Quality Evaluation of Peanut Burgers

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QUALITY EVALUATION OF IMPROVED PEANUTS BURGERS

PRODUCED FROM TOASTED BAMBARA GROUNDNUT AND MAIZE


FLOUR SNACK BLEND

BY

HARUNA, QUEEN SALIMOT


19HM1024

BEING A PROJECT PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF FOOD


NUTRITION AND HOME SCIENCE, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, PRINCE
ABUBAKAR AUDU UNIVERSITY ANYIGBA,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF


DEGREE OF BACHELOR IN FOOD NUTRITION AND HOME SCIENCE OF
PRINCE ABUBAKAR AUDU UNIVERSITY ANYIGBA.

SEPTEMBER, 2022.

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Peanut is a fried snack popular in West Africa. It is a sweet, cookie-like product made from

wheat flour and egg (Akubor, 2016). Snack food have been part of human diet for a long time

and has contributed tremendously to economy of every nation (Lasekan and Akintola, 2018).

The demand for peanut is attributed to the rapid population and urbanization of both developed

and developing countries.

Snacks are important foods which come in a variety of forms including packaged snack foods

and other processed food as well as items made from fresh ingredients at home, the consumption

of which is steady and increasing in Nigeria (Lasekan and Akintola, 2018). It is a portion of

food, smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between meals. It has been hitherto produced

from wheat as a major raw material. Currently, snack consumption has increased in its popularity

in Nigeria, shown by their conspicuous presence in the market.

Nutritionally, Bambara groundnut represents a cheap protein-rich source that can improve the

food and nutrition security status of rural households. Biochemical analysis of the carbohydrate,

fat, protein and mineral content reveals that Bambara groundnut produces an almost balanced

diet(Ogundele, Minnar & Emmambux, 2017). The nut was found to be richer in essential amino

acids than groundnut (Yao et al.,2015), with a protein score of 80% as compared to 65% for

groundnut, 74% for soya bean and 64% for cowpea (Schaafsma, 2012). Freshly harvested and

dry Bambara groundnut are consumed in many ways after processing. Freshly harvested seeds

are consumed as snacks after grilling or boiling for approximately an hour (Akpapunam and

Darbe, 2019). Dry seeds are boiled or first soaked then boiled to make a snack or porridge

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(Muimba-Kankolongo, 2018). Dried seeds are difficult to grind due to their hard and tightly

fitting seed coat. These seeds are pounded to flour, which is baked to make small flat cakes and

bread (Muimba-Kankolongo, 2018).

Maize (Zea mays) is the most important cereal in the world after wheat and rice with regard to

cultivation areas and total production ( Sandhu, Singh & Malhi, 2007) .Its centre of origin is

Mexico and was spread all over the world (Paliwal and Granados, 2012). In most developing

countries, starchy foodstuffs account for an estimated 70 to 90% of the total calories produced

especially in Tropical Africa, and maize is one of the starchy-staple crops widely grown in this

African region, maize grain, as reported showed that, the major chemical component of maize

kernel is starch, which provides up to 73% of the kernel weight (Paliwal and Granados, 2012).

Other carbohydrates are simple sugars such as glucose, and fructose in amounts that vary from 1

to 3% of the kernel. After starch the next largest chemical component of the kernel is protein.

Protein content varies in common varieties from about 8 to 11% of the kernel weight.

1.2 GENERAL OBJECTIVE

The general objective to produce and evaluate the chemical composition and sensory

evaluation of the product

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY WILL BE:

To determine the chemical composition (proximate, mineral content) of the Peanut

To carry out Sensory Evaluation of the Peanut produced from the blend.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY


The Bambara nut and maize which are readily available and nutritious is often underutilized in

the production of snacks even though it has lots of health and nutritional benefits. Certain

vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber which are often deficient in other materials are readily

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available in Bambara nut and maize seed. The study of quality evaluation of improved peanuts

produced from toasted Bambara nuts and maize flour snack blend will show to the public the

value addition of the blend.

