The Mandala

of

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KASH
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His Divine Grace - Dr Uday Dokras

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"Not all those who wander are lost" J. R. R. Tolkien

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Circuits, Death And Sacred Fiction: The City Of Banaras===Mahesh Senagala

Let us go on a pilgrimage to a city that is all about existence and sustenance. If we turned our
clocks back about 5,000 years, we would see, on the west bank of the river Ganges in North
India, three hillocks that are the seed of a very special human phenomenon, the city of Banaras.
Not only has the city survived over the last 5,000 years, but it has thrived and is still very much
alive. During those five millennia, the city has sustained its essence, character, mythological
power and existential agenda.

People go to Banaras to die - die happily, I might add. The concept may seem startling at first.
Many go to Las Vegas to escape the boring and banal reality of their cities and immerse
themselves in a hedonistic hyper-reality; others go to Paris, perhaps to immortalize their
moments of love. However, there is no city on earth where you go with an express purpose of
spending the last days of your life. Think of it as an existential airport to life after death. In
Banaras, death is not a dead-end; it is a passage, a transition and a gateway. That is the raison
d'être of Banaras, a unique and original phenomenon that has no precedent or antecedent. Why
would anybody imagine such a city? What means and modalities allow Banaras to attain such
heights of existential resolution?

Banaras is at a rare confluence of unique geography, mythology, urban form and cultural
institutions. The city is located about 500 miles south of New Delhi, India. Here, the river
Ganges changes her usual direction from south-east to flow back in a northerly direction pointing
at her origins in the Himalayas, the sacred mountains for the Hindus. The river also takes a
crescent profile, thus reconfirming the mythology according to which Lord Shiva, the presiding
deity of the city, wears the moon on his head. The landscape on the west bank rises into three
hillocks symbolizing the trident of Lord Shiva. The "other bank" of the river is, in contrast, flat
and plain.

In plan, the city is conceived as a half circle. While the west bank of the Ganges has been
inhabited for thousands of years and grown into a complex and congested city, the east bank of
the river has been untouched and left totally undeveloped. The reasons have nothing to do with
the city code. For the people of Banaras, the other bank of the semi-circular city resides in the
"other world" or heaven where people go after they die. They metaphorically cross the existential
river of life to reach the eternal city of the other Banaras.

The City Of Circuits

Banaras is a city of circuits. Devoted pilgrims carrying food, faith, and age-old stories circle the
city following the sixteen codified sacred paths. The city is shaped like an onion: circuits within
circuits leading to the center where the great temple of Lord Shiva resides. The form of the city
is created, recreated and reasserted as people trace the circuits in the footsteps of their elders.

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The city is defined by neither the fort walls nor the boundaries, but by the circuits of sacred
circumambulation. Instead of a map, these circuits around the city and its countless temples form
a mandala in the minds of the devoted pilgrims, as they follow the routes chanting and reciting
the myths and stories of the places that they come across. In this way, the pilgrims meditate the
city and establish a correspondence between the city of the mind and the city of the material
world. Ultimately, what people carry with them is the city of the mind, not the material city.

There is a distinction between the "map reading" and the "myth reading" images of the city. The
mandala of Banaras is a kinesthetic and mytho-poetic image that one forms by experiencing the
city and traversing it ritually in space. You may find your way by means of a map, but with
a mandala, you become the mandala. Unlike a map, a mandala is a constellation of myths,
legends, imagery and sensory experiences. Through chants and processions, the city is constantly
conserved, imagined, created and revised. In the process of traversing the city, one existentially
transforms one's own self into the city which is thus projected as an image of one's self.

The Labyrinth

The city meets its river through a series of vivacious interfaces called ghats 2. At the ghats, the
momentum and the energy of the city is thwarted, such that the city's edge is forced into a
rugged, fat, haphazard, incoherent, circumstantial mass of walls, facades, spires, towers, palaces
and platforms. The intersection of the city of steps and the labyrinthine Banaras is intense
indeed.

If you are a pilgrim, you may take a walk from Asi Ghat in the south along the uneven terrain of
the river's edge. What you come across may be the most profound and surreal, yet meaningful
experience of the city and its life. All along the ghats unfolds the breadth of Banarasi life: a
wreck can be seen capsized in the clay silt of the muddy bank; a half-naked mendicant standing
waist-deep in the water, in the company of a herd of imperturbable cows, water buffaloes,
dilapidated umbrellas, peepal leaves, marigolds, roses and lotuses that bloom around the ghats;
well-versed Brahmins conducting funeral oblations for bereft families; a forest of lamp-holding
bamboo sticks, a leaning temple capsized in the soft clay, a man in bangles, a rusty balustrade, a
worn off rope that once held the mightiest of the boats and an abandoned tower house compete
for the same place on the river's edge and in the viewer's mind.

If you are patiently and curiously walking along the ghats, you may also meet the vandalized
stone plinths of the lofty palaces, a scale measuring the height of the Ganges when she floods in
ecstasy, a blood-stained Hanuman 3, a rusted bicycle, a group of mischievous kids flying kites,
stray dogs, and Gandharvas 4. Burning corpses with swirling smoke blacken the empty edifices.
Still hot ashes of a funeral pyre and a meditating yogi with a trident and saffron flag, chatting
fishermen with tangled nets, graceful young girls and the floating body of a dead infant coexist
simultaneously on the craggy steps of the ghats. You wonder what brings all these disparate

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things and phenomena together. As a stranger you may be baffled by the onslaught of images,
things and events, but the people of Banaras seem to be completely at home with the city. You
wonder what gives them the power to reconcile their existential dilemmas with this labyrinthine
city. You soon realize that, as in Italo Calvino's Invisible Cities, there is more to Banaras than
meets the eye.

There the people, in an effort to experience the fullness and completeness of the world, have
created certain beautiful fictions portrayed in an all enthralling mythology called Kashi Purana 5.
Such delightful myths as Parvathi's earrings 6, Divodasa's ten-horse sacrifice 7, a broken bow and
a bride won, Indra with a diamond-edged lethal weapon 8 etc., situate the physical city amid a
narrative and fictional city. The invisible and mythical population of Banaras by far surpasses the
visible population and dominates the visible world.

In Banaras, everything has a story, a legend, or a myth. Like the morning mist, powerful
mythologies shroud the city. Story telling is one recurrent way of structuring and sustaining
Banaras. The sacred fiction sustains the city and its pursuits. Mythology is the form giver of the
city. Here, form undoubtedly follows immaculate fiction. There is the larger context of Gods,
heavens, nether worlds, demons, Gandharvas, sages, ascetics and epics of mythical India; and
there is the fiction of the city of Banaras that fits into the larger work of sacred literature. The
secret of Banaras' integrity is neither in its magnificent spires nor in its vivacious ghats; the
secret of Kashi is neither in its topography nor in its traditional structures alone. The real secret
of Banaras is wide open: it is the way everything is interwoven into a huge system of sacred
fiction.

People come here to die. And behold, they are only too happy to die! It is said that even a dog
can be blessed with liberation if it dies within the bounds of Panch Kroshi - the largest
circumambulatory circuit that defines the city limits. Even if one has led a miserable life, death
in Banaras is said to liberate one of all the agony. The invisible signs on thousands of temples,
ghats and houses in Banaras tacitly declare this eternal bargain through an ingenious
epistemology of space. At Manikarnika ghat you could see scores of people of both sexes and all
castes and ages unfettered by death! At Banaras, death, the biggest human fear and enigma, has
been tamed and domesticated by the city and its mythologies. With death, all of your sins are
forgiven by virtue of your being in the city of Banaras. Existence is eternal and immortal, and
therefore sustainable in Banaras.

People in Banaras learn story-telling right from the time when, under the moonlit sky, their
mothers sang lullabies on Lord Rama; the time they played in the streets, shrines and steps of the
ghats, and contemplated the mysterious emptiness of the other bank. When they grow up, they
see the whole world as a beautiful work of fiction: a work where everything is well composed
and under the control of the author. The author is at the center, and there are a million authors
inhabiting Banaras, visiting and imagining it. It is all imagination, powerful and enthralling. For

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the people of Banaras, the whole universe is replete with life; there is nothing inanimate or
lifeless in the universe. The post-structuralist observation on the death of the author serves as an
excellent comparison between the cities of infrastructure and the city of Banaras. Albeit with a
different inclination and intent, Camus made a brilliant observation that reinforces the notion of
humanizing the universe: "If man realized that the universe, like him, can love and suffer, he
would be reconciled."

In the rugged undulation of the masculine landforms, people of Banaras see the trident of Lord
Shiva or Mount Meru. In the feminine curves of the sweeping crescent of the Ganges, they see a
caring mother. The sky crowded with lazy clouds is a theater where, perhaps, in the shadow of a
mountain, a demon drinks Sura, the eternal drink. The emptiness of the other bank is an unfolded
blankness set against the crammed tightness of the stony complexity of the opposite bank. Place
making is myth making: the place creates the myth, and the myth in turn creates the place. What
distinguishes Banaras from other cities is that it duly recognizes and addresses existential
dilemmas.

Thus, in Banaras, a grand and unique urban paradigm reconciles our existential dilemmas
through a marriage of architecture, urbanism and narrative means of dwelling. Banaras teaches
us that fiction is a powerful mode of imagining, building and dwelling in our cities; that
mythologies and other fictions are essential to enliven the inanimate world of things and
infrastructures. The existential absurdity of life and death are reconciled through the architecture
of the city. When such a reconciliation takes place spatially, cities and architecture become
sustainable.

Kashi means the illuminated city and is one of the most sacred of all holy
places. In the Skanda Purana, Maharishi Vyasa describes Kashi to be a circu-
lar mandala, of 5 krosa radius (1 krosha/kosa = 2.2 miles or 3.52 km) with
Kashi Viswanath temple in the centre. Kashi, located on the banks of Ma
Ganga gets its other name Varanasi from the two rivers which flow through
its north and south Varana and Assi before they merge into Ma Ganga.

Lord Shiva forever resides in his favourite Kashi also called Anandavan. Even
during pralaya at the end of the Kalpa, Lord Shiva does not leave his Kashi. It
is said one who leaves his body in Kashi attains to mukti and Lord Shiva him-
self utters the mantra in the person’s ears. All holy teerthas are said to
reside in Kashi, including the twelve jyotirlingas. Countless saints have lived
here, performed tapas and spread the knowledge and glory of the Lord. Once
can find ashramas of the saints including Maharishi Agastya, Maharishi Kapi-
la and so on, as also those of Kabir and Tulsidas.

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 INTRODUCTION
What is a Mandala
Mandala, in Hindu and Buddhist Tantrism, a symbolic diagram used in the performance of
sacred rites and as an instrument of meditation. The mandala is basically a representation of
the universe, a consecrated area that serves as a receptacle for the gods and as a collection point
of universal forces. Man (the microcosm), by mentally “entering” the mandala and “proceeding”
toward its centre, is by analogy guided through the cosmic processes of disintegration and
reintegration. Similar ritual drawings have been found in cultures other than Hindu and Buddhist
—for example, in the sand paintings of the North American Indians. The Swiss psychologist Carl
Jung published studies of mandala-like drawings executed by his patients. In his view, the
spontaneous production of a mandala is a step in the individuation process—a central concept in
Jung’s psychological theory—and represents an attempt by the conscious self
to integrate hitherto unconscious material.

mandalas-in-the-sri-
mariamman-temple-singapore. A swastika and the Nazi symbol
The Swastika on the other hand is an equilateral cross with arms bent at right angles, all in the
same rotary direction, usually clockwise. The swastika as a symbol of prosperity and good
fortune is widely distributed throughout the ancient and modern world. The word is derived from
the Sanskrit svastika, meaning “conducive to well-being.” It was a favourite symbol on
ancient Mesopotamian coinage. In Scandinavia the left-hand swastika was the sign for the
god Thor’s hammer. The swastika also appeared in early Christian and Byzantine art (where it
became known as the gammadion cross, or crux gammata, because it could be constructed from
four Greek gammas [ Γ ] attached to a common base), and it occurred in South and Central
America (among the Maya) and in North America (principally among the Navajo).

In India the swastika continues to be the most widely used auspicious symbol of Hindus, Jainas,
and Buddhists. Among the Jainas it is the emblem of their seventh Tirthankara (saint) and is also
said to remind the worshiper by its four arms of the four possible places of rebirth—in the animal
or plant world, in hell, on Earth, or in the spirit world.

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The Hindus (and also Jainas) use the swastika to mark the opening pages of their account
books, thresholds, doors, and offerings. A clear distinction is made between the right-hand
swastika, which moves in a clockwise direction, and the left-hand swastika (more correctly
called the sauvastika), which moves in a counterclockwise direction. The right-hand swastika is
considered a solar symbol and imitates in the rotation of its arms the course taken daily by
the Sun, which in the Northern Hemisphere appears to pass from east, then south, to west. The
left-hand swastika more often stands for night, the terrifying goddess Kālī, and magical practices.

In the Buddhist tradition the swastika symbolizes the feet, or the footprints, of the Buddha. It is
often placed at the beginning and end of inscriptions, and modern Tibetan Buddhists use it as a
clothing decoration. With the spread of Buddhism, the swastika passed into the iconography of
China and Japan, where it has been used to denote plurality, abundance, prosperity, and long life.

In Nazi Germany the swastika (German: Hakenkreuz), with its oblique arms turned clockwise,
became the national symbol. In 1910 a poet and nationalist ideologist Guido von List had
suggested the swastika as a symbol for all anti-Semitic organizations; and when the National
Socialist Party was formed in 1919–20, it adopted it. On September 15, 1935, the black swastika
on a white circle with a red background became the national flag of Germany. This use of the
swastika ended in World War II with the German surrender in May 1945, though the swastika is
still favoured by neo-Nazi groups.

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The information is concealed in the huge circular stone designs of Hindu Mandir mandalas that
are structured in the inner ceiling of the pillared hall of every temple are symbolic designs of the
complex functioning of the cosmos. These intricate designs of the mandalas, are believed to be
the gatherers of positive energy.

Mandala of the Sri Chakra

The outermost part of Sri Chakra is a square (Caturasra) of three lines (Trirekha) which are one
inside the other. Each square has an opening in the middle on all the four sides. This is known
as Bhupura which represents the Earth plane. Inside the Bhupura are three concentric circles
(girdles) known as Trivalaya (Three Girdles). The space between the Bhupura and the Trivalaya
form the Trailokyamohana Chakra. The outermost line of the square has 10 Siddhi devis. The
middle line has 7 Matrika devis and Mahalakshmi. The innermost line has 10 Mudra devis. Also
these devis are Prakata Yoginis.

- Chakra: त्रैलोक्यमोहन चक्र

Trailokyamohana Chakra
- Avarana: प्रथम आवरण
Prathama Avarana
- Location: भूपुर
Bhupura
- Chakreshwari: त्रिपुरा चक्रेश्वरी
Tripura Chakreshwari
- Mudra: सर्वसंक्षोभिणी मुद्रा
Sarvasankshobhini Mudra
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- Yogini: प्रकट योगिनी
Prakata Yogini
- Mantra: अं आं सौः
Am Aam Sauh

The four gateways (portals) of the square in Bhupura represent four Amnayas (Sacred traditions
which are handed down). These are:
1. मन्त्रयोग (Mantrayoga) presided by भुवनेश्वरी (Bhuvaneshvari)
2. भक्तियोग (Bhaktiyoga) presided by दक्षिणाकाली (Dakshinakali)
3. कर्मयोग (Karmayoga) presided by कुब्जिका (Kubjika)
4. ज्ञानयोग (Jnanayoga) presided by गुह्यकाली (Guhyakali)

Shri Yantra Bindu

The powerpoint (Bindu) in the middle represents the cosmic center. I placed red crystals
at this point to symbolize fire and the power of that element. The triangles are
circumscribed by two concentric circles composed of 8 and 16 petals, representing
the lotus of creation and reproductive vital force. I made my lotus petals waves, as I have
a deep connection to the ocean and all that it represents.
The entire configuration is framed by the broken lines of an earth square, representing a
temple with four doors open onto the regions of the universe. I also created four wings of
fire that express my journey into the fire realms of my soul—burning with enthusiasm.
I am still learning about this mysterious symbol, and here is a video that helps one dive
deeper into the meaning and mystery behind Shri Yantra.

Kirtimukha at Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, Gadag district, Karnataka, India

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Kirtimukha (Sanskrit: कीर्तिमुख ,kīrtimukha, also kīrttimukha, a bahuvrihi compound
translating to "glorious face") is the name of a swallowing fierce monster face with huge fangs,
and gaping mouth, very common in the iconography of Hindu temple architecture in Nepal, India
and Southeast Asia, and often also found in Buddhist architecture. Unlike other Hindu legendary
creatures, for example the makara sea-monster, the kirtimukha is essentially an ornamental motif
in art, which has its origin in a legend from the Skanda Purana and the Shiva Purana.

Mandir Kalasa and Kirtimukha ("glorious face").Kirtimukha above a Hindu temple entrance in
Kathmandu, Nepal
The word mukha in Sanskrit refers to the face while kīrti means "fame, glory". The story of
Kirtimukha begins when the asura king Jalandhara, who "by virtue of extraordinary austerities ...
accumulated to himself irresistible powers."

In a burst of pride, he sent forth his messenger, the monster Rahu, whose main task is eclipsing
the moon, to challenge Shiva. "The challenge ... was that Shiva should give up his shining jewel
of a bride Parvati." Shiva's immediate answer was to explode a tremendous burst of power from
his third eye, which created a horrendous, emaciated, ravenous lion. A terrified Rahu sought
Shiva's mercy, which Shiva agreed to. In order to feed the ravenous lion, Shiva suggested that
the creature should feed on the selfishness, greed, and attachment of humans. Shiva, who was
pleased with the result, gave it the name "glorious face", and declared that it should always be at
the door of his temples. Thus, the Kirtimukha is a symbol of Shiva himself.

The Kirtimukha is often used as a motif surmounting the pinnacle of a temple or the image of a
deity, especially in South Indian architecture. As Zimmer writes, "Kirtimukha serves primarily as
an apotropaic demon-mask, a gruesome, awe-inspiring guardian of the threshold."

This face is sometimes confused with another sculptural element, the lion face (Simhamukha).
However, in order to be a Kirtimukha it has to be engaged in swallowing, for the Kirtimukha is
the figure of the "all consuming"

This monstrous face with bulging eyes sits also as an embellishment over the lintel of the gate to
the inner sanctum in many Hindu temples signifying the reabsorption that marks the entry into
the temple.[7] In Dravidian architecture and elsewhere it tops gavaksha (kudu, nasi) motifs.
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Mostly it is only a face, indeed very often only the upper jaw and top of the face is visible,
although in some places its arms are portrayed as well. The motif can also sometimes be found in
Shiva's matted hair.

Some authors have compared the Kirtimukha with the Greek myth of Ouroboros.

Kirtimukha at Kasi Visveshvara temple in Lakkundi, Gadag district, Karnataka state, India

1. Kala-Makara, a Kirtimukha of 9th century Javanese Sailendra Borobudur portal, Indonesia

2. Kirtimukha at Prasat Kok Po A, Angkor, Siemreap, Cambodia. 9th century
3. A Thai Kirthimukha at 'Wat Baan Ping' in Chiang Mai, Thailand
4. Khmer Kirtimukha lintel at Vat Kralanh, Cambodia, Baphuon, Angkor style, 11th century
5. Kirthimukha at Mukteshvara Temple in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha (India)

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In Shaktism (Shakta philosophy) according to Śākta-tantra, or Śāktism, Maṇḍala (मण्डल),
in the cakra or maṇḍala, the highest principle (gradual evolution of cosmic creation) is
represented in the central point and unfolds itself outwards, thus expressing the idea of creative
multiplication. The powers which are active on both the phenomenal and phonic levels in this
process may be symbolized as divine figures, male or female, who are either depicted in
iconographic form or represented in sonic form by their seed-syllables. The centre is thus
occupied by the main deity who is surrounded by partial manifestations. In this way the
components of the manifested world, as well as related philosophical concepts, are arranged into
a system according to the underlying religious-philosophical theories about creation.
As an object of meditation, the diagram is a means to effect a mental reconstruction of the
process of creation into its original source. By meditating on the powers the practitioner is
enabled to identify himself with them, by which process he gradually realizes his identity with
the ultimate reality.(Source Manthanabhairavatantram )
It also refers to the spatial ordering of mantras by virtue of which they work together.—
A maṇḍala has no existence apart from its parts but it is much more than just their sum. Maṇḍala
is the spatial ordering of its parts by virtue of which they work together as a whole. A maṇḍala is
like a machine. Machines work because their parts are configured correctly. If we pull apart the
parts of a watch it no longer tells the time. In the case of maṇdalas these parts are mantras.
Note: The union of the god with the goddess in the centre of the maṇḍala is the model and the
culmination of numerous unions great and small through and for which the parts of the maṇḍala,
more or less complex, are configured.
2) Maṇḍala (मण्डल) refers to “round (breasts)”, according to the Kulakaulinīmata 5.88-99.—
Accordingly, “The goddess (Tripurabhairavī) is red like vermillion and the Bandhūka flower.
She wears red clothes and is adorned with all the ornaments. She has matted hair and, peaceful,
the moon is her crest jewel. She is replete with all (auspicious) characteristics and sits on a cot.
She has large, round [i.e., āpīna-maṇḍala-ābhoga] and upraised breasts, her navel has three
folds, and she is adorned with (a fine) line of hair (travelling down from it). [...]”.

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As per Vastushastra (वास्तुशास्त्र, vāstuśāstra) which refers to the ancient Indian science
(shastra) of architecture (vastu), dealing with topics such architecture, sculpture, town-building,
fort building and various other constructions. Vastu also deals with the philosophy of the
architectural relation with the cosmic universe, Maṇḍala (मण्डल) refers to “- 1. convolution
(visible on a stone) § 2.10. - 2. “circle” (made up of the eight Principal Assessors) § 5.14.”.—
(For paragraphs cf. Les enseignements architecturaux de l'Ajitāgama et du Rauravāgama by
Bruno Dagens)

The Vastu Purusha Mandala is an indispensable part of vastu shastra and constitutes the
mathematical and diagrammatic basis for generating design. It is the metaphysical plan of a
building that incorporates the coursly bodies and supernatural forces. Purusha refers to energy,
power, soul or cosmic man. Mandala is the generic name for any plan or chart which
symbolically represents the cosmos.
Source: OpenEdition books: Architectural terms contained in Ajitāgama and Rauravāgama
In Dharmashastra (religious law) Maṇḍala (मण्डल) refers to the “group of powerful
sovereigns”. It is used throughout Dharmaśāstra literature such as the Manusmṛti and

the Baudhāyana-dharmasūtra.
Dharmashastra (धर्मशास्त्र, dharmaśāstra) contains the instructions (shastra) regarding
religious conduct of livelihood (dharma), ceremonies, jurisprudence (study of law) and more. It
is categorized as smriti, an important and authoritative selection of books dealing with the Hindu

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lifestyle.(Source: Shodhganga: Facts of society in the Manusamhita) maṇḍala is a technical term
to indicate the group of power ful sovereigns. There are all total seventy two varieties of king
included in the maṇḍala. The circle of sovereigns (mūlamaṇḍala) includes four types of
powerful kings.
These are named as

1. Madhyama (intermediate),
2. Vijigīṣu (ambitious),
3. Udāsīna (nutrel)
4. and Śatru (enemy).

These are four main (prakṛ) in a Rājamaṇḍala. The very important duty of king is to ponder on
each and every movement of these strong political powers.

