Quality Evaluation of Peanut Burgers
Quality Evaluation of Peanut Burgers
Quality Evaluation of Peanut Burgers
BY
SEPTEMBER, 2022.
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Peanut is a fried snack popular in West Africa. It is a sweet, cookie-like product made from
wheat flour and egg (Akubor, 2016). Snack food have been part of human diet for a long time
and has contributed tremendously to economy of every nation (Lasekan and Akintola, 2018).
The demand for peanut is attributed to the rapid population and urbanization of both developed
Snacks are important foods which come in a variety of forms including packaged snack foods
and other processed food as well as items made from fresh ingredients at home, the consumption
of which is steady and increasing in Nigeria (Lasekan and Akintola, 2018). It is a portion of
food, smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between meals. It has been hitherto produced
from wheat as a major raw material. Currently, snack consumption has increased in its popularity
Nutritionally, Bambara groundnut represents a cheap protein-rich source that can improve the
food and nutrition security status of rural households. Biochemical analysis of the carbohydrate,
fat, protein and mineral content reveals that Bambara groundnut produces an almost balanced
diet(Ogundele, Minnar & Emmambux, 2017). The nut was found to be richer in essential amino
acids than groundnut (Yao et al.,2015), with a protein score of 80% as compared to 65% for
groundnut, 74% for soya bean and 64% for cowpea (Schaafsma, 2012). Freshly harvested and
dry Bambara groundnut are consumed in many ways after processing. Freshly harvested seeds
are consumed as snacks after grilling or boiling for approximately an hour (Akpapunam and
Darbe, 2019). Dry seeds are boiled or first soaked then boiled to make a snack or porridge
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(Muimba-Kankolongo, 2018). Dried seeds are difficult to grind due to their hard and tightly
fitting seed coat. These seeds are pounded to flour, which is baked to make small flat cakes and
Maize (Zea mays) is the most important cereal in the world after wheat and rice with regard to
cultivation areas and total production ( Sandhu, Singh & Malhi, 2007) .Its centre of origin is
Mexico and was spread all over the world (Paliwal and Granados, 2012). In most developing
countries, starchy foodstuffs account for an estimated 70 to 90% of the total calories produced
especially in Tropical Africa, and maize is one of the starchy-staple crops widely grown in this
African region, maize grain, as reported showed that, the major chemical component of maize
kernel is starch, which provides up to 73% of the kernel weight (Paliwal and Granados, 2012).
Other carbohydrates are simple sugars such as glucose, and fructose in amounts that vary from 1
to 3% of the kernel. After starch the next largest chemical component of the kernel is protein.
Protein content varies in common varieties from about 8 to 11% of the kernel weight.
The general objective to produce and evaluate the chemical composition and sensory
To carry out Sensory Evaluation of the Peanut produced from the blend.
the production of snacks even though it has lots of health and nutritional benefits. Certain
vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber which are often deficient in other materials are readily
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available in Bambara nut and maize seed. The study of quality evaluation of improved peanuts
produced from toasted Bambara nuts and maize flour snack blend will show to the public the
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
Snacks are generally eaten by people from various backgrounds and various age groups
(Hartman Eating Occasions, 2013). Children, and even adults are usually found nibbling on
snacks in between meals at various times of the day. Principal ingredients of snack preparation
include wheat flour, fat, sugar and water; while other ingredients include milk, salt, flouring
agent and aerating agent (Afework et al., 2016). These ingredients are comparatively expensive
because most of them are processed and others imported. Biscuits however could be made from
Papilionoideae (Goli, 2017). The genus Vigna also comprises of a wild species type (V.
subterranea var. spontanea) while V. subterranea var. Subterranea is the cultivated species.