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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review

2.1 General Overview of Snacks

Snacks are generally eaten by people from various backgrounds and various age groups

(Hartman Eating Occasions, 2013). Children, and even adults are usually found nibbling on

snacks in between meals at various times of the day. Principal ingredients of snack preparation

include wheat flour, fat, sugar and water; while other ingredients include milk, salt, flouring

agent and aerating agent (Afework et al., 2016). These ingredients are comparatively expensive

because most of them are processed and others imported. Biscuits however could be made from

many other ingredients that can serve as cheaper alternatives.

2.2. Bambara groundnut

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) belongs to the family Leguminosae, sub–family

Papilionoideae (Goli, 2017). The genus Vigna also comprises of a wild species type (V.

subterranea var. spontanea) while V. subterranea var. Subterranea is the cultivated species.

Bambara groundnut was derived from the name of a tribe from the Bambara people, central Mali

near Timbuktu (Goli, 2017). The crop spread throughout Africa by means of migration of

indigenous people. This crop is also found in other continents, for example Asia and North

America. However, despite it being an indigenous African legume, its popularity has now been

overshadowed by groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea). In South Africa, bambara groundnut

production occurs in KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga, Limpopo and the Northern

Province (Swanevelder, 2018). The Venda and the Bolebedu people claim to have brought

bambara groundnut to South Africa (Bamshaiye et al., 2011).

2.2.1 Uses of Bambara Groundnut

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Bambara groundnut is primarily used for human consumption. The seeds are consumed at

different developmental stages, either immature or fully ripe. The immature seeds can be

consumed fresh, boiled, grilled, as a meal or mixed with immature groundnuts or green maize

(Bamshaiye et al., 2011). Mature bambara groundnut seeds are very hard, hence boiling becomes

a prerequisite before any further preparation. Ripe seeds are milled to produce flour which can be

used to make biscuits and/or otherwise mixed with cereals and boiled to make porridge

(Bamshaiye et al., 2011). Ripe dry seeds are also roasted, broken into pieces, boiled, crushed and

eaten as a relish.

The crop also has a good balance of essential amino acids, and is rich in essential amino acids

compared with the exotic Arachis hypogaea (Belewu et al., 2008). A study by Bamishiaye et al.

(2011) showed that there was not much difference in proximate composition between different

varieties of bambara groundnut seeds. The crop has poor phosphorus and magnesium content and

fair calcium content. High protein content is a desirable trait in foods, but the importance of

protein quality, which is determined by both amino acid composition and protein digestibility,

should not be overlooked. Variability in amino acid profile between cultivars of Bambara

groundnut is evident. In general, most studies report glutamic acid to be the most abundant

amino acid in Bambara groundnut, suggesting its potential to be isolated for use as a flavoring

agent. Out of the essential amino acids, leucine and lysine are present at a higher concentration

while methionine is the lowest (39–41).

Its lysine-rich, methionine-poor composition makes Bambara groundnut a good complementary.

A recent study on the evaluation of the nutritional quality of complementary foods from popcorn,

African locust bean and bambara groundnut concluded that germinated popcorn-bambara

groundnut blends are the most suitable for infant diets (Ijarotimi and Keshinro, 2012).

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It is used in fortification in food to improve nutritive value ,it can be used as animal feed because

the stalks are salty and the leaves are rich in phosphorus and nitrogen. For medicinal purposes , it

has been used to cure diarrhea by boiling a mixture of maize and Bambara nut and drinking the

water.

Bambara groundnuts are boiled, salted and eaten as a relish or roasted and eaten as a snack.

Bambara seeds have become a staple ingredients in many foods and beverages. In other parts of

Africa , the nuts are processed into a flour and used in baking.

2.2.2 Health benefits of Bambara

Bambara nuts are a true quality protein containing methionine which helps prevent anemia in

pregnancy and kwashiorkor (protein deficiency) in young children. It contains a high

concentration of soluble fiber which is a micronutrient and regulates blood glucose levels .They

contain calcium and phosphorus which is essential for healthy bones especially in elderly

people , they also help in prolonged menstruation, insomnia and chronic fatigue syndrome

2.3 Maize

Maize (Zea mays) is an important annual cereal crop of the world belonging to family Poaceae.