Purana and Itihasa (epic history)

Maṇḍala (मण्डल) or Maṇḍalavyūha refers to the “Disposition of an army in the shape of a
circle”.—Disposition of an army (vyūha) of four parts, (infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots)
in the battlefield, the arrangement of it, in various forms. It is said that during the period of
Mahābhārata, there were various forms of disposition of the army.—Maṇḍala-vyūha is
mentioned in the Mahābhārata Bhīṣma Parva, Chapter 81.Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit
Dictionaries: The Purana Index
1a) Maṇḍala (मण्डल).—A mountain kingdom.*
1b) (Vartula): a palace in the form of a circle; the toraṇa is twenty hastas.*
1c) Of the sun; the place of all planets, stars and the moon.*
1d) (Brāhmaṇam) to be selected for recitation at śrāddha.*
1e) A place near Prayāgā protected by Hari;1 five yojanas in extent;2 every step there, is equal to
an aśvamedha.3
2) Maṇḍalā (मण्डला).—One of the ten pīṭhas for images; round in shape with a number
of mekhalas.*

Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy)

Maṇḍala (मण्डल).—Being an artistic device, maṇḍala incorporates in itself all the significant
aspects of symbols, sounds, forms, colours and divinities, with a stronghold on metaphysical and
ontological principles. The Āgamas excel all other scriptures with their elaborate and effective
details and descriptions of various maṇḍalas. In the Saivagamic group, the Kiraṇāgama is held in
high esteem owing to its copious details and directions on the mechanism of maṇḍalas.
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Maṇḍala is an aesthetic and mystic design in which the combination and in-tersection of various
forms related to the gross elements and to the deities concerned have their full play. The
correspondence of colours, the distribution of letters (mātṛkā-akṣaras) and the esoteric
significance enhance the mystic value of maṇḍalas.
Maṇḍala (मण्डल) refers to a “(lunar) disc”.—The moon also forms an important element of
Pāśupata yogic practices. As we learn from the Skandapurāṇa (179.28ff.), as pointed out by
Bakker (2015, 141), their “accomplishment in yoga” comes about through a process of
withdrawing the senses until the practitioner can see a lunar disc (soma-maṇḍala) in his heart.
From the moonlight within his body, yogic powers, omniscience and the like arise. These powers
include being immune to disease and possessing a divine body.
Maṇḍala (मण्डल) refers to a class of “mystical diagrams”.—Maṇḍalas, like mantras, are not
symbolic representations of the divine. They are physical structures that function as devices
through which a practitioner witnesses deities. During rites, the practitioner views the deities in
the maṇḍala, not as icons but as literal manifestations of the deities.
Note: The terms maṇḍala, cakra, and yantra are each often translated as “mystical diagram”.
These diagrams serve as spaces for ritual practice and are created so that the deities can appear
within them. Each type has its own frequent characteristics, such as maṇḍalas usually including
lotus petals or being drawn as square grids. These diagrams are regularly, though certainly not
always, made for ritual and destroyed afterward. At times they are big enough for practitioners to
enter them and the colors used have symbolic ritual meaning. Bühnemann, 2003, p. 15, shows
that cities are routinely said to be based on maṇḍalic mapping, but that the actual connection
between architectural or city design and maṇḍala is much more tenuous than it is widely
assumed.

Shaiva (शैव, śaiva) or Shaivism (śaivism) represents a tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva
as the supreme being. Closely related to Shaktism, Shaiva literature includes a range of

18
scriptures, including Tantras, while the root of this tradition may be traced back to the ancient
Vedas.
Arthashastra (politics and welfare) (अर्थशास्त्र, arthaśāstra) which contains literature
concerning with the teachings (shastra) of economic prosperity (artha) statecraft, politics and
military tactics. The term arthashastra refers to both the name of these scientific teachings, as
well as the name of a Sanskrit work included in such literature. This book was written (3rd
century BCE) by by Kautilya, who flourished in the 4th century BCE. Here mandal noted in the
Arthaśāstra and other legal texts, is a diplomatic circle of twelve neighbouring kings, some
friendly and others unfriendly, in relation to a king desirous of conquest. The term could also be
used for the territory under the possession of a feudatory.

Jyotisha (astronomy and astrology) which refers to ‘astronomy’ or “Vedic astrology” and
represents the fifth of the six Vedangas (additional sciences to be studied along with the Vedas).
Jyotisha concerns itself with the study and prediction of the movements of celestial bodies, in
order to calculate the auspicious time for rituals and ceremonies maṇḍala refers to the “lunar
disc”, according to the Bṛhatsaṃhitā (chapter 4), an encyclopedic Sanskrit work written by
Varāhamihira mainly focusing on the science of ancient Indian astronomy astronomy (Jyotiṣa).
—Accordingly, “If the disc of the moon that regularly waxes and wanes should appear white
resembling the colour of the Kumuda flower or that of the stem of the lotus or if the moon’s
course or disc [i.e., maṇḍala] or rays should suffer no irregular change there will be prosperity in
the land. During the waxing moon, the Brāhmins, the Kṣatriyas and mankind at large will
prosper; and during the waning moon, they will suffer miseries. The increase of prosperity will
commence after the new-moon and of adversity after the full moon”.
2) It also refers to a “circle” or “division” (of the sky), according to the Bṛhatsaṃhitā (chapter 9).
—Accordingly, “The four constellations from Bharaṇi are known as the first maṇḍala (circle or
division). If Venus should reappear in it there will be prosperity in the land; the people of Vaṅga
and of Aṅga, the Mahiṣas, the Vāhlīkās and the Kaliṅgas will be afflicted with fears. If Venus,
who so reappears in the said circle, should be crossed by a planet, the rulers of the Bhadrās, of
the Aśvas, of Śūrasenakas and of the Yaudheyas and Koṭivarṣa will perish”.

Sūryamaṇḍala refers to the “Sun’s orb”, according to Kāśīnātha Upādhye’s Dharmasindhu, a

commentary on the Rāma Daivajña’s Muhūrtacintāmaṇi (an astrological work).—Accordingly,
“[...] The water clock [i.e., ghaṭīyantra], thus calibrated, should be placed in a copper basin or
clay basin, full of water, when half of the Sun’s orb [i.e., sūrya-maṇḍala-ardha] has risen or set.
There this sacred formula is recited. ‘You have been created long time ago by Brahmā as the
foremost among the [time measuring] instruments. For the sake of the state of [their] becoming a
married couple you be the means of measuring time’. With this sacred formula, preceded by the
worship of Gaṇeśa and Varuṇa, the bowl should be placed [on the water in the basin]. If the bowl
thus placed moves to the south-east, south, south-west, or north-west of the basin, it is not
auspicious. If it stays in the middle, or moves to other directions, it is auspicious. Likewise, if it
19
fills [and sinks] in the five directions starting from the southeast, it is not auspicious. Thus the
discussion of the water clock. [...]”.
Maṇḍala (मण्डल).—Circle, revolution. Note: Maṇḍala is a Sanskrit technical term used in
ancient Indian sciences such as Astronomy, Mathematics and Geometry.

In Tantric Yoga, maṇḍala refers to the “orb” (of the sun), according to the Amṛtasiddhi, a
12th-century text belonging to the Haṭhayoga textual tradition.—Accordingly, “At the navel is a
white lotus. On top of that is the spotless orb (maṇḍala—vimalaṃ maṇḍalaṃ) of the sun. In the
middle of that, at the triple pathway, is she who is the sole essence of saṃsāra [and] the creator
of the three worlds, who arises on the path of dharma, who has three bodies [and] who is lauded
as Chinnamastā, “she whose head is cut.” I worship her, she who has the form of knowledge,
who removes the danger of death, the Yoginī, the seal of Yoga”.

Pancaratra (worship of Nārāyaṇa)

Maṇḍala refers to “esoteric motifs”, as discussed in chapter 15 of the Viśvāmitrasaṃhitā: a

Pāñcarātra text comprising some 2600 Sanskrit verses covering topics such as initiation (dīkṣā)
and the construction, decoration and consecration of temples and icons, as well as routines of
regular and special worship cycles.—Description of the chapter [maṇḍala-vidhi]: Kāśyapa asks
to know about the maṇḍala-motifs which have been referred to as a constituent part of worship-
routines (1). Viśvāmitra commences his explanation by turning to directions for marking off with
sticks a small mounded area on the ground. Cow-dung will then be spread over this foot-square
area, whereupon one will proceed by the help of pegs-and-strings to draw there five circular
designs. [...].

In the University of Vienna: Sudarśana's Worship at the Royal Court according to the
Ahirbudhnyasaṃhitā, Maṇḍala refers to a “provincial”, according to the Ahirbudhnyasaṃhitā,
belonging to the Pāñcarātra tradition which deals with theology, rituals, iconography, narrative
mythology and others.—Accordingly, “A ruler who is a Universal Sovereign is entitled to the
first, a Provincial Governor (maṇḍala-īśvara) to the second and a District Governor to the third
[level of] Creative Energy. [To the same are entitled] a chief minister or a twice-born, provided
he is in charge of the protection of many people. No single man is entitled to [deploy] Her for
[just] another man”.

In ancient Sports, Arts Maṇḍala (मण्डल) refers to a “(hunting) circle” (accompanying the
chief hawker), according to the Śyainika-śāstra: a Sanskrit treatise dealing with the divisions and
benefits of Hunting and Hawking, written by Rājā Rudradeva (or Candradeva) in possibly the
13th century.—Accordingly, [while discussing the outlines of hawking]: “[...] At the middle of

20
the party there should be the leading hawker, with two soldiers on each side. The circle
(maṇḍala) should be made with twenty-one horsemen. All men in the circle, with their eyes
fixed on the chief hawker, should remain at a distance of four cubits from each other, in two
equal divisions on each side. [...]”.
There are a few key reasons why ancient cities tended to be circular in layout, whereas modern cities
often follow a rectangular grid pattern:

1. Defensive Considerations: Many ancient cities were founded for defensive purposes and
needed to be easily fortified. A circular layout allowed for continuous walls or ramparts to
surround the city, providing effective protection against invaders. This circular shape
optimized the use of space within the city walls.
2. Organic Growth: Ancient cities often developed organically over time, with new buildings
and neighborhoods added in a piecemeal fashion. This resulted in a more irregular, radial
pattern as the city expanded from a central core or focal point. The circular shape
accommodated this incremental growth.
3. Terrain Adaptation: Circular layouts were well-suited to the hilly or uneven terrain where
many ancient cities arose, as the curved streets could more easily follow the contours of
the landscape.
In contrast, modern cities tend to favor a rectangular grid pattern for a few key reasons:

1. Efficient Land Use: The grid layout allows for standardized city blocks and maximizes the
buildable land area within the city limits. This is important for densely populated modern
cities with limited space.
2. Ease of Navigation: The grid pattern creates a more intuitive, predictable street network
that is easier for both pedestrians and vehicles to navigate compared to the winding roads
of historic cities.
3. Infrastructure Coordination: The grid layout simplifies the coordination and installation of
infrastructure like roads, utilities, and public transportation compared to more organic city
designs.
4. Urban Planning Approach: Modern urban planning has favored the grid as a rational,
efficient way to lay out and develop cities, in contrast to the more ad hoc growth patterns
of the past.

So in summary, the shift from circular to rectangular grid patterns reflects the evolution from
defensibility and organic growth to optimized land use, navigation, and infrastructure in the
development of cities over time.

21
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 000000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000
I
Circular Ciies of the Ancient world
The Zoroastrian mystic revelation of Khshnoom teaches us that there are two main Cosmoses.
One is immortal, divine and perfect. In this cosmos, time and space are united. This cosmos is
called Hasti. We shall leave Hasti where it is.
Our main interest lies in the second cosmos, which is mortal, moving towards divinity (some
parts of it are divine) and imperfect. This cosmos is called Nisti, where time and space are
separated. The entire Nisti cosmos can be furthered sub divided into various regions. It is
difficult to give a two dimensional view of the Nisti cosmos when it is actually made up of
several dimensions. However, to give a rough idea, the drawing below gives an imperfect view.
Serious students are requested to download this image and print it out and then read the
description given below for a clearer understanding of the topic.

The main feature and defining structure of the Nisti cosmos are the 7 Dakhyus or planes. These 7
planes of Nisti are like concentric globes one within the other. However, each plane is also
connected to the others through many dimensions which cannot be shown on the map.

23
An aerial photo of Sasanian circular city of Gōr, in Iran, and a reconstruction of city as it may
have appeared in its heyday. Gōr was new capital city of Ardashir I (180-242 AD), founder of
Sasanian Empire, and had a perfect circular plan of 1,950m diameter.

The Faravahar is one of the best-known symbols of Zoroastrianism, an Iranian religion. There
are various interpretations of what the Faravahar symbolizes, and there is no concrete universal
consensus on its meaning. However, it is commonly believed that the Faravahar serves as a
Zoroastrian depiction of the fravashi, or personal spirit. it is one of the best-known symbols
of Zoroastrianism, an Iranian religion. There are various interpretations of what the Faravahar
symbolizes, and there is no concrete universal consensus on its meaning. However, it is
commonly believed that the Faravahar serves as a Zoroastrian depiction of the fravashi, or
personal spirit.

What does the Zoroastrian symbol mean?

The Faravahar is an ancient symbol of the Zoroastrian faith. It depicts a bearded man with one
hand reaching forward. He stands above a pair of wings that are outstretched from a circle
representing eternity. Fire is another important symbol of Zoroastrianism, as it represents light,
warmth and has purifying powers

24
The pre-Zoroastrian use of the symbol originates as the winged sun used by various powers of
the Ancient Near East, primarily those of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Zoroastrian
adoption of the symbol comes from its prevalence in Neo-Assyrian iconography. This Assyrian
image often includes their Tree of Life, which includes the god Ashur on a winged disk

In Zoroastrian culture
The faravahar was depicted on the tombs of Achaemenid kings, such as Darius the Great (r. 522–
486 BC) and Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 BC). The symbol was also used on some of the coin
mints of the frataraka of Persis in the late 3rd and early 2nd BC centuries. Even after the Arab
conquest of Iran, Zoroastrianism continued to be part of Iranian culture. Throughout the year,
festivities are celebrated such as Nowruz, Mehregan, and Chaharshanbe Suri which relate
to Zoroastrian festivals and calendar. These are remnants of Zoroastrian traditions. From the start
of the 20th century, the faravahar icon found itself in public places and became a known icon
among Iranians. The Shahnameh by Ferdowsi is Iran's national epic and contains stories (partly
historical and partly mythical) from pre-Islamic Zoroastrian times and is neither Zoroastrian nor
Persian in its origin. It originates as a Mesopotamian Assyrian depiction of the wing deity Ashur.
After the Achaemenianbut dynasty, the image of the farohar was no longer present in Persian art
or architecture.
In Zoroastrian design which is very religious there are amany circular shapes. A dakhma, also
known as a Tower of Silence, is a circular, raised structure built
by Zoroastrians for excarnation (that is, the exposure of human corpses to the elements for
decomposition), in order to avert contamination of the soil and other natural elements by the
dead bodies Carrion birds, usually vultures and other scavengers, consume the flesh. Skeletal

25
remains are gathered into a central pit where further weathering and continued breakdown
occurs.

Architectural and functional features

 The towers are uniform in their construction.
 The roof of the tower is lower in the middle than the outer and is divided into three concentric
circles.
 The dead bodies are placed on stone beds on the roof of the tower and there is a central ossuary pit,
into which the bodies fall after eaten by vultures.
 The bodies disintegrate naturally assisted with lime and the remaining is washed off by rainwater
into multiple filters of coal and sand, finally reaching the sea.

The circular citadel city of Gur was the first capital of the Sassanid
Empire. It is situated in Fars province, about 110 km south of Shiraz.

Ardeshir-e Pabakan, the first king of Sassanid dynasty, is named as the city’s
founder in most sources. He chose the city as his capital and populated it.
The ancient city is striking for its completely circular shape, which is in fact
associated with the earlier Parthian Dynasty. The city’s specific architectural
style is a representation of the transition from the Parthian to the Sassanid
26
era, according an article on the wonders of Iranian city planning, published
by the Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies.
Based on the historian Tabari’s account and supported by archeological
evidence, the city was founded prior the important battle in which Ardashir
defeated the last Arsacid king, Ardavan (Artabanus IV) in April 28, A.D. 224.
According to Islamic documents, prior to the construction of Gur city, the
area where Gur is located, was flooded by Alexander of Macedonia and
turned to wetland. Later, by order of Ardeshir I, the wetland was drained.
Defense

With Ardeshir still fighting to gain power, defense was the city’s primary
function. Remains of the polygonal and spider-web defensive walls can still
be traced 10 km off the central part of the city.
The Firuzabad plain, where Gur is located, may have been chosen for this
very defensive concern; it is almost entirely surrounded by mountains, but
for two narrow gorges.
Gur was surrounded by a main wall of stamped clay, a ditch 35 meter wide,
and a fore-wall. The plan of the city is a perfect circle of 1,950 meter
diameter, divided into 61 sectors by 20 radial walls and 3 concentric circles,
with the core circle of 450 meters in diameter, where official buildings such
as a fire temple were constructed.

Four gates open to city of Gur: to the north lies Hormuz Gate; to the south
Ardeshir Gate; eastward faces the gate of Mithra; and Bahram Gate opens to
the west.
A famous tower or mil in the circular city is today among the only visible and
standing remains in the city. The mil stands at the very centre of the city. It
is a pier of rough stone masonry 9 meter square and more than 30 meters

27
high. It was the core of a stair-tower, and thought to have had a winding
external stairway.
Gur lost its status as a capital in the reign of Shapur I (240 – 270). Three
centuries after the Arab invasion, the historian, Mas’udi, talks of the
existence of the fire temple of Ardeshir-Khorra, which shows a continuous
Zoroastrian tradition in the region. The name Gur was eventually changed to
Firuzabad (victory town) during the Buyid period.

28
Above left-Symbol of Iran before revolution in 1979. RIGHT Zoroastrian Emblems of
Ahura Mazda

Imperial Coat of Arms of Iran

under the Pahlavi Dynasty, used
from 1925 to 1979. The shield is
composed of the Lion and the Sun
symbol in first quarter , in the
second quarter the Faravahar
representing Zoroastrianism, in
the third quarter the curved blade
of a Imam Ali "Zulfiqar" sword
representing Shia Islam, and the
Simurgh in the fourth quarter.
Overall in the center is a circle
depicting Mount Damavand with a
rising sun, the symbol of the
Pahlavi dynasty. The shield is
crowned by the Pahlavi crown and
surrounded by the chain of the
Order of Pahlavi. Two lions
rampant regardant, holding
29
 scimitars supports the coat of
arms on either side. Under the
whole device is the motto: "Mara
dad farmud va Khod Davar
Ast" ("Justice He bids me do, as He
will judge me" or, alternatively,
"He gave me power to command,
and He is the judge"). Some of the
colours were changed in 1971.

The site of the ancient city of Gor with the pillar at its center. Photo: Amin
malekzadeh/Wikimedia

The Mysterious Pillar at The Center of The Circular City of Gor

In the year 330 BC, Alexander the Great advanced through the Persian territory, conquering its
cities and regions, culminating in the capture of Persepolis. A little further south of the ancient
Achaemenid capital was the city of Gor, which offered him such resistance that to surrender it he
had to resort to a stratagem, the legend of which is told in Iranian history.
He built a dam in a nearby gorge, retaining the water of a river that crossed the plain in which the
city was located, completely flooding it and creating a lake that remained until the beginning of

30
the 3rd century AD, when the first Sassanid Persian king Ardacher tunneled to drain it and
destroyed the dam. The plain dried up and the ruins of the city reappeared.
In that same place Ardacher founded his new capital, which would be known as Khor Ardashīr
or Gor. He made it stand on a circular plan (several centuries before the famous circular city of
Baghdad ) with such precise measurements that the Persian historian Ibn Balkhi wrote that it was
designed with a compass.

It was 1,950 meters in diameter and was surrounded by a protective moat 35 meters wide, which
could only be circumvented by means of four bridges that gave access to its four gates, one at
each of the cardinal points, and a clay wall. The city was divided into 20 sectors by a precise
geometric system of 20 radial streets and several concentric ones.
Inside there was another walled circle, with a radius of 450 meters, in which the royal buildings
and palaces were built. The old circular layout of the city can still be seen in the current
landscape of the area. And also something else. The remains of a large tower, which was
originally about 30 meters high, and of which only the core of its structure remains.

Photo: Carole Raddato/Wikimedia

The Arabs called it Terbal, but the Persians knew it as Minar (literally, pillar ) or Minaret . It had
a design with an external spiral staircase, unique in Persia, and although it is not known exactly
what function it fulfilled, there are several hypotheses about it. Adding the width of the

31
destroyed stairs and the outer walls, it is calculated that the width of the tower would be about 20
meters.
The Minar and the Fire Temple (Takht-e Neshin) were the only two structures in the city made
of granite masonry. The first Westerners to point out the uniqueness of the structure in Persian
architecture were Eugène Flandin and Pascal Coste, but the first to carry out a systematic study
was Ernst Herzfeld, who identified it as a stair-tower.
Before Herzfeld's study, the Minar was believed to be Takht-e Neshin itself, the temple with the
sacred fire placed on top to prevent dust contamination.
Some authors are of the opinion that it symbolized the divine and centralist kingship of
Ardacher's state ideology, at the same time that it had a practical use, since it provided visual
contact with the fortifications located on the main access road to the plain, in the gorge of Tang-
ab. This military function must have been indispensable for surveying activities when the
planning scheme of the city was drawn up.
It could also serve as an observation tower, while the works of the plan envisaged by Ardacher
for the new city and the plain were executed. In fact, the entire scheme is centered on the Minar,
and the concentric and radial pattern of the city was continued even up to 10 kilometers away,
where traces of canals, roads, and walls have been found.

Artistic representation of the Minar as a fire temple, drawing by Zenaide A. Ragozin (1889).
A recent study suggests that it may have been a water tower, with water from nearby elevated
sources flowing through pipes and the hollow core of the minar to its dome, and from there to
other points in the city.
The sources record the existence of similar towers in other places of the Persian empire. For
example, the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus writing during the 4th century AD,
mentions one at the Nahar Malka (a canal connecting the Tigris and Euphrates near the Persian
capital Ctesiphon) , and compares it to the lighthouse of Alexandria.
The Greek historian Zosimus cites, at the end of the 5th century AD, several towers in the town
of Al-Anbar (ancient Pirisabora, in central Iraq). However, according to Richard Gottheil, these
may have been based on ancient ziggurats.