Bambara groundnut was derived from the name of a tribe from the Bambara people, central Mali
near Timbuktu (Goli, 2017). The crop spread throughout Africa by means of migration of
indigenous people. This crop is also found in other continents, for example Asia and North
America. However, despite it being an indigenous African legume, its popularity has now been
production occurs in KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga, Limpopo and the Northern
Province (Swanevelder, 2018). The Venda and the Bolebedu people claim to have brought
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Bambara groundnut is primarily used for human consumption. The seeds are consumed at
different developmental stages, either immature or fully ripe. The immature seeds can be
consumed fresh, boiled, grilled, as a meal or mixed with immature groundnuts or green maize
(Bamshaiye et al., 2011). Mature bambara groundnut seeds are very hard, hence boiling becomes
a prerequisite before any further preparation. Ripe seeds are milled to produce flour which can be
used to make biscuits and/or otherwise mixed with cereals and boiled to make porridge
(Bamshaiye et al., 2011). Ripe dry seeds are also roasted, broken into pieces, boiled, crushed and
eaten as a relish.
The crop also has a good balance of essential amino acids, and is rich in essential amino acids
compared with the exotic Arachis hypogaea (Belewu et al., 2008). A study by Bamishiaye et al.
(2011) showed that there was not much difference in proximate composition between different
varieties of bambara groundnut seeds. The crop has poor phosphorus and magnesium content and
fair calcium content. High protein content is a desirable trait in foods, but the importance of
protein quality, which is determined by both amino acid composition and protein digestibility,
should not be overlooked. Variability in amino acid profile between cultivars of Bambara
groundnut is evident. In general, most studies report glutamic acid to be the most abundant
amino acid in Bambara groundnut, suggesting its potential to be isolated for use as a flavoring
agent. Out of the essential amino acids, leucine and lysine are present at a higher concentration
A recent study on the evaluation of the nutritional quality of complementary foods from popcorn,
African locust bean and bambara groundnut concluded that germinated popcorn-bambara
groundnut blends are the most suitable for infant diets (Ijarotimi and Keshinro, 2012).
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It is used in fortification in food to improve nutritive value ,it can be used as animal feed because
the stalks are salty and the leaves are rich in phosphorus and nitrogen. For medicinal purposes , it
has been used to cure diarrhea by boiling a mixture of maize and Bambara nut and drinking the
water.
Bambara groundnuts are boiled, salted and eaten as a relish or roasted and eaten as a snack.
Bambara seeds have become a staple ingredients in many foods and beverages. In other parts of
Africa , the nuts are processed into a flour and used in baking.
Bambara nuts are a true quality protein containing methionine which helps prevent anemia in
concentration of soluble fiber which is a micronutrient and regulates blood glucose levels .They
contain calcium and phosphorus which is essential for healthy bones especially in elderly
people , they also help in prolonged menstruation, insomnia and chronic fatigue syndrome
2.3 Maize
Maize (Zea mays) is an important annual cereal crop of the world belonging to family Poaceae.
Zea is an ancient Greek word which means “sustaining life” and Mays is a word from Taino
language meaning “life giver.” The word “maize” is from the Spanish connotation “maiz” which
is the best way of describing the plant. Various other synonyms like zea, silk maize, makka,
barajovar, etc. are used to recognize the plant (Kumar and Jhariya, 2013). It is considered as a
staple food in many parts of the world. It is a third leading crop of the world after rice and wheat
(Sandhu, Singh, and Malhi, 2017). The world production of maize was 967 million metric tons
(MMT) and in India its production was 23 MMT in 2013–14 (India maize summit, 2014). Due to
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its highest yield potential among the cereals it is known globally as queen of cereals. The largest
producer of maize is United States of America (USA) contributing about 35% of the total world
maize production. It is known as mother grain of Americans and it is the driver of the US
economy. In India, the major maize growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal,
Karnataka, and Jammu and Kashmir, jointly accounting for over 95% of the national maize
production (Milind and Isha, 2018). Maize is generally used for animal feed.
