Unit- I Introduction To Civil Engineering Materials Ho CO

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Introduction and uses of cement, sand, aggregates 01 1
concrete, mortar and grouts, masonry mortars, rendering, cementations grouts 02 1
RCC, clay bricks, calcium silicate bricks, concrete blocks., rubbles, steel, mechanical 02 1
properties of steel, different applications
Floor and roofing tiles, slates, timber, strength of timber, engineered wood products 02 1
metals, glass for glazing, glass fibres, glass wool
Water proofing agents: any five water proofing agents, difference between wetting 01 1
agents and water proof agent
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Unit-II Basic Properties of Materials
Importance of materials in civil engineering construction, types of materials such as 04 2
ceramics, concrete, composites, optical /electronics materials, glass, metals, nano-
materials, polymers and plastics, wood and other materials, comparison of strengths of
various materials.
Some basic properties of materials such as temperature, energy, specific heat, thermal 03 2
conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, comparison for environmental impact,
health and safety.
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Unit-III Special Materials

Composite Materials: RCC, FRC, AAC(Autoclaved aerated concrete)blocks(Wood- 03 3

plastic composites)Material,Cerasheets,3DwallWPCpanels, polymer based materials,
steel/concrete composite bridge decks, fibre reinforced plastics structural insulated
panels.
New Techniques in Constructions-Introduction, 3D printing, photo 04 3
catalytic admixture, self-healing concrete, Biomaterials, zero cement concrete ,hemp
lime, wood-glass epoxy composites, bamboo.
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Unit-IV Testing Procedures of Materials

Material Testing, Machines and Equipment Requirements---Necessity of material 03 4

testing, various testing methods, destructive tests, classification of destructive tests---
static, impact and cyclic testing, non-destructive testing- its classification ,visual
inspection, penetration test, ultrasonic test.
Testing Procedures for bricks, reinforcing steel, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates. 04 4
Documenting the experimental program, including the test procedures, collected data,
method of interpretation and final results.
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Unit-V Testing and Evaluation Procedures of Materials

Quality control- Use of test data/ testing reports in the material selection for various civil 04 5
engineering projects /construction, Sampling, Acceptance criterion,
Code of practice and guidelines in this regards for 03 5
Cements; Aggregates; Concrete (plain and reinforced); Soils; Bitumen and asphaltic
materials; Timbers; Glass and Plastics; Structural Steel.
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Unit-I Introduction to Civil Engineering Materials

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1. Introduction and uses of cement, sand, aggregates
1.1.Cement
Cement is an artificial binding material. Cement when mixed with water forms cement paste, which hardens
due to a chemical reaction, called hydration. During the process of setting \& hardening, the cement binds the
aggregates together, The function of cement is thus to provide strength durability \& water tightness to the
concrete Generally the initial setting time of O.P.C. is Min.\& final setting time is 600mins(10Hrs)

1.1.1. Grades of Cement

The ordinary Portland Cement was classified into three grades, namely 33grade,43grade \& 53 grade
depending upon the strength of the cement at 28 days when tested as per IS4031-1988.If the 28 day strength
is not less than 33N/mm2; it is called 33 grade cement. If the 28 day strength is not less than 43 N/mm2, it is
called 43N/mm2.If the 28 day strength is not less than 53N/mm2,it is called 53 grade cement.
The compressive strength of ordinary Portland cement increases with time. For example 33 grade OPC(IS
269-1988)acquires a compressive strength of 16N/mm2 at 3 days,22N/mm2 at 7days and 33N/mm2 at 28
days.
1.1.2. Types of Cement
i) Ordinary Portland Cement
Uses- For masonry work. In mortar for plastering, Concrete, reinforced cement concrete, pre-stressed cement
concrete.
ii) Rapid Hardening Cement-
Uses - For fast construction activity., For earlier removal of formwork., For reducing curing period.
iii) Low Heat Cement-
Uses- Construction of Dam
iv) Quick Setting Cement-
Uses- Construction under water.
iv) High alumina cement-
Uses-To resist the attack of sea water., It Rapidly Hardens, It does not expand while setting. It resist the action of
frost.
viii) Hydrophobic Cement
Uses- For construction activity in damp /moisture area.
ix) Air-entraining Cement-
Uses- To reduce the weight and strength of the concrete.
x) White Cement-
Uses- For construction of swimming pools ,For moulding sculptures and statues,For painting garden furniture and
for fixing marbles and glazed tiles.
xi) Blast Furnace slag Cement-Uses-For marine structure.

1.1.3. Field Test of Cement

It is not always possible to check the quality of cement in a laboratory. In order to check the quality of cement
on field, following methods are adopted.
1) When cement is thrown into a bucket of water it should float for sometime before sinking.
2) If ones hand is plugged into a bag of cement he should feel cool and not warm.
3) A Thin paste of Portland cement with water should feel sticky between the fingers.
4) Colour of cement should be greenish grey and should not show any visible lumps.
5) If the cement is found in the form of impalpable powder the cement may be trusted. The quality of cement
is suspected, if it is gritty.

1.1.4. Laboratory Test of Cement

Following are the different laboratories’ tests for cement.
1. Fineness Test.
2. Consistency Test.
3. Setting Time Test.
4. Strength Test.
5. Soundness Test.
6. Heat of Hydration Test.

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7. Tensile Strength Test.
8. Chemical Composition Test.

1. Fineness Test.:-
The fineness of cement is responsible for the rate of hydration and rate of evolution of heat and hence on the rate
of gain of strength. The finer the grains the more is the surface area and the faster the development of strength.
The fineness of cement can be determined by the following tests:
1. Sieve Test or
2. Air Permeability Test
1. Sieve Test
About 100 g of cement is weighed and sieved using a 90-micron IS sieve. Air-set lumps are broken and the cement
is sieved continuously in a circular and vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes. A mechanical sieve shaker may
also be used. The residue left on the sieve is weighed. This weight shall not exceed 10% for ordinary cement. This
test is rarely used.
2. Air Permeability Test
The fineness of cement is represented by the specific surface, which is expressed as the total surface area in sq.
cm/g. of cement. Blaine’s Air Permeability Test is used to find the specific surface.
The principle is based on the relationship between the rate of flow of air through a cement bed. The cement bed
is of a given porosity comprising the surface area of the particles. The surface area is more for finer particles.

2. Consistency Test
Consistency Test is conducted to find the setting times of cement, viz., initial setting time and final setting time.
The test is conducted using a standard consistency test apparatus, viz., Vicat’s apparatus (below figure).

Vicat apparatus with various plungers

Standard or normal consistency of cement paste is defined as that water content which will permit a Vicat plunger
of 10 mm diameter and 50 mm length to penetrate depths of 33–35 mm within 3–5 minutes of mixing. The test
has to be repeated thrice. Each time the cement is mixed with water varying from 24 to 27% of the weight of
cement. It is required that the test be conducted at a constant temperature of 27 ± 2°C and at a constant humidity
of 20%.
The test procedure is simple. The paste prepared within 3–5 minutes is filled into the Vicat mould and shaken to
expel air. The standard needle is brought down to touch the sur- face of the paste and quickly released allowing
to sink into the paste by its own weight. The depth of the penetration is noted. Then that percentage of water that
allows the plunger to penetrate only to a depth of 33–35 mm is known as the percentage of water required to
produce a cement paste of standard consistency.

3. Setting Time Tests

An arbitrary division has been made for the setting time of cement as the initial setting time and final setting time.
Vicat’s apparatus is used for setting times also.

1. Initial Setting Time

About 500 g of the cement sample is taken and water content 0.85 P, where P is the percentage of water required
as per the consistency test is added and made into a paste. The paste has to be made within a period of 3–5 minutes
and filled into the mould.

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For this test, a needle of 1 mm square size (needle C) is used. The needle is allowed to penetrate into the paste.
The time taken to penetrate 33–35 mm depth is taken as the initial setting time.
2. Final Setting Time
The needle C is replaced by needle F. The attachment is lowered gently to cover the surface of the test block. The
central needle makes an impression, whereas the circular cutting edge fails to do so. That is, the paste has attained
hardness, and the centre needle does not penetrate the paste more than 0.5 mm. Thus, the time at which the needle
does not penetrate more than 0.5 mm is considered to be the final setting time.

4. Strength Test
The strength of cement can not be determined directly on cement. Instead, the strength of cement is indirectly
determined on cement-mortar of 1:3, and the compressive strength of this mortar is the strength of cement at a
specific period.
For this test, 555 g of standard sand and 185 g of cement is mixed with water quantity P/4 + 3% of the combined
weight of the cement and sand mixture. These are mixed thoroughly within 3–4 minutes. The mixed paste is filled
in a cube mould of size 7.06 mm, which has a face area of 50 sq cm. The mortar is compacted by a tamping rod
or in a vibrator. The moulds have to be kept in a room with a controlled temperature of 27 ± 2°C and at least 90%
humidity. If this facility is not available, the moulds are kept under a wet gunny bag to simulate 90% relative
humidity. The cubes are removed from the mould after 24 hours and kept immersed in clean water till taken out
for testing.
Three cubes are tested for compressive strength after a specific period (viz., 3, 7 or 28 days). The period is being
reckoned with from the completion of vibration. The average compressive strength of the three cubes gives the
strength of cement at the specific period.

5. Soundness Test:
The Soundness Test is performed to detect the presence of uncombined lime and magnesia in cement. This test is
conducted in Le Chatelier’s apparatus (below
figure). It consists of a small brass cylinder of
30 mm diameter, 30 mm height and 0.5 mm
thickness, which is split along its generation
with the split not exceeding 0.5 mm. On
either side of the split, two indicators with
pointed ends are provided.

The cement paste is prepared with water

content at consistency. The cylinder is placed
over a glass plate and is filled with cement
paste. It is covered with another glass plate on
the top. The whole assembly is immersed in
water at 24–35°C for 24 hours. After 24
hours, the gap between the indicators is Le Chatelier’s apparatus
measured.
The mould with the specimen is immersed in the water again and boiled for 30 minutes. After boiling for 1 hour,
the mould is taken out and cooled. Again the gap between the indicators is measured after the end of cooling. The
increase in the gap represents the expansion of cement.

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6. Tensile Strength Test:
This test is conducted using a cement-mortar briquette in a tensile testing
machine. The dimensions of the briquette are shown below figure.