Zea is an ancient Greek word which means “sustaining life” and Mays is a word from Taino

language meaning “life giver.” The word “maize” is from the Spanish connotation “maiz” which

is the best way of describing the plant. Various other synonyms like zea, silk maize, makka,

barajovar, etc. are used to recognize the plant (Kumar and Jhariya, 2013). It is considered as a

staple food in many parts of the world. It is a third leading crop of the world after rice and wheat

(Sandhu, Singh, and Malhi, 2017). The world production of maize was 967 million metric tons

(MMT) and in India its production was 23 MMT in 2013–14 (India maize summit, 2014). Due to

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its highest yield potential among the cereals it is known globally as queen of cereals. The largest

producer of maize is United States of America (USA) contributing about 35% of the total world

maize production. It is known as mother grain of Americans and it is the driver of the US

economy. In India, the major maize growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya

Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal,

Karnataka, and Jammu and Kashmir, jointly accounting for over 95% of the national maize

production (Milind and Isha, 2018). Maize is generally used for animal feed.

It is widely processed into various types of products such as cornmeal, grits, starch, flour,

tortillas, snacks, and breakfast cereals. Maize flour is used to make chapatis or flat breads which

are eaten mainly in a few Northern states of India (Mehta and Dias, 2019). Due to increasing

attention being drawn towards the development of nutraceuticals, the phytochemical compounds

derived from maize and their health properties have recently become the major focus of studies.

Thus, this review aims to discuss the major phytochemical compounds in maize and their health-

promoting effects, in order to better understand the nutritional and health potential of maize and

consequently improve its consumption

2.3.1 Importance and Uses of Maize

In sub-Saharan Africa, maize is a staple food for an estimated 50 % of the population and

provides 50 % of the basic calories. It is an important source of carbohydrate, protein, iron,

vitamin B, and minerals. Africans consume maize as a starchy base in a wide variety of

porridges, pastes, grits, and beer. Green maize (fresh on the cob) is eaten parched, baked, roasted

or boiled and plays an important role in filling the hunger gap after the dry season. Maize grains

have great nutritional value as they contain 72 % starch, 10 % protein, 4.8 % oil, 8.5 % fibre, 3.0

% sugar and 1.7 % ash.

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A Zea may is the most important cereal fodder and grain crop under both irrigated and rain fed

agricultural systems in the semi-arid and arid tropics (Hussan et al., 2017). The per capital

consumption of maize in the year Nigeria in 2000 was estimated at 42.5 kg and an estimated

national consumption of 943000 Mt in 2006 (SRID, 2012).

2.3.2.1 Phytochemical value of maize

Phytochemicals are bioactive chemical compounds naturally present in plants that provide

human health benefits and have the potential for reducing the risk of major chronic diseases (Liu,

2004). Maize is an essential source of various major phytochemicals such as carotenoids,

phenolic compounds, and phytosterols (Jiang and Wang, 2015; Kopsell et al., 2019; Lopez-

Martinez et al., 2019).

Carotenoids: Carotenoids belong to a family of red, orange, and yellow pigments. There is a

large quantity of carotenoid pigments present in yellow maize grains, especially in horny and

floury endosperm (Liu, 2017). These pigments are divided into two classes: carotenes, which are

purely hydrocarbons containing no oxygen, and xanthophylls (lutein and zeaxanthin) which are

hydrocarbons containing oxygen.

Phenolic compounds: Phenolic compounds are most widely distributed category of

phytochemicals in the plant kingdom (Saxena et al., 2017). They are specified as phenolic acids,

flavonoids, stilbenes, coumarins, and tannins (Liu, 2004). These compounds are abundantly

present in maize, especially in bran (Zhao et al., 2015). The major phenolic compounds from

maize are ferulic acid (FA) or 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid and anthocyanins. Refined

corn bran contains thehighest FA content, followed by barley and wheat (Zhao and

Moghadasian, 2018). Anthocyanins are common class of phenolic compounds collectively

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known as flavonoids. They are the largest group of water-soluble plant pigments which are

reddish to purple in color. Maize has the second highest concentration of anthocyanins (Abdel-

Aal, Young, & Rabalski, 2006). The most abundant anthocyanin compounds reported in maize

are, pelargonidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3-glucoside, pelargonidin-3- (6″malonylglucoside),

cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-(3″, 6″-malonylglucoside) and cyanidin-3-(3″, 6″

dimalonylglucoside) (Salinas Moreno, Sanchez, Hernandez and Lobato, 2015).