The design of the Minar of Gor may have inspired the famous spiral minaret of the Great
Mosque of Samarra in Iraq. This, in turn, would inspire the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo, both
built during the Abbasid period, in the 9th century AD.
The city of Gor was destroyed, again, during the Muslim Arab invasion of the seventh century,
although it would be rebuilt again. King Adud al-Dawla changed its name to Peroz-abad
(literally, city of victory) around 950 AD, because in the Neo-Persian language then spoken the
word Gōr had come to mean tomb , and he found it unpleasant to reside in one.
The name finally derived is Firuzabad and the city was definitively abandoned in the Qajar
period, when its inhabitants moved to the nearby settlement (about 3 kilometers away) that today
bears the same name.

32
This article was originally published in La Brújula Verde. It has been translated from Spanish
and republished with permission
The circular city of Ardašīr-Xwarrah

One of the most remarkable cities of Sasanian Iran was Ardašīr-Xwarrah, the first royal city of
the empire founded by Ardašīr I in 224 AD. While historical texts and archaeological surveys
only provide details about the ruined architectural monuments of the complex, the circular-
concentric layout of the city has been the subject of several speculative interpretations.

Hossein Maroufi in his research points towards the cosmological significance of Ardašīr-
Xwarrah’s layout. Then, in order to elucidate the ‘meaning’ of urban form in this city, the article
offers a rigorous analysis of cosmological and geopolitical structure of the empire, whilst also
taking into account the existing historical and archaeological data. Since the cosmological
principles of the layout cannot be recovered from known historical documents, a number of
hypothetical explanations of the city’s layout are proposed main one being thatanalysis of
Sasanian cities should be based on more objective and rigorous methods in order to contribute to
1
the knowledge of ancient urban planning in Iran.

Firuzabad or Ardashir-Khwarrah, literally "The Glory of Ardashir"; also Shahr-e Gūr is a

city and capital of Firuzabad County, Fars Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was
58,210, in 12,888 families. Firuzabad is located south of Shiraz. The city is surrounded by a mud
wall and ditch.
The original ancient city of Gor, dating back to the Achaemenid period, was destroyed
by Alexander the Great. Centuries later, Ardashir I, the founder of the Sassanian Empire, revived
the city before it was ransacked during the Arab Muslim invasion of the seventh century. It was
again revived by the Buyids, but was eventually abandoned in the Qajar period and was replaced
by a nearby town, which is now Firuzabad.

33
Ghal'eh Dokhtar on the Left and the Royal Palace is on the right
1. Urban planning in ancient cities of Iran: understanding the meaning of urban form in the
Sasanian city of Ardašīr-Xwarrah, Planning Perspectives, 35:6, 1055-
1080, DOI: 10.1080/02665433.2019.1684353
Gor dates back to the Achaemenid era. It was situated in a low-lying area of the region, so,
during his invasion of Persia, Alexander the Great was able to drown the city by directing the
flow of a river into the city. The lake he created remained until Ardashir I built a tunnel to drain
it. He founded his new capital city on this site.
Ardashir's new city was known as Khor Ardashīr, Ardashīr Khurrah and Gōr. It had a circular
plan so precise in measurement that the Persian historian Ibn Balkhi wrote it to be "devised using
a compass". It was protected by a trench 50 meters in width, and was 2 kilometers in diameter.
The city had four gates; to the north was the Hormozd Gate, to the south the Ardashir Gate, to
the east the Mithra Gate and to the west the Wahram Gate. The royal capital's compounds were
constructed at the center of a circle 450 m in radius. At the center of the town there was a lofty
platform or tower, called Terbal. It was 30 m high and spiral in design. The design is unique in
Iran, and there are several theories regarding the purpose of its construction. It is thought to have
been the architectural predecessor of the Great Mosque of Samarra of Iraq and its distinctive
minaret, the malwiya. In the Sasanian period, the abbreviation ART (in Inscriptional Pahlavi)
was used as the mint signature to refer to Gōr.
Gōr and Istakhr strenuously resisted the invading Arab Muslims in the 630s and 640s; they were
conquered by Abdallah ibn Amr in 649–50.

34
The city's importance was revived again in the reign of Adud al-Dawla of the Buyid dynasty,
who frequently used the city as his residence. It is at this time that the old name of the city, Gōr,
was abandoned in favor of the new. In New Persian, spoken at the time, the word Gōr had come
to mean "grave." King Adud al-Dawla, as the story goes, found it distasteful to reside in a
"grave." As per his instruction, the city's name was changed to Peroz-abad, "City of Victory."
Since then, the city has been known by variations of that name, including Firuzabad. However,
there is a 7th-century Arab-Sassanian coin from Ardashir-Khwarra during Umayyad period in
which pylwj'b'd (Pahlavi; Pērōzābād) is mentioned as the mint.
The city was eventually abandoned in Qajar period and its nearby settlement was populated,
which is now the modern Firuzabad located 3 km to the east of the site of Gor. Today, among
the attractions of Firuzabad are the Sassanid Ghal'eh Dokhtar, the Palace of Ardeshir, and the fire
temple and its nearby Minar.
Veh-Ardashir (also spelled as Beh-Ardashir and Weh-Ardashir), was an ancient Sasanian city
in present-day Iraq, and formed a suburb of their capital, Ctesiphon.Originally known
as Seleucia, the city was rebuilt and renamed in 230 by the founder of the Sasanian Empire,
king Ardashir I (r. 224-240). The city was known as Mahoza by the Jews, Kokhe (Syriac) by
the Christians, and Behrasir by the Arabs. Veh-Ardashir was populated by many wealthy Jews,
and was the seat of the church of the Church of the East patriarch.In the Talmud, it is written as
Ardashir, located across the Tigris River from the city of Ctesiphon. The city was walled and
was circular by design.
A governor marzban (general of a frontier province, "margrave") is known to have resided in a
fortress in the northern part of this city in ca. 420. During the mid-5th century,
a flooding occurred in Veh-Ardashir, which divided the city in two. This resulted in a decline of
the city, and the abandonment of many parts of the city. During the reign of king Khosrau
II (590-628), a palace was constructed near a garden named Bagh-i Hinduvan (meaning "the
garden of the Indians"). In 636, Veh-Ardashir was captured by the Arab general Khalid ibn
Urfuta during the Muslim conquest of Persia.

35
36
Ecbatana "the place of gathering was an ancient city in Media in western Iran. It is believed
that Ecbatana is in Hagmatana Hill (Tappe-ye Hagmatāna), an archaeological
mound in Hamedan.
According to Herodotus, Ecbatana was chosen as the Medes' capital in the late 8th century BC
by Deioces. Under the Achaemenid Persian kings, Ecbatana, situated at the foot of Mount
Alvand, became a summer residence. Later, it became the capital of the Parthian kings, at which
time it became their main mint, producing drachm, tetradrachm, and
assorted bronze denominations. The wealth and importance of the city in the Persian empire is
attributed to its location on a crucial crossroads that made it a staging post on the main east–west
highway.
In 330 BC, Ecbatana was the site of the assassination of the Macedonian general Parmenion by
order of Alexander the Great,

00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

II
BAGHDAD as a CIRCULAR CITY

Baghdad is as Astrological city much like Kashi . It was to be a City of Peace known in Arabic
as Madīnat as-Salām. The caliph who ruled the Empire had consulted astrologers, and
according to their advice, laid the first ceremonial brick on 30 July 762. Thousands of architects,
engineers, surveyors, carpenters, blacksmiths and over a hundred thousand laborers from across
the Abbasid empire.

The Abbasid dynasty had a strong Persian influence. The Abbasid dynasty had a strong Persian
bent, and adopted many practices from the Sassanian Empire—among those, that of translating
foreign works, except that now texts were translated into Arabic. For this purpose, al-Mansur
founded a palace library modeled after the Sassanian Imperial Library, and provided economic
and political support to the intellectuals working there. He also invited delegations of scholars
from India and other places to share their knowledge of mathematics and astronomy with the
new Abbasid court.

37
The Round City of Baghdad is the original core of Baghdad, built by the Abbasid Caliph al-
Mansur in 762–766 CE as the official residence of the Abbasid court. Its official name in
Abbasid times was City of Peace known in Arabic as Madīnat as-Salām). The famous library
known as the House of Wisdom was located within its grounds.

38
he round city of Baghdad in the 10th century, the peak of the Abbasid Caliphate. Illustration: Jean
Soutif/Science Photo Library

39
Baghdad 1,200 years ago was the thriving capital of the Muslim civilization. For about 500 years
the city boasted the cream of intellectuals and culture. For more than two centuries, it was home
to the House of Wisdom, an academy of knowledge that attracted brains from far and wide. From
mathematics and astronomy to zoology, the academy was a major centre of research, thought and
debate in Muslim Civilization (Sketch: 1001 Inventions).

ROUND DESIGN of BAGHDAD

Baghdad was founded on 30 July 762 CE. It was designed by caliph Al-Mansur.
According to 11th-century scholar Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi in his History of
Baghdad, each course consisted of 162,000 bricks for the first third of the wall's height
wall was 80 ft high, crowned with battlements and flanked by bastions. A deep moat
ringed the outer wall perimeter.
Thousands of architects, engineers, legal experts, surveyors, carpenters, blacksmiths,
diggers, and ordinary laborers from across the Abbasid empire were brought in to survey,
measure, and excavate the foundations. Ya'qubi, in his Book of Countries, it was thought
there were 100,000 workers involved. "They say that no other round city is known in all
the regions of the world," according to Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi. Four equidistant gates
pierced the outer walls where straight roads led to the center of the city. The Kufa Gate to
the south-west and the Basra Gate to the south-east both opened onto the Sarat canal – a
key part of the network of waterways that drained the waters of the Euphrates into the
Tigris. The Sham (Syrian) Gate to the north-west led to the main road on to Anbar, and
across the desert wastes to Syria. To the north-east the Khorasan Gate lay close to the
Tigris, leading to the bridge of boats across it.
The four straight roads that ran towards the center of the city from the outer gates were
lined with vaulted arcades containing merchants' shops and bazaars. Smaller streets ran
off these four main arteries, giving access to a series of squares and houses; the limited
space between the main wall and the inner wall was due to Mansur's desire to maintain
the heart of the city as a royal preserve.
By 766 Mansur's Round City was complete. The ninth-century essayist, polymath, and
polemicist al-Jahiz said. "I have seen the great cities, including those noted for their
durable construction. I have seen such cities in the districts of Syria, in Byzantine
territory, and in other provinces, but I have never seen a city of greater height, more
perfect circularity, more endowed with superior merits or possessing more spacious gates
or more perfect defenses than Al Zawra (Baghdad), that is to say, the city of Abu Jafar al-
Mansur.
40
The city had an impressive array of basic services and employed a large staff of civil
servants. These included night watchmen, lamplighters, health inspectors, market
inspectors (who examined the weights and measures as well as the quality of goods), and
debt collectors. It also had a police force with a police chief who lived in the caliph's
palace.
Destruction and abandonment
The Round City was partially ruined during the siege of 812–813, when caliph Al-
Amin was killed by his brother, who then became the new caliph. It never recovered; its
walls were destroyed by 912, nothing of them remain, there is no agreement as to where
it was located.
Islamic Golden Age
Founder, caliph al-Mansur of the Abbasid caliphate, chose the city's location because of
its critical link in trade routes, mild climate, topography (critical for fortification), and
proximity to water. All of these factors made the city a breeding ground of culture and
knowledge. Baghdad is set right on the Khurasan Road, which was an established
meeting place for caravan routes from all cardinal directions. [8] During the construction of
the city, gates were placed at the entrances of the major roads into the city, in order to
funnel traffic into the city. The Kufah Gate was on a major road that pilgrims took
to Mecca, and the Anbar gate linked the bridges over the canals and Euphrates River to
the city. These were a substantial help in bringing people into the city, and around these
entrances, markets sprang up for travelers to trade at. The link in trade routes provided a
flood of goods into the city, which allowed numerous markets to spring up drawing
people from all of the Middle East to Baghdad to trade. The markets that developed in
Baghdad were some of the most sophisticated as well because of the government's
supervision of their products as well as trade amongst each other. Because of the
sophisticated trading market, an advanced banking system developed as well, allowing
further settlement from outsiders. Baghdad's location between the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers as well, created a trade link to further destinations such as China, India and
Armenia, drawing even more people, literature, and knowledge to the city from exotic
and distant lands. The mild climate and topography made it easy to settle as well for
travelers coming to the city to trade. As Baghdad became a trading hub in the Islamic
Empire, cultures collided, sharing knowledge, books, language, and faiths, ultimately
creating a "cosmopolitan city" that developed into a learning center for the world.

As more and more people began to settle in the city, numerous schools began to spring up
including the Hanafi and Hanbali schools of law. Law is a critical study for the Muslim
people, because of the understanding of justice on Earth as applied to God. The Hanafi is
currently the largest school of legal thought in the Muslim world, and it was a major draw
41
for scholars to the city of Baghdad. Another important school in Baghdad that began was
the Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom), which focused on translating texts from various
languages into Arabic. This practice began out of a need to supply educated texts from
around the world to a growing educated public market. In particular, the Arabic
translation of Grecian texts became a substantial market that was quite progressive
because its primary impetus from the caliphate was to establish a new ideology with a
political and scientific base. This translation helped to foster the transition between a
primarily oral society, to one centered on a written language. Baghdad's location also
made it ideal for paper production, which lowered the cost of creating books, making
them more prevalent and accessible to more people. As more and more texts began to be
produced as well, a new market for book vendors opened up, and numerous libraries and
bookstores sprang up in the city. As the public and private sectors of the community
became more educated, cultural narrative and secular writing began. In the city, demand
for secular literature, designed for entertainment, developed, which shaped the culture of
the city's population, as well as the Abbasid Empire as a whole, with Baghdad being their
crowning achievement and reason for the Golden Age of Islam At this time, Baghdad
was revered as the "center of the world" because of its scholarship. Michael Cooperson
says that "Baghdadi scholars were so numerous and so eminent that reference to them
could continue to support the 'center of the world' thesis.” The influx of trade and
commerce brought these scholars to the city and made it the cosmopolitan breeding
ground of knowledge that it became. Al-Mansur's foundation and construction of the city
as well were done by only the best and brightest scholars, further fostering the notion of a
highly intellectual city population to support the Golden Age. At the height of the golden
age in Baghdad, it was estimated that there were over one and half million people living
in the city.

Al-Mansur's foundation of the city was ultimately based on its potential position as a
military arsenal, and its ability to house and support many troops. Large numbers of
troops were what originally gave the city such a dense population, but as the army
continued to need supplies more and more people flooded to the city for jobs, thus being
another reason Baghdad became a center of commerce. Baghdad also being named the
new capital of the Abbasid caliphate drew numerous people in for the prestige and name
alone. Al-Mansur designated a governor of Baghdad and sent with him a number of elites
who gave the city a higher status and poise, drawing more and more scholars to study in
such a well-educated and cosmopolitan city. Baghdad grew and developed in a variety of
facets, and because of this it arguably became the largest city in the world during that
time.

42
 Site for Baghdad

It is said that the choice of site for the new capital was an indication of the Abbasids’ break with
the Umayyad tradition of looking towards Syria and the culture of the Mediterranean. AlMansur
(754–75) inspected several sites, all in Iraq, before settling on the little village ¯ of Baghdad on
the western bank of the Tigris 30 km upstream from the former Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon.
The foundations of the new residence, which received the official appellation of Mad¯ınat al-
Salam (City of Peace), were laid in the year 762. Baghdad at ¯ once became an international city.
The 30,000-strong army of al-Mansur which lodged in ¯ the city contained detachments from
every part of Iran and, in particular, from Khurasan. The builders of Baghdad, some of whom
remained in the city after it was built, represented all the countries of the Near East. The local
population, who spoke Aramaic and some Persian, was mixed with Arabs from Kufa, Basra and
Wasit. Some districts which were called after different areas of Transoxania accommodated
troops from those areas. A new Muslim culture gradually took shape in this ethnic cauldron,
thereafter solidifying in different language traditions. 1
The original city was designed in the shape of a circle 2 km across. The circle was the caliph’s
tribute to the geometric teachings of Euclid, whom he had studied and admired. In the center of
the city stood the two finest buildings in the city: the Great Mosque and the caliph’s residence,
the Golden Gate Palace. Surrounding the palace and the mosque was an esplanade and a
waterside building, in which only the caliph was allowed to ride on horseback.At the edge of this
immense enclosure were palaces of the caliph’s children, homes for the royal staff and servants,
the caliph’s kitchens, barracks for the horse guard and other state offices. This central area was
protected by an inner wall.The living quarters and commercial buildings were concentrated in a
ring between the exterior wall of the city and the second fortified round wall. The exterior
perimeter wall was 30 meters high and 44 meters thick at the base. It was crowned with
battlements and flanked by bastions. It was surrounded by a deep moat.The city was divided into
four quarters by two perpendicularly intersecting streets that ran from end to end of the outer
perimeter wall and terminating at four gates. Each of the four gates pointed towards a different
city — Basra, Kufa, Khurasan and Damascus — and named after that. The gates opened onto an
arcaded street running all around the exterior inhabited ring.Unfortunately, nothing of this great
city remain today. The last traces of al-Mansur’s Round City were demolished in the early 1870s
when Midhat Pasha became the Ottoman governor of Baghdad. Midhat Pasha might have had
little interest in preserving history, but the big reforms that he introduced for Baghdad and Iraq in
general, transformed the face of the city. He built countless schools and educational institutes, of
which there were none in Baghdad, as well as hospitals, granaries, public parks, a water supply
system, roads and bridges. He introduced land reforms and tax laws and encouraged nomadic
tribes to settle and cultivate. The three years that Midhat Pasha spent as governor were the most
important years in Baghdad’s modern history.-

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CENTRAL ASIA UNDER THE UMAYYADS AND THE EARLY ABBASIDS by C. E.

43
Bosworth and O. G. Bolshakov, https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-
bank-article/vol_IVa%20silk%20road_central%20asia%20under%20the%20umayyads%20and
%20the%20early%20abbasids.pdf

With its circular design the Round City was meant to mirror the cosmological disc of the heavens, four main
gates (Kufa, Basra, Khurasan and Damascus) pointed towards the cardinal directions, symbolising the varied
directions of Abbasid control.

Historical renewal of Baghdad- Redevelopment, rehabilitation and conservation

1- Emerge stage - Growth stage
Historical evidence suggests that the antique and archaeological information
in the region of Karkh and Rasafa tracing back to the civilization Tel Harmel
(Shadrubm) in the Kingdom of Ashnuna and will dated back to the late third
millennium BC. As it shown below the most important dates in the history of
Baghdad, as follows:

44
Gregori Incidents witnessed important historical center of Baghdad
an Date
(AC)
762 Al-Mansur founded the city on the western side
836 Transmission of the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad to Samarra, which
had in consequence the downfall of Baghdad.
892 Baghdad was again the capital of Caliph Al Moatamed and the urban
life and residences concentrate on the eastern side and changed the
significance of the west side of the Tigris River.
1055 At the beginning of the Seljuq aera and in Rusafa three bridges of
boats were constructed and linked to Karkh. Furthermore some of
the surrounding walls were constructed for protection Rusafa.
1089 Initiation of the establishment of the Great Wall of Baghdad and the
construction was finished after 28 years.
1226 Construction of Al Abasi palace
1232 Construction completed of the school Mustansiriya.
1258 Occupation of Baghdad by Hulako and stopping the Abbasid rule
1729 Construction of fence along the western Baghdad
1766 As indication of the beginnings of the British influence in Baghdad
the first British house was constructed of a British High
Commissioner.
1853 best survey of the Ottoman period by Felix Jones, creation of a map
of most urban and architectural buildings and districts and both river
sides, according Mr. Jones map Rusafa consisted of 63 locations, 306
avenues, 55 mosques, 47 markets/suqs, 39 Khans. Karkh included 10
stores.
1860 In the late Ottoman period some major changes taken place in the
city especially the rule of Namik Pasha and Midhat Pasha
implemented a lot of urban changes into the historic city center in
the spirit of “Western Inspired Modernization”.
1869 Midhat Pasha initiated the demolition of the wall and the latest
changes in local and various economy and he opened the city for the
expandsion outside the surrounding wall for the first time after 800
years. The demolition of the wall is an important step in the city
development.
1917 Opening of the Al-Rashid Street which is a key indicator of the
Western-oriented modern road network.
1918 Construction ot a bridge which conntected Rusafa and Karkh as
contact point between both of them.
1921 Establishment of the Kingdom in Iraq under the British Mandate,
which is a turning point in the history of Baghdad.
1928 The establishment of the location of Sinak that rely on the
rectangular planned to suit the changes in traffic means of transport,
which includes mechanical and architectural style and urban access
45
 technologies and materials for new building construction, which
represents a significant shift across the city.

2- Urban planning stage, Urban design project to develop center

This stage remark emerging of urban planning development for Baghdad, and
most important milestone in this field:

1936 Two German engineers prepared a first outline as the basis for the
city of Baghdad. The strongly confirmed and planned construction
included the planning of new wide roads through the urban fabric
with high density in Rusafa and creation of commercial streets which
would be similar to in the streets in Europe. Two of these roads were
constructed during the textile district (Alkifah and Sheikh Omar
Streets). In Rusafa the Al-Rashid Street contains three lanes and
going in a balanced manner and along the Tigris River. They were
changed in the direction of the movement and traffic in Rusafa and
assisted trough street in 90 degrees.
1938 Opening of the bridge of Al Shohdai who was sited instead of Al
Mamun old floating bridge.
1940 Opening of Al Ahrar bridge which was called Mode Bridge.
1954 The Kulafai Streetwas expanded after increasing private cars after
the oil boom as a result of the economic boom. Rusafa was divided
into five parts written as isolated length of 3 km and a width between
400 - 600 m.
1956 1st general master plan was created by a Britain planning office
which intensives the one family concept and separating working,
living and free time on the south gate with Hotels, cinemas and cafes
and on the north gate a medical centre created
1958 2nd general master plan was created by a Greek planning office
Doxiadis and the concept was for expansion up to 3million
inhabitants
1962 first steps to save the old central city, the pressure increased during
the revolution and the development of the city suburbs of Baghdad,
The development accompanied by preparing plans to redevelop the
Rusafa and Karkh sector as the Central Business (CBD).
1967 A comprehensive development plan for Baghdad 2000 was created
by the consulting company Polish (Polservice)
1973 The comprehensive development plan of Paul Surfs was revised to
revitalize Karkh and Rusafa as central areas of the capital Baghdad.
1973 The implementation of the July 17 bridge project to link the Karkh
Rasafa and the establishment of a route to a Al Talaei square.
1980 The preparation of a detailed study of transport in Baghdad by
Baghdad municipality.
1981 The Haifa Street project started and was accomplished in 1985

46
 1981 Baghdad Metro project planning has not been implemented.
1982 Provision of the comprehensive development proposals planned for
Baghdad, 2000
1982 Completion of a Study-Karkh Development project and proposed by
the Office of Alusi Technical Consultants
1984 Studying the development of the Rusafa area by the Consultative
Japanese JCP
1985 Comprehensive development strategies by Japanese JCCF
consultants and Baghdad Secretariat.
1986 Comprehensive inventory of heritage buildings for Rusafa.
1987 Planning of integrated development of the city of Baghdad, 2001 and
outlines a proposal for developing the river front by the Consultative
Japanese JCCF but no implementation so far.
1988 Baghdad Municipality issued a set of controls for construction and
planning division of the land in the city of Baghdad.
1994 Study the preservation of buildings of heritage and the role of the
Rusafa by the University of Baghdad.
1998 Urban development project for the city of Baghdad (2015) Phase 1
by the Secretariat and the University of Baghdad
2000 Urban development scheme for the city of Baghdad (2015) Phase 2
by the Secretariat and the University of Baghdad
2010 Comprehensive development planning Baghdad (2030) by Qateeb &
Alame and PCI Japanese consultants and Baghdad Secretariat.