Standard cement-mortar briquette:

A 1:3 cement–sand mortar with a water content of 8% is mixed and
moulded into a briquette in the mould. It is cured for 24 hours at a
temperature of 27 ± 2°C and for 24 hours in an atmosphere at 90%
relative humidity.
The briquette is tested under direct tension, the pull being applied
through special jaws engaging the wide ends of the briquette. The area
of the cross-section at the neck is 1 sq inch (i.e., 25.4 mm × 25.4 mm).
The average strength for six briquettes tested after 3 and 7 days is
recorded.
Standard cement-mortar briquette:
7. The heat of Hydration Test:
During the hydration of cement, heat is produced due to chemical
reactions. In a large-scale construction, this heat may raise the
temperature of concrete to a high degree to as high as 50°C. In such cases, low-heat cement has to be used or
cooling methods must be employed.
The test is conducted using a calorimeter adopting the principle of determining heat gain. Low-heat cement should
not generate 65 calories per gram of cement in 7 days and 75 calories per gram of cement in 28 days.

8. Chemical Composition Test:

Different tests are conducted to determine the quantity of various constituents of cement. The requirements as
stipulated in IS: 269–1998 are as follows:
1. Ratio of the percentage of alumina to that of iron 0.66
oxide
2. Lime Saturation Factor (LSF), i.e., ratio of 0.66 and 1.02
percentage to that of alumina, iron oxide and silica

3. Total loss on ignition 4%

4. Total sulphur content 2.75%
5. Weight of insoluble residue 1.50%
6. Weight of magnesia 5%

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 1.2. Sand
a loose granular material that results from the disintegration of rocks, consists of particles smaller than gravel
but coarser than silt, and is used in mortar, glass, abrasives, and foundry molds.
Sand is a basic raw material used in the construction industries. It is fine aggregate having the particle size between
150 microns and 4.75 mm.
Quality of sand is as much of importance as other materials for concrete.

Testing of Sand Quality at Construction Site

Following are the tests for sand at construction site:
 Rubbing Test
Rubbing test
Rub the sample of the sand with wet palms. Good clean sand will
not stick to the hand, whereas sand with clay will stick and change
the colour of the palm. You need to test it for “silt content” on site.

 Silt
Content
Test
Take a glass of water and add some quantity of sand and
stir the mix. Now allow the mix to settle and observe it
after an hour. Clean sand will settle immediately but if it
forms the distinct top layer of silt than sand contains silt or
clay particles.
The thickness of the silt layer should not exceed the
thickness of the sand layer by 8% , if it contain more than
8% the sand should be washed with clear water And also
if fine aggregate containing more than allowable percentage of silt shall be washed so as to bring the silt content
within allowable limits.
 Test for Grading of sand
The particle size grading of sand for use in mortars shall be within the limits as specified in Table and For RCC
works sand has to be coarser and for plastering works(zone 4) sand has to be finer . See zones of sand for details

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 Where the grading falls outside the limits of any particular grading zone of sieves, other than 600 micron IS sieve,
by a total amount not exceeding 5 percent, it shall be regarded as falling within that grading zone.
 Organic Impurties

To find organic impurities in the sand, you should

repeat the procedue of silt content test and add caustic
soda (salt ) int the glass of water .If the water changes
the colour to brown,then there must be some organic
impurities

 Visualization Test
The size of particles and sharpness of sand (fine
aggregates) is checked by visualization. Sand should be
free from organic impurities (like shell, shingle, and other impurities) or they should be in limits which are easily
identified by visualization

 Taste Test
1.You Should taste a pinch of sand and if it taste salty ,the salt must be present in sand and hence it should not be
used at all in any construction. such sand is naturally from the river but either it is sea sand or from an area of
river frequently affected by tidal water near the sea

 CLAY TEST:
The presence of clay in the sand effect the performance of the concrete strength. So the presence of clay in sand
can be detected by doing two physical test on sand
Take a some amount of sand in to your hand and drop it in to the glass which contain water. After drooping the
sand than shake the glass. If clay is present in the sand it will make a separate layer above the water surface. So it
indicate sand is not good.
In another simple test take some amount of sand in your hand and then drop it. If sand stick in to you fingers it
indicate the presence of clay in sand.

Methods of Sand testing

Moisture Content Test.
Clay Content Test.
Grain Fitness Test.
Air Permeability Test.
Strength Test.
Refractoriness Test.
Mould hardness Test (Brinell Hardness, Rockwell)

IS Code for Sand

TYPE OF SAND IS CODE
Concrete Sand IS – 383: 1970
Brick/ Block Work Sand IS – 2116: 1980
Plastering Sand IS – 1542: 1992

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Grades of Sand
In the United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size: very fine sand ( 1Ú16 – 1Ú8
mm diameter), fine sand ( 1Ú8 mm – 1Ú4 mm), medium sand ( 1Ú4 mm – 1Ú2 mm), coarse sand ( 1Ú2 mm – 1 mm),
and very coarse sand (1 mm – 2 mm).

1.3. Aggregates
The inert mineral material such as sand, gravel, crushed rock etc., used for manufacture of mortar or concrete are
known as aggregate. Aggregate are generally cheaper than cement and impart greater volume, stability \&
durability to concrete. The aggregate is used basically for the purpose of providing bulk to concrete.

Classification of Aggregate
1) According to geological origin
a) Natural Aggregates-They are generally obtained from natural deposit of sand, gravel and rocks.
b) Artificial Aggregates-The most widely used artificial aggregates are clean broken bricks and air cooled fresh
blast-furnace slag.

2) According to size
a) Fine Aggregate-The aggregate which passes through 4.75mm I.S.Sieve.
b) Coarse Aggregate-The aggregate which retained on 4.75mm I.S.Sieve.

3)According to Shape
a) Rounded Aggregate
b)Irregular Aggregate
c)Angular Aggregate
d) Flaky \& Elongated Aggregate

4) Based on unit weight

a) Normal weight aggregate
b) Heavy weight aggregate
c) Light weight aggregate
The most important function of fine aggregate is to assist in producing workability and uniformity in mixture.
The fine aggregate also assists the cement paste to hold the coarse aggregate particles

TEST ON AGGREGATE

Aggregate plays an important role in pavement construction. Aggregates influence, to a great extent, the load
transfer capability of pavements. Hence it is essential that they should be thoroughly tested before using for
construction. Not only that aggregates should be strong and durable, they should also possess proper shape and
size to make the pavement act monolithically. Aggregates are tested for strength, toughness, hardness, shape, and
water absorption.
In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following tests are carried out:
 Crushing test
 Abrasion test
 Impact test
 Soundness test
 Shape test
 Specific gravity and water absorption test
 Bitumen adhesion test

 CRUSHING TEST
One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing
under compressive stress. A test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-
IV and used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates. The
aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to
crushing under gradually applied crushing load.
The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard
mould to a compression test under standard load conditions (See Fig-
1). Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure
of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times with at standard tamping
rod. The test sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being tamped again. The
specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute.

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Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed
as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is the aggregate crushing value.

Aggregate crushing value = (W1/W2)*100

A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally be regarded
as weak aggregates.
Also Read: Crushing Test Procedure of Aggregate

 ABRASION TEST
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of
aggregates and to decide whether they are suitable for
different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion
test is a preferred one for carrying out the hardness property
and has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-IV).
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the
percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the
aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal
diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm mounted on horizontal
axis enabling it to be rotated (see Fig-2). An abrasive charge
consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and
weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the
aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the sample. The quantity of
aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked
and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of
aggregates.
After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is expressed as
percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion value.
A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions. For bituminous concrete,
a maximum value of 35 percent is specified.

 IMPACT TEST
The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to
impact of aggregates. Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on
10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm
and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing
machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for
25 numbers of blows (see Fig-3). Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg
is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by vertical guides and the
test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows. The crushed
aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact
value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the
total weight of the sample (W1).
Aggregate impact value = (W1/W2)*100
Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn’t exceed 30 percent. For bituminous
macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound macadam base courses the maximum
permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.

 SOUNDNESS TEST
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by conducting accelerated
weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and thawing is likely to disintegrate
prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as
specified in IS: 2386 part-V.
Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of either sodium
sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 – 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105 to 1100C to a constant weight.
After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out all undersized particles and
weighing.
The loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with sodium sulphate and 18
percent with magnesium sulphate solution.

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  SHAPE TESTS
The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by
the percentage of flaky and elongated particles in it.
Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to
higher workability and stability of mixes.
The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of
aggregate particles whose least dimension is less than 0.6
times their mean size. Flakiness gauge (see Fig-4) is used for
this test. Test procedure had been standardized in India (IS:
2386 part-I).
The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the
percentage by weight of particles whose greatest dimension
(length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is
applicable to aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. Elongation
gauge (see Fig-5) is used for this test. This test is also
specified in (IS: 2386 Part-I). However there are no
recognized limits for the elongation index.

 SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION

The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are required for the design
of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume
of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because the aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so two
measures of specific gravity of aggregates are used:
Apparent specific gravity and
Bulk specific gravity.
Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates i.e the volume
excluding water-permeable voids. Thus
Gapp = [(MD/VN)]/W
Where,
MD is the dry mass of the aggregate,
VN is the net volume of the aggregates excluding the volume of the absorbed matter,
W is the density of water.
Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates including water
permeable voids. Thus
Gbulk = [(MD/VB)]/W
Where,
VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.
Water Absorption: The difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is nothing but the water
permeable voids of the aggregates. We can measure the volume of such voids by weighing the aggregates dry and
in a saturated surface dry condition, with all permeable voids filled with water. The difference of the above two
is MW.
MW is the weight of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition. Thus,
Water Absorption = (MW/MD)*100
The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to 2.9. Water
absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally used in road surfacing.

 BITUMEN ADHESION TEST

Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free from dust. In the
absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous construction.
Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt with by removing
moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing temperature. Further, the presence of water
causes stripping of binder from the coated aggregates. This problem occurs when bitumen mixture is permeable
to water.
Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to an aggregate in
the presence of water. Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite simple. The principle of the test
is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water maintained at 40 0C temperature for 24 hours.
IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 5%.

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2. Concrete, mortar and grouts, masonry mortars,
rendering, cementations grouts
2.1. Concrete:-
Concrete or cement concrete is the most important artificial building material being commonly used in present
day construction. Concrete is a mixture of cement ,sand, and coarse aggregate with water Just after mixing,
concrete is in plastic stage and it takes the shape as given by mould
2.2. Mortar and grouts,
Mortar and grout are used in both masonry work and tile work; however they serve different purposes. Both
products are Portland cement based product, which causes them to harden. The variables are in the size of the
aggregates (stone, sand, etc) and the quantity of water added to the mix.
Mortar is the adhesive used to hold tiles to a surface or substrate. Grout, on the other hand, is the substance
applied between the tile spaces to fill and seal the gaps.