Phytosterols: Phytosterols also called as plant sterols are the essential components of plant cell

walls and membranes (Piironen et al., 2019). More than 250 different phytosterols have been

found so far which are divided into three classes based on their number of methyl groups at C-4

position: simple sterols or 4-desmethylsterols, 4, 4-dimethylsterols, and 4-monomethylsterols.

Maize oil is very rich in phytosterols (Verleyen et al., 2012). The most commonly consumed

phytosterols from maize oil are sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol. Their distribution varies

in different fractions of maize kernel such as endosperm, pericarp, and germ (Harrabi et al.,

2018).

2.3.3 Health benefits of maize

Maize has various health benefits. The B-complex vitamins in maize are good for skin, hair,

heart, brain, and proper digestion. They also prevent the symptoms of rheumatism because they

are believed to improve the joint motility. The presence of vitamins A, C, and K together with

beta-carotene and selenium helps to improve the functioning of thyroid gland and immune

system. Potassium is a major nutrient present in maize which has diuretic properties. Maize silk

has many benefits associated with it. In many countries of the world such as India, China, Spain,

France and Greece it is used to treat kidney stones, urinary tract infections, jaundice, and fluid

retention. It also has a potential to improve blood pressure, support liver functioning, and

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produce bile. It acts as a good emollient for wounds, swelling, and ulcers. Decoction of silk,

roots, and leaves are used for bladder problems, nausea, and vomiting, while decoction of cob is

used for stomach complaints (Kumar and Jhariya, 2013).

The presence of essential fatty acids, especially linoleic acid in maize oil plays an important role

in the diet by maintaining blood pressure, regulating blood cholesterol level, and preventing

cardiovascular maladies (Sen et al., 2016). Moreover a tablespoon of maize oil satisfies the

requirements for essential fatty acids for a healthy child or adult (CRA, 2016). Vitamin E in

maize oil which is known as a key chain breaking antioxidant prevents the promulgation of

oxidative stresses in biological membranes and prevents the development of atherosclerosis

through intervention of maize oil in the diet (Lemcke-Norojarvi et al., 2017).

Maize is believed to have potential anti-HIV activity due to the presence of Galanthus nivalis

agglutinin (GNA) lectin also referred as GNA-maize. Lectins are special proteins that can bind

onto carbohydrates or carbohydrate receptors found on cell membranes. In some micro-

organisms including the HIV virus, the binding of lectins onto sugars is believed to inhibit

activity of the virus. Zein an alcohol-soluble prolamine is an important component found in

maize endosperm. It is GRAS (generally recognized as safe), nontoxic, and biodegradable

protein. It possesses great potential to provide important health benefits to human beings. It acts

as a nanoscale biomaterial that has unique solubility and film-forming properties. It has novel

applications in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical areas to coat nanoparticles, develop promising

nanocomposite antimicrobial agents, produce novel food packaging, encapsulate nutrients, and

provide target delivery with controlled release (Fernandez et al., 2019; Jin et al., 2019; Lai and

Guo, 2011; Luo et al., 2011).

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Resistant starch (RS) from maize, also called as high-amylose maize has various health

beneficial effects. Maize endosperm contains 39.4 mg/100 g RS (Jiang, 2010). It escapes

digestion and its consumption helps in altering microbial populations, lowering cholesterol and

enhancing its fecal excretion, increasing the fermentation and short-chain fatty acid production in

large intestine, reducing symptoms of diarrhea, which altogether reduce the risk of cecal cancer,

atherosclerosis, and obesity-related complications (Murphy et al., 2018). RS enhances the

desirable composition of colonic bacteria in mice therefore might possess potential prebiotic

properties (Wang et al., 2012). Its consumption influences cholesterol metabolism, lowers body

fat storage therefore reduces the risk of atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and obesity

(Higgins, 2014). It can significantly shorten the intestinal transit time that leads to elimination of

waste material through feces in a quicker time (Kim et al., 2018).