The city of Baghdad was founded in the 8th century as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, by
its caliph al-Mansur. The Caliphate had just defeated the Umayyads, and al-Mansur wanted his
own capital to rule from. He chose a site about 30 km to the north of the Sassanid capital of
Ctesiphon, along the banks of the Tigris, and began to draw up plans for its design and
construction.Mansur wanted Baghdad to be the perfect city, to be the capital of the Islamic
empire under the Abbasids. To that end, he brought in thousands of architects, engineers,
surveyors, carpenters, blacksmiths and over a hundred thousand laborers from across the
Abbasid empire. He consulted astrologers, and according to their advice, laid the first ceremonial
brick on 30 July 762.

The original city was designed in the shape of a circle 2 km across. The circle was the caliph’s
tribute to the geometric teachings of Euclid, whom he had studied and admired. In the center of
the city stood the two finest buildings in the city: the Great Mosque and the caliph’s residence,
the Golden Gate Palace. Surrounding the palace and the mosque was an esplanade and a
waterside building, in which only the caliph was allowed to ride on horseback.At the edge of this
immense enclosure were palaces of the caliph’s children, homes for the royal staff and servants,

47
the caliph’s kitchens, barracks for the horse guard and other state offices. This central area was
protected by an inner wall.The living quarters and commercial buildings were concentrated in a
ring between the exterior wall of the city and the second fortified round wall. The exterior
perimeter wall was 30 meters high and 44 meters thick at the base. It was crowned with
battlements and flanked by bastions. It was surrounded by a deep moat.The city was divided into
four quarters by two perpendicularly intersecting streets that ran from end to end of the outer
perimeter wall and terminating at four gates. Each of the four gates pointed towards a different
city — Basra, Kufa, Khurasan and Damascus — and named after that. The gates opened onto an
arcaded street running all around the exterior inhabited ring.Unfortunately, nothing of this great
city remain today. The last traces of al-Mansur’s Round City were demolished in the early 1870s
when Midhat Pasha became the Ottoman governor of Baghdad. Midhat Pasha might have had
little interest in preserving history, but the big reforms that he introduced for Baghdad and Iraq in
general, transformed the face of the city. He built countless schools and educational institutes, of
which there were none in Baghdad, as well as hospitals, granaries, public parks, a water supply
system, roads and bridges. He introduced land reforms and tax laws and encouraged nomadic
tribes to settle and cultivate. The three years that Midhat Pasha spent as governor were the most
important years in Baghdad’s modern history.

48
Satellite view of Baghdad 2014

49
Map of Today’s Baghdad

50
 List of circular cities
City/town Establishment Notes

5000-10,000
Kashi Still exists
BC

Sagbat/Hagmatana 700 BC

Sam'al Hittite period

Details are still under discussion. Circularity may be

Ctesiphon a result of natural growth of the city rather than
design.

3rd or 2nd The plan is round, but it lacks "a genuine

Hatra
century BC geometrical concept".

The city plan was a perfect circle of 1,950 m

diameter, divided into twenty sectors. The plan also
Gor (Firuzabad) 3rd century
featured a circular city center, with a tower at its
very center.

Veh-Ardashir 3rd century The circular wall is uncovered.

51
 Harran Sasanian period

Gay / Jay (Isfahan's

twin city)

Isfahan The round city of Isfahan is not uncovered yet.

Basra 630s Known mostly from literature.

Kufa 630s Known mostly from literature.

Baghdad 762 Known as "the round city of Baghdad".

The uncovered imperfect circular perimeter is

Darab 8th century reportedly a defensive work built in the 8th century,
and the city itself was triangular in design.

Heraqla 790s

Venus Project In Miami, Jacques Fresco presented designs of a

1955
(design) circular city.

.
The Circular Arrangement

52
Aerial view on one of the circular cities

The Venus Project proposes a circular city plan that would utilize the most sophisticated
available resources and construction techniques. Its geometrically elegant and efficient circular
arrangement will be surrounded by parks and lovely gardens, which will be incorporated into the
city design. All cities will be designed to operate with the minimum expenditure of energy using
the cleanest technologies available, which will be in harmony with nature to obtain the highest
possible standard of living for everyone.

The city is divided into radial sectors and circular belts. The circular scheme offers maximum
efficiency, bringing each radial sector closer to the central dome. People traveling within the city
could easily return to the same place from where they started without having to take the same
route back like in most linear cities. Only one part of the city is designed and replicated eight
times to form the entire city using far fewer resources than conventional methods.

Circular City Layout

A typical circular city is comprised of the following:

 The central dome or theme center will house the core of the cybernated system,
educational facilities, computerized communications, networking systems, health and
child care facilities.
 The eight buildings surrounding the central dome contain the access centers.
 The three rings of buildings adjacent to the access centers house the research facilities.
 The next band provides the community with centers for cultural activities such as the arts,
theater, exhibitions, concerts, exercise facilities and various forms of entertainment.
There are also dining and other amenities.

53
  The eight residential districts have a variety of free form unique architecture to fulfill the
various needs of the occupant. Each home is immersed in lovely gardens isolating one
from another with lush landscaping.
 The skyscrapers will be a convenient place to live housing restaurants, educational
facilities, entertainment, hobby areas, along with apartments.
 Next are the indoor hydroponic, aeroponic and aquaponic facilities and outdoor
agricultural belts which will be used to grow a wide variety of organic plants without the
use of pesticides.
 A circular waterway for irrigation and filtration surrounds the agricultural belt.
 The outermost perimeter is utilized for recreational activities such as biking, golfing,
hiking and riding. Areas are set aside for renewable clean sources of energy such as wind
generators, solar, heat concentrating systems, geothermal, photovoltaic and others.

Self Contained Dwellings

The architecture and individual dwellings of circular cities will evolve on an entirely different
basis from today’s houses. Their structural elements will be flexible and coherently arranged to
best serve individual preference. The prefabricated, modular homes, embodying a high degree of
flexibility, could be built anyplace one might imagine, amidst forests, atop mountains, or on
remote islands.

All of these dwellings can be designed as self-contained residences with their own thermal
generators and heat concentrators. Photovoltaic arrays would be built into the skin of the
building and into the windows themselves. Thermopanes would be used to tint out the bright
sunlight by variable patterns of shading. All these features could be selected by the occupant to
supply more than enough of the energy required to operate the entire household.

Homes could be prefabricated of a new type of pre-stressed, reinforced concrete with a flexible
ceramic external coating that would be relatively maintenance-free, fireproof, and impervious to
the weather. Their thin shell construction can be mass-produced in a matter of hours. With this
type of construction, there would be minimal damage from earthquakes and hurricanes.

54
A house in the residential belt of one of the circular cities/Modular skyscraper constructed from
prefabricated extrusions.

Maintaining a balance between the population and the earth’s carrying capacity, we may have to
move our cities not only skyward and seaward but subterranean as well.

University Cities for Global Resource Management

The circular cities would act as universities for global resource management and environmental
studies, and as testing grounds for each future phase of global development. These would be
dynamic, continually evolving research institutes open to all of the society.

Student performance would be based on competence accreditation, and research findings would
be periodically applied directly to the social structure to benefit all members of the world society.
People will live in these research cities and provide feedback on the reliability and serviceability
of the various structures. This information would be used to formulate modifications to structures
so that maximum efficiency, comfort, and safety is assured. These facilities are also used to
develop modular construction systems and components that can be installed to serve a wide
range of needs and preferences. In most instances, the external appearance of the buildings will
reflect the function of the building.

55
 III
The Role of Wisdom in the Circular Design of Baghdad

The Islamic Golden Age—from the 8th to the mid-13th century—was one of the greatest periods
of human flourishment in knowledge and progress, with Baghdad as its focal point. A truly
global repository of human knowledge, this Arab-Muslim imperial capital also welcomed—
indeed encouraged—scholars from across the known world. As its wealth and fame grew, more
and more scholars and engineers were drawn to the city from all over civilization. But in January
1258, a vast Mongol army reached the city’s perimeter and demanded that the caliph—al-
Musta’sim, the nominal spiritual authority of the Islamic world—surrender.

The life of Muslims throughout history was correlated with the establishment of libraries that is
when libraries flourish the life of scholars and scientists witness a remarkable progress (Ibn Al-
Nafīs, Ibn Al-Haytham, Ibn Sīnā...etc.) thus libraries are not just a tool of activity but rather
they represent a depot of intelligence and mental inheritance for all humankind, a researcher who
does not grasp the history of libraries and the legacies left by our ancestors would never
fully be able to benefit from them. Unlike what some people may believe about the ancient
libraries being unable to match the contemporary bookstores, libraries were the meeting
1
place for men of literature, science cultures religions...etc.

The House of Wisdom was also referred to as Al-Hikma Bookstore (Khizanat Al-Hikma), and
The House of Wisdom Bookstore of Al-Ma’moun (Khizanat Dar Al-Kutub Al-Ma’mouniya). It
should be pointed out that the Arabic term Khizanat Kutub, meaning literally a bookstore, is an
old name meaning a present day library...” The Arab empire was hugely powerful by late 8th
and early 9th century; its rulers were getting taxes from across the empire and had money to
spend on translations and patronage of scholarship. About this time the House of Wisdom was
set up in Baghdad by one of the Abbasid caliphs, al-Ma’mun. It began as a translation house,
translating Greek texts into Arabic and rapidly started to attract the greatest minds in the
Islamic world, while Arabic became the international language of science. There was also a
strong influence from Persia; an Arab scholar once said, “We Arabs have all the words but you
Persians have all the ideas.”

In this context, a widely held misconception claims that the Islamic world did no more than act
as steward of Greek science. However, “an incredible number of important and original
56
advances were made by Arab scientists, who were the first to undertake real science – theory
and experimentation – several hundred years before the scientific revolution in Europe.”
______________________________________________________________
1.The House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah) and Its Civilizational Impact on Islamic libraries: A Historical
Perspective Adel Abdul-Aziz Algeriani, Mawloud Mohadi
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319872261_The_House_of_Wisdom_Bayt_al-
Hikmah_and_Its_Civilizational_Impact_on_Islamic_libraries_A_Historical_Perspective

In Michael Hamilton Morgan’s book called “Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim
Scientists”, highlight the great accomplishments in Baghdad during the rule of the Abassid
Caliph al-Ma’mūn from 813-833 AD, under whose leadership Baghdad rose to become the
center of learning and the heart of the Arab golden age. Caliph al-Ma’mūn’s House of Wisdom,
where Christian and foreign translators rendered the Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Persian, and
Hindu classics into Arabic, helped lay the foundation of modern mathematics, astronomy,
chemistry, medicine and literature. As a result of al-Ma’mūn’s patronage and vision, Baghdad
gave birth to algebra and advanced trigonometry, the names of the stars, the mixtures of
tinctures and remedies, and the heart of philosophy and literature. It was in Baghdad that
Scheherazade told the tales of the One Thousand and One Nights [1001 Arabian Nights.
While Baghdad was flourishing, other nasty things were happening North of the Asian continest.
A Devastating Moment in History for Muslims in the Middle East was the arrival of the Mongols
on the map of the world…For many historians, the arrival of the Mongols into the heart of the
Muslim faith and empire is the single most devastating moment in the history of the Muslim
Middle East. It’s easy to see why—and hard to argue otherwise—because the Sack of Baghdad
would mark the end of the Islamic Golden Age.

History of Baghdad: The Greatest City in the World

If you can imagine the shock waves, were London razed to the ground tomorrow, you’d be getting
close to the horror that was about to accompany the Sack of Baghdad in 1258.

Founded 500 years earlier, Baghdad’s population had reached one million within a century,
making it the world’s largest, most prosperous, and celebrated city. If one thinks of London in
1897—the year when Queen Victoria celebrated her Golden Jubilee—the English city on the
Thames was by then the largest and most important city on earth. In 1897, London was peerless
in the world, with nowhere else coming close to matching its power and influence. It was the
capital, and the fulcrum, of the British Empire.

57
Courtyard of Mustansiriya College of higher education in Baghdad, built in 1227. This is a symbol
of prosperity in Baghdad during the medieval era. (Image: Photograph by Taisir Mahdi/Public
domain)

Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid founded the House of Wisdom in Baghdad during his reign
(786-809). It was a research and educational center where leading scholars from various fields
came to share their knowledge. The House of Wisdom was the largest repository of books in the
whole world already by the middle of the ninth century. It was the leading center for the study of
mathematics, astronomy, medicine, alchemy, chemistry, zoology, geography and cartography.
Unluckily the mongols destroyed the House of Wisdom when they attacked Baghdad in 1258.

58
The history of Baghdad begins when the city of Baghdad (Arabic: ‫ بغداد‬Baġdād) was found in
the mid 8th century as the Abbasid capital, following the Abbasid victory over the Umayyad
Caliphate. It replaced the Sassanid capital of Seleucia-Ctesiphon some 35 km to the south-east,
which was mostly depopulated by the end of the 8th century. Baghdad was the center of the Arab
caliphate during the "Golden Age of Islam" of the 9th and 10th centuries, growing to be
the largest city worldwide by the beginning of the 10th century. It began to decline in the
"Iranian Intermezzo" of the 9th to 11th centuries, and was destroyed in the Mongolian
invasion in 1258.
The city was rebuilt and flourished under Ilkhanid rule but never rose to its former glory again. It
was again sacked by Timur in 1401 and fell under Turkic rule. It was briefly taken by Safavid
Persia in 1508, before falling to the Ottoman Empire in 1534. With the dissolution of the
Ottoman Empire, Baghdad fell under the British Mandate in 1920 and became the capital of the
independent Kingdom of Iraq in 1932 (converted to a Republic in 1958).
As the capital of the modern Republic of Iraq, Baghdad has a metropolitan area estimated at a
population of 7,000,000 divided into numerous neighbourhoods in nine districts. It is the largest
city in Iraq. It is the second-largest city in the Arab world (after Cairo) and the second-largest
city in Western Asia (after Tehran). In recent history, Baghdad has been affected by the Iraqi
civil war, most notably by recurring bombings.

59
Baghdad was founded 1,259 years ago on the 30 July 762. It was designed by caliph Al-
Mansur. According to 11th-century scholar Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi – each course consisted of
162,000 bricks for the first third of the wall's heigh wall was 80ft high, crowned with battlements
and flanked by bastions. A deep moat ringed the outer wall perimeter.
Thousands of architects and engineers, legal experts, surveyors and carpenters, blacksmiths,
diggers and ordinary labourers were recruited from across the Abbasid empire. First they
surveyed, measured and excavated the foundations. Ya'qubi reckoned there were 100,000
workers involved. "They say that no other round city is known in all the regions of the
world," Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi noted. Four equidistant gates pierced the outer walls where
straight roads led to the centre of the city. The Kufa Gate to the south-west and the Basra Gate to
the south-east both opened on to the Sarat canal – a key part of the network of waterways that
drained the waters of the Euphrates into the Tigris. The Sham (Syrian) Gate to the north-west led
to the main road on to Anbar, and across the desert wastes to Syria. To the north-east the
Khorasan Gate lay close to the Tigris, leading to the bridge of boats across it.
The four straight roads that ran towards the centre of the city from the outer gates were lined
with vaulted arcades containing merchants' shops and bazaars. Smaller streets ran off these four
main arteries, giving access to a series of squares and houses; the limited space between the main
wall and the inner wall answered to Mansur's desire to maintain the heart of the city as a royal
preserve.

60
By 766 Mansur's Round City was complete. The ninth-century essayist, polymath and
polemicist al-Jahiz said. "I have seen the great cities, including those noted for their durable
construction. I have seen such cities in the districts of Syria, in Byzantine territory, and in other
provinces, but I have never seen a city of greater height, more perfect circularity, more endowed
with superior merits or possessing more spacious gates or more perfect defenses than Al Zawra
(Baghdad), that is to say the city of Abu Jafar al-Mansur.
The city had an impressive array of basic services and employed a large staff of civil servants.
These included night watchmen, lamplighters, health inspectors, market inspectors (who
examined the weights and measures as well as the quality of goods), and debt collectors. It also
had a police force with a police chief who lived in the caliph's palace
The House of Wisdom has played a distinguished role in the history of the Middle Ages for
it was a bridge that transmitted the ancient civilizations including the Islamic one to the west, as
it was the departure of modern sciences. Historians have a major consent that thanks to the house
of wisdom and other similar schools and libraries, the continuity of human civilization was
preserved after the fall of Greek and Roman civilizations. The house of wisdom was the leading
library or in other words a leading Islamic university that the Abbasid age required. Here are
some papers that explored the impact of the house of wisdom on the Islamic libraries that came
to existence as a simulating process of the Baghdad’s library, moreover it studied the
organizational structure of Bayt al-Hikmah along with library divisions, sections and services
that it provided for scholars and readers.

13-th century manuscript, drawn by Al-Wasiti of the celebrated book “The Assemblies”. Written by Hariri,
shows a library in Baghdad

61
The research has dealt with funding sources and the budget that the state caliphs dedicated to the
library. The study found out that, the house of wisdom has had a very organized administration
and affair management system. In addition, new competing libraries have been influenced by the
system of the house of wisdom in Baghdad which resulted in the emergence of newfound
libraries in Egypt, Maghreb and Andalusia. The Abbasid library had preserved the knowledge
and heritage of the ancient civilizations and it passed them to the west with a remarkable
contributions, the latter has utilized some of the Abbasid period unprecedented discoveries to
flourish and modernize.

The Abbasid Dynasty had much to offer for the human civilization of intellectual and scientific
progress. Caliphs were giving the translation movement, transmissions, authoring and
intellectual achievements a very high level of respect and support that represented key factors to
getting hold of the Hellenistic, Indian, and Persian knowledge and wisdom.

Earlier Destruction and abandonment

The Round City was partially ruined during the siege of 812–813, when caliph Al-Amin was
killed by his brother, who then became the new caliph. It never recovered; its walls were
destroyed by 912, nothing of them remain, and there is no agreement as to where it was located.
Baghdad as a Center of Learning in 8 th and 9 th Century: Founder, caliph al-Mansur of the
Abbasid caliphate, chose the city's location because of its critical link in trade routes, mild
climate, topography (critical for fortification), and proximity to water. All of these factors made
the city a breeding ground of culture and knowledge. Baghdad is set right on the Khurasan Road,
which was an established meeting place for caravan routes from all cardinal directions. During
the construction of the city, gates were placed at the entrances of the major roads into the city, in
order to funnel traffic into the city. The Kufah Gate was on a major road that pilgrims took
to Mecca, and the Anbar gate linked the bridges over the canals and Euphrates River to the city.
These were a substantial help at bringing people into the city, and around these entrances
markets sprang up for travellers to trade at. The link in trade routes provided a flood of goods
into the city, which allowed numerous markets to spring up drawing people from all of the
Middle East to Baghdad to trade. The markets that developed in Baghdad were some of the most
sophisticated as well because of the government's supervision of their products as well as trade
amongst each other. Because of the sophisticated trading market, an advanced banking system
developed as well, allowing further settlement from outsiders. Baghdad's location between the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as well, created a trade link to further destinations such as China,
India and Armenia, drawing even more people, literature, and knowledge to the city from exotic
and distant lands. The mild climate and topography made it easy to settle as well for travellers
coming to the city to trade. As Baghdad became a trading hub in the Islamic Empire, cultures
collided, sharing knowledge, books, language, and faiths, ultimately creating a "cosmopolitan
city" that developed into a learning center for the world.
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As more and more people began to settle in the city, numerous schools began to spring up
including the Hanafi and Hanbali schools of law. Law being a critical study for the Muslim
people, because of the understanding of justice on Earth as applied to God. The Hanafi is
currently the largest school of legal thought in the Muslim world, and it was a major draw for
scholars to the city of Baghdad. Another important school in Baghdad that began was the Bayt
al-Hikma (House of Wisdom), which focused on translating texts from various languages into
Arabic. This practice began out of a need to supply educated texts from around the world to a
growing educated public market. In particular the Arabic translation of Grecian texts became a
substantial market that was quite progressive because its primary impetus from the caliphate was
to establish a new ideology with a political and scientific base. This translation helped to foster
the transition between a primarily oral society, to one centered on a written language. Baghdad's
location also made it ideal for paper production, which lowered the cost of creating books,
making them more prevalent and accessible to more people. As more and more texts began to be
produced as well, a new market for book vendors opened up, and numerous libraries and
bookstores sprang up in the city. As the public and private sectors of the community became
more educated, cultural narrative and secular writing began. In the city, a demand for secular
literature, designed for entertainment, developed, which shaped the culture of the city's
population, as well as the Abbasid Empire as a whole, with Baghdad being their crowning
achievement and reason for the Golden Age of Islam. At this time, Baghdad was revered as the
"center of the world" because of its scholarship. Michael Cooperson says that "Baghdadi scholars
were so numerous and so eminent that reference to them could continue to support the 'center of
the world' thesis…". The influx of trade and commerce brought these scholars to the city, and
made it the cosmopolitan breeding ground of knowledge that it became. Al-Mansur's foundation
and construction of the city as well, was done by only the best and brightest scholars, further
fostering the notion of a highly intellectual city population to support the Golden Age. At the
height of the golden age in Baghdad, it was estimated that there were over one and half million
people living in the city.
Military Arsenal: Al-Mansur's foundation of the city was ultimately based on its potential
position as a military arsenal, and its ability to house and support many troops. Large numbers of
troops were what originally gave the city such a dense population, but as the army continued to
need supplies more and more people flooded to the city for jobs, thus being another reason
Baghdad became a center of commerce. Baghdad also being named the new capital of the
Abbasid caliphate drew numerous people in for the prestige and name alone. Al-Mansur
designated a governor of Baghdad and sent with him a number of elites who gave the city a
higher status and poise, drawing more and more scholars to study in such a well-educated and
cosmopolitan city. Baghdad grew and developed in a variety of facets, and because of this it
arguably became the largest city in the world during that time.