2.3. Masonry mortars,

Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water used for binding
two surfaces with each other. Used in buildings which serve as binding
material between stones, cements, bricks and concrete.
Mortar is a workable paste that hardens to bind building blocks
such as stones, bricks, and concrete masonry units, to fill and seal the
irregular gaps between them, spread the weight of them evenly, and
sometimes to add decorative colors or patterns to masonry walls.
It is a paste prepared by adding an adequate quantity of water
into the mixture of binding material such as cement or lime and sand
(fine aggregate).
Binding materials such as lime or cement are referred to as
‘matrix’ and fine aggregate as ‘adulterant’. The matrix binds the adulterant particles. The quality and quantity of
the matrix are responsible for the durability, quality, and strength of mortar.
2.4. Rendering,
Rendering refers to the process of applying a coat of cement on the external walls of a property to make
them smooth or textured as desired. The difference between rendering and plastering is that rendering involves
the exterior walls while plastering involves the interior ones.
2.5. Cementations grouts
Cementitious grouting is a process in which a fluid
cementitious grout is pumped under pressure to fill forms,
voids, and cracks. It can be used in several settings including
bridges, marine applications, dams, and rock anchors. The
grouted mass has increased strength, stiffness, and reduced
permeability

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3. RCC, clay bricks, calcium silicate bricks, concrete
blocks., rubbles, steel, mechanical properties of steel,
different applications
3.1.RCC
Reinforced Cement Concrete(R.C.C):-It is obtained by reinforcing steel in the mixture of cement, sand and
coarse aggregate with an adequate quantity of water. R.C.C. is equally strong in compression and tension. It
is hard, durable and can bear all type of stresses. R.C.C. is used for columns, beams, slabs, foundations,
retaining wall, water and oil tanks, road pavements, concrete pipes.
Uses
1. For construction of multi-storied building.
2. .For construction of water \& oil Tanks, bridges,
3. For construction of road pavements.
4. For marine structure Hydraulic structure.

It is used for paving in airports, roads and high traffic areas. It is used for constructing various structures like
water tanks, dams, bins, silos, bunkers, bridges, retaining walls, underwater structures, towers, multi-storey
buildings, docks and harbours.
Properties of Reinforced Cement Concrete
Reinforced concrete is a structural material, and a good one should meet all the requirements ensuring its
quality and sustainability. Here are some of the properties of good R.C.C.
• It should be capable of withstanding compressive, tensile, bending and shear forces.
• It should provide complete insulation against sound and heat.
• Ensure durability to the structure
• The structure built with R.C.C should be able to support any load.
• It should prevent corrosion by providing proper cover to the reinforcement.
• It should develop hair cracks within the permissible limit.
• When it's fresh, a good R.C.C can be moulded to the desired shape and size.
• It should provide adequate control over the cross-sectional requirements.
Advantages of Reinforced Cement Concrete
Structures made from reinforced concrete are stable and durable. It possesses high compressive and high
tensile strengths. It is economical, and the maintenance cost is almost ignorable. R.C.C has the least chances of
buckling and rusting. It has resistance to fire and other climatic changes.
R.C.C structures are aesthetically up to the mark and do not require cladding. The material is available
everywhere around the world and does not require expertise for working on it; normal skilled labour can also
work with it.
Uses of Reinforced Cement Concrete
R.C.C is widely used construction material from
foundations to the rooftops of the building. Some of its
chief uses are listed below:

• It is used as a structural element in beams, columns,

footings, lintels, stairs, roofs and slabs.
• It is used for pre-casting railway sleepers and electric
poles.
• It is used for paving in airports, roads and high traffic
areas.
• It is used for constructing various structures like water
tanks, dams, bins, silos, bunkers, bridges, retaining walls, underwater structures, towers, multi-storey buildings,
docks and harbours.
R.C.C is the most used building material for almost all types of structures and is also used in atomic plants to
prevent danger from radiations emitting from it.

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13
14
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 3.2.Clay bricks
Bricks are a rectangular block of regular shape obtained by moulding a mixture of clay and sand. And generally
burn at high temperature. Bricks are easily moulded from plastic clays, also known as brick clay or brick earth.

Classification of Bricks
The bricks are classified as per their quality. Bricks are classified as First Class, Second Class \& Third
Class bricks.

The bricks are also classified as per their quality as follows-

Second Class
S.N Description First Class Bricks Third Class Bricks
Bricks
1 Molding Machine and Table Hand \& Table Hand
2 Uniform Red, May
May be slightly over
Color \& Burning Uniform Red be slightly over
burnt or under burnt
burnt
3 Sharp straight edges, May have slightly May have distorted
Shape
plain rectangular faces blunt edges round edges
4 Absorption of Water by Weight Less than 20% Less than 22% Less than 25%
5 Efflorescence Nil Slight Moderate

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 6 Greater than 10.5 Greater than 10.5
Compressive Strength Greater than 10.5 N/mm2
N/mm2 N/mm2
ii) Classification of Bricks (As Per Size) Bricks can be classified into two types
i) Modular Brick- The bricks confirming to IS1077-1976 are known as modular brick. The size of brick is 19cm
X 9cm X 9cm.With mortar joint the size becomes 20cm X 10cm X 10cm.
ii) Traditional Brick-These bricks are manufactured traditionally or right from ancient times. There is a slight
variation in the size of the brick from place to place. The common size is 23cmX11.4cmX7cm.

Field Test of Bricks

 The brick should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
 The brick when broken should show a uniform compact and homogeneous structure free from
voids.
 The brick should be hard enough. No impression should be left when scratched.
 The brick should not break into pieces when dropped from a height of 1m.
 The brick when soaked in water for 24hr should not show
deposits of white salts when allowed to dry in shade.
 The brick should be table moulded, well burnt and free from
cracks with sharp and square edges.
 The colour should be uniform and bright.
 The bricks should give a good metallic sound when struck
with each other.

3.3.Calcium silicate bricks

Calcium silicate brick is an artificial unburned material for walls construction manufactured by the press-
moulding method from
humidified mixture of silica
materials and lime followed
by hardening under the
conditions of saturated steam
in an autoclave. Production of
calcium silicate bricks at the
plant is carried out using
silage technique.

Silicate bricks are made of

sand and lime and popularly
known as sand lime bricks.
These bricks are used for
various works in construction
such as decorative work,
masonry work and many other
works in buildings.
Sand lime bricks are popularly used in European, Australia and African nations.
In India, these bricks are used extensively in the state of Kerala, their use is often increasing.

Properties of sand lime bricks:

• Very smooth and uniform finish and an attractive appearance.
• Dense, strong and tough.
• Least porous and therefore free from indigestion.
• Uniform in size, shape and finish and no plastering is required.
• When required, the amount of plaster is significantly less.
• Essential materials are quite common in the event, can be used as an alternative to clay bricks

Materials used for sand lime bricks:

• The materials listed below are used to produce calcium silicate bricks.
• Sand:
• Calcium silicate bricks have a high amount of sand which is about 88 – 92%.
• The properties used for these bricks depend on the characteristics of the sand.
• The sand used can be well classified, should not contain impurities such as natural substances, soluble
salts and many others.

17
 • Finely divided clay may be present but is only up to 4% which
helps to suppress the brick and provides an easy texture.
Manufacturing of calcium silicate bricks:
• Within the first stage, an appropriate ratio of sand, lime, and
pigment is mixed well with 3 to 5% water; the paste is then
obtained with a moldable density.
• The mixture is moulded into bricks using a rotary tablet press
that uses the mechanical pressure to pressurize the bricks.
• The pressing pressure varies from 31.5 to 63 N / mm2.
• Within the final stage, the bricks are positioned in an autoclave.
• The autoclave is nothing but a steel cylinder with tightly closed ends.
• The autoclave has a diameter of 2 m and a length of about 20 m.
• After placing the bricks in the closed chamber the saturated steam pressure is released which is about
0.85 to 1.6 N / mm2.
• The temperature inside the chamber is increased and the reaction process begins.
• The amount of calcium within the compound such as silica content and lime crystals in the sand is
called calcium hypo silicate.
• This process is carried out for 6 to 12 hours.
• Finally, the bricks obtained are transported to the site.

3.4.Concrete Blocks
Concrete blocks are nowadays replacing bricks in masonry construction, notably in many multi-storeyed
buildings. They are available in three types namely solid, hollow and cellular, widely used for the construction
of filler walls and boundary walls in RC framework.
Concrete blocks are usually made in large sizes to make blockwork faster and consume less cement in
joints than the brickwork. If the percentage of the voids is more than 25%, then they are hollow blocks and
blocks with voids less than 25% are only perforated blocks.
The cellular concrete blocks are generally referred to as lightweight aerated concrete blocks. All these blocks
are extensively used for compound walls and non-loadbearing walls.
Hollow blocks are specially made for loadbearing walls, which are useful in reducing a dead load of masonry
in buildings. Blocks can also be with cement and sand called cement-sand blocks or with cement and soil
called soil-cement blocks which are of low strength and use for low-cost construction.

Manufacturing of Concrete Blocks

BIS recommends a fineness modulus of the combined
aggregate between 3.6 to 4 and coarse aggregates used are
of size 6 to 12 mm. Lean mixes up to 1:8 are generally
used. Concrete mix for concrete blocks should not be richer
than one part of the cement to six parts of the volume of
combined aggregate.

Concrete blocks can be handmade and also machine-made.

The cast block is then cured in a water tank or yard for at
least 14 days (water need to be changed at least every 4 days).
After curing, the blocks are dried for 4 weeks before being used in masonry construction. They should be
stacked with voids in the horizontal direction to facilitate easy drying, or they should be steam cured and
dried.
The whole process allows the complete shrinkage of the block to take place they are laid on the wall, which
is very important for strong walls.

Classification of Concrete Blocks

Hollow concrete blocks
Open and Closed cavity-type hollow concrete blocks are
classified into three grades:
Grade A - They possess a minimum density of 1500 kg/m³ and
are used for load-bearing walls.
Grade B - They have a density below 1500 kg/m¬³ and used for
load-bearing walls.
Grade C - These blocks are used for non-load bearing walls and
have density more than 1000 kg/m³.

18
All these blocks are available in decorative facings like fluted facing to provide artistic effects.

Solid concrete blocks

They should be manufactured for specific concrete strength of 4.0 and 5.0 N/mm² in 28 days. These
blocks are used as load-bearing walls and have a density of not less than 1800 kg/m³.

Paver blocks
These blocks are solid concrete blocks of different shapes specially
made for exterior ground paving on sidewalks, parking lots, driveways,
petrol pumps, industrial floors, etc.