It is widely processed into various types of products such as cornmeal, grits, starch, flour,
tortillas, snacks, and breakfast cereals. Maize flour is used to make chapatis or flat breads which
are eaten mainly in a few Northern states of India (Mehta and Dias, 2019). Due to increasing
attention being drawn towards the development of nutraceuticals, the phytochemical compounds
derived from maize and their health properties have recently become the major focus of studies.
Thus, this review aims to discuss the major phytochemical compounds in maize and their health-
promoting effects, in order to better understand the nutritional and health potential of maize and
In sub-Saharan Africa, maize is a staple food for an estimated 50 % of the population and
vitamin B, and minerals. Africans consume maize as a starchy base in a wide variety of
porridges, pastes, grits, and beer. Green maize (fresh on the cob) is eaten parched, baked, roasted
or boiled and plays an important role in filling the hunger gap after the dry season. Maize grains
have great nutritional value as they contain 72 % starch, 10 % protein, 4.8 % oil, 8.5 % fibre, 3.0
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A Zea may is the most important cereal fodder and grain crop under both irrigated and rain fed
agricultural systems in the semi-arid and arid tropics (Hussan et al., 2017). The per capital
consumption of maize in the year Nigeria in 2000 was estimated at 42.5 kg and an estimated
Phytochemicals are bioactive chemical compounds naturally present in plants that provide
human health benefits and have the potential for reducing the risk of major chronic diseases (Liu,
phenolic compounds, and phytosterols (Jiang and Wang, 2015; Kopsell et al., 2019; Lopez-
Carotenoids: Carotenoids belong to a family of red, orange, and yellow pigments. There is a
large quantity of carotenoid pigments present in yellow maize grains, especially in horny and
floury endosperm (Liu, 2017). These pigments are divided into two classes: carotenes, which are
purely hydrocarbons containing no oxygen, and xanthophylls (lutein and zeaxanthin) which are
phytochemicals in the plant kingdom (Saxena et al., 2017). They are specified as phenolic acids,
flavonoids, stilbenes, coumarins, and tannins (Liu, 2004). These compounds are abundantly
present in maize, especially in bran (Zhao et al., 2015). The major phenolic compounds from
maize are ferulic acid (FA) or 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid and anthocyanins. Refined
corn bran contains thehighest FA content, followed by barley and wheat (Zhao and
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known as flavonoids. They are the largest group of water-soluble plant pigments which are
reddish to purple in color. Maize has the second highest concentration of anthocyanins (Abdel-
Aal, Young, & Rabalski, 2006). The most abundant anthocyanin compounds reported in maize
Phytosterols: Phytosterols also called as plant sterols are the essential components of plant cell
walls and membranes (Piironen et al., 2019). More than 250 different phytosterols have been
found so far which are divided into three classes based on their number of methyl groups at C-4
Maize oil is very rich in phytosterols (Verleyen et al., 2012). The most commonly consumed
phytosterols from maize oil are sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol. Their distribution varies
in different fractions of maize kernel such as endosperm, pericarp, and germ (Harrabi et al.,
2018).