63
The Flag of Baghdad Governorate with Madinat-al-Salam in the centre, via Wikipedia

64
The Round City of Baghdad is the original core of Baghdad, built by the Abbasid Caliph al-
Mansur in 762–766 CE as the official residence of the Abbasid court. Its official name in
Abbasid times was The City of Peace (Arabic: ‫مدينة السالم‬, romanized: Madīnat as-Salām).
The famous library known as the House of Wisdom was located within its grounds.

Muslim geographer Ahmad al-Ya'qubi wrote in the ninth century:

‘I mention Baghdad first of all because it is the heart of Iraq, and, with no
equal on earth either in the Orient or the Occident, it is the most extensive
city in the area, in importance, in prosperity, in abundance of water, and in
healthful climate. It is inhabited by the most diverse individuals, both city
people and country folk; people emigrate to it from all countries, both near
and far; and everywhere there are men who have preferred it to their own
country.'

Baghdad of the eighth and ninth centuries, also known as Madinat-al-Salam,

or the City of Peace, was one of the most advanced cities in the world. Built
of the baked brick, the city’s walls have long since crumbled, leaving no
trace of Madinat-al-Salam today. It was once was a major architectural
achievement of its time, both in terms of planning and scale. For historians,
reconstructing the city on the basis of the preserved descriptions, Madinat-
al-Salam represents a perfect case study for Muslim urbanism, while modern

architects, writers, and artists draw inspiration from its unique cityscape.

65
Round City of Baghdad, modern reconstruction, courtesy of Jean-Baptist Oudart

Madinat-al-Salam was founded by the second Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja’far Abdallah ibn
Muhammad al-Mansur in 762 CE, with the aim of moving the capital closer to Khurasan – the
region which had supported the Abbasids in their struggle for power against the previous dynasty
– the Umayyads. It was comprised of three perfectly round walls – the outer, the main, and the
inner – pierced by four gates, with the Caliph’s residence in the middle. According to the Persian
historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, before the constructions began, Caliph Al-Mansur
commanded to draw the outline of the city in ashes. After walking around the city’s imaginary
streets and courtyards, Al-Mansur ordered cotton seeds and oil spread along the outline, which
was then set on fire for the Caliph to see the city as a whole.

66
 Aerial view

Al-Mansur was only the second Caliph of the Abbasid dynasty. The city’s outline was modelled
on ancient Persian cities, such as Gur (modern Firuzabad), reflecting his ambitions to retain and
consolidate power. It is no coincidence that the new city was also located near Ctesiphon – the
former capital of the Sasanian empire. Even the building materials were to be obtained from the
demolition of Ctesiphon’s palace of Khursaw, but the cost of breaking down the palace walls and
then transporting the stone and brick upstream proved to be too high.

Madinat-al-Salam was clearly an Islamic place. Its name was a reminder of a Qur’anic
expression (6:127) Dar-el-Salam, ‘the House of Peace’, which refers to Paradise (the name
Baghdad comes from the village situated on the site chosen for the new capital). The city’s Kufa
gate (South-West) pointed at Kufa, the starting point for pilgrimages, and more importantly, at
Mecca. The other three gates were located at regular intervals from Kufa gate and were named
by the Caliph himself according to the destinations for which they gave access. The gates were
high enough to allow a horseman carrying a banner or a lance to come through, and had double
iron doors, so heavy that several men were needed to open and close them. According to the
legend narrated by Al-Tabari, the four iron doors in the main wall, and one in Al-Mansur’s
palace, were originally crafted for King Solomon by shaytans, or demons.

In the centre of the city, protected by the inner wall, stood, side by side, the palace of the Caliph,
also known as the Golden Gate, and the Great Mosque. The palace was crowned by a green
dome with a weathervane in the shape of a horseman visible from all quarters of Baghdad. It was
believed that the horseman was endowed with magical powers and pointed his lance in the
direction from where the enemies of the Caliph were going to appear. Later the figure and the
green dome were destroyed by a thunderbolt. On the North-West side were the barracks for the
67
Caliph’s horse-guards and a portico, presumably occupied by the palace governor. The space
surrounding these buildings was kept free of houses, but further away stood the palaces of the
Caliph’s children, his servants’ dwellings, and public offices. Al-Mansur ordered that no one
except himself could enter the central area riding, so everyone else had to leave their horse or
mule outside of the inner wall, to the great annoyance of the Caliph’s frail and gout-ridden
uncles. One account claims that Al-Mansur also built a secret passage leading to beyond the city
walls to provide escape in case of a siege.

The gatehouses in the main wall – the sturdiest of the three – were also topped with green cupola
supported by the columns of teak wood. At the top story of each gatehouse, there was a chamber
overlooking the city. The one above the Khurasan gate was a favourite resting place of Caliph
Al-Mansur. On one occasion, while the Caliph was there an arrow, bearing a warning, was shot
up and fell by his feet. Al-Mansur had nothing to fear though – it was believed that no Caliph
would die in Baghdad.

In The City of Peace: Reconstructions of the Round City of Baghdad,Polina Ignatova of the
Lancaster University writes,”While no tangible traces have yet been discovered of the eighth-
century Madinat-al-Salam, and as it is currently impossible to conduct excavations in Baghdad,
one can only hope that one day material evidence may be discovered. Yet its legacy lives on –
through academic works and state emblems, utopian aspirations and ambitious architectural
projects, as well as fictional places, the Round City of Baghdad survives in our collective
imagination as a symbol of power, prosperity, and peace.1
The lack of archeological excavations at the Round City's suspected site has left the task of
reconstructing the Medinat al-Mansur as a mere theoretical and hypothetical exercise. The topic was
again revisited in the second half of the 20th century in new contexts. One of the more recent
scholars who has undertaken the subject again is Jacob Lassner, who presented a new critical
interpretation based on the original texts "Tarikh Baghdad, (A History of Baghdad)," the
"Geographical Dictionary" by al-Baghdadi and Ya'qubi, and the assessments made by Herzfeld and
Creswell in the beginnings of the 20th century. Lassner's "The Topography of Baghdad in the Early
Middle Ages" (1970) and "The Shaping of Abbasid Rule" (1980) presented a new concept of the city
plan and a contrasting view of its architectural function and historical development in the earliest
period, improving our current understanding of the city's design. In Lassner's studies, at least four
previously held ideas about the al-Mansur's city were revised.

68
First, Lassner rejected the idea that al-Mansûr himself, "who had no known experience in
architectural design (or with round structures) could have personally created ex nihilo such a
sophisticated and unusual design." Second, he argues against the view that Baghdad's building was a
sign of the Abbasid assumption of Iranian rulership, being more a visible manifestation of the
Abbasid inheritance of Persian Sassanian urban design royal tradition. Third, he rejects the claims
that the palace-city had symbolic cosmological significance "simply because there are no explicit
statements in the sources connecting the caliph with such symbolism." Finally, he affirms that "The
Round City was, in fact, an administrative center, and not at all a city in the conventional sense of the
term."

According to Ya'qubi, the plans for the city were drawn up, but it was not until 2 August 762 that
construction began, under the supervision of four architects. Huge resources were amassed for
the project: the Arab chroniclers report 100,000 workers and craftsmen, and sums of 18
million gold dinars or 100 million silver dirhams. The caliphal Palace of the Golden Gate and
the main mosque, as well as some of the administration offices, were apparently completed by
763, allowing al-Mansur to move his residence into the city, and the rest of the Round City was
completed by 766.

Mansur believed that Baghdad was the perfect city to be the capital of the Islamic empire under
the Abbasids. Mansur loved the site so much he is quoted saying, "This is indeed the city that I
am to found, where I am to live, and where my descendants will reign afterward". The goal was
to replace Harran as the seat of the caliphal government; however, a city of Baghdad is
mentioned in pre-Islamic texts, including the Talmud, and the Abbasid city was likely built on
the site of this earlier settlement.
____________________________________________________________________
1. https://www.epoch-magazine.com/post/the-city-of-peace-reconstructions-of-
the-round-city-of-baghdad.”

69
The Round City of Baghdad, modern reconstruction, courtesy of Naji El Mir

70
The Round City of Baghdad, modern reconstruction, courtesy of Jean-Baptist Oudart

Baghdad eclipsed Ctesiphon, the capital of the Sasanian Empire, which was located some 30 km
(19 mi) to the southeast, which had been under Muslim control since 637, and which became
quickly deserted after the foundation of Baghdad. The site of Babylon, which had been deserted
since the 2nd century, lies some 90 km (56 mi) to the south.

The old Baghdad was a small village, and despite its name, which is of Iranian origin (bag "god"
+ dād "gifted"), the original inhabitants were probably Aramaic-speaking Nabateans. The new
city, however, was mainly Arabic-speaking, with considerable Persian elements in the population
and urban environment, although there have not been any major Persian settlement in the village
of Baghdad or its surrounding communities, all of which were absorbed into the new city of
Baghdad. The Persian elements rather appeared after the foundation of the new city, and
included Persian architectural influence, Persian military settlement in the early years, the
continuing settlement of Persian scholars, and the late rulers of Persian origin (such as
the Buyids).

The city was designed as a circle about 1 km (0.62 mi) in radius, leading it to be known as the
"Round City". Given this figure, it may be estimated that the original area of the city, shortly
after its construction, was around 3 km2 (1.2 sq mi). The original design shows a ring of
residential and commercial structures along the inside of the city walls, but the final construction
added another ring, inside the first. In the center of the city lay the mosque, as well as
headquarters for guards. The purpose or use of the remaining space in the center is unknown.
The circular design of the city was a direct reflection of the traditional Persian Sasanian urban
design. The ancient Sasanian city of Gur/Firouzabad is nearly identical in its general circular
design, radiating avenues, and the government buildings and temples at the center of the city.
This points to the fact that it was based on Persian precedents. The two designers who were hired
by al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht, a former Zoroastrian, and Mashallah ibn
Athari, a Persian Jewish astrologer/astronomer.
71
The city had four gates: Bab al-Kufa ("gate of Kufa"), Bab al-Sham ("gate of al-
Sham or Damascus"), Bab al-Khorasan ("gate of Khorasan"), and Bab al-Basra ("gate of Basra").
[
This too is similar to the round cities of Darabgard and Gor, which had four gates. The Khuld
Palace, the main palace of Baghdad built by al-Mansur, was located near the Bab al-
Khorasan. The Khorasan Gate marked the beginning of the Great Khorasan Road.
None of the structures of the city has survived, and information are based on literary sources.
The caliphal Palace of the Golden Gate and the main mosque were located at the centre of the
circle. Influenced by the apadana design of ancient Iranian architecture, the mosque was built
with a hypostyle prayer-hall with wooden columns supporting its flat roof. The caliphal palace
featured an iwan and a dome-chamber immediately behind it, resembling Sasanian palace
design (such as that of Gor and Sarvestan). Building materials was mostly brick (sometimes
strengthened by reeds), reflecting Mesopotamian architecture.

The residents were of two types: military people who were settled by the caliph, and a large
number ordinary people who later settled in the city for economic opportunities. The second
group were mostly Arabs and local Nabateans. The first group were
mostly Persians from Khorasan and Transoxania, who were settled in the northwestern district
known as Harbiyya (‫)حربية‬. The Harbiyya included Marwrūdiyya division (‫مرورودية‬, for those
from Marw al-Rudh i.e. modern-day Murghab, Afghanistan), a suburb of the Furus ("Persians",
or possibly people from Fars), a suburb for the Khwarezmians, and a mosque dedicated to the
people of Bukhara. As the future caliph Al-Mahdi moved from al-Rayy to Baghdad in 768, a
second wave of Persian military people settled there. There were also noble Iranian
families Barmakids (from Balkh) and the Sulids (from Gurgan). The descendants of these
Iranians took the title abnāʾ (‫)أبناء‬, short for abnāʾ al-dawla (‫أبناء الدولة‬, literally "sons of the
state"), but also said to be echoing the title of the abna' of Yemen, also of Persian origin. The
Persians of Baghdad were gradually acculturated by the early 9th century.

House of Wisdom: As the host of one of the major intellectual centers in the Abbasid Caliphs,
the Grand Library of Baghdad, also known as The House of Wisdom, was likely to have
attracted scholars of several disciplines. Among them, geographers, historians, or simple
chroniclers provided extensive descriptions of the Madinat al-Mansur even years after the city's
fading. All the information we have today related to the physical characteristics, structural
functions, and social life in Abbasid Baghdad comes from these literary sources which were
revisited in the 20th century. Some of the most important surviving literary sources from the late
10th and 11th centuries in Baghdad are "Description of Mesopotamia and Baghdad," written by
Ibn Serapion; "Tarikh Baghdad (A History of Baghdad)", by the scholar and historian Al-Khatib
al-Baghdadi, and the "Geographical Dictionary" by the geographer and historian Ya'qubi. These
three books have constituted the foundation and required reading for modern research on the
matter.

72
The definite revelation for the academic community of the existence of the Round City of
Baghdad was recorded by Guy Le Strange, a British Orientalist prominent in the field of
historical geography. His work "Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate: from contemporary
Arabic and Persian sources," (1900) revisited, among other scholars, the work of Serapion and
Ya'qubi to reconstruct a plan of the old city. Le Strange himself wrote in the preface of his book:
"(...) the real basis of the present reconstruction of the medieval plan is the description of the
Canals of Baghdad written by Ibn Serapion in about the year a.d. 900. By combining the network
of the water system, as described by this writer, with the radiating high-roads, as described by his
contemporary Yakubi, it has been possible to plot out the various quarters of older Baghdad,
filling in details from the accounts of other authorities, which, taken alone, would have proved
too fragmentary to serve for any systematic reconstruction of the plan."

The book is illustrative of the kind of Orientalist studies such as this one, which enjoyed great
popularity in Europe at the time, fostered interest in conducting surveys in situ. A few years after
Le Strange's first publication of the Round City's plan, a wave of German and British
excavations was commissioned by emerging museums and universities. Two scholars re-re-
visited the topic while working in Iraq, conducting excavations in neighboring cities like
Samarra. The first one to improve Le Strange's initial plan was Ernst Herzfeld, a German
archeologist who produced between 1905–1913 a large body of work including translations,
drawings, field notes, photographs, and objects inventories from his excavations at Samarra and
elsewhere in Iraq and Iran. Concerned with the critical problems found in the original descriptive
texts, Herzfeld, an architect by profession, offered new interpretations and developed new plans
of the Round City of Baghdad. His study was more related to the description, arrangement, and
function of the city's main buildings, contrasting with the more urbanistic approach of Le
Strange. His reconstructions were celebrated as the first "major architectural work on this
subject," accepted by subsequent scholars. One of them was British art historian Sir K. A. C.
Creswell, whose 1932 publication of the first volume of his monumental survey "Early Muslim
Architecture" remains widely acknowledged as an essential reference for early Islamic
architecture.

The lack of archeological excavations at the Round City's suspected site has left the task of
reconstructing the Medinat al-Mansur as a mere theoretical and hypothetical exercise. The topic
was again revisited in the second half of the 20th century in new contexts. One of the more
recent scholars who has undertaken the subject again is Jacob Lassner, who presented a new
critical interpretation based on the original texts "Tarikh Baghdad, (A History of Baghdad)," the
"Geographical Dictionary" by al-Baghdadi and Ya'qubi, and the assessments made by Herzfeld
and Creswell in the beginnings of the 20th century. Lassner's "The Topography of Baghdad in
the Early Middle Ages" (1970) and "The Shaping of Abbasid Rule" (1980) presented a new
concept of the city plan and a contrasting view of its architectural function and historical
development in the earliest period, improving our current understanding of the city's design. In
Lassner's studies, at least four previously held ideas about the al-Mansur's city were revised.

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First, Lassner rejected the idea that al-Mansûr himself, "who had no known experience in
architectural design (or with round structures) could have personally created ex nihilo such a
sophisticated and unusual design." Second, he argues against the view that Baghdad's building
was a sign of the Abbasid assumption of Iranian rulership, being more a visible manifestation of
the Abbasid inheritance of Persian Sassanian urban design royal tradition. [14] Third, he rejects the
claims that the palace-city had symbolic cosmological significance "simply because there are no
explicit statements in the sources connecting the caliph with such symbolism." Finally, he
affirms that "The Round City was, in fact, an administrative center, and not at all a city in the
conventional sense of the term."

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 The siege of Baghdad

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 IV
The Panchakroshi Yatra of Kashi
In the Prashonottara Ratna Malika of Adi Sankaracharya, it is beautifully
mentioned that there are only two places to be. In the midst of good people
or in Kasi. Such was the importance given to Kasi/Varanasi.

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Visualising a city as a Mandala
One can visualise a city through its various maps. For example one is familiar
with a physical map showing the network of water bodies, soil terrain and
forests and a political map highlighting important districts, government
buildings and administrative centres.
Similarly one can visualise a city or space in terms of its temples, teertha
sthalas and places of spiritual significance. One finds descriptions of them in
the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The Skanda Purana for
example contains the mahatmiyas of various teertha sthalas spread across
the Bharatvarsha from Kedarnath, Badrinath, Ayodhya, Mathura, Varanasi to
Ujjain, Puri, Tirupati, Rama Setu to Dwarka, Girnar and more. Chapters are
dedicated describing the significance of every temple, the story behind its
coming into being, how to worship as well as the benefits of visiting them.
These teertha sthalas have a continuing tradition where countless rishis and
bhaktas have done penance and built temples.
The puranas also mention various yatras that one can undertake in these
sthalas. Within a region, multiple yatras or circuits are described with its own
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significance: yatras dedicated to Shiva shrines or navagrahas or Rudras or
Devi and so on. It is like exploring the same teertha sthala through different
lenses. For example, in Varanasi, more than 15 yatras are mentioned: the
Vinayaka Yatra in Varanasi covers the 56 important shrines of Lord Vinayaka
and is spiral in shape converging to Shree Kashi Vishwanath Temple, The
Aditya Yatra of Varanasi is a yatra of the 14 important temples dedicated to
Adityas in the shape of an isosceles triangle. Each yatra is a unique experi-
ence and holds a special significance for the sadhaka. One of the most fol-
lowed yatra is the Panchakroshi yatra of Varanasi which has a long history
associated with it.
Yatras are an integral part of the sanatana dharma and have been performed
by pilgrims since aeons. The study of these routes or yatras has been a sub-
ject of modern research to understand their geometric patterns as well as
astronomical alignment. Interested readers may refer to the references for
more details.

1: Yatra of the 14 Adityas in Kashi. Most of them lie on an isosceles triangle. Lines
drawn From temple 7 to other temples indicate the position of sunrise as visible
from temple 7 around 14th of every month; thus making them aligned like a sun-
dial!

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2: Kasi Mandala showing the span of Kashi to be of 5 krosa radius At the centre is
the Madhyamesvara temple very close to the Shree Kashi Vishwanath temple. The
other radial point is Delhi Vinayaka Temple. The Pancakroshi Yatra route followed
today is also marked in bold.

Comparing the Kashi Mandala (in circle) to the modern city of Varanasi (high-
lighted in white)
Significance of Kashi

The Panchakroshi Yatra of Kashi

The Panchakroshi Yatra has been of tremendous significance in our itihaasa-
purana. Lord Rama performed this yatra for his father King Dasaratha and
again after returning from Lanka. The Pandavas have also performed this
yatra and the Shiva linga established by them is also one of the major pil-
grimage site. The Yatra has been described in the Kashi Khanda of Skanda
Purana and has been referred to in several other puranas and texts including
by Tulsidas.
The Yatra covers a distance of about 75 km covered by devotees on foot.
The most common times for the Yatra are autumn, cold and spring season.
There is special significance of performing the Yatra in Purushottama maasa.

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On the night of Shivaratri, thousands of devotees are seen performing the
yatra. The Kashi Rahasya in Brahmavaivarta Purana describes five ways in
which one may perform the Yatra depending on the number of days one
takes to perform it – from one to five.

Shree Kashi Vishwanath Temple

Devotees after taking a bath at the Manikarnika Ghat begin their journey at
the Kashi Vishwanath temple by taking the following sankalpa to purify
themselves (from the Kashi Rahasya):

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In Kashi, committed sins by talk, body and thought, By knowingly or unknow-
ingly,
To get relief from them and for the well being. Worshipping Pancakroshi
lingam form; And Infinite Light-form; Where live Parvati and Shiva, Lakshmi
and Visnu Dhundiraja and Fifty-six Vinayakas And twelve Suns, Narsimha and
Kesavas.
Three forms of Rama and Krishna, Fish and Tortoise forms Vishnu, Various
incarnations of Shiva and Vishnu where installed.
And where live various forms of Gauri; To do the journey I take the vow and
pray to Siva and His consort. I would do the Panchakroshi Yatra by sacred
rules; As liked by you, O Supreme Lord! Give me strength and peace.
The typical journey involves halting at five stations during the five nights.
Dharamshalas and comfortable guest houses have come up at these halts
for the ease of devotees at these places.
The first night halt is at Kardamesvara Temple: This lingam is said to be
installed by Sage Kardam, father of Maharishi Kapila, the founder of Sankhya
philosophy. Devotees take bath in Kardam kund in the temple complex and
worship the linga by offering five grains: barley, paddy, wheat, mung and
urad dal along with white sesame, bilva leaves and tulsi.

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The Kardamesvara Temple on Panchakroshi Yatra
The second night halt is at Bhimacandi Temple. Bhimacandi refers to the
form of Devi showing her strength (Bhima) before her marriage with Lord
Shiva. She is also one of the patron deities of the territory
The third night halt is on the banks of river Varana at Ramesvaram. Here the
Siva linga was installed by Lord Rama himself. Devotees take a dip in the
Varana river and at night, special decoration and arti are performed at the
temple of Ramesvaram.
The fourth halt is at the temple established by the Pancha Pandavas. Here
there are five Shiva lingas and Nandis with each of them, in decreasing order

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of size established by the pancha pandavas. Devotees worship the lingas as
well as take a dip in the Draupadi Kunda nearby.
The final night is at Kapiladhara, the temple of Kapila Muni, the founder of
Sankhya philosophy. Devotees perform anna daana to brahmins here in the
evening. The next day, devotees visit the beautiful Adi Kesava temple dedi-
cated to Lord Vishnu, take a dip at the Manikarnika Ghaat and a complete
their yatra where they began, at the Kashi Vishveshwara temple.
All along the route, one hears the devotees chanting:
“Hara Hara! Mahadeva Shambho! Kasi Vishwanatha Gange Mata Parvati
sange!”
“Hail to Mahadeva, Shambho residing in the city of Kashi with Ma Ganga and
Ma Parvati”
There are 108 shrines on the route dedicated to Lord Shiva, Vinayaka, Shakti
Devi, Lord Vishnu and others. Each shiva linga established on the route has a
story behind it. Some are major temples, others are small shrines or murtis
in compounds. The recent project to build the Varanasi corridor has helped
declutter many shrines and give them due space. One can refer to the full
list of 108 shrines in the references. Going through the list, one gets a
glimpse into the holy city of Kashi.