AAC Blocks
AAC blocks refer as Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks. These
blocks are also termed as light-weight hollow blocks.
They are prepared as solid blocks from cement, water and
materials like ground sand, pulverized fly ash together with
additives to aerate and stabilize the air bubbles.
The final result is a mixture of thick liquid which is then poured
into steel moulds to form large cakes. After some time, the
mixture sets and ready to cut into a serious of individual blocks of
required size using taut steel wires.

Very light blocks for partition and moderate-weight blocks for light loadbearing walls can be obtained from
aac blocks. These blocks do not shrink on drying as the material is obtained by autoclaving.
The autoclaved cement product is crystalline, which is different from the product obtained by normal wet
curing or by ordinary steam curing.

Sizes and Tolerances

The nominal dimensions of concrete block as per BIS are as follows:
Length - 600, 500, 450 or 400 mm
Height - 100 or 200 mm
Width - 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250 or 300 mm
Actual sizes will be less than 10 mm of mortar thickness. For Concrete and Hollow concrete blocks nominal
length 390 mm and height 190 mm. The thickness for loadbearing walls is 190 mm, compound walls 140
mm and for filler walls 90 mm.
These dimensions can easily be achieved in machine-made blocks than handmade blocks. The width of
blocks use for load-bearing walls is 200 mm and for parapet or filler walls is 100 mm.

Points to Remember:
The mortar strength should not be more than the strength of the
blocks. With high mortar strength, cracks will be less and very
large, but with low mortar strength, cracks will be small and
distributed.
We should use only blocks that are cured properly for at least
14 days and dried for 4 weeks to avoid shrinkage during
construction.
We should not wet the blocks while placing in masonry
construction.

Freshly-made and uncured concrete blocks should never be allowed on the work.
Blockwork, particularly ordinary cement sand blocks and soil-cement blocks should not be used as
loadbearing walls for concrete slab roof which favours to expand and contract with temperature.
The maximum difference in sizes allowed is ±5 mm in length and ±3 mm in height and width.
They should be protected from rains while being stored as they absorb moisture by wetting and shrinking
on drying.
The main disadvantage of concrete blocks is shrinkage due to the movement of moisture content which
is not present in bricks. As these blocks are much larger than bricks, any foundation movement will cause
blockwork to crack more than the brickwork.

3.5.Rubbles

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Rubble is used to refer to the small pieces of bricks and stones that are used as a bottom layer on which
to build roads, paths, or houses. Brick rubble is useful as the base for paths and patios.
Rubble is broken stone, of irregular size, shape and texture; undressed especially as a filling-in. Rubble
naturally found in the soil is known also as 'brash' (compare cornbrash). Where present, it becomes more
noticeable when the land is ploughed or worked

Steel can be reused at both the product and the building level. Already some industries, such as the
agricultural sector, commonly reuse steel structures and cladding components.
Because of increasing waste production and public concerns about the environment, it is desirable to recycle
materials from building demolition. If suitably selected, ground, cleaned and sieved in appropriate industrial
crushing plants, these materials can be profitably used in concrete.
There is no change to the quality of a product made with recycled steel. Steel doesn't lose any durability or
strength in the process of recycling, and it can be recycled an infinite number of times without being
compromised.
Steel Recycling Leads the Pack of Green Building Materials. Eco-friendly green buildings usually include
recycled building materials— especially recycled steel. Why? Because no other material on the planet comes
close to matching the recycling record of steel.
Why Steel Recycling Rules the Market Today Steel is 100% recyclable.
Steel retains all its strength when recycled. Recycle steel hundreds of times and it is still just as strong
as it was the first time. No other material can make that claim

3.6.Steel
Steels are widely used materials in the industry. They are the alloys of iron, carbon and other elements such
as silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and manganese. The carbon present in the form of iron-carbide(Fe3C)
increases the hardness and strength of the steel.

It is a steel which is used in R.C.C. for to take tension and increase its strength.
Reinforcing steel consists of bars, usually circular in cross-section. These are available in three different
grades viz., Fe250,Fe415, Fe500, Fe refers to ferrous metal and the number refers to the specified guaranteed
yield stress N/mm2.
It is an alloy of iron and carbon containing carbon from 0.25 to 1.25%.Steels are highly elastic, ductile, weld
able. It has high tensile strength, it develops good bond with concrete.

Structural Steel
Structural steel is steel construction material a profile formed with a specific shape or cross section and certain
standards of chemical composition and mechanical properties.
Structure in which the members are made of steel and are joined by welding, riveting or bolting. Because of
the high strength of steel, these structures are reliable and require less material than other type of structural
material. The steel structure is used for building structures must have high weld ability; the carbon contains
must not exceed 0.25%.

Classification of Steel
Based on the physical and mechanical properties, the following are the types of Reinforcing Steel.

a) M. S. (Mild Steel)
Mild Steel is used as structural and Non-structural steel in the form of various sections like I-section, channel,
anglel, flat and also in the form of round bars as reinforcement in concrete. It is designated as Fe 250 due to
the yield strength of 250N/mm2.

b) Tor Steel
These bars are usually of steel which do not possess a well defined yield point. These bars have low ductility
and low bend ability. Tor steel is extensively used as reinforcement in R.C.C. work. it is available in two
grades.Fe450 \& Fe500 and a variety of diameters ranging from 8 mm to 40mm.

c) TMT (Thermo mechanically treated steel)

20
 Thermo mechanically treated steel also known as TMT steel can be described as a new generation-high-
strength steel having superior properties such as weld ability, strength, ductility and bend ability meeting
highest quality standards at international level.

Steels are also classified based on their chemical composition, applications, and methods of production.

1.Based on Carbon Content:

 Low Carbon Steels
 medium Carbon Steels
 high Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Steels:
 Composition: 0%C to 0.25 % C.
 Microstructure: Predominantly α - ferrite and small quantities of pearlite.
 Properties: Outstanding ductility and toughness. good machinability and weldability, high formability,
toughness, high ductility etc.
For example, Mild steel.
 Advantages: The least expensive to produce.
 Disadvantages: Martensite is difficult to form owing to very low carbon content.
 Applications: Automobile body components, structural shapes, pipes, sheets etc.
Medium Carbon Steels:
 Composition: From 0.25% to 0.55% C.
 Microstructure: α - ferrite and pearlite.
 Properties: Stronger than low – carbon steel but less tough than it.
 Advantages: Best range for adding alloying elements.
 Applications: Railway wheels & tracks, gears etc.
High Carbon steels:
 Composition: From 0.55% up to 2.1 % C
 Microstructure: Fe3C, Pearlite(C >0.8%), - ferrite and pearlite (C < 0.8%).
 Properties: Hardness, strongest, and least ductile compared to Low carbon steels.
 Advantages: To make tool steels.
 Applications: Knives, hack saw blades, chisels, hammers, drills, dies, machine tool cutters, punches,
etc.
2.Based on the Method of manufacture of Steels:
Based on Method of manufacturing of steels, they are classified as Bessemer steel method and Electric Arc
Furnace method whose explanation is below.
Bessemer steel Method:
The principle of Bessemer Converter is the removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation and the air is
being blown through the molten iron.
The furnace is made of steel with fire clay bricks to resist heat.
The impurities manganese(mn) and Silicon(Si) are converted into their respective oxides and that can be
expelled out.
Electric Arc Furnace Method:
It is an extremely hot enclosed region, where heat is produced employing electrodes for melting certain
materials such as steel (scrap) without changing the electrochemical properties of the material(metal).
The electric arc produced between the electrodes and the metal is used for melting the metal(scrap).
Read more: Bessemer steel method and Electric Arc Furnace method
3.Based on properties of some other types of Steels:
 Shock-resisting Steels
 High strength Steels
 Tool Steels
 Spring Steels
 Heat Resistant Steels
Shock-resisting Steels:
These steels can resist fatigue loads and shock loads.
High strength Steels:
Applied where Low weight and high strength are required.
Tool Steels:
These are mainly used for making Tools and Dies for cutting, forming and forging metals in their hot or cold
conditions.

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Spring Steels:
used for making Coiled and Leaf springs.
Heat Resistant Steels:
These steels can resist corrosion, oxidation and creep at higher working temperatures.

4.Based on Effect of Alloying elements on Steel:

Cobalt/Molybdenum: It has high servicing temperature or high temperature sustainability.
Chromium: It improves Corrosion resistance and Abrasion resistance.
Vanadium: It exhibits high temperature, hardness and strength.
Aluminium: It improves fracture toughness and acts as deoxidant.
Phosporous: It increase strength, hardness and improves machinability.
Sulphur: It improves machinability.
Silicon: It exhibits high hardenability.
Magnesium: It improves toughness and machinability.
Manganese: Wear resistance and hardenability is high.

Mechanical properties of steel

Steel has a number of properties, including: hardness, toughness, tensile strength, yield strength, elongation,
fatigue strength, corrosion, plasticity, malleability and creep.
The properties that are most important in wear and abrasion-resistant steel are:
HARDNESS is the material’s ability to withstand friction and abrasion. It is worth noting that, while it may
mean the same as strength and toughness in colloquial language, this is very different from strength and
toughness in the context of metal properties.
TOUGHNESS is difficult to define but generally is the ability to absorb energy without fracturing or rupturing.
It is also defined as a material’s resistance to fracture when stressed. It is usually measured in foot lbs. per sq. in
or Joules per sq. centimeter. It is important to distinguish this from hardness as a material that severely deforms
without breaking, could be considered extremely tough, but not hard.
YEILD strength is a measurement of the force required to start the deformation of the material (i.e. bending or
warping).
TENSILE strength is a measurement of the force required to break the material.
ELONGATION (or Ductility) is the “Degree” to which the material can be stretched or compressed before it
breaks. It is expressed as a percent of the length being tested and is between the tensile strength and yield
strength (i.e., what percent does the material bend before breaking).
Basic Physical Properties of Steel
Steel has a density of 7,850 kg/m3, making it 7.85 times as dense as water. Its melting point of 1,510 oC is
higher than that of most metals. In comparison, the melting point of bronze is 1,040 C, that of copper is 1,083
o
C, that of cast iron is 1,300 oC, and that of nickel is 1,453 oC. Tungsten, however, melts at a searing 3,410 C,
which is not surprising since this element is used in light bulb filaments.
Steel’s coefficient of linear expansion at 20 oC, in µm per meter per degree Celsius, is 11.1, which makes it
more resistant to changing size with changes in temperature than, for example, copper (16.7), tin (21.4), and
lead (29.1)
Different applications of steel
As Steel has high tensile strength, it was used in:
 Construction of buildings
 Infrastructure
 Tools
 Ships
 Automobiles
 Machines & appliances
 Weapons
 Machine steel
 Spring steel
 Boiler steel
 Structural steel
 Tool steel etc.