Maize has various health benefits. The B-complex vitamins in maize are good for skin, hair,
heart, brain, and proper digestion. They also prevent the symptoms of rheumatism because they
are believed to improve the joint motility. The presence of vitamins A, C, and K together with
beta-carotene and selenium helps to improve the functioning of thyroid gland and immune
system. Potassium is a major nutrient present in maize which has diuretic properties. Maize silk
has many benefits associated with it. In many countries of the world such as India, China, Spain,
France and Greece it is used to treat kidney stones, urinary tract infections, jaundice, and fluid
retention. It also has a potential to improve blood pressure, support liver functioning, and
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produce bile. It acts as a good emollient for wounds, swelling, and ulcers. Decoction of silk,
roots, and leaves are used for bladder problems, nausea, and vomiting, while decoction of cob is
The presence of essential fatty acids, especially linoleic acid in maize oil plays an important role
in the diet by maintaining blood pressure, regulating blood cholesterol level, and preventing
cardiovascular maladies (Sen et al., 2016). Moreover a tablespoon of maize oil satisfies the
requirements for essential fatty acids for a healthy child or adult (CRA, 2016). Vitamin E in
maize oil which is known as a key chain breaking antioxidant prevents the promulgation of
Maize is believed to have potential anti-HIV activity due to the presence of Galanthus nivalis
agglutinin (GNA) lectin also referred as GNA-maize. Lectins are special proteins that can bind
organisms including the HIV virus, the binding of lectins onto sugars is believed to inhibit
protein. It possesses great potential to provide important health benefits to human beings. It acts
as a nanoscale biomaterial that has unique solubility and film-forming properties. It has novel
nanocomposite antimicrobial agents, produce novel food packaging, encapsulate nutrients, and
provide target delivery with controlled release (Fernandez et al., 2019; Jin et al., 2019; Lai and
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Resistant starch (RS) from maize, also called as high-amylose maize has various health
beneficial effects. Maize endosperm contains 39.4 mg/100 g RS (Jiang, 2010). It escapes
digestion and its consumption helps in altering microbial populations, lowering cholesterol and
enhancing its fecal excretion, increasing the fermentation and short-chain fatty acid production in
large intestine, reducing symptoms of diarrhea, which altogether reduce the risk of cecal cancer,
desirable composition of colonic bacteria in mice therefore might possess potential prebiotic
properties (Wang et al., 2012). Its consumption influences cholesterol metabolism, lowers body
fat storage therefore reduces the risk of atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and obesity
(Higgins, 2014). It can significantly shorten the intestinal transit time that leads to elimination of
RS as dietary fiber helps in weight control as it reduces the fo od intake by diluting energy
density of the diet as well as by modulating certain gene expressions. A study was carried on rats
which explained that the inclusion of RS from maize in their diet can affect the energy balance
through its effect as a fiber, a stimulator of gut peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (peptide YY), an
expressor of glucagon like peptide-1, as well as other genes in hypothalamic area of brain which
are the key factors for maintaining energy homeostasis and reducing the food intake by
increasing satiety (Keenan et al., 2016; Shen et al., 2019). Another investigation was carried out
to examine the effects of different high-fiber foods on the satiety of healthy human subjects. The
results showed that eating muffins containing RS and maize bran had a major impact on satiety
compared with foods containing other fibers (Willis et al., 2019). RS has also been suggested to
be potentially beneficial for improving insulin sensitivity in both animal and human subjects
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Maize is an essential source of various phytochemicals that play an important role in our health
(Kopsell et al., 2019). There is inverse correlation between the consumption of phytochemicals
and the development of chronic diseases. The phytochemicals in whole grains have received less
attention and sometimes been underestimated. The research has suggested that phytochemicals in
grains due to their potent antioxidant activities demonstrate significant beneficial contribution in
reducing the risk of many diseases (Liu, 2017; Madhujith and Shahidi, 2017; Shahidi, 2019).
Maize grains, especially yellow variety contains large quantities of the carotenoid pigments and
has a vital significance in the diet as human beings are not able to biosynthesize carotenoids.
These pigments are also beneficial in preventing cancer (Michaud et al., 2018).
Carotene has many health benefits associated with it. Yellow maize, maize silage, and stalklage
has carotene content of 22, 17.3, and 6.5 mg/kg, respectively (Watson and Ramstad, 2017).