II
Kashi the abode of Visveswara
With 50 never before easily seen pics compiled by author
Edited from Sreenivasan’s blog
By Dr Uday Dokras

During the past couple of weeks I read some richly illustrated posts on Varanasi, as it appears
today; and as they experienced it. That stirred in me some memories of Varanasi of old, the
ancient city where a great numbers ‘lived and passed by throughout the ages”.
I thought I could talk a bit of Varanasi in the lore and legends of ancient India; and of the
Varanasi of the time of the Buddha, where he first taught and wandered.

It is city of light; the City of delight ; the abode of Visveswara; the city of the well of knowledge
– Jnanavapi ; the City of purity, where the Mother Ganga purifies all who surrender to her in

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love and reverence; the City of Maha-smashana the ultimate end of all; and, above all, it is
home of the graceful and loving Mother Annapurna.

Ancient city

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As it has often been said; Kashi is without doubt the oldest inhabited city in the world. It never
stopped being a living city for over three thousand years. Mark Twain who visited India in the
last decade of the nineteenth century said Kashi is “Older than history, older than tradition, older
even than legend, and looks twice as old as all of them put together.” The old texts call the
city Avimukta, the city that never was abandoned despite invasions, repeated ravages and bigoted
violence. Kashi has reigned over the upheavals of time; and, has never stopped being a lively and
animated town.

Kashi is the holy city not only for the Hindus but also for the Buddhists, the Jains and the
Sikhs. Sri Guru Nanak is said to have visited the Holy City two times around 1502 and 1506. It
has also long been a major center of education, of philosophical debates, of dialectics; and, of
traditional medicine (Ayurveda), yoga and astrology.
As Alain Danielou says:
“Kashi the city of refinement and beauty was the spiritual and cultural capital of ancient India. It
had always been a sacred city, a centre of learning (jnana puri), of art and pleasures, the heart of
Indian civilization, whose origins are lost in the mists of antiquity”.

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[A Geo-exploration study conducted by IIT-Kharagpur – using GPS, one of the latest tech tools –
indicates that Varanasi (particularly, the Gomati Sangam area ) has been a continuous human
settlement since the days of the Indus Valley Civilization, around 6000 years ago..]

The ancient city has always been at the centre of Indian consciousness. Kashi has a distinct
individuality, which it developed over the ages since the hoary past. Its history, culture and
people; its temples and tirthas, mathas and institutions; its scholars, some of them the best in the
country; its festivals; its literature, music, painting and culture; its silk trade and craft; and, its
typical inhabitants: sadhus, courtesans, pundits, musicians, artists, weavers, wrestlers,
pandas, babus, thugs and gundas are archetypal of its cultural milieu; and , are uniquely Indian.

Prof. D Sampath elsewhere remarked “Benares has a very strong geo-physical significance…it is
one of the navels of earth”. That seems to be supported by R.E. Wilkinson who in Temple
India observes that the holy city of Varanasi lies in the arc of Capricorn. According to Wilkinson
: “The Capricorn sign’s 30 degrees begin at 60/61 degrees the Capricorn east and continue to the
mouth of the Ganges. Its alignment identifies India and Varanasi as the point of the clearest
spiritual vision.
“It is the one point”, said the Mother of Sri Aurobindo Ashram, “where the psychic law can and
must reign, and the time has come for that to occur.”

[There are interesting varied sets of Tantric interpretations of Kasi’s geography. According to
one such mystic geography of Kasi, Manikarnika the Smashana is, truly, symbolic of intrinsic
death of the ascetic when his Prana soars up the Shushumna attaining the final release.
Kasi is sometimes identified with the Ajna-chakra, the mystic centre between the nose and the
eyebrows. But as a city, it is also identified with the subtle body as a whole. According to this
identification, the central vein of Kasi’s mystical body terminates at the cremation ground,
equating it with the highest centre of the anatomy. It is said; “The Rivers Asi and Varua at the

86
extremities of the city, and a third river (invisible) which flows through the centre, represent the
three main veins of the yogic body-respectively with the Ida, Pingala and Shushumna “. ]
It is no wonder, therefore, that a massive literature, in all Indian languages, has grown around the
city over the ages. Many myths and legends have gathered round the luminous Kashi or the
vibrant Varanasi; celebrating its sacredness as the abode of the recluse Shiva and of the gracious
Mother Annapurna who guides the aspirant striving to attain knowledge (jnana) and detachment
(vairagya).

City of contradictions

Anandavana And Rudravasa or Maha-shmashana

Kashi is a city of contradictions. It is Anandavana the grove of happiness as
also Rudravasa or Maha-shmashana the great cremation ground. The cycle of life and death is
nowhere more pronounced than in Kashi; for , this is the ‘City of Good Death’ to where people
come to die, to rid themselves of the cycle of birth and death. The fires of cremation burn here
ceaselessly; and, Lord Shiva whispers the sacred verse of liberation to the departing.

87
In this city of blazing summers and chilling winters, the contradictions hit you in the face; the
sublime and the sordid coexist. Varanasi continues to be the holiest city ; and yet, a crass cult of
greed thrives and holds sway , as the priests fleece you and the touts sell you custom-made doses
of phony spiritualism. Its tight net of dark alleys and lanes hold the depths of human despair ,
depravity and vulgarity; where fake sadhus and tricksters lay in wait for the gullible. The sight of
countless old widows abandoned or driven away by their families, helplessly loitering the narrow
lanes , waiting for death to relieve them of pain and humiliation of what is called life , is truly
wretched. The contradictions are so evident and yet too close. Just a thin line separates the
spiritual from the sham; sanctity from the profane; faith from deceit; purity from filth; and,
culture from grotesque.Yet, some manage to find an inexplicable charm in this strange blend of
the sublime and the profane. It is said; in Kashi you reach what you walk for; and , you find what
you seek.

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 City of lights

Kashi was the ancient name of the kingdom; one of the sixteen Maha-janapadas of ancient India.
It was also the name of its chief city, which was also called as Varanasi or Baranasi. Since the
arrival of the British in India , the city has also come to be known as Banaras or Benares. The
name Kashi is derived from the root kash meaning light (kashate pra-kashate iti kashihi). Kashi ,
literally means the city of lights. It is said; as one sails up the river Ganga at night, the city with
myriad temples, mansions (prasada) and palaces glows like festival of lights. Right from the
ancient times, Kashi was reckoned among the seven primer sacred cities (Saptapuri) that granted
liberation (moksadayikah). Its name also suggests that Kashi was the ‘luminous’ or pre-eminent
of all the seven great and holy cities of ancient India: Ayodhya, Mathura, Maya (Haridwar),
Kashi (Varanasi), Kanchi, Avanthika (Ujjain), Puri, and Dvaravathi (Dwaraka). Ayodhya
Mathura Maya Kashi Kanchi Avantika | Puri Dvaravati chaiva saptaita moksadayikah || Some
scholars opine that Kashi is in fact a later name; its earlier name being Varanavati. Through the
ages, the city had various other names such as: Avimuktaka, Anandakanana, Mahasmasana,
Surandhana, Brahma Vardha, Sudarsana and Ramya; besides Kashi and Varanasi. But in most
legends and lore , the city is celebrated as the holy city of Kashi or Varanasi.

Varanasi

89
Kashi is Varanasi ; because, the city included the land bound between two rivers the Varana and
the Asi. The Varana is a rivulet, which rises to the north of Prayaga (Allahabad) ; and, has a
course of about hundred miles; while Asi a mere brook , which , as Ether says, is now reduced
to a lamentable nullah. The Varana joins the Ganga at the north of the city, while the Asi joins
the Ganga at its south. The distance between these two confluences is around 2.5 kosas (One
Kosa is about 1 ½ miles; making 2.5 kosa to about 3.75 miles); and, the round trip is known
as Pancha-koshi –yatra (about 7.5 miles). The great city of Kashi lies on a higher ground at the
confluence of three rivers, metaphorically a trident.

90
[But it is difficult to ascertain the original topography of Varanasi because the city’s current
location may not exactly be the same as the one described in the old texts].On the bulge of the
river bend. The city of Kashi is situated on the convex side of the river , presenting a semi-lunar
phase; and, at a considerable height than the opposite shore. When the river-face of the city is
viewed from the breadth of the Ganga or from the low – opposite bank, the city appears as if it is
mounted on a pedestal of immense flights of the Ghats lined along the margin of a beautifully
formed bay. Because of its elevated location, the city, to an extent, is protected from the ravages
of floods and the deluge that the Ganga occasionally causes.

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Manasara, an ancient text of Shilpa-sahstra, recommends that if a town has to be located along a
river bank, it should then be at a height sloping towards the east or north (praganutham uttara
natham samam va bhumi); and, it should be situated on the convex side of the river bend. The
text mentions Varanasi as a classic example that satisfies this norm; the other instance being the
ancient city of Madurai along the convex side of the Vaigai.

View of the city from the expanse of the Ganga

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The city of Kashi is clustered with temples and magnificent mansions; yet, more than anything
else, it was the view of the city from the expanse of the Ganga, the delightful panorama of
the Varanasi riverfront that enchanted the hearts of countless travelers and pilgrims over the
centuries. Many of them have left behind delightful pictures – in words and sketches- of their
impressions.
Hiuen Tsang who visited India in the first half of the seventh century was impressed by the
temples of the holy city of Varanasi (Po-la-na-ssu) “several stories high and richly adorned with
sculptured decoration” standing at the edge of the waters “set in thickly wooded parks and
surrounded by pools of clear water”.
Most British officials were properly shocked by the “impurity and extravagance” of the
superstitious reverence of the Hindus for all sorts of idols”. They gave, in their letters to family
and friends back home, the graphic descriptions of “hosts of hideous beggars, cripples, and
hunchbacks, assembled here (who) torment you with their lamentable cries; and, will not leave
you until they have extorted a few coppers.”

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The British artists – sketches and paintings
But ; it was the British artists , who were enchanted by the riverfront , which they described as :
“one of the loveliest sky-lines in the world”, which no painter could wish to miss. Apart from
that, the British, especially the families, who habitually traveled from Calcutta to Allahabad by
boat, enjoyed halting at Benares , in the midway.
There was indeed a busy traffic on the Ganga.

94
95
The view from the river front was enchanting.The families, on their way, would spend an
afternoon in Benares, wandering through its streets.

96
It was said : Benares was certainly the most interesting and most remarkable city of Hindostan
over which the British have any authority. The British artists found the city quite exhilarating.
For instance; the great photographer Richard Lannoy , who made several visits to Varanasi,
went into raptures in his description of the city :

“On climbing the Ghats and entering the crowded Banaras streets,” he goes on, “one is assailed
by the bewildering variety o the scene, no much as that in the simultaneous assault of the senses,
it seems that colours have sound, and sounds colour…Though the crowds wander old men who
have come to the sacred city to die, men resembling Father Christmas or King Lear, while on
who carried the trident of Siva looked like Neptune. Once I saw what seemed to be a
conversation between Leonardo da Vinci and Dante, while Nebuchadnezzar wandered by,
quietly reciting some Sanskrit verse.”

97
Kashi - World's Most Ancient City.This map is from 1914, woodblock print from Ashmolean Museum,
University of Oxford about Kashi then it was called Benares.This is A replica of Ancient map of Kashi
and Banaras as per the Hindu Puranic scriptures. The ancient Kashi Viswanath Mandir is in the middle
of Map with Mang Shivlings. These Mang shivlings are Swayambhu or established by the Gods and
Rishis so that goes back to the creation of the earth.

This map also called Vintage Trevelling Map of Sanatan Bharat.

98
 Same map in color

99
100
William Hodges, the first British professional landscape artist to visit India during 1780 to 1783,
not only made several drawings of Varanasi , but also left a vivid account of what he
saw. Varanasi, Hodges wrote:

“city is built on the North side of the river, which is here very broad, and the banks of which are
very high from the water, its appearance is extremely beautiful; the great variety of the buildings
strikes the eye, and the whole view is much Improved by innumerable flights of stone steps,
which are either entrances into the several temples, or to the houses. Several Hindoo temples
greatly embellish the banks of the river, and are all ascended to by Gauts, or flights of steps.
Many other public and private buildings possess also considerable magnificence. Several of
these I have painted, and some on a large scale, such as I conceived the subject demanded”.

101
102
103
Lieutenant-Colonel C.R. Forrest, a highly talented amateur landscape artist ,
visited Varanasi early in the nineteenth century; and, was enthralled by what he saw. Varanasi,
he wrote:
“ one of the most ancient cities of India, ranks among the principal cities of the world. It is
situated on the left bank of the Ganges, here a noble stream; and its extent along the bank of that
river is full five miles; its breadth inland being in proportion. Built upon a rising ground, sloping
gradually upwards from the water’s brink, its buildings appear very lofty, when seen from the
boats in passing it. .. .Indeed the whole face of the city towards the river is one continued line of
ghauts, which are the exclusive ornaments of Benares”.

104
105
106
[The painting depicting two temple towers leaning into the river waters was made by Lt-Col.
Forrest perhaps during 1834. The artist William Daniell Writing in The Oriental Annual, 1834,
explained :

“One of the most extraordinary objects to be witnessed at Benares and which is generally one of
great curiosity to the stranger, is a pagoda standing in the river, there is nothing to connect it with
the shore. The whole foundation is submerged, and two of the towers have declined so much out
of the perpendicular as to form an acute angle with liquid plain beneath them….It has been
surmised, and with probability, that this temple was originally erected upon the bank of the river,
which then offered a firm and unsuspected foundation; but that, in consequence of the continual
pressure of the stream, the bank had given way all round the building, which, on about of the
depth and solidarity of the foundation, stood firm while the waters surrounded it, thought the
towers had been partially dislodged by the shock. Or it may be that even the foundation sank is
some degree with the bank, thus projecting the two towers out of the direct perpendicular, and
giving them the very extraordinary position which they now retain.”

There is another painting of the leaning pagoda by Captain Robert Elliot. He was in the Royal
Navy as a Topographical Draughtsman, from 1822 to 1824; and, made a series of sketches,
which were later published , in parts, by Fisher & Co., during 1830-3.
107
 ]

Emma Roberts visited India in the first half of the nineteenth century. Her articles and books
about her Indian travels are highly interesting and informative. Her description, in flowery
language, of the panorama of Varanasi from the river is particularly engaging.
“The views of Benares from the river”, she writes, “are exceedingly fine, offering an infinite and
untiring variety of scenery, of which the effect is greatly heightened by the number of trees,
whose luxuriant foliage intermingles with the parapets and buttresses of the adjacent buildings.
In dropping down the stream in a boat, an almost endless succession of interesting objects is
presented to the eye. .. The view of Benares from the ever-shining river must be considered the
most beautiful and imposing”

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She also speaks of :
“numerous birds of the brightest and most resplendent plumage, flocks of every variety of the
pigeon and the dove common to the plains, blue jays, yellow-breasted sparrows, and whole
battalion of ring-necked parquets, with their brilliant feathers gleaming like emeralds in the sun,
as they skim along soaring far above the mango trees which bear their nets, yet seldom
overtopping the crowning pinnacle of the minaret, whence the spectator surveys the singular and
beautiful objects revealed to his admiring gaze”.
The British artist Edward Lear, who visited Varanasi in December 1873, too was struck by the
plentiful birds he came across in the city, and noted in his journal: “The pretty myna birds are
numerous everywhere; pigeons by 10,000,000.”

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Louis Rousselet, a Frenchman who arrived in Bombay in July 1864; and spent about six years
travelling widely in India, provides a delightful description of the Dashashvamedha Ghat. In
his India and its Native Princes (Chapter LVI –page 564), he wrote :
The Ghat is situated at the Western extremity of the large bend, which the Ganges makes at this
point, so that we look in it at a glance, the whole view of the town, standing in tiers like
an amphitheater on the right side of the stream. The situation occupied by Benares has often been
compared to that of Naples; and, the comparison is not without some accuracy. The bed of the
stream, in fact, which is half a mile in width forms a sort of calm blue-bay, in which the
picturesque facade of the City ranged along its banks is reflected like Crescent. We entered an
elegant Gondola; and, soon were gliding gently in front of the City, gazing on the long
succession of the admirable pictures unfolding themselves before us.

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Seen at a little distance from the river, the Ghats of the Dasashvamedh forms a picture no painter
could wish to heighten by a single touch . Its large flights of steps crowded by small temples
with their bristling spires have for their background, on the one side, the stately masses of a
group of palaces surrounding the crest of the plateau ; and, on the other the plain and elegant
facade of the Man Mundir , the great observatory of Benares, erected by the celebrated Jey Singh
of Jeypore.

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**
And, Lord Valentia , who traveled extensively all over India at the beginning of the nineteenth
century, wrote:
“The River forms here a very fine sweep of about four miles in length. On the external side of
the curve, which is constantly the most elevated, is situated the holy city of Benares. It is covered
with buildings to the water’s edge, and the opposite shore being, as usual, extremely level, the
whole may be beheld at once …. Innumerable pagodas of every sizes and shape occupy the
bank, and even have encroached on the river, uniformly built of stone, and of the most solid
workmanship, they are able to resist the torrents, which in the rainy season beat against them.
Several are painted, others gilded, and some remain of the colour of the stone.… The contrast
between these elevated masses of solid masonry and the light domes of the pagodas, in singular
and pleasing are the trees occasionally overhand the walls”.

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 Kashi in Scriptures, epics and puranas Rig Veda

In early Vedic literature, Kashi does not figure either as a center of pilgrimage or as a center of
learning. Rig Veda does not often mention the Ganga; and, it does not also refer directly to
Kashi. That might be because they were outside the geography of the Rig Veda, which ,
basically, was the land of seven waters (saptha sindhavaha).
However, Katyayana in his Veda-Anukramanika (a sort of Vedic glossary), mentions a hymn
(RV.10.179.2) composed by a certain Bharatha who attributed the hymn to his
ancestor Pratardana King of Kashi (Pratardanaha kasirajah
– प्रतर्दनः काशिराजः) ; the son or the descendant of Divodasa (Divodasi) the king
of Kashi (Kashi-raja: 10.179.2.).
[There is however a dissenting view on the identity of Pratardana and Divodasa. Yet, the
reference in the Anukramanika is taken to suggest that the early Bharata kings of the Rig Veda
were descendants of the Kings of Kashi.]
The Sukta No. 179 having three verses in the Tenth Mandala of Rig Veda invoking Indra, is
jointly ascribed to the three sons of Madhavi (daughter of the legendary monarch Yayati) : the
first is Sibi the son of Ushinara (prathamo ushinarah Sibihi – शिबिरौशीनरः); the second
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Pratardana King of Kashi (dwithiyo kasirajah
Pratardanaha- प्रतर्दनः काशिराजः); and, the third Vasumanasa son of
Rauhidasva (thrithiyasha Rauhidashwo Vasumana rishihi – वसुमना रौहिदश्वः) . In
this Sukta, Haryasva is named as Rauhidasva.
Here, Pratardhana, son of Divodasa from Madhavi, is described as: the King of Kashi (dwithiyo
kasirajah Pratardanaha)
[ Mantra Rig 10.179.001 ; Mantra Rig 10.179.002 ; Mantra Rig 10.179.003 ]
Atharva Veda

The earliest reference to the people of Kashi appears in the Pippalada-samhita of Atharva Veda.
It is said they were closely connected with the people of Kosala and Videha.

The Atharva Veda (4.7.1-2) mentions that the waters of the river Varanavati had the magical
power to cure the effects of poison: “May this water from Varanavati ward off the poison”.
vār idam vārayātai Varaṇāvatyām adhi | tatrā amṛtasyā-siktaṃ tenā te vāraye viṣam
|| AVŚ_4,7.1 || arasaṃ prācyaṃ viṣam arasaṃ yad udīcyam |athedam adharācyaṃ karambheṇa
vi kalpate ||AVŚ_4,7.2 ||
Based on this reference, the scholars surmise that Kashi is the later name of the town which was
known as Varanavati.
Brahmanas and Sutras

There are numerous references to Kashi in the Brahmanas . For instance; Shatapatha Brahmana
(Sa Brh. 13. 5.4.1.9) mentions the defeat of Dhrtarastra the king of Kashi at the hands of a
Bharata king Satanika son of Satrajita. Satanika is then said to have taken the ritual horses from
the defeated king and performed the Govinata Yajna. Thereafter the King of Kashi (Kasya) again
performed the Yajna (Sa.Br.13. 5. 4. 21).
govinatena śatānīkaḥ sātrājita īje kāśyasyā śvamādāya tato haitardavāk kāśayo’gnīnnā-dadhata
āttasomapīthāḥ sma iti vadantaḥ – AV. 13.5.4.[19]
tadetad gāthayā abhigītam śatānīkaḥ samantāsu medhyaṃ sātrājito hayam ādatta yajñaṃ
kāśīnām bharataḥ satvatāmiveti – AV.13.5.4.[21]

The Sankhayana Srauta Sutra mentions Kasya, the king of Kashi and Jala Jatukarnya (i.e. Jala
son of Jaatukarni) , who became the king’s purohita after performing a Yajna for ten nights
(yajña.upavītī.iti.jātūkarṇyaḥ – 3.16.14). That Sutra mentions that one person (Jala Jatukarnya)
functioned as the purohita for the kings of three kingdoms: Kashi, Kosala and Videha.
Bahudayana Sutra mentions Kashi and Videha being in close proximity. But, Gopatha
Brahmana says Kashi and Kosala were close ; and , calls the two kingdoms by the compound
name Kasi-Kausalya (kāśi-kauśaleṣu śālvamatsyeṣu – GBr_1,2.10 )GBr_1,2.10 )

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 Upanishads
But in the Upanishads, it is the kingdoms of Kashi and Videha which provide the main backdrop
for the philosophical discussions. The Brhadaranyaka (Ajātaśatruṃ kāśyaṃ-brahma te
bravāṇīti–Brh.U. 2.1.1) ; Kaushitaki (Kush. 4.1) Upanishads report, in detail, the debates held in
the courts of Ajathashatru Kashya, the king of Kashi ; and Janaka Videha the king of Videha.
The Upanishads mention Kashi-Videha as being close; while the Buddhist texts describe the
close connection between Kashi and Kosala. During the time of the Upanishads, the city of
Kashi was yet to acquire the esteem of being the holiest of the holy cities. But, Kashi , over a
period, gained the glorious reputation of being a center of learning, of culture; and of refinement
, although it never rose to the power of an empire or of a major state.For a long time, however,
Taxashila was a more famous center of learning than Kashi. Kings of Kashi used to send their
sons to far-off Taxashila. And, many of the teachers of Kashi that figure in the Jatakas were the
past-students of the Taxashila. In the course of time, however, they could attract scholars from
far and wide , to Kasi (Ja. Nos. 480 and 438). Even in the Jivaka
Sutta (Madhyamanikaya), Jīvaka Komārabhacca (Sanskrit: Jīvaka Kumārabhṛta), the personal
physician and a close disciple of the Buddha, had his medical education and training in the city
of Taxashila under the well-known teacher Disapamok Achariya. There, he studied medicine

115
diligently for seven years, before he settled down at Rājagṛha, the capital of the Magadha
Kingdom , during 6th century BCE.
But, by about the 7th century BCE., Kashi had developed into probably the most famous center
of education in Eastern India. And in the later times, with the imperial patronage under Asoka,
the Sarnath monastery on the outskirts of Kashi must have become a famous-center of learning.
It went on continuously prospering; and, in the 7th century A.D., it possessed resplendent and
beautiful buildings , with tiers of balconies and rows of halls.
Unlike the neighboring Nalanda, Kashi does not seem to have organised any public educational
institution. Its learned scholars continued to teach individually in the traditional manner. Their
fame, however, was gradually reaching to all the corners of India. Scholars and philosophers
from other parts of India traveled to city to get their new theories recognized and published. In
the 11th century A.D. Kashi and Kashmir were the most famous centers of learning in India.