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4. Floor and roofing tiles, slates, timber, strength of timber,
engineered wood products metals, glass for glazing, glass fibres,
glass wool
4.1. Floor and roofing tiles
Floor Tiles
As the name suggests, floor tiles are used for the flooring of the buildings in Civil Engineering. These are also
tiles are generally square or rectangular but nowadays many other shapes an available in the market. These tiles
are flat tiles. The floor tiles are available in many sizes but they have a thickness between 12 mm to 50 mm. The
floor tiles should be hard enough to resist wear and tear due to load. These should be well burnt and free from
pebbles, grit, and any other unwanted material. These should have a uniform texture.
Advantages of Floor Tiles

1. As they are light in weight so it is very easy to work with them.

2. They are available in a variety of colors and shapes.
3. Polishing is not required on floor tiles so the time of polishing is saved the floor is available just after
the completion of the work.
4. They are scratch proof and having damp-proof properties.

Roofing Tiles
Roofing tiles are used for the covering of a structure. They are mainly used on sloping roofs. Roofing tiles are a
good alternative to plain galvanized iron corrugated sheets and timber. The roofing tiles used should be leak-
proof, easy to handle, and hard enough. The fixing of these tiles should be easy and durable.
Various types of roof tiles are available in the market. A few common varieties are as follows.
(a) Allahabad Tiles
(b) Mangalore Tiles
(c) Flat Tiles
(d) Corrugated Tiles
(e) Pot Tiles

Allahabad Tiles
Allahabad tiles are made from a superior type of clay. The moulding of clay is
done under pressure in MACHINES. These tiles comprise two parts one part
have channel shape. Both of them have tapering dimensions with the same
length.
While covering the roof the channel tiles (also known as under tiles) are laid
side by side and the joints between the adjacent channel tiles are covered with
semi-circular tiles (also known as over tiles). Wooden battens are available on
the sloping roofs over which these tiles are fixed.

Mangalore Tiles
These tiles are named Mangalore tiles because their early manufacturing
was in Mangalore. South-India. These tiles are moulded with machines
and have special projections. These projections are a very important
feature These tiles comprise two parts. One part has a channel shape and
the other part have a semi-circular shape. Both of them have tapering
dimensions of the same length.
These types of tiles as they are much helpful in the interlocking of tiles
when placed in Mangalore tiles becomes easy to position. Due to this,
the fixing of Mangalore tiles becomes easy.
Manglore tiles are very much popular in rural and semi-urban areas of
Southern India and Western India. The construction of roofs with the
help of these tiles is easy and economical. The average life of Mangalore
tiles in estimated as about 25 years with 5 % replacement. The color of these tiles is mainly red.

Flat Tiles
Flat tiles are rectangular-shaped tiles free from distortion and cracks. The tiles should be uniform in size and
shape. Two or more holes are drilled in these types of tiles. These holes help in fixing the tiles on the battens.
Proper overlap is provided at sides and edges during the fixing of tiles. The compressive strength should be
above 75 kg / cm2 and water absorption value should be below 20% for flat tiles.

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Corrugated Tiles
The making and placing at the position of corrugated tiles resemble the flat tiles but the corrugated tiles have
corrugations. Aside lap of one or two corrugations is formed during the placing of these tiles over the roof. The
edge lap is also there. After placing they give the appearance of corrugated galvanized iron sheets. The drainage
of water over these tiles is very good and the view also nice. These tiles are not suitable in areas where violent
winds are frequent.

Pot Tiles
Pot tiles are semi-circular hollow tiles having tapering dimension in the
longitudinal direction. The length of these tiles varies between 15 cm to
25 cm. These tiles are manufactured by a potter on potter’s wheel.
Polishing is done on inner and outer sides with the help of the wet
cloth. They are placed in a position such that their concave and convex
faces upward alternatively so that they can become self-locked. These
tiles are also known as locking tiles. These are ordinary tiles, having
high absorption value. Due to this reason, these tiles are liable to break
easily and suffer greater tear and wear. The drainage of water in this
type of roof tiles is speedy. They are not so much durable.

4.2. Slates
Definition of slate
It is a piece of construction material (such as laminated rock) prepared as a shingle for roofing and siding
It is a dense fine-grained metamorphic rock produced by the compression
of various sediments (such as clay or shale) so as to develop a
characteristic cleavage
slate, fine-grained, clayey metamorphic rock that cleaves, or splits,
readily into thin slabs having great tensile strength and durability;
some other rocks that occur in thin beds are improperly called slate
because they can be used for roofing and similar purposes.
Slate is a metamorphic rock of sedimentary origin. Is mainly composed of
quartz, sericite and minerals of the chlorite group. Has been used as a
construction material since the ancient Egyptians. Its colour depends on the
mineral structure and size of the mineral grains that define its composition.
Slate is sometimes marketed as dimension slate and crushed slate (granules and flour). Dimension slate is used
mainly for electrical panels, laboratory tabletops, roofing and flooring, and blackboards. Crushed slate is
used on composition roofing, in aggregates, and as a filler

4.3. Timber
Timber is a type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks. It is also known as “lumber” in US
and Canada. Basically, timber or Lumber is a wood or firewood of growing trees. Any wood capable of yielding
a minimum dimensional size can be termed as a timber or lumber. It is a stage in the process of wood production.
Timbers are used for the structural purpose. Those woods which are adapted for building purposes are timbers.
Finished timber is supplied in standard sizes for the industry. Timber is used for building houses and making
furniture.
Types of Timber and Lumber
Timber can be divided into two categories - hardwoods and softwoods. There are many types of timber under
these two categories. They are-
 Bamboo
 Birch
 Cedar
 Cherry
 Cross-laminated
 Glulam
 Green timber

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  Lime
 Mahogany
 Oak
 Pine
 Plywood
 Sapele wood
 Tulipwood
 Walnut
 Wood ash
 Spruce
 Fir
Few of the commonly used timbers are described below.
Bamboo
Bamboo is a natural organic material. It is one of the most unique plants on
earth. Bamboo is grown in abundance in many parts of the world, especially in
tropical and subtropical regions. Most timber producing bamboos are from
South Asia. The color of bamboo timber is pale yellow to almost gold. It is an
industrial material also identified as the most promising building material.
Bamboo timber is an alternative to tropical hardwoods in recent years. It is
available in many forms.

Advantages of Bamboo
 Bamboos are fast growing and high yielding.
 They are easily renewable.
 Bamboos quickly reach full maturity after only one or two years.
 Bamboo timber has a unique earthy odor while being worked.
 Bamboo timber is energy extensive, processed and glued up imported products.
 Strong bamboo fibers have tensile strength.
 It is highly resistant to warping and cupping in ambient humidity.
 Bamboo timber requires little fertilizer.
 Grows initially at full width.
 Bamboo timbers are used in-veneer, paper, flute, window blinds, fishing rods, ladders, scaffolding,
carving etc.
Disadvantages of Bamboo
 Bamboo timber is a polluting material.
 Bamboo timber requires special care.
 It is susceptible to insect attack.
 Bamboo fibers tend to split and pull out when being cross-cut.
 Bamboo timber has been reported to cause skin irritation.
 Decay fungi are present in bamboo timber.
 The price of this timber is much higher which exceeds the cost of domestic hardwoods sometimes.
 It is inconsistent.
Birch
Birch is a great craft-wood. It is an important source of hardwood timber. Birch is of many types of like-yellow
birch, white birch etc. Yellow birch is commonly used which is also known as
gray birch, or swamp birch. It is light reddish brown color. Birch gives low natural
luster.

Advantages of Birch
 Birch is economical in most cases.
 Inner birch is aromatic.
 Birch is long-lasting.
 It is usually heavy, hard and strong.
 It is always easy to work with a birch and glues and it finishes well.
 Birch gives widely ranging appearances.
 Birch is suitable for high-quality furniture. Birch has great durability.
 Birch is used for creating strong plywood.
 Birch is waterproof.
 Birch can easily support a large structure.
 It is used in- boxes, crates, skateboards, furniture, and other wood items.

25
  Birch gives wavy fine texture.
Disadvantages of Birch
 Birch is perishable, readily rot and decay.
 Birch is susceptible to insect attack.
 Birch can cause tear-outs during machine operations.
 Birch is reported as “sensitizer” which includes respiratory irritation.
 Birch is slow-growing.
 Birch is harder than other hardwoods.
Cedar
Cedar is a timber of high quality. It comes from several different trees known as cedars. Where both strength and
appearance of the exposed wood beams are important, cedar is the only
savior and perfect fit for this. It is used in for-landscape, park, garden
structure. Its moderate strength and softness make it unique. Cedar offers
the advantage of the natural advantage. Basically, it is a workable material.

Advantages of Cedar
 It is weather resistant.
 Cedar gives a natural wood look.
 Cedar is light in weight.
 It works easily.
 It is dimensionally stable.
 Cedar has long-time durability.
 Cedar has exceptional resistance to insects and decay.
 It is smooth to the touch.
 It has a high quality of consistency.
 It exhibits fairly prominent growth.
 Cedar shows high resistance to warping and twisting.
 Cedar helps to reduce noise in specific areas.
 It is sustainable.
 It is used in-cladding, decking, roofing, fencing.
Disadvantages of Cedar
 Cedar dust may be irritant.
 Cedar has low strength.
 Cedar can cause splintering during some operations.
Cherry
Cherry timber is grown as a tree plantation timber. Among different types of cherry
timbers, black cherry timber is the largest of the native cherries and the only of
commercial value. It is found throughout the Eastern United Nations. In cherry
timber, the grain is generally straight. It is a hardwood. It has medium density and
moderately durable. And used for small pieces of furnitures-veneers, handles,
cabinets, scientific instruments etc.

Advantages of Cherry
 Cherry timber is firm and strong.
 It has a fine and uniform texture.
 It works well and finishes smoothly.
 Cherry timber can contain pith flecks and gum pockets.
 It has a good workability.
 Cherry timber is easy to machine, nail, and glue.
 It is an excellent timber for turning and carving.
 It has good bending properties.
 It has low stiffness.
 Cherry timber is shock resistance.
 The best feature is it is used for high-end applications like furniture, cabinet making. Boat making and
musical instruments.
Disadvantages of Cherry
 It is highly prized.
 Cherry timber is sensitive to UV.
 It can tear on cross-grain.
 Cherry timber doesn’t have a grand dimension.