RS as dietary fiber helps in weight control as it reduces the fo od intake by diluting energy

density of the diet as well as by modulating certain gene expressions. A study was carried on rats

which explained that the inclusion of RS from maize in their diet can affect the energy balance

through its effect as a fiber, a stimulator of gut peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (peptide YY), an

expressor of glucagon like peptide-1, as well as other genes in hypothalamic area of brain which

are the key factors for maintaining energy homeostasis and reducing the food intake by

increasing satiety (Keenan et al., 2016; Shen et al., 2019). Another investigation was carried out

to examine the effects of different high-fiber foods on the satiety of healthy human subjects. The

results showed that eating muffins containing RS and maize bran had a major impact on satiety

compared with foods containing other fibers (Willis et al., 2019). RS has also been suggested to

be potentially beneficial for improving insulin sensitivity in both animal and human subjects

(Deng et al., 2010).

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Maize is an essential source of various phytochemicals that play an important role in our health

(Kopsell et al., 2019). There is inverse correlation between the consumption of phytochemicals

and the development of chronic diseases. The phytochemicals in whole grains have received less

attention and sometimes been underestimated. The research has suggested that phytochemicals in

grains due to their potent antioxidant activities demonstrate significant beneficial contribution in

reducing the risk of many diseases (Liu, 2017; Madhujith and Shahidi, 2017; Shahidi, 2019).

Maize grains, especially yellow variety contains large quantities of the carotenoid pigments and

has a vital significance in the diet as human beings are not able to biosynthesize carotenoids.

These pigments are also beneficial in preventing cancer (Michaud et al., 2018).

Carotene has many health benefits associated with it. Yellow maize, maize silage, and stalklage

has carotene content of 22, 17.3, and 6.5 mg/kg, respectively (Watson and Ramstad, 2017).

Alpha (α) and beta (β) carotene possess provitamin A activity. High concentration of β-carotene

has been observed to act as a pro-antioxidant and induces apoptosis of colon cancer cells,

leukemia cells, melanoma cancer cells, and gastric cancer cells, thus rendering potent

chemopreventive effect (Jang et al., 2019; Palozza et al., 2018). However, a diet with a high dose

of β-carotene might not be appropriate for smokers because it is believed to increase chances of

lung cancer incidences (Duffield-Lillico and Begg, 2014).

Xanthophylls (lutein and zeaxanthin) in maize have some pivotal and specific biological

functions. Lutein supplementation in food at dose-dependent manner increases tumor latency,

inhibits mammary tumor growth, enhances lymphocyte proliferation, lowers the incidence of

palpable tumor, and significantly protects cells against oxidant-induced damages (Chew et al.,

2016). Lutein and zeaxanthin are found to be the only carotenoids in the macula of the retina that

are responsible for sharp and detailed vision. They also appear to protect humans against

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phototoxic damage; also play a role in protection against age-related macular degeneration and

age-related cataract formation. Supplementing lutein to the subjects diets for a period showed a

significant enhancement in macular pigment optical density and notable protection of the macula

from light damage (Landrum et al, 2017). Lutein also acts as a cancer chemopreventive

suppressing agent by presenting inhibitory actions during promotion of disease (Moreno et al.,

2017).

Anthocyanins have been well known for their health-promoting benefits such as anti-

carcinogenic, anti-atherogenic, lipid lowering, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial, and anti-

inflammatory properties. Due to the potent antioxidant properties they are able to decrease

capillary permeability and fragility, immune system stimulation, and inhibit platelet aggregation

(Ghosh and Konishi, 2017). The consumption of anthocyanins from purple maize at 5% dietary

level during 36-week administration period demonstrated a pronounced inhibition of colorectal

carcinogenesis in male rats showing that the lesion development of colon was significantly

suppressed (Hagiwara et al., 2017). The dietary administration of purple maize pigment has been

reported to have anti-hypertensive effects on spontaneously hypertensive male rats through

lowering the systolic blood pressure (Shindo et al., 2017). The pigments from black glutinous

maize cob have shown to possess potent anti-hyperlipidemic effects in high-fat-fed mice by

improving the serum lipids profile and reducing the atherogenic index (Zhang et al., 2017).