Alpha (α) and beta (β) carotene possess provitamin A activity. High concentration of β-carotene
has been observed to act as a pro-antioxidant and induces apoptosis of colon cancer cells,
leukemia cells, melanoma cancer cells, and gastric cancer cells, thus rendering potent
chemopreventive effect (Jang et al., 2019; Palozza et al., 2018). However, a diet with a high dose
of β-carotene might not be appropriate for smokers because it is believed to increase chances of
Xanthophylls (lutein and zeaxanthin) in maize have some pivotal and specific biological
inhibits mammary tumor growth, enhances lymphocyte proliferation, lowers the incidence of
palpable tumor, and significantly protects cells against oxidant-induced damages (Chew et al.,
2016). Lutein and zeaxanthin are found to be the only carotenoids in the macula of the retina that
are responsible for sharp and detailed vision. They also appear to protect humans against
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phototoxic damage; also play a role in protection against age-related macular degeneration and
age-related cataract formation. Supplementing lutein to the subjects diets for a period showed a
significant enhancement in macular pigment optical density and notable protection of the macula
from light damage (Landrum et al, 2017). Lutein also acts as a cancer chemopreventive
suppressing agent by presenting inhibitory actions during promotion of disease (Moreno et al.,
2017).
Anthocyanins have been well known for their health-promoting benefits such as anti-
inflammatory properties. Due to the potent antioxidant properties they are able to decrease
capillary permeability and fragility, immune system stimulation, and inhibit platelet aggregation
(Ghosh and Konishi, 2017). The consumption of anthocyanins from purple maize at 5% dietary
carcinogenesis in male rats showing that the lesion development of colon was significantly
suppressed (Hagiwara et al., 2017). The dietary administration of purple maize pigment has been
lowering the systolic blood pressure (Shindo et al., 2017). The pigments from black glutinous
maize cob have shown to possess potent anti-hyperlipidemic effects in high-fat-fed mice by
improving the serum lipids profile and reducing the atherogenic index (Zhang et al., 2017).
Phytosterols have many health benefits. Dietary consumption of phytosterol is negatively related
to cholesterol absorption, serum total, and LDL cholesterol (Jiang and Wang, 2015). The major
mechanism involved in the health benefits of dietary phytosterols is the inhibition of cholesterol
absorption through intestine and stimulation of cholesterol synthesis resulting in the enhanced
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elimination of cholesterol in stools. To test the contribution of phytosterols in maize oil on
cholesterol-lowering effect, a study compared cholesterol absorption between the human subjects
who consumed original and phytosterol-removed commercial maize oil. The study reported that
the cholesterol absorption of healthy subjects was 38% higher in the group consuming the
phytosterol-removed commercial corn oil than the group consuming the original commercial
corn oil for two weeks. When corn oil phytosterols were added back to phytosterol-removed
maize oil the cholesterol absorption was reduced significantly again. Thus, the consumption of
corn oil in a long-term period can reduce cholesterol concentrations and prevent atherosclerotic
It has potent antioxidant properties and protects the cell membranes against oxidation. The
effects against bone loss, anti-diabetic, and hepatoprotective effects (Balasubashini et al., 2004).
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CHAPTER THREE
State, Nigeria.
surface. It was washed using a clean water, to remove any dirt or contaminant and the water
(2012). Bambara groundnut was sorted , washed and soaked for 24 hours and dehulled manually
and dried at 60 ºC in hot air circulating oven for 3 hourrs with the oven door open at 2cm apart.
The dried samples were toasted , allowed to cool to a room temperature and milled and sieved . It
grains was sorted, washed , soaked and allowed to stay for 30 min for easy de-hulling. It was
washed , and dried at 50ºC in hot air circulating oven for 1hour . The dried samples were toasted,
allow to cool for 1 hour and milled and sieved and packaged , sealed , labelled and stored for
further processes.
BAMBARA NUT
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Sorting
Soaking
Dehulling
Rewashing
Draining
Drying
Toasting
Milling
Sieving
Packaging
Labelling
Storing
Fig 1: Flow diagram for the processing of Bambara nut into Flour.
Houssou and Ayemor (2012)
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MAIZE
Sorting
Washing
Soaking
De-hulling
Draining
Drying
Toasting
Cooling
Milling
Sieving
Packaging
Labelling
Storing
Fig 2: Flow diagram for the processing of maize grain into Flour.