26
  If stained, it gives blotchy results.
 The sawdust of cherry timber has been associated with respiratory effects such as wheezing.
Mahogany
Mahogany is a high-quality timber. It is grown commercially almost in every
continent. Mahogany is widely used in the furniture and cabinet building
industry. It is made into plywoods and all kinds of trim. It displays hard grain.
It is one of the softer of all the hardwoods that are commonly in use. It is
moderate natural luster. The color of mahogany timber darkens with age. The
texture is medium and uniform. The price of this timber is in mid-range.

Advantages of Mahogany
 Mahogany timber is very stable.
 It is resistant to termites.
 It is very easy to work with tools in mahogany timber.
 It cuts and machines easily.
 Mahogany timber sandy very easily.
 It turns glues, stains, and finishes well.
 It can bend without splintering or shattering.
 It possesses a slightly flexible quality.
 Mahogany timber can resist warping and twist for many years.
 It is long lasting, strong and beautiful.
 It contains high density.
 Each piece of timber is long.
 Mahogany timber is used for-veneers, musicals instruments, carving etc.
Disadvantages of Mahogany
 Mahogany timber is vulnerable to insects.
 It can tear out or chip during machining.
 It is reported as “sensitizer”.
 When mahogany timber gets in touch with water, a strong mahogany color comes up.
 Slight dulling of cutters can occur in this timber.
 Mahogany timber includes respiratory irritation in eye, skin which includes boil, nausea, dizziness,
asthma type symptoms etc.
 It is vulnerable.
Oak
Oak timber is a type of hardwood from the oak tree. It has been used as timber for
thousands of years. It is straight grained. It is used for light construction most of the
time. Oak timber is used for -homeware, wine barrels, firewood etc.

Advantages of Oak
 Oak timber is exceedingly strong.
 It is durable.
 It has a long living nature.
 Oak timber is used for cladding.
 Oak timber is resistant to fungal attack.
 It takes glues, nails, and screws well.
 It is lighter in weight.
 Oak timber is resistant to decay.
 Oak timber is extremely resistant to preservative treatment.
 It is workable with machine or hand tools.
Disadvantages of Oak
 Oak timber is heavy.
 It is hard.
 It has low-moisture content.
 Oak timber is unsuitable for external use.
 It is difficult for oak timber to treat acid content.
 Oak timber reacts with iron, galvanized or copper nails.

27
Walnut
Walnut is a premium timber. It is a specialist hardwood. The grain is straight but it can be irregular. Walnut timber
is really decorative. It carries a lot of design for the interior. It has moderate natural
luster. Walnut timber is moderately durable. It is medium density.

Advantages of Walnut
 Walnut gives vivid highlight to the grain.
 It works well with machine and hand tools.
 Walnut timber is good for turning and carving.
 The right glues and polishes can be successfully done in walnut timber.
 It stains and finishes well.
 Walnut timber responds well to steam bending.
 It has a good dimensional stability.
 It is shocking resistant.
 It has a fine texture.
 Overall walnut has a good strength.
 It has low stiffness.
Disadvantages of Walnut
 Walnut is hard.
 It has been reported as a “sensitizer”.
 It includes eye and skin irritation.
 Walnut timber is high in the prices for a domestic species.
 It is susceptible to insect attack. Planer tear out can sometimes be a problem in walnut timber./li>
 It has a faint, mild odor while being worked.
 It has a medium maintenance movement.
 Walnut timber has difficulty to treat acid contents.
 Walnut timber finds the problem with density.
 It is not termite resistant.
 It is hard.
Fir
Fir is one of the world’s best-known timber species. It is a premier building product for a wide range of
applications. It is a softwood species. Fir has a very straight grain. Fir has become the standard woods of choice
for timber framing. Fir timber is used tin-housing, framing, flooring, lining fascias, bargeboards, and pergolas.
Advantages of Fir
 Fir timber ranges in color.
 Fir machines and turns well.
 Fir is moderately durable.
 It is permeable.
 It Is moderately resistant to decay.
 Fir timber has a low shock resistance.
 It has a good strength.
 Fir can be satisfactorily bonded using the standard
procedure.
Disadvantages of Fir
 Fir timber lacks tensile strength.
 It is extremely difficult to treat.
 Fir timber is very stiff.

4.4. Strength of timber

The tensile strength of soft- woods parallel to grain at 12% moisture content generally ranges between 70
to 140MPa. The compression strength is lower and is usually in the range 30 to 60 MPa. For hard- woods,
these values are generally higher. These values are for clear, straight-grained wood samples

Wood has three principal axes namely longitudinal, tangential and radial axes. Since it is orthogonal material
m it has three values of modulus of elasticity varying by as much as 150 to 1, three shear moduli varying
from 20 to 1, and six Poisson's ratios varying by 40 to.1.

28
 For different strength:

a) Compressive strength: The compressive strength is found to be highest when acting parallel to the axis
Of the growth. However compressive strength perpendicular to fibres of wood is much lower than that
parallel to fibres of wood. Compressive strength parallel to fibre varies from 30.0 to 77.5 N/cm2.
b) Tensile strength: Tensile strength along direction parallel to the grain is found to have greatest strength
that can be developed under any other kind of stress. Tensile strength parallel to fibres is of the order 80.0 to
190.0 N/cm?,

c) Shearing strength: Resistance to shear in across direction is found 3 to 4 times greater than that along
fibres. The shear strength along fibre is found of the order 6.5 to 14.5 N/mm.

“. The strength of timber is highest In the direction of an angle of 0° to the grains.

4.5. Engineered wood products metals
Engineered wood, also called mass timber, composite wood, man-made wood, or manufactured board,
includes a range of derivative wood products which are manufactured by binding or fixing the strands,
particles, fibres, or veneers or boards of wood, together with adhesives, or other methods of fixation to
form composite material. The panels vary in size but can range upwards of 64 by 8 feet (19.5 by 2.4 m) and
in the case of cross-laminated timber (CLT) can be of any thickness from a few inches to 16 inches (410 mm)
or more. These products are engineered to precise design specifications, which are tested to meet national or
international standards and provide uniformity and predictability in their structural performance. Engineered
wood products are used in a variety of applications, from home construction to commercial buildings to
industrial products. The products can be used for joists and beams that replace steel in many building
projects. The term mass timber describes a group of building materials that can replace concrete
assemblies. Broad-base adoption of mass timber and their substitution for steel and concrete in new mid-rise
construction projects over the next couple decades could help mitigate climate change.
Types of products
Plywood
Plywood, a wood structural panel, is sometimes called the original engineered wood product. Plywood is
manufactured from sheets of cross-laminated veneer and bonded under heat and pressure with durable,
moisture-resistant adhesives. By alternating the grain direction of the veneers from layer to layer, or “cross-
orienting”, panel strength and stiffness in both directions are maximized. Other structural wood panels include
oriented strand boards and structural composite panels.
Densified wood
Densified wood is made by using a mechanical hot press to compress wood fibers and increase the density by a
factor of three. This increase in density is expected to enhance the strength and stiffness of the wood by a
proportional amount. Early studies confirmed this ends with a reported increase in mechanical strength by a
factor of three.
Chemically densified wood
More recent studies[10] have combined chemical process with traditional mechanical hot press methods to
increase density and thus mechanical properties of the wood. In these methods, chemical processes break down
lignin and hemicellulose that are found naturally in the wood. Following dissolution, the cellulose strands that
remain are mechanically hot compressed. Compared to the three-fold increase in strength observed from hot
pressing alone, chemically processed wood has been shown to yield an 11-fold improvement. This extra strength
comes from hydrogen bonds formed between the aligned cellulose nanofibers.
The densified wood possessed mechanical strength properties on par with steel used in building construction,
opening the door for applications of densified wood in situations where regular strength wood would fail.
Environmentally, wood requires significantly less carbon dioxide to produce than steel.
Fibreboard
Medium-density fibreboard and high-density fibreboard (hardboard) are made by breaking down hardwood or
softwood residuals into wood fibers, combining them with wax and a resin binder, and forming panels by
applying high temperature and pressure.
Particle board
Particle board is manufactured from wood chips, sawmill shavings, or even sawdust, and a synthetic resin or
another suitable binder, which is pressed and extruded. Oriented strand board, also known as flakeboard, wafer
board, or chipboard, is similar but uses machined wood flakes offering more strength. Particleboard is cheaper,

29
denser, and more uniform than conventional wood and plywood and is substituted for them when the cost is
more important than strength and appearance. A major disadvantage of particleboard is that it is very prone to
expansion and discoloration due to moisture, particularly when it is not covered with paint or another sealer.
Oriented strand board
Oriented strand board (OSB) is a wood structural panel manufactured from rectangular-shaped strands of wood
that are oriented lengthwise and then arranged in layers, laid up into mats, and bonded together with moisture-
resistant, heat-cured adhesives. The individual layers can be cross-oriented to provide strength and stiffness to
the panel. However, most OSB panels are delivered with more strength in one direction. The wood strands in the
outmost layer on each side of the board are normally aligned into the strongest direction of the board. Arrows on
the product will often identify the strongest direction of the board (the height, or longest dimension, in most
cases). Produced in huge, continuous mats, OSB is a solid panel product of consistent quality with no laps, gaps,
or voids.
OSB is delivered in various dimensions, strengths, and levels of water resistance.
Laminated timber
Glued laminated timber (glulam) is composed of several layers of dimensional timber glued together with
moisture-resistant adhesives, creating a large, strong, structural member that can be used as vertical columns or
horizontal beams. Glulam can also be produced in curved shapes, offering extensive design flexibility.
Laminated veneer
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is produced by bonding thin wood veneers together in a large billet. The grain
of all veneers in the LVL billet is parallel to the long direction. The resulting product features enhanced
mechanical properties and dimensional stability that offer a broader range in product width, depth, and length
than conventional lumber. LVL is a member of the structural composite lumber (SCL) family of engineered
wood products that are commonly used in the same structural applications as conventional sawn lumber and
timber, including rafters, headers, beams, joists, rim boards, studs, and columns.
"Pakka wood", a common kitchen knife handle material, is a material with a cheap wood core and a laminated
veneer surface made from more expensive wood. It is inexpensive, waterproof, strong, and durable.
Cross laminated
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a versatile multi-layered panel made of lumber. Each layer of boards is placed
cross-wise to adjacent layers for increased rigidity and strength. CLT can be used for long spans and all
assemblies, e.g. floors, walls, or roofs CLT has the advantage of faster construction times as the panels are
manufactured and finished off-site and supplied ready to fit and screw together as a flat pack assembly
project.[citation needed]
Parallel strand
Parallel strand lumber (PSL) consists of long veneer strands laid in parallel formation and bonded together with
an adhesive to form the finished structural section. A strong, consistent material, it has a high load-carrying
ability and is resistant to seasoning stresses so it is well suited for use as beams and columns for post and beam
construction, and for beams, headers, and lintels for light framing construction. PSL is a member of the
structural composite lumber (SCL) family of engineered wood products.
Laminated strand
Laminated strand lumber (LSL) and oriented strand lumber (OSL) are manufactured from flaked wood strands
that have a high length-to-thickness ratio. Combined with an adhesive, the strands are oriented and formed into a
large mat or billet and pressed. LSL and OSL offer good fastener-holding strength and mechanical connector
performance and are commonly used in a variety of applications, such as beams, headers, studs, rim boards,
and millwork components. These products are members of the structural composite lumber (SCL) family of
engineered wood products.[14] LSL is manufactured from relatively short strands—typically about 1 foot
long—compared to the 2 foot to 8 foot long strands used in PSL.
Finger joint
The finger joint is made up of short pieces of wood combined to form longer lengths and is used in doorjambs,
moldings, and studs. It is also produced in long lengths and wide dimensions for floors.
Beams
I-joists and wood I-beams are "I"-shaped structural members designed for use in floor and roof construction. An
I-joist consists of top and bottom flanges of various widths united with webs of various depths. The flanges
resist common bending stresses, and the web provides shear performance, I-joists are designed to carry heavy