Phytosterols have many health benefits. Dietary consumption of phytosterol is negatively related

to cholesterol absorption, serum total, and LDL cholesterol (Jiang and Wang, 2015). The major

mechanism involved in the health benefits of dietary phytosterols is the inhibition of cholesterol

absorption through intestine and stimulation of cholesterol synthesis resulting in the enhanced

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elimination of cholesterol in stools. To test the contribution of phytosterols in maize oil on

cholesterol-lowering effect, a study compared cholesterol absorption between the human subjects

who consumed original and phytosterol-removed commercial maize oil. The study reported that

the cholesterol absorption of healthy subjects was 38% higher in the group consuming the

phytosterol-removed commercial corn oil than the group consuming the original commercial

corn oil for two weeks. When corn oil phytosterols were added back to phytosterol-removed

maize oil the cholesterol absorption was reduced significantly again. Thus, the consumption of

corn oil in a long-term period can reduce cholesterol concentrations and prevent atherosclerotic

disease (Ostlund et al., 2017).

It has potent antioxidant properties and protects the cell membranes against oxidation. The

various benefits of FA derived from maize include anticancer, anti-inflammatory, preventive

effects against bone loss, anti-diabetic, and hepatoprotective effects (Balasubashini et al., 2004).

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Source of Raw Materials


Bambara nut and maize used for this study was purchased from Anyigba Market, Anyigba, Kogi

State, Nigeria.

3.2 Preparation of Samples


The samples were prepared by sorting and cleaning , spreading it on a flat, wide and clean

surface. It was washed using a clean water, to remove any dirt or contaminant and the water

further drain off.

3.3 Bambara Groundnut Flour


The Bambara groundnut flour was prepared by the method reported by Houssou and Ayemor

(2012). Bambara groundnut was sorted , washed and soaked for 24 hours and dehulled manually

and dried at 60 ºC in hot air circulating oven for 3 hourrs with the oven door open at 2cm apart.

The dried samples were toasted , allowed to cool to a room temperature and milled and sieved . It

was packaged , sealed and stored for chemical analysis procedures.

3.4 Preparation of Maize Flour


The maize flour was prepared by the method reported by Houssou and Ayemor (2012). Maize

grains was sorted, washed , soaked and allowed to stay for 30 min for easy de-hulling. It was

washed , and dried at 50ºC in hot air circulating oven for 1hour . The dried samples were toasted,

allow to cool for 1 hour and milled and sieved and packaged , sealed , labelled and stored for

further processes.

BAMBARA NUT

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Sorting

Soaking

Dehulling

Rewashing

Draining

Drying

Toasting

Milling

Sieving

Packaging

Labelling

Storing

Fig 1: Flow diagram for the processing of Bambara nut into Flour.
Houssou and Ayemor (2012)

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MAIZE

Sorting

Washing

Soaking

De-hulling

Draining

Drying

Toasting

Cooling

Milling

Sieving

Packaging

Labelling

Storing

Fig 2: Flow diagram for the processing of maize grain into Flour.
Houssou and Ayemor (2012)

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Table 1. Blend formulation for Preparation of Peanut
Ratio Wheat flour Bambara nut Flour Maize Flour (%)
(%) (%)
1:0:0 100 0 0

0:1:1 0 50 50

1:1:0 50 50 0

1:1:2 25 25 50

Key:
AAA 100% wheat flour
BBB 0% wheat flour / 50% Bambara groundnut flour / 50% Maize Flour
CCC 50% wheat flour / 50%% Bambara groundnut flour / 0% Maize Flour
DDD 25% wheat flour / 25% Bambara groundnut flour / 50% Maize Flour

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3.6 Determination of Chemical Composition

3.6.1 Determination of Moisture Content

The moisture contents were determined according to AOAC, 2010 Five grams (5g) of sample

was put in porcelain crucible previously dried at 1000.The sample was in a hot air oven at 105°C

to a fairly constant weight.