According to the Upanishads, the ancient city is said to have been located on the banks of the
river Varanavati. The kingdoms of Kashi and Videha were closely connected, as was natural in
view of their geographical position. The compound name Kashi-Videha occurs
in Kausitaki and Brhadaranyaka Upanishads (kāśye, vaideho vā videhānāṃ vā rājā – BrhUp
3,8.2)
Videha was situated to the north of Kashi , across the Ganga. The kingdom of Videha
corresponded to the present-day Tirhut with Mithila as its capital. The high esteem of the
kingdom was due to its sage-king Janaka. Videha was situated to the east of Kosala the Sadanira
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(Gandaka) serving as the common border for the two; and, it was bound on the east by the
Kaushitiki.

[According to the Brahmanas and the Upanishads, during the age of Janaka, besides Videha,
there were nine states of considerable importance, viz: 1. Gandhara (north-west part of Punjab
and the adjoining western areas); 2. Kekaya (region to the west of Gandhara); 3. Madra (Sialkot
area); 4. Usinara (central Punjab); 5. Matsya (former state of Jaipur); 6. Kuru (western UP and
Haryana); 7. Panchala (from the Himalayan region extending south) ; 8. Kashi (Kashi –
Lucknow region) and 9. Kosala (state of Oudh)]
Kashi in Epics= Ramayana
Kashi was a famous kingdom in the age of the Ramayana. It is said; Sumitra the wife of King
Dasharatha was a princess hailing from Kashi. In the Adi-kanda Vasistha asked Sumantra the
minister to invite many pious kings including the king of Kashi (tataḥ sumantram āhūya
vasiṣṭho vākyam abravīt – 12th sarga). And, in Kishkinda-kanda (46th sarga), Sugreeva the king
of Vanaras instructs Vinata leader of a monkey brigade to search for Sita in the regions of Kashi
(adṛṣṭvā Vinataḥ sītām ājagāma mahābalaḥ uttarāṃ tu diśaṃ sarvāṃ – 4.046.008)
Mahabharata
14.1. Kashi figures more prominently in Mahabharata. And yet, it is not described as the holiest
city or the most preferred place to give up one’s life. Mahabharata narrates the story of four
generations of the kings of Kashi (Haryyashwa, Sudeva, Divodasa and Pratardana) who ruled
and fought series of battles with Haihayas of the neighboring Vatsas (with its capital at
Kausambi – the Kosam Ruins of the present day) to retain possession of the city of Kashi (MB.
Book 5, Chapter 117; Book 12, Chapter 233).
Divodasa, the great king (mahāvīryo mahīpālaḥ kāśīnām īśvaraḥ prabhuḥ Divodāsa
– MBh.05,115.001) is said to have built (or re-built) the city of Kashi or Varanasi (kāśīśo
Divodāsas tu vijñāya vīryaṃ teṣāṃ mahātmanām Vārāṇasīṃ mahātejā nirmame – MBh.
13,031.016) which became richly populated and soon developed in to a great trading center.
His son Pratardana from Madhavi (Mādhavī janayām āsa putram ekaṃ Pratardanam) seems to
have been successful in finally beating back the Haihayas who then moved to the Narmada
region.
The city of Kashi resplendent as a second Amaravati of Indra, was then described as located on
the north bank of the Ganga and to the south bank of the river Gomathl (gaṅgāyā uttare kūle
vaprānte rājasattama gomatyā dakṣiṇe caiva śakrasyev Amarāvatīm – MBh. 13. 031.018).
As per the other details scattered over many Texts, one can surmise that : To the direct north of
Kashi of was one of the Nishada kingdoms on the banks of Gomati river. Further North was
Eastern Kosala ;and, then Central Kosala, which had its capital as Ayodhya. To the south was the
Hiranyavaha river . To the west were the southern parts of Vatsa kingdom, including Kausambhi
(capital of Vatsa). Maghada and Rajagriha were located west of Kasi. To the northwest was
Bharga kingdom and the northern part of Vatsa. To the Northeast was the kingdom of
Gopalkasha and southern Malla. To the southwest was Chitrakuta mountain and to the southeast
was the kingdom of Suparsava and a Matsya territory
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[It is likely, Kashi was then a part of Southern Central Kosala kingdom. And, it appears the site
of a city known as Kashi or Varanasi shifted over the centuries. It is difficult to ascertain the
topography of the original Varanasi; and, the city’s current location may not exactly be the same
as the one described in the old texts].
14.2. And of course, the three luckless sisters Amba, Ambika and Ambalika (the daughters of
Hotravahan, the king of the Srinjaya tribe of Panchala) abducted by Bhishma for his sickly
younger brother Vichitravlrya were the princesses of Kashi.

14.3. Numerous other references to Kashi occur in the Mahabharata. They refer either to the
events in the lives of the kings or to the kingdom of Kashi. However, there are no specific
allusions to indicate Kashi being exclusively a holy-center.
It is said; Vapushtama , the wife of Janamejaya, the eldest son of the Kuru King Parikshit, was
the daughter of Suvarnavarman, the king of Kasi (Mbh. 1, Chapter 44). And, Sunanda, the
daughter of Sarvasena, the king of Kasi, was married to Bharatha, son of Sakuntala and Puru
King Dushyanta . They had a son named Bhumanyu- (Mbh.1, Chapter 95).

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City of Kasi and its people

There are , however, stories of its sages and other wise men who were commoners such as
Tuladhara a very pious and well-informed merchant dealing in perfumes, oils, musk, lac and dye
etc.
It is remarkable that Tulādhāra being a shopkeeper should impart instructions to a sage . It is
said; sage Jājali , who had performed severe austerities had turned highly conceited . He was
therefore advised by his teacher to approach the merchant Tulādhāra , living in Kashi, for
enlightenment. Jājali , accordingly, approached Tulādhāra seeking clarifications on the true
nature of Dharma ( Mahabharata, Śhāntiparva Chapters 255 and 256 ).
The gist of Tulādhāra’s discourse was : One should earn one’s livelihood causing least injury to
other beings; one should cultivate equanimous temperament and be a friend of all; one should
strive to be free from fear and prejudices; practice detachment and self-control ; and, one
should try to understand the true nature of Dharma and practice it with a clear uncluttered mind.

Kashi in the Puranas

119
5.1. The age of Puranas introduced into the Vedic religion many concepts that were not in the
Samhita and the Brahmana texts. Those ideas and concepts have since taken a firm hold on the
Indian ethos. These include faith in: a personal god or goddess (Ista-devata); family deities
(Griha-devata or Kula-devata) who had to be propitiated on specified days in the prescribed
manner; vows (vrata); and pilgrimages etc. In the process , legends were developed for each
major pilgrimage-center, proclaiming its holiness and its pre-eminence over the rest; and also
detailing the merits to be gained by devotedly worshiping its presiding deities.
It is in this context that in the related Puranas, Kashi gets fully established as the holiest city; as
the abode of Kashi Vishwanatha; as one of the twelve revered jyothi-lingas of Lord Shiva; as the
home of ever graceful and loving Mother Annapurna; as the kshetra-thirtha where goddess
Ganga in her loving kindness washes away the sins of all who seek refuge in her; and, as the
most sacred place presided over by Shiva who grants release from the cycle of births and deaths.
Kashi-kshetra located along the banks of the holy river Ganga (Tirtha) came to be recognized
and revered as one among the seven primer Sacred cities (Saptapuri) that granted liberation
(moksadayikah): Ayodhya, Mathura, Maya (Haridwar), Kashi (Varanasi), Kanchi, Avanthika
(Ujjain), Puri, and Dvaravathi (Dwaraka) .
Ayodhya Mathura Maya Kashi Kanchi Avantika | Puri Dvaravati chaiva saptaita moksadayikah
||
It is believed; most of the Puranas were developed during the Golden-age of the Guptas (330-550
CE). It was a period of revivalism, transformation and vitality. During which the Vaishnava
traditions, the cults of Skanda, Surya and local guardian deities flowered. The temples of such
deities came up in Kashi. And, legends were woven around Shiva, the Ganga and the Ghats.
15.2. Since the time of the Buddha, Kashi is the pilgrim center for the Buddhists. It is also the
birthplace of Parshvanatha the twenty-third Jain Thirthankara. Kasi is also associated with Guru
120
Nanak hence a holy place for the Sikhs. Each of these religions have, in a way, their own set of
puranas.

121
122
123
 Kashi in the Buddhist tradition
16.1. The Buddhist texts mention that Baranasi city extended over twelve Yojanas (say about 84
miles): (dvadasa yojanikam sakala Baranasi nagaram: — Sambhava Jataka) whereas Mithila
and Indapatta were each only seven Yojanas in extent .The Jatakas mention that the resplendent
city of Kasi was called by many names, such as:Surundhana, Sudassana, Brahmavaddhana,
Puspavati, Ramma and Molini .
In the Chinese texts Kasi is transcribed as Ti-miao meaning ‘reed-sprouts’. That perhaps follows
from the derivation of the name Kasi from Kasa meaning kusa grass.
16.2. The Jataka stories mention Varanasi as a great city of abundance; of seven gems; of wealth
and prosperity , extending over twelve yojanas (a yojana at the time of the Buddha perhaps
meant seven or eight miles). The city extended about four miles along the banks of the river,
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descending into steep brink. Down the brink , were the flights of steps (Ghats) , where the
pilgrims bathed and the dead were cremated.
16.3. Several Jatakas recite the superiority of Kasi over other cities of India; and , speak highly
of its prosperity, opulence and intellectual wealth. A later Jataka also remarks that Risi-
gana (sadhus) were unwilling to go to Kasi ; because, the people there questioned too much,
perhaps Suggesting that the people of Kasi were either argumentative or knowledgeable.
(Brahmadatta Jataka- 336).
17.1. The stories in the Jatakas indicate that the people of Kasi were generally of charitable
nature ; and , they habitually offered alms to the poor, the wayward and the beggars. They also
devotedly fed the hermits and wandering ascetics.
17.2. It appears from the Jatakas that Kasi was ruled with justice and equity; and, the king’s
officials were honest. Not many cases or disputes came before the king’s courts. There was a
belief current among the people of Kasi that when king rules with justice and equity, all things in
nature retain their true character. But, when the king is unjust, all things lose their true nature.
Oil, honey, molasses and the like, and even the wild fruits would lose their sweetness and flavor.
17.3. The king occasionally wandered about the town at night, in disguise, to learn people’s true
opinion of his rule.
Despite attempts of good governance, the kingdom was not free from crimes. There were
instances of organized highway robbery and housebreaking , which were taken up as a family
profession.
18.1. The Jatakas also narrate delightful stories of cheats and tricksters who took advantage of
the gullible. The Jatakas tell stories of Kasi’s carpenters who promised to make a bed or a chair
or a house and took large advances ; but, deliberately failed to do the job. When pursued by the
annoyed clients , the carpenters would just flee to another town.
There is also a story of a physician Cakkhupala , who deliberately blinded his patient in one
eye when she cheated him of his fee.
18.2. The people of Kasi were prone to superstitions, just as the people of any other city. A king
of Kasi paid 1000 kahapanas to learn a mantra that would reveal to him the evil thoughts of
people. There were also persons who would predict whether the sword one bought was lucky or
otherwise. Slaughter of deer, swine and other animals for making offering to goblins was in
vogue in Kasi.
18.3. There was a time-honored drinking festival, in which people got drunk and fought; and,
sometimes suffered broken limbs, cracked skulls or torn ears.
18.4. The Jatakas recount some unusual professions; as that of a carpenter who got rich by
making mechanical wooden birds to guard the crops. There was also a gardener who could make
sweet mangoes bitter and bitter mangoes sweet.
18.5. Jatakas also tell the stories of those who followed traditional professions like farmers; corn
dealers; hunters; snake charmers; elephant trainers skilled in managing elephants; horse dealers
who imported horses ‘swift-as-the-wind’ from the Sind region; carpenters; stone cutters or
experts in working stone-quarrying and shaping stones; ivory workers who had their own market
place; rich merchants trading in costly wares by sometimes taking out long business trips; small

125
traders hawking their wares or corn on back of donkeys or by bullock carts; and there were, of
course, the gallant warriors.
19.1. Even in those distant days , the city was noted for its fine silks and brocades, for its
handicrafts , such as brass-ware, ivory goods, glass bangles and wooden toy etc.
The Jatakas often mention of Kasika-vastra or Kasiyani – exquisite fabrics of silk worked with
gold laces. The Majjima Nikaya also refers to Varanaseyyaka (Varanasi textiles) of radiant
colors of red, yellow and blue used for wrapping the mortal remains of the Buddha after he
attained Maha-pari-nirvana.
19.2. Kasi had close relations with the distant Takshasila about two thousand Kms away to its
west. Ardent Students from Kasi went to the Universities of Takshasila , seeking higher learning
in scriptures, medicine, archery and other subjects. The traders of both the cities had, of course,
close business relations.

Kingdom of Kasi

126
20.1. Anguttara Nikaya mentions Kasi as one of the sixteen Maha-janapadas [Solasa
Mahajanapada :
1.Kasi; 2.Kosala; 3.Anga ;4.Magadha; 5.Vajji; 6.Malla; 7.Chetia (Chedi); 8.Vatsa (Vamsa);
9.Kuru; 10.Panchala; 11.Maccha (Matsya); 12.Surasena; 13.Assaka; 14.Avanti; 15.Gandhara;
and , 16.Kambhoja].
The little kingdom of Kashi was surrounded by Kosala on its North; Magadha on its East; and,
Vatsa on its West.
20.2. The Mahavagga mentions that Kasi was a great realm in former times. During the seventh
century BCE; Kasi was perhaps reckoned as one of the more powerful among the sixteen Maha-
janapadas. The Kingdom of Kasi was said to be three hundred Yojanas in extent (Jataka
no.391).
21.1. On the political arena; the Jatakas narrate rivalry of Kosala, Anga and Magadha to take
possession of Kasi. There was a long struggle among them for gaining supremacy. It is said; all
these monarchs aspired for the pride of being the foremost among all the kings (sabba-rajunam
aggaraja) ; and, for the esteem and glory of ruling over all of India (sakala-Jambudtpa). All the
surrounding monarchs contended for possession of Kasi. And, Kasi was, most of times, forced to
fight to defend itself. But, Kasi’s strongest rivalry was with its neighbor Kosala . Kasi, in the
mean time, also caused the downfall of Videha, the neighbor on its north.
Kosala , situated on the banks of the Sarayu (roughly corresponding to the erstwhile state of
Oudh) , was bound by the Sadanria (Gandaka) on the East; the Panchala country on the West; by
the Saprika or Syandika (sai) river on the South; and, by the hills on the North. The kingdom was
later divided into North and South Kosala; with the Sarayu demarcating the two. The cities of
Savatti and Ayodhya were the capitals.
21.2. The flourishing period of many of the sixteen Maha-janapadas ended in or about the sixth
century BCE. The history of the succeeding period is the story of the absorption of small states
into powerful kingdoms; and, ultimately merging into one big empire, namely, the empire of
Magadha. Kasi was perhaps the first to fall.
21.3. The Mahavagga and the Jatakas refer to bitter struggles that took place between Kasi and
her neighbors; especially, Kosala. Kasi seemed to have been successful at first; but later, it gave
in to Kosala. Initially , the King Brihadratha of Kasi had conquered Kosala; but later, he lost to
the king of Kosala.
Eventually, Kasi was overpowered by Kamsa, the king of Kosala earning him the
title ‘Baranasiggaho’– the conqueror of Baranasi-which he added to the string of his titles
(Seyya Jataka and Tesakuna Jataka).
During the time of the Buddha, Kosala was an important kingdom ; and , Kasi was a part of the
Kosala. But later, both Kasi and Kosala were absorbed into the powerful Magadha kingdom.
The Mahavagga mentions that Magadha king Bimbisara’s dominions embraced 80,000
townships; the overseers (Gamikas) of which used to meet in a great assembly.
22.1. During the time of the Kosala King Mahakosala (sixth century B.C. E), Kasi was part of
the Kosala kingdom. When the King Mahakosala gave his daughter Kosala Devi in marriage to
Bimbisara, the king of Magadha, he gifted his daughter the village of Kasi yielding revenue of a

127
hundred thousand Karsapana to take care of her ‘bath and perfume expenses’ (Ilarita Mata
Jataka No. 239; Vaddhaki Sukara Jataka No. 283). It is said; Ajatasatru ascended to the throne
after murdering his father Bimbisara; and, thereafter the heartbroken queen Kosala Devi died of
loneliness , pining for her departed husband.
22.2. Even after the death of his mother Kosala Devi, Ajatasatru continued to enjoy the revenues
from the Kasi village , which had been gifted to her for ‘bath money’. Ajatasatru’s
‘impertinence’ deeply disturbed Pasenadi who by then had succeeded his father Mahakosala as
the king of Kosala. He was determined that an unrighteous person (Ajatasatru) who murdered his
father, should not undeservedly collect and enjoy, as if by right , the revenues from a village
gifted to his widowed mother (Kosala Devi). Pasenadi and Ajatasatru (uncle and nephew)
thereafter fought seesaw battles, with no clear winner.
23.1. During the time of the Buddha, Pasenadi had gained control of Kasi ; and, was hailed as
the King of Kasi-Kosala. In the Lohichcha Sutta, the Buddha inquires a person named
Lohichcha: “Now what think you Lohichcha? Is not king Pasenadi of Kosala in possession of
Kasi and Kosala?” Lohichcha replies “Yes; that is so Gotama”. The Mahavagga (17. 195)
mentions that a brother of Pasenadi was appointed to administer Kasi.
23.2. The conquest of Kasi by Kamsa (king of Kosala) might have taken place just prior to the
rise of Buddhism. That is because; Angutta Nikaya remarks that the memory of Kasi as an
independent kingdom was still fresh in the minds of its people during the Buddha’s time; and ,
the people sometimes seemed to forget that their king was somewhere else.

Kasi in the life of the Buddha

128
24.1. Kasi played a very important role in the life of the Buddha. It was on the outskirts of Kasi
that the Buddha delivered his First Discourse (pathama desana) , introducing the essence of his
teachings. It marked a watershed in the Buddha’s life. It was at Kasi that Gautama the Buddha
emerged as The Revered Teacher (Bhagava), as the Blessed One (Araha) and as the perfectly
enlightened One (Sammaa -Sambuddha).

25.1.After he realized the futility of extreme austerities and self-mortification; and, after his
fellow seekers dissented and departed, Gotama retired into the forests of Uruvala in the Maghada
country; and , engaged himself in his Sadhana.

25.2. On the full moon night in the month of Vesaka – the sixth month; on one of those nights he
spent under the Bodhi tree, he understood the sorrows of earthly existence; and , of the supreme
peace, unaffected by earthly attachments. He said to him, “My emancipation is won… Done
what is to be done. There is nothing beyond this ” (katam karniyam naa param itthattaya) .

25.3. For several days, he wandered among the woods, enveloped in peace and tranquility. He
enjoyed his quiet serene days and lonely walks in the forest. He wished the idyllic life would last
forever. He pondered whether he should share with others his newfound wisdom , which helps in
seeing things clearly, as they are. He wondered whether anyone would be interested or would
appreciate his findings, He debated in himself; there might still be those not entirely blinded by

129
the worldly dirt. He thought of his teachers Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta (son of Rama)
both “wise, intelligent and learned; and of nature scarcely tainted “; and, said to himself they
would quickly comprehend the knowledge he had just gained. Then, he sadly realized that
Uddaka son of Rama had just passed away; and, Alara Kalama died about seven days ago. Then,
the thought came to him of his erstwhile fellow Samanas, those who left him to pursue their
ways. He decided to talk to his fellow seekers; and, share with them the new wisdom. (Majjhima
Nikaya; Sutta 26)
25.4. He journeyed from place to place from Gaya; and, at length reached the holy city of
Varanasi, after nearly seven weeks, covering by foot a distance of about 144 miles. On his way, a
monk named Upaka inquired Gautama where he was headed to, “To set in to motion the wheel
of Dhamma (Dhamma Chakkam pavattetum)” ,he replied , “I proceed to Varanasi”.

25.5. He reached Kasi after crossing the Ganga. There at Varanasi , he learnt the five ascetics
(Kondanna, Vappa, Mahanama, Assaji, and Bhadda) whom he knew before , were at Isipathana
or Isipatana (Rishipattana – where the ascetics live; now called Saranath), on the nearby outer
area of the city. He found them in Isipatana at the garden Migadaaya (Deer park) , where the deer
roamed without fear. They were surprised to see him . They greeted him pleasantly “Look, who
comes here; our friend (avuso) Gotama”; and, offered him seat and water for ablution. They were
highly impressed by Gotama’s majestic, pure and serene demeanor. They wondered whether he
had achieved uttari manusa dhamma, the super human state.
The Buddha then informed the five ascetics , he had done what had to be done. He had
attained That. He asked them to listen to his findings : “I teach about suffering ; and, the way to
end it”.

25.6. They listened to him in all earnestness. What he spoke to those five ascetics (Pancavaggiya
bhikkhus) later gained renown as one of the greatest and most important discourses in religious
history. It was the Buddha’s first teaching (Pathama desana), the celebrated Dhamma-cakka-
pavattana Sutta, the discourse that set in motion the wheels of Dhamma. At the end of his talk,
the Buddha emerged as the Great Teacher. He came to be revered as Bhagava (the Blessed One).

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25.7. The Buddha spoke to the five ascetics at the garden of Migadaaya, where the deer roamed
unmolested and in peace, located in Isipatana , near the holy city of Kasi, in the evening of the
full moon day in the month of Asalhi – the eighth month (Ashada-July). He spoke in simple
Magadhi , the language his listeners understood well. The discourse was brief, with short, simple
and precise statements. There were no definitions and no explanations. It was a direct, sincere
talk. It was a simple and a straight rendering of how Samana Gotama transformed into the
Buddha. He spoke from his experience; narrated his unfolding; his findings; explained the four
truths and the three aspects of each; and, the middle path (majjhiama patipada).