30
loads over long distances while using less lumber than a dimensional solid wood joist of a size necessary to do
the same task. As of 2005, approximately half of all wood light framed floors were framed using I-
joists.[citation needed]
Trusses
Roof trusses and floor trusses are structural frames relying on a triangular arrangement of webs and chords to
transfer loads to reaction points. For a given load, long wood trusses built from smaller pieces of lumber require
less raw material and make it easier for AC contractors, plumbers, and electricians to do their work, compared to
the long 2x10s and 2x12s traditionally used as rafters and floor joists.
Transparent wood composites
Transparent wood composites are new materials, currently only made at the laboratory scale, that combines
transparency and stiffness via a chemical process that replaces light-absorbing compounds, such as lignin, with a
transparent polymer.

4.6. Glass for glazing

Structural Glazing
Structural glazing is made by heating
sheets of glass uniformly after
manufacture until it is plastic and
then rapid cooling with jets of air.
The outer layers closet to the jets of
air cool and solidify first. They
contact as they cool. As the inner
layers try to follow they throw the
outer layers into compression. This
process creates a glass that is about 7
times stronger than
ordinary/untreated float glass.

4.7. Glass fibers

Using glass fiber as a reinforcing agent in the composite industry shows a big trend since the price of the glass
fiber is low in comparison to carbon fiber or Kevlar. For general-purpose application E-glass is seen to be a best
choice and also for high technology applications various types of glass fiber like S glass or ECR glasses were
introduced to the market. Glass fiber products have the advantages that it can be used either in the traditional
composite manufacturing processes (hand layup) or it can be used in high technology composite manufacturing
techniques like RTM.

In the transportation and automotive industries the idea of lightweight vehicles is the driving force for glass
fiber composite manufacturers and according to the demand of customers glass fiber is widely used since it
fulfills the composite market needs by considering low cost and availability in the glass fiber market. By
looking at the growth of light vehicle sales to about 50% from 2010 to 2015, increasing the glass fiber
production can also be considered.

Introduction of Glass Fiber:

Glass is a non-metallic fiber, widely used as industrial material these days.
The art of spinning glass yarns to make fabrics is very old, dating back to
1713. In 1893, a glass dress made for the Broadway actress, Georgia
Cayvan, which was exhibited at the World’s Columbian Exposition in
Chicago, was made from bundles of spun glass fiber held together by silk
threads. However, the fabric was too cumbersome to be worn because it
was too stiff to drape. The base ingredients of glass fibers are forms of
silica, mainly sand, limestone, stone ash and borax.

31
Glass fiber also called fiberglass. It is material made from extremely fine fibers of glass. Fiberglass is a
lightweight, extremely strong, and robust material. Although strength properties are somewhat lower
than carbon fiber and it is less stiff, the material is typically far less brittle, and the raw materials are much less
expensive. Its bulk strength and weight properties are also very favorable when compared to metals, and it can
be easily formed using molding processes. Glass is the oldest, and most familiar, performance fiber. Fibers
have been manufactured from glass since the 1930s. Glass fiber products are categorized into four major groups;
chopped strands, direct draw rovings, assembled rovings, and mat products

Types of Glass Fiber:

As to the raw material glass used to make glass fibers or nonwovens of glass fibers, the following classification
is known:

1. A-glass: With regard to its composition, it is close to window glass. In the Federal Republic of Germany it is
mainly used in the manufacture of process equipment.

2. C-glass: This kind of glass shows better resistance to chemical impact.

3.D- Glass: An important type of glass fiber is D-type glass fiber. Boron contains the trioxide compound
intensively. Boron trioxide is used as a starting material for the synthesis of other boron compounds such as
boron carbide in the production of fluids for glass and enamels, and in the production of heat resistance and
thermal shock resistance borosilicate glasses.

4. E-glass: This kind of glass combines the characteristics of C-glass with very good insulation to electricity. E-
glass is basically a calcium alumino-borosilicate glass containing less than 1% alkali calculated as Na 2O.

5. AE-glass: Alkali resistant glass.

6. ECR-glass: It is also called electronic glass fiber. It has a good waterproofing ratio, high mechanical strength,
electrical acidic and alkali corrosion resistance. It shows better properties than E-Type glass fiber. The biggest
advantage is a more environmentally friendly glass fiber.

7. AR-glass: Alkali Resistant (AR: Alkali Resistant) Glass Fibers are specially designed for concrete
construction. They contain alkaline zirconium silicates. They are effective to prevent concrete cracking. This
adds strength and flexibility to concrete. They are also used for asbestos changes. They have alkali strength and
strength. It is very difficult to dissolve in water. Not affected by pH changes. They are easily added to stainless
steel and concrete mixtures. Intensive Magnesium and Calcium added fibers. Ideal for applications with high
acidic strength and mechanical strength.

R-glass, S-glass or T-glass fibers are trade names of equivalent fibers having better tensile strength and modulus
than E-type glass fibers. Higher acidic strength and wetting properties are obtained with a smaller filament
diameter.

Glass Fiber Composites: Properties, Manufacturing and Applications

Generally, glass consists of quartz sand, soda, sodium sulphate, potash, feldspar and a number of refining and
dying additives. The characteristics, with them the classification of the glass fibers to be made, are defined by
the combination of raw materials and their proportions. Textile glass fibers mostly show a circular.

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Glass Fiber:

Glass fibers are useful because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area
makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make
good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity of the order of 0.05 W/(mK).

Glass fibers have outstanding mechanical properties, such as less fragility, extreme strength, less stiffness, and
lightweight. Some physical and mechanical properties of glass fibers are listed below table.

32
Table: Different types of glass fibers and physical and mechanical properties

The strength of glass is usually tested and reported for “virgin” or pristine fibers those which have just been
manufactured. The freshest, thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile. The
more the surface is scratched, the less the resulting tenacity. Because glass has an amorphous structure, its
properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber. Humidity is an important factor in the tensile
strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed, and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and lessen
tenacity.

In contrast to carbon fiber, glass can undergo more elongation before it breaks. There is a correlation between
bending diameter of the filament and the filament diameter. The viscosity of the molten glass is very important
for manufacturing success. During drawing (pulling of the glass to reduce fiber circumference), the viscosity
should be relatively low. If it is too high, the fiber will break during drawing. However, if it is too low, the glass
will form droplets rather than drawing out into fiber.

Manufacturing Processes of Glass Fiber

Idea of manufacturing glass fiber and yarn is centuries old. The raw materials for glass are primarily silica sand
and limestone, with small amount of other compounds such as aluminium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and
borax. After the initial process of melting glass and passing it through spinnerets, continuous filaments or staple
fibers of glass are manufactured by two different methods.

33
Continuous Filament Process
In this process, continuous filaments of indefinite length is produced. The molten glass passes through
spinnerets having hundreds of small openings. These strands of multiple filaments are carried to winder
revolving at very high speed of more than 2 miles per km. This process draws out the fibers in parallel filaments
of the diameter of the openings. A sizing or a binder is applied to facilitate the twisting and winding process and
to prevent breakage during yarn formation. After winding, filaments are further twisted and plied to make yarns
by methods similar to those for making other continuous filament yarns. The sizing is removed through
volatizing in an oven. These yarns are used for making such items as curtains and drapes.

Staple Fiber Process

Fibers with long-staple qualities are manufactured through staple fiber process. There are many methods for
producing such fibers.

In one of such methods, the molten glass flows through the small holes of bushing, where jets of compressed air
shake the thin streams of molten glass into fine fibers. These fibers vary in length ranging from 8 to 15 inches.
The fibers fall through a spray of lubricant and a drying flame onto e revolving drum where they form into a thin
web. These fibers in the form of web are gathered from the drum into a sliver. Yarn is then made from this sliver
by similar methods that are adopted for making cotton or wool yarns. These yarns are used for fabrics for
industrial purposes where insulation is required.

In yet another method, the ends of the glass rods are melted from which drops of glass fall away drawing off
glass filaments after them onto a speedily revolving cylinder where they are wound parallel to each other. A web
of sliver is formed if the cylinder moves sideways. Sometimes, the staple may be thrown off the cylinder onto a
stationary sieve where it forms a sliver. In either conditions, the sliver is then converted into spun yarn.

The staple fiber, if subjected to oven, is compressed to the desired thickness and the binder which was earlier
applied, is cured. This permanently binds the fibers.

Glass Fiber Production:

The subsequent manufacture of glass fibers may be executed to the direct melting process. However, in most
cases glass rods or balls are made first which then may undergo a variety of further processes.

Nozzle-Drawing:
As can be seen in below Fig, the glass fed in is melted in a heated melt tub at 1250–1400 oC. Then, it emerges at
the bottom of the melt tub from nozzle holes of 1–25 mm diameter and it is taken off and drawn. The filaments
solidify and are finished and wound. One can find them in the shops as various kinds of “glass silk”. To make
them into webs, the filaments are cut to length (mostly, between 6 and 25 mm).

34
 Nozzle-Blowing:
The same as with nozzle-drawing, glass balls are melted in the tub. The melt emerging from the nozzle holes is
then taken by pressed air, which draws the liquid glass so as to make fibers of 6–10 um diameter. A fluttering
effect is caused by the flow of pressed air, which results in fibers of lengths from 50 to 300 mm. A lubricant is
put on and the fibers are laid down on a sieve drum which sucks them in. The dry web received is held together
by the long fibers, the short ones lying in between them as a filling material. Then, the slivers of glass fiber
material are cut.

