larval stage called nauplius.
o Naupliar larvae are typically small, planktonic, and have simple structures.
5. Subclasses:
o Crustacea is further divided into several subclasses:
 Malacostraca: This diverse subclass includes crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and
woodlice.
 Branchiopoda: Water fleas and fairy shrimp are part of this group.
 Ostracoda: These are small, bivalved crustaceans found in both marine and
freshwater habitats.
 Copepoda: Abundant in marine and freshwater ecosystems, copepods are
essential components of plankton.
 Pentastomids: These parasitic crustaceans infect the respiratory systems of
vertebrates.
 Cirripedia: Barnacles, with their unique sessile lifestyle, belong to this
subclass.

Class Insecta (also known as Hexapoda)

1. Body Structure:
o Hexapods have a three-part body plan: the head, thorax, and abdomen.
o The head consists of an acorn (presegmental region) with eyes (absent in some
groups), followed by six closely fused segments.
o Notable head appendages include:
 Antennae (sensory, absent in Protura).
 Mandibles (crushing jaws).
 Maxillae (chewing jaws).
 Labium (lower lip).
o The mouth lies between the fourth and fifth segments, covered by the labrum
(upper lip).
2. Legs:
o Hexapods are named for their most distinctive feature: six legs.
o Each leg has a single walking branch composed of five segments.
o Unlike some other arthropods, hexapods lack gill branches on their legs.
3. Abdominal Appendages:
o Interestingly, hexapods have lost all abdominal appendages.
o This streamlined design contributes to their ecological success.
4. Diversity and Niches:
o Hexapods exhibit remarkable diversity, with approximately 1 million described
species (and likely three times more awaiting discovery).
 o Their ability to occupy a wide variety of ecological niches contributes to this
immense diversity.
5. Flight:
o While not all hexapods can fly, flight has evolved in some orders.
o Insects, as a subgroup of hexapods, are the only invertebrates capable of powered
flight.