Houssou and Ayemor (2012)
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Table 1. Blend formulation for Preparation of Peanut
Ratio Wheat flour Bambara nut Flour Maize Flour (%)
(%) (%)
1:0:0 100 0 0
0:1:1 0 50 50
1:1:0 50 50 0
1:1:2 25 25 50
Key:
AAA 100% wheat flour
BBB 0% wheat flour / 50% Bambara groundnut flour / 50% Maize Flour
CCC 50% wheat flour / 50%% Bambara groundnut flour / 0% Maize Flour
DDD 25% wheat flour / 25% Bambara groundnut flour / 50% Maize Flour
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3.6 Determination of Chemical Composition
The moisture contents were determined according to AOAC, 2010 Five grams (5g) of sample
was put in porcelain crucible previously dried at 1000.The sample was in a hot air oven at 105°C
loss∈weight
Moisture (%) = ……………….. (1)
original weight of sample
The ash content was determined according to AOAC, (2010) methods. Five grams of sample of
the prepared sample was weighted in duplicate into ashing dishes that had been previously
weighed. The dishes were placed in the furnace and ignited at 550 a: 10% for 5hours cooked in
desiccators and weighed as content weight. The resulting ash were calculated as follows:
% Ash content =
W2 W0 x 100 …………………(2)
W1 W0 1
W0 = weight of empty dish
W1 = weight of dish
W2 weight of sample
3.6.3 Determination of Fat
The soxhlet solvent extraction method was used according to AOAC (2010). Two grams of the
prepared samples was weighed into extraction thimble and fixed into extraction flask of known
weight. Extraction was carried out using diethyl ether on electrothewrmal model equipment for
5hours. At the completion of the extraction, the ethyl ether was removed by evaluation on an
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electrical bath and the remaining fat in the flask was dried at 60°c for 30minutes in the oven,
cooked for 15 minutes and weighed the percentage (%) flat content was followed;
%fat content =
W1 -W2 x 100 …………………….(3)
W3 -W2 1
WHERE W1 = weight of extraction flask
W2 = weight of extraction flask + samples
W3 = weight of extraction flask + fat
3.6.4 Determination of Protein
The kjedahl procedure of protein determination was used according to AOAC (2010) methods.
One of the samples was first digested with H 2S04 in kjedahl digestion system using a fume
chamber. The digested samples were allowed to cool and then distilled into a bonic acid
containing bromocresol indicator after being appropriately distilled with water and later with
sodium triphosphate and sodium hydroxide solution. The solution was then titrated against 0.1
Fibre content was determined according to (AOAC 2010) Method: Five (5g) grammes of the
prepared samples was extracted using diethylether, this was disgested and filtered through the
California Buchner system. The resulting residue was dried at 10 ± 2% in oven (Uniscope
SM9053 laboratory oven) foe two hours and cooled in dessicator and weighed. The dried, cooled
and weighed residue was then transferred into a ruffle furnace and ignited at 600 + 10°C for
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30minutes, cooked and reweighted. The percentage crude fiber content was calculated as
followed:
determine Calcium, Potassium, Iron, Magnesium, and Sodium. The minerals content was
analyzed from solution obtained when 5g of the samples was digested with 10mls of 5N
concentrated hydrochloride. The mixture was placed on a water bath and evaporated almost to
dryness. The solution was cooled and filtered into 100ml standard flask and diluted to volume
with distilled water. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used to analyze the minerals
separately after acid digestion of the sample, as described in the official method of the
Sensory evaluation was carried out on samples which was subjected to 12 panelists for
evaluation; panelist was randomly selected including trained, semi trained and un-trained
individuals to evaluate attributes of flavor, taste, appearance, mouth fill, texture, and overall
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Data collected was analyzed statistically by analysis of variance (ANOVA). Means and
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