Rod-Drawing:
By means of a burner, bundles of glass rods are melted at their bottom ends. This results in drops which, as they
fall down, draw filaments after them. The filaments are taken by a rotating drum, a squeegee laying them down
onto a perforated belt. Thus, a dry web is received which can be wound as glass fiber slivers. – Machine
performance being limited by the number of glass rods fed in, the rotating drum may be combined with nozzle-
drawing, which results in drum-drawing. This multiplies machine performance. The dry web is again laid down
onto a perforated belt and solidified or, after winding it so as to receive slivers, cut for further processing on
machines producing wetlaid nonwovens. Using and processing glass fibers is not without any problems. For
example, fine pieces of broken fibers may disturb if the work place is not well prepared for the purpose. Using
the nonwovens to manufacture glass-fiber reinforced plastics, it is important the surface of the plastic material is
fully even. Ends of fiber looking out may be pulled out or loosened by outward stress (temperature, gases,
liquids), which may influence material characteristics. In some cases, it is
advisable to cover up such layers of glass fiber with suitable chemical fibers.

Application / End Uses of Glass Fiber and Yarn:

Glass fibers are used in a number of applications which can be divided into four basic categories: (a) insulations,
(b) filtration media, (c) reinforcements, and (d) optical fibers.

Glass fiber is manufactured in a wide range of fine diameters. Some of them are so fine that they can be seen
only through a microscope. This quality of fineness contributes greatly to the flexibility of glass fibers. Various
manufacturers produce different types of glass fibers for different end uses. Glass fibers them are used for
various purpose.

 For making home furnishings fabrics;

 For making apparels and garments; and
 For the purpose tires and reinforced plastics.

There are certain glass fibers that can resist heat upto 7200oC and can withstand forces having speed of 15,000
miles per hour. These types of glass fibers are used as:

 Filament windings around rocket cases;

 Nose cones;
 Exhaust nozzles; and
 Heat shields for aeronautical equipment

Some other types of glass fibers are embedded into various plastics for strength. These are used in:

 Boat hulls and seats;

35
  Fishing rods; and
 Wall paneling

Some other types of glass fibers are used for reinforcing electrical insulation. Yet other types are used as batting
for heat insulation in refrigerators and stoves. Glass fiber is also used in furnishings (such as upholstery and
curtains); insulation, conveyor belts, circuit boards, protective clothing for military troops, ropes and meshes in
shipbuilding and aircraft construction.

4.8. Glass wool

Glass wool is an insulating material made from fibres of glass arranged using a binder into a texture similar to
wool. The process traps many small pockets of air between the glass and these small air pockets result in high
thermal insulation properties.
Glass Wool is an insulating material manufactured from glass fiber known as borosilicate glass arranged using a
binder into a texture similar to that of wool. It constitutes silica sand, recycled glass, and fixing agents which form
a perfect combination in order to provide good insulation and coating for the houses.
Glass Wool Properties
The following is properties of glass wool material,

 Glasswool is one of the best alternatives to the insulation provided to the house.
 It is an excellent sound insulator material capable of absorbing incident sound hence
used as an acoustic barrier to reduce sound transmission.
 It can also be a good thermal insulator.
 Glass Wool is an environmentally friendly material, as it is completely natural mineral
wool, manufactured by the fusion of recycled glass and sand or cullet.
 Being made from recycled material it is an inexpensive and cost-effective product.
 It has good tensile strength, in the sense, it will be a durable material.
 The most astonishing characteristic of glasswool is that it can resist fire up to 300 o C.

36
5. Water proofing agents: any five water proofing agents,
difference between wetting agents and water proof agent

5.1. Water proofing agents: any five water proofing agents

Waterproofing is the formation of an impervious barrier over surfaces of foundations, roofs, walls, and other
structural members. The function of the impermeable barrier is to prevent water penetrations. The building
surfaces are made water-resistant and sometimes waterproof.
The utilization of liquid waterproofing membrane, cementitious materials, polyurethane liquid membrane, and
bituminous material are common in the waterproofing of buildings.
Waterproofing is necessary for the basement, walls, bathrooms, kitchen, balconies, decks, terrace or roofs, green
roofs, water tanks, and swimming pools, etc.
1. Cementitious Waterproofing
2. Liquid Waterproofing Membrane
3. Bituminous Membrane
4. Bituminous Coating
5. Polyurethane Liquid Membrane
1. Cementitious Waterproofing
Cementitious waterproofing is the easiest method of waterproofing in
construction. The materials for cementitious waterproofing are readily
available from suppliers of masonry products. And they are easy to mix
and apply.
The applications of the cementitious waterproofing technique are in the
internal wet areas, such as toilets. That is why it does not go through the
contract and expansion process.

Applications of Cementitious Waterproofing

1. Water treatment plants
2. Sewage treatment facilities
3. Bridges
4. Dams
5. Railway and subway systems
6. Marine cargo ports and docks
7. River locks/channels
8. Parking structures
9. Tunnels
2. Liquid Waterproofing Membrane
The liquid membrane consists of a primer coat and two topcoats. The
application of the coatings is by spray, roller, or trowel. The liquid layer is
thin and offers more flexibility than the cementitious types of
waterproofing.
The liquid cures into a rubbery coating on the wall. The elongation
properties of the coat can reach as high as 280%. The durability of the
waterproofing coating depends on what type of polymer the manufacturer
used for the making of the liquid waterproofing.

Liquid waterproofing membrane can be of a spray-applied liquid layer

composed of polymer-modified asphalt. Polyurethane liquid membranes in
separate grades for trowel, roller, or spray are also available from various manufacturers.
3. Bituminous Coating Waterproofing
Bituminous coating (asphalt coating) is made of bitumen based materials.
It is a flexible protective coat based on its formulation and polymerization
grade. The flexibility and protection against water can be influenced by
the polymer grade and reinforcement of fiber.
The most common applications of bituminous coatings include areas that
are beneath screed wet. It is an excellent protective coating and
waterproofing agent, especially on surfaces such as concrete foundations.
It is not suitable for exposure to sunlight unless it is modified with a more
flexible material such as polyurethane or acrylic-based polymers.

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4. Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing
Bituminous membrane waterproofing is a popular method used
for low-sloped roofs due to their proven performance. The
bituminous waterproofing membrane has a torch on the layer and
self-adhesive membrane.
Self-adhesive compounds comprise asphalt, polymers, and filler;
additionally, certain resins and oils may be added to improve
adhesion characteristics. The self-adhesive type has a low shelf
life as bonding properties of the membrane reduces with time.
Torch on membrane has exposed and covered types. The
exposed layer often has granular mineral aggregate to withstand
the wear and tear of the weathering. For the other kind of membrane, the contractor needs to apply one
protective screed to prevent the puncture of the membrane.

5. Polyurethane Liquid Membrane Waterproofing

Polyurethane liquid membrane method of waterproofing is used for the flat
roof area and exposed to weathering. This waterproofing method is expensive.
Polyurethane Liquid Membrane can offer higher flexibility. Polyurethane is
very sensitive to moisture content. Therefore before application, one has to be
very careful evaluating the moisture content of the concrete slab, otherwise
peeling or de-bonding of membranes may happen after some time.
FAQs on waterproofing types, methods, and applications
What are the types of waterproofing?
The most common types of waterproofing are cementitious waterproofing, liquid waterproofing membrane,
bituminous membrane, bituminous coating, and polyurethane liquid membrane.
What is the purpose of waterproofing?
The purpose of the waterproofing is to prevent water penetrations into concrete surfaces.
Where is waterproofing used?
Waterproofing is necessary for the basement, walls, bathrooms, kitchen, balconies, decks, terrace or roofs, green
roofs, water tanks, and swimming pools, etc.
What are the applications of cementitious waterproofing?
1. Water treatment plants
2. Sewage treatment facilities
3. Bridges
4. Dams
5. Railway and subway systems
6. Marine cargo ports and docks
7. River locks/channels
8. Parking structures
9. Tunnels
What is liquid membrane waterproofing?
The liquid membrane consists of a primer coat and two topcoats. The application of the coatings is by spray,
roller, or trowel. The liquid layer is thin and offers more flexibility than the cementitious types of waterproofing.
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5.2. Difference between wetting agents and water proof agent

Water proofing agents: The substances which are used to increase the angle of contact are called " water proofing
agents'.
Wetting agents: The substances which are used to decrease the angle of contact are called "wetting agents".
with respect to the phenomenon of surface tension.
A substance that reduces the surface tension of a liquid, causing the liquid to spread across surface of a solid.
If such substances are added to the liquid, it lowers the surface tension and liquid can easily spread on the
surface.
Contact angle is the angle a drop water makes with solid surface.
If contact angle is low liquid drop can easilly spread. Ex: water can easily wet the surface of a cottan cloth.
Detergent also one example of wetting agent.
Water proof agents increases the surface tention hence the contact angle. Thus liquid can not spread on the
surface. Ex: water beads on a wax or oily surface. water can not wet the oily surface because of high contact
angle.
.

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There are two general types of bulk intermolecular forces:

 Cohesive Forces: The forces exerted between molecules holding them together. If cohesive forces are
strong, a liquid tends to form droplets on a surface.
 Adhesive Forces: The forces between liquid molecules and a surface. If adhesive forces are strong, a
liquid tends to spread across a surface.

Wetting agents are substances that reduce the surface tension of water to allow it to spread drops onto a
surface, increasing the spreading abilities of a liquid. Lowering the surface tension lowers the energy
required to spread drops onto a film, thus weakening the cohesive properties of the liquid and
strengthening its adhesive properties.

One example of how wetting agents work is in the formation of micelles. Micelles consist of hydrophilic heads
forming an outer layer around lipophilic tails. When in water, the micelles' tails can surround an oil droplet
while the heads are attracted to the water.

Dish soap is a great example of a wetting agent. With all the food oils and such on the plate cohesive forces
make it difficult for the water to spread and clean the plate. The soap dissolves
all theses unwanted particles, exposing a clean surface. The soap also lowers
the surface tension of water, allowing it to spread evenly across the entire
surface.

There are four main types of wetting agents: anionic, cationic, amphoteric, and
nonionic.

 Anionic, cationic, and amphoteric wetting agents ionize when mixed

with water.
 Anions have a negative charge, while cations have a positive charge.
 Amphoteric wetting agents can act as either anions or cations, depending on the acidity of the solution.
 Nonionic wetting agents do not ionize in water. A possible advantage for using a nonionic wetting agent
is that it does not react with other ions in the water, which could lead to formation of a precipitate.

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