The moisture content of sample was calculated as;

loss∈weight
Moisture (%) = ……………….. (1)
original weight of sample

3.6.2 Determination of Ash Content

The ash content was determined according to AOAC, (2010) methods. Five grams of sample of

the prepared sample was weighted in duplicate into ashing dishes that had been previously

weighed. The dishes were placed in the furnace and ignited at 550 a: 10% for 5hours cooked in

desiccators and weighed as content weight. The resulting ash were calculated as follows:

% Ash content =
W2 W0 x 100 …………………(2)
W1 W0 1
W0 = weight of empty dish
W1 = weight of dish
W2 weight of sample
3.6.3 Determination of Fat

The soxhlet solvent extraction method was used according to AOAC (2010). Two grams of the

prepared samples was weighed into extraction thimble and fixed into extraction flask of known

weight. Extraction was carried out using diethyl ether on electrothewrmal model equipment for

5hours. At the completion of the extraction, the ethyl ether was removed by evaluation on an

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electrical bath and the remaining fat in the flask was dried at 60°c for 30minutes in the oven,

cooked for 15 minutes and weighed the percentage (%) flat content was followed;

%fat content =
W1 -W2 x 100 …………………….(3)
W3 -W2 1
WHERE W1 = weight of extraction flask
W2 = weight of extraction flask + samples
W3 = weight of extraction flask + fat
3.6.4 Determination of Protein

The kjedahl procedure of protein determination was used according to AOAC (2010) methods.

One of the samples was first digested with H 2S04 in kjedahl digestion system using a fume

chamber. The digested samples were allowed to cool and then distilled into a bonic acid

containing bromocresol indicator after being appropriately distilled with water and later with

sodium triphosphate and sodium hydroxide solution. The solution was then titrated against 0.1

hydrochloric acid (HCL) the Protein content was calculated thus;

%nitrogen = Titrate x 0.0014 x dilusion factor x 100 ……………….(4)


Weight of sample 1
% protein = % nitrogen x factor (6.25)

3.6.5 Determination of Crude Fibre

Fibre content was determined according to (AOAC 2010) Method: Five (5g) grammes of the

prepared samples was extracted using diethylether, this was disgested and filtered through the

California Buchner system. The resulting residue was dried at 10 ± 2% in oven (Uniscope

SM9053 laboratory oven) foe two hours and cooled in dessicator and weighed. The dried, cooled

and weighed residue was then transferred into a ruffle furnace and ignited at 600 + 10°C for

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30minutes, cooked and reweighted. The percentage crude fiber content was calculated as

followed:

% crude fiber = W1 - Wb x 100 ……………………………….. (5)


W0 1
Where;
W1= loss in weight on ignition.
Wb = loss in weight of bank
W0 = weigh of samples.
3.6.6 Determination of Minerals Content
The procedure of mineral determination was used according to AOAC (2010) method to

determine Calcium, Potassium, Iron, Magnesium, and Sodium. The minerals content was

analyzed from solution obtained when 5g of the samples was digested with 10mls of 5N

concentrated hydrochloride. The mixture was placed on a water bath and evaporated almost to

dryness. The solution was cooled and filtered into 100ml standard flask and diluted to volume

with distilled water. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used to analyze the minerals

separately after acid digestion of the sample, as described in the official method of the

Association of Official Analytical Chemists.

3.7 Sensory Evaluation

Sensory evaluation was carried out on samples which was subjected to 12 panelists for

evaluation; panelist was randomly selected including trained, semi trained and un-trained

individuals to evaluate attributes of flavor, taste, appearance, mouth fill, texture, and overall

acceptability Using a 9-point Hedonic scale (Iwe, 2002)

3.8 Statistical Analysis

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Data collected was analyzed statistically by analysis of variance (ANOVA). Means and

significance difference will be separated by least significance difference (LSD) test.

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