26.1. It was at Isipatana , Migadaya, that the Buddha delivered many significant sermons that
established his doctrine. Later in his life, the Buddha visited Kasi many times; went out for alms
on its streets. He met and talked to whole cross-section of its people: kings, queens, noblemen,
merchants, bankers, householders, women, youth, the poor, the homeless, the ascetics, the
believers and non believers. The Jatakas narrate stories woven around the lives of those impacted
by the Buddha’s message.

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[Later, by about the tenth century the Risi-patana (Saranath) area, sadly, became a den of
Kapalikas, Aghories and the Buddhist Vajrayana tantric cults practicing weird tantric
– vamachara (left-handed) rituals, which scared away common people. By the time of the
Gahadvala kings (eleventh century), the weird sects of tantrics had grown so powerful that they
attacked and beat back king Chandradeva (Ca. 1089–1103), who tried to enforce on them some
order, discipline and code of social conduct.During the latter half of 12th century Saranath was
ransacked by Turkish Muslims. It was in ruins until it was re-discovered by British in 1835-6.]

Destruction of the Temples

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27.1. During the eleventh and the seventeenth centuries the city, its temples and its people fell
victims to series of attacks and atrocities inflicted by the Muslim rulers.
[ Please click here for the general order issued by Aurangzeb for destruction of temples]
But, somehow, the city found strength in itself to survive; and , to rebuild after each attack.The
glorious Kashi as of the Puranas that existed till 12th century had almost vanished by 17th
century. But, the city was not defaced or totally defeated. I have to mention here the
repeated destruction of the Sri Vishvanatha temple and of the final obliteration of the Kritti-
vasesvara and Bindu-Madhava temples.
27.2. During the year 1194, Kutbuddin AIbak of the slave-dynaty, plundered the city and
destroyed the ancient temple of Sri Vishvanatha, said to have been built during the reign of the
King Vinaya Gupta (505-508 AD). Aibak, it is said, carried away about 1,400 camel loads of
wealth from Kashi. Later, Razzia Sultana (1236 -1240) raised the Bibi Razziya mosque over the
site of the temple destroyed by Aibak , using the pillars rescued from the ruins.

Located on the banks of the holy river Ganges, Varanasi is regarded as among the holiest of the
Hindu cities. The Kashi Vishwanath Temple is widely recognised as one of the most important
places of worship in the Hindu religion, because the it holds the jyotirlinga of Shiva
Vishveshwara, or Vishvanath.

A visit to the temple and a bath in the Ganges is one of many methods believed to lead one on a
path to moksha (liberation). Thus, Hindus from all over the world try to visit the place at least
once in their lifetime. There is also a tradition that one should give up at least one desire after a
pilgrimage to the temple, and the pilgrimage would also include a visit to the temple
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at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu in South India, to which people take water samples of the Ganges
to perform prayer there and bring back sand from near that temple.

Because of the immense popularity and holiness of Kashi Vishwanath Temple, hundreds of
temples across India have been built in the same architectural style. Many legends tell of the true
devotee achieving freedom from death and saṃsāra (aimlessness) by the worship of Shiva,
Shiva's devotees upon death being directly taken to his abode on Mount Kailash by his
messengers and not to judgement by Yama. There is a popular belief that Shiva himself blows
the mantra of salvation into the ears of people who die naturally at the Vishwanath temple. It is
dedicated to Shiva. It is located in Vishwanath Gali, in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.
The temple is a Hindu pilgrimage site and is one of the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines. The
presiding deity is known by the names Vishwanath and Vishweshwara
(IAST: Viśvanātha and Viśveśvara), literally meaning Lord of the Universe.

The orginal temple, called the Adi Vishveshwar Temple, was demolished
by Mohammad of Ghor during his invasion of India. Subsequently, the template was
rebuilt by Man Singh I and Todar Mal under Emperor Akbar. According to several
historical accounts, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of the Hindu
temple in 1669.[1] Subsequently, in 1678, the Gyanvapi Mosque was built on its site,[2] but
Hindu pilgrims continued to visit the remnants of the temple.[1] The current structure was
constructed on an adjacent site by the Maratha ruler Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore in 1780.
[3]

In 2021, a major redevelopment of the temple complex was completed, and the Kashi
Vishwanath Dham Corridor connecting the Ganga river with the temple was inaugurated
by Prime Minister Modi, leading to a many-fold increase in visitors. It has become one of
the most visited Hindu temples in India, with an average 45,000 pilgrims per day in
2023. The total assets of the temple, were estimated to be more than ₹6 crores in 2024.

It is believed that Varanasi is the first Jyotirlinga to manifest itself. According to the
legend, it was at this place that Shiva (the Hindu god of destruction) manifested as an
infinite column of light (Jyotirlinga) in front of Brahma (the Hindu god of creation)
and Vishnu (the Hindu god of preservation) when they had an argument about their
supremacy.

In order to discover the origin of the luminous column, Vishnu took the form of a boar
(Varaha) and tracked the column beneath the ground, while Brahma, who assumed the
shape of a swan, scoured the heavens in an attempt to locate the apex of the column.
However, both of them were unsuccessful in identifying the source of the luminous
column. Yet, Brahma deceitfully asserted that he had discovered the summit of the
column, while Vishnu humbly admitted his inability to find the starting point of the radiant
column. Due to Brahma's deceit over the discovery of the origin of the luminous column,
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Shiva penalised him by cutting his fifth head and placing a curse upon him. This curse
entailed that Brahma would no longer receive reverence, whereas Vishnu, being
truthful, would be equally venerated alongside Shiva and have dedicated temples for
eternity.

Hindu scriptures describe Vishweshwara as the sacred deity of Varanasi, holding the
position of king over all the other deities as well as over all the inhabitants of the city
and the extended circuit of the Panchkoshi, an area (the sacred boundary of Varanasi)
spreading over 50 miles.

Jyotirlinga
The jyotirlinga is an ancient axis mundi symbol representing the supremely formless
(nirguna) reality at the core of creation, out of which the form (saguna) of Shiva
appears. The jyothirlinga shrines are thus places where Shiva appeared as a fiery
column of light.

There are twelve 'self manifested' jyotirlinga sites that take the name of the presiding
deity; each is considered a different manifestation of Shiva.[15] At all these sites, the
primary image is a lingam representing the beginningless and endless Stambha pillar,
symbolising the infinite nature of Shiva.

The twelve jyothirlinga are located at

1. Somnath in Gujarat,
2. Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh,
3. Mahakaleswar at Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh,
4. Omkareshwar in MP
5. Kedarnath in Uttarakhand,
6. Bhimashankar in Maharashtra,
7. Viswanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh,
8. Triambakeshwar in Maharashtra,
9. Baidyanath yotirlinga at Deoghar in Jharkhand,
10. Nageswar at Dwarka in Gujarat,
11. Rameshwar at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu,
12. and Grishneshwar at Aurangabad in Maharashtra.

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 Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore built the current temple structure in
1780.

Ancient and classical periods

The Skanda Purana contains a part titled "Kashi Khanda", while the Brahmavaivarta
Purana includes a portion known as "Kashi Rahasya", both of which are dedicated to
the city of Varanasi.

As per the Kashi Khanda, there were a total of 1099 temples, out of which 513 were
specifically devoted to the worship of Shiva. The scripture states that the Vishvanath
temple was formerly known as Moksha Lakshmi Vilas. The temple housed a total of
five mandapas (halls). The lingam of Vishwanath was situated in
the garbhagriha (innermost sanctuary). The remaining four mandapas include
the Jnana mandapa located to the east, the Ranga mandapa to the west, the Aishvarya
mandapa to the north, and the Mukti mandapa to the south.

Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa, in his book Tristhalisetu, as well as Madhuri Desai describe that the
temple centres around a repetition of destruction and reconstruction.

Medieval period and destruction -Razia Mosque

The original Vishwanath temple, initially known as the Adi Vishveshwar Temple, was
destroyed by the Ghurids in 1194, when Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam returned
to India and defeated Jayachandra of Kannauj near Chandawar and afterwards razed
the city of Kashi. In a few years \the Razia Mosque was constructed in its place.[23][24][25] In
1230, the temple was rebuilt near the Avimukteshwara Temple, away from the main
site, during the reign of Delhi's Sultan Iltutmish (1211–1266). It was demolished again
136
during the rule of either Hussain Shah Sharqi (1447–1458) or Sikandar Lodi (1489–
1517).

Mughal period
Sketches by James Prinsep

137
138
 The Gyanvapi Mosque sketched as the Temple of Vishveshwur, Benares.//Plan of the Ancient
Temple of Vishveshwar.The dotted line shows the portion of the temple occupied by the present
Masjid.

Raja Man Singh started rebuilding the temple during Akbar's reign. Raja Todar
Mal furthered the reconstruction of the temple in 1585.

In the seventeenth century, during the rule of Jahangir, Vir Singh Deo completed the
construction of the earlier temple. In 1669, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the
temple and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place. The remains of the erstwhile temple
can be seen in the foundation, the columns, and the rear part of the mosque. [32]

Maratha and British period

Elevation of the present temple structure

In 1742, the Maratha ruler Malhar Rao Holkar devised a plan to demolish the mosque
and reconstruct the Vishweshwar temple at the site. However, his plan did not
materialise, partly because of the intervention of the Nawab of Awadh, who was given
control of the territory. In 1750, the Maharaja of Jaipur commissioned a survey of the
land around the site with the objective of purchasing land to rebuild the Kashi
Vishwanath temple, which in turn failed.

In 1785, at the behest of Governor General Warren Hastings, Collector Mohammed

Ibrahim constructed a Naubatkhana in front of the temple. In 1780, Malhar Rao's
daughter-in-law, Ahilyabai Holkar, built the present temple adjacent to the mosque In
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1828, Baiza Bai, widow of the Maratha ruler Daulat Rao Scindhia of Gwalior State, built
a low-roofed colonnade with over 40 pillars in the Gyan Vapi precinct. During 1833–
1840, at the boundary of Gyanvapi Well, the ghats (steps by the riverside) and other
nearby temples were constructed.

Many noble families from various ancestral kingdoms of the Indian subcontinent, and
their predecessor states, made generous contributions to the operation of the temple. In
1835, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire, at the behest of his wife, Maharani
Datar Kaur, donated 1 tonne of gold for plating the temple's dome. In 1841, Raghuji
Bhonsle III of Nagpur donated silver to the temple.

The temple was managed by a hereditary group of pandits or mahants. After the death
of Mahant Devi Dutt, a dispute arose among his successors. In 1900, his brother-in-law,
Pandit Visheshwar Dayal Tewari, filed a lawsuit, which resulted in him being declared
the head priest.

Post-Independence
Since 1983, the temple has been managed by a board of trustees set up by the
government of Uttar Pradesh. The Puja of the Maa Shringar Gauri Temple, on the
western side of the disputed Gyanvapi Mosque, was restricted after the demolition of
the Babri Masjid in December 1992, due to the ensuing deadly riots that followed the
demolition of the mosque. In August 2021, five Hindu women petitioned a local court in
Varanasi to be allowed to pray at the Maa Shringar Gauri Temple.

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Prime Minister Narendra Modi speaking at the inauguration of the renovated Kashi Vishwanath Corridor
on 13 December 2021.

After 239 years, the Kumbhabhishekham (consecration ceremony) of the temple was
held on 5 July 2018, which was conducted by Nattukottai Nagarathar, a mercantile
community of Tamil Nadu.

The Kashi Vishwanath Corridor Project was launched by Prime Minister Narendra
Modi in 2019 to make it easier to travel between the temple and the Ganges River and
to create more space to prevent crowding. On 13 December 2021, Modi inaugurated
the corridor with a sacred ceremony. A press release by the government said that
around 1,400 residents and businesses within the corridor's area were relocated
elsewhere and compensated. It also said that more than 40 ruined, centuries-old
temples were found and rebuilt, including the Gangeshwar Mahadev temple, the
Manokameshwar Mahadev temple, the Jauvinayak temple, and the Shri Kumbha
Mahadev temple.
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In February 2022, the sanctum sanctorum of the temple was gold-plated after an
anonymous donor from South India donated 60 kg of gold to the temple. Flowers from
the temple are recycled into incense by the biomaterials startup Phool.co.

As of August 2023, the Kashi Vishwanath Temple Trust reported that 10 crore (100
million) tourists had visited the temple since the inauguration of the corridor in
December 2021

Temple complex

The original holy well—Gyanvapi is in between the temple and Gyanvapi Mosque

Ganga Dwara, Gateway of Corridor that connects Kashi Vishwanath Temple with Ghats of the Ganges.

The temple complex consists of a series of smaller shrines located in a small lane called
the Vishwanatha Gali, near the river. The linga of the main deity at the shrine is 60
centimetres (24 in) tall and 90 centimetres (35 in) in circumference, housed in a silver
altar. The main temple is a quadrangle, and there are shrines to other gods all around it.
There are small temples for Kala Bhairava, Kartikeya,
Avimukteshwara, Vishnu, Ganesha, Shani, Shiva, and Parvati in the complex.

There is a small well in the temple called the Jnana Vapi, also spelled Gyan Vapi (the
wisdom well). The Jnana Vapi is located to the north of the main temple, and during the
invasion by the Mughals, the jyotirlinga was hidden in the well to protect it. It is said that
the main priest of the temple jumped in the well with the lingam in order to protect the
jyotirlinga from invaders.

There is a Sabha Griha (congregation hall) leading to the inner Garbha Griha (sanctum
sanctorum). The jyotirlinga is enshrined in the sanctuary and placed on a silver platform.
The structure of the temple is composed of three parts. The first consists of a 15.5-
meter-high spire on the temple; the second is a gold dome; and the third is the gold
spire within the sanctuary bearing a flag and a trident.

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The Kashi Vishwanath Temple is popularly known as the Golden Temple, due to the
gold plating of its spire. One tonne of gold donated by Maharaja Ranjit Singh has been
used in the gold plating, as well as in three domes, each made up of pure gold, donated
in 1835.

The temple receives around 3,000 visitors every day. On certain occasions, the
numbers reach 1,000,000 or more.

The Shri Kashi Vishwanath Dham corridor was constructed between Kashi Vishwanath
Temple and Manikarnika Ghat along the Ganges River, providing various amenities for
pilgrims.[

. Rajamatha Ahilyabai undertook the task out of her personal wealth ; without recourse to the
State funds. This is the Sri Vishvanatha temple that now stands in Kashi; and, the one which is in
active worship. The reconstruction of the temple also marked the revival of the native spirit.
Besides, Rani Ahilyabai , renowned for her benevolence, used her personal funds for the
reconstruction and restoration of numerous temples spread across India.

Plan and the elevation of the Ancient Temple of Vishveshvur, by James Prinsep

In 1828, Baiza Bai (1784-1863) , widow of the Maratha ruler Daulat Rao Scindhia of Gwalior;
and, who ruled from 1798 to 1833 (renowned as the Banker-Warrior Queen), built a low-
roofed colonnade with over 40 pillars in the Gyan Vapi precinct. In 1830, she also built a temple
close to the south turret of the Sindhia Ghat, one of the grandest Ghats on the riverfront. During

143
1833-1840 , the boundary of Gyanvapi Well, the Ghats and other nearby temples were
constructed.
Many noble families from various ancestral kingdoms of the Indian subcontinent contributed
towards the maintenance of the temple. In 1841, the Bhosales of Nagpur donated silver to the
temple. And, in 1859, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab , donated one tonne of gold for plating
the temple’s dome.

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. The series of destruction during 1658-59 as ordered by Aurangzeb, of the Krittivasesvara
temple and the destruction in 1673 of Veni Bindumadhav temple which stood at the highest spot
in Kashi, and erecting mosques on the site of destroyed temples, was the gravest wound inflicted

145
on Kashi. It has not healed even today. The events leading to the destruction form the subplot of
Shri SL Bhyrappa’s well written historical novel Avarana , in Kannada language.

The only available description of the ancient temple of Bindu Madhava dedicated to Vishnu then
standing on the Panchganga Ghat comes from the travel accounts of Jean-Baptiste
Tavernier, (1605-1689) the celebrated French jeweller and traveller. He travelled extensively
round the country in the middle of the seventeenth century. His travelogue is particularly
valuable because it is the only account left behind by a foreign traveler of the ancient temple of
Bindu Madhava before it was destroyed in 1673. He visited the temple on 12 – 13 December
1665. The mosque constructed on the site has dominated the riverfront ever since. The following
is an extract from Varanasi Vista by Jagmohan Mahajan.

The building, Tavernier says,

“is in the figure of a cross having its four arms equal. In the middle a lofty dome rises like a kind
of tower with many sides terminating in point, and at the end each arm of cross another tower
rises, which can be ascended from outside. Before reaching the top there are many niches and
several balconies, which project to intercept the fresh air: and all over the tower there are rudely
executed figures in relief of various kinds of animals. Under this great doe, and exactly in the
middle of the pagoda, there is an altar like a table, of 7 to 8 feet in length and 5 to 6 wide, with
two steps in front, which serve as footstool, and this footstool is covered with a beautiful
tapestry, sometimes of silk and sometimes of gold and silk, according to the solemnity of the rite
which is being celebrated. The altar is covered with gold and silver brocade, or some beautiful
painted cloth. From outside the pagoda this altar faces you with the idols upon it; for the women
and girls must salute it from the outside, as, save only those of a certain tribe, they are ant
allowed to enter the pagoda. Among the idols on the great altar one stand 5 to 6 feet in height;
neither the arms, legs, nor trunk are seen only the head and neck being visible; all the remainder
of the body, down to the altar, is covered by a robe which increases in width below. Sometimes
on its neck there is a rich chain of gold, rubies, pearls, or emeralds. This idol has been made in
honor and after the likeness of Bainmadou [Bindu Madhav], formerly a great and holy personage
among them, whose name they often have on their lips. On the right site of the altar there is also
the figure of an animal, or rather of a chimera, seeing that it represents in part an elephant, in part
a horse, and in part a mule. It is of massive gold, and is called Garou [Garuda], no person being
allowed to approach it but the Brahmans.”

Kashi and the British

The British who travelled in India extensively during the last quarter of the eighteenth century
provided an excellent exposure to Kashi . The west became aware of the wonder of the east,
mainly through the narratives of their visits to Varanasi, providing varied, detailed and delightful
as also fanciful descriptions of life in the city. They were especially struck by the splendid

146
panorama of the Varanasi riverfront, the picturesque Ghats with flights of broad stone steps
leading down to the great river swarming with people performing their daily prayers.

147
148
149
. Those who truly immortalized the fabulous riverfront of Kashi were the landscape artists , most
of them poor; but, valiant. They had set out into an unknown world in pursuit of the cult of the
“picturesque” and the exotic. Their sketches gave the outside world, and , in fact, even to the
Indians themselves, the first visual impressions of the spectacular Varanasi Ghats, as also of the
magnificent monuments and scenic beaut
ies in India.

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151
 James Prinsep

James Prinsep (20 August 1799 – 22 April 1840) who in his short life spent ten of his most
productive years in India and contributed to Kashi more than anyone else did in the past several
centuries.James Prinsep was a Fellow of the Royal Society ; and, in fact, the youngest to be
elected a Fellow of that body. He was a many sided genius : Assayer, Architect, Engineer,
Linguist, Epigraphist, Artist, Demographer, Cartographer, Urban Planner and many other things
rolled into one. Prinsep is credited with deciphering the Brahmi and Kharoshti edicts of Asoka
and Kanishka; bringing to light the names of the old emperors.

The twenty year old James Prinsep arrived in Calcutta, together with his younger brother who
had got a commission in the East India Company’s Bengal Army. James commenced service in
the Calcutta Mint as an assistant to the Assay Master, Horace Hayman Wilson, an eminent
Sanskrit scholar and also the Secretary of the Asiatic Society. In less than a year Prinsep was
posted to Benares , as the Assay Master.

James Prinsep fell in love with the city of Kasi, where he arrived in 1820 and where he was to
spend the next ten years of his short life. Apart from taking charge of the construction of the
Mint building, James surveyed and produced a detailed map of the city by the end of 1821. He
later had the map (29 x 19 inches) lithographed in 1825, at his own expense. For long years it
remained an outstandingly accurate map of the old city.

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153
 Along with the map, he also produced a comprehensive directory of the various Ghats, Temples,
open spaces, important buildings; and also a list of pundits specialized in each branch of
learning. Sadly, his directory is unpublished ; and, is now said to be in the archives of the Royal
154
Asiatic Society.. Following the city map and the directory, Prinsep took up ,during 1826, the
census of the city , which was particularly difficult for a city that depended on floating
population. Then in the beginning of 1825, Prinsep commenced the work of providing the old
city with a reliable drainage system, a much needed amenity for a pilgrim city. He successfully
completed the project in a matter of 19 months. Prinsep’s drainage system with a few extensions
and new outfalls, serves the city to this day. Prinsep then went on to design and build a bridge,
the Karam Nasha Bridge, over a waterway across the city.

He also took up the restoration of the Gyaan Vaapi mosque or Aurangzeb’s mosque, built
originally in about 1675. It is said; Prinsep dismissed the mosque as an architectural atrocity , but
for its soaring minarets.
He achieved all these in just a matter of ten years, before he turned thirty. He , in the meantime ,
improved his Sanskrit and astronomy. And, he set up a printing press, the Benares Literary
Society as also an observatory. He caused compilation of a meteorological profile of the city,
using instruments acquired with his personal money.

Essays on Indian Antiquities, Historic, Numismatic, and Palaeographic, a collection of Essays

written by James Prinsep was brought out in Two Volumes by John Murray , Albemarle Street,
London during 1858. One of his other endearing contributions to the city is his Benares
Illustrated published in 1831 with 35 plates. Two further volumes of 13 and 10 plates
respectively were issued in 1832 and 1833. These volumes were reprinted in India during 1996
and after. The following are just a couple of his Benares drawings.

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156
157
158
After spending about a decade in Benares, James Prinsep came back to Calcutta. He completed a
project, started by his brother, in building a canal to connect the distributaries of the River Ganga
near the delta, in order to make them navigable.Thereafter, he returned to England; and, died in
1840. A year after Prinsep’s demise, the work was started, in 1841, on the construction of a new
Gaht or a landing space, with a flight of stone steps leading to the river , along the banks of the
Hooghly River in Calcutta. This was meant to replace the old and dilapidated Chandpal Ghat.
The new Ghat, located between the Water Gate and St. George’s Gate of Fort William beside the
Hooghly River, was designed by W. Fitzgerald; and, was completed in 1843.
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 Prinsep Ghat

This Ghat was named as the Prinsep Ghat; and dedicated to James Prinsep, in honour and
recognition of the services he rendered to Varanasi, Calcutta and to India.
The Princep Ghat was considered to be one of the finest examples of colonial architecture in
Calcutta; and, one among the grandest gateways leading to a river.

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The Princep Ghat bears a resemblance to Berlin’s Brandenburg Gate, though on a much smaller
scale. The monument is built on 6 sets of Ionian columns holding a 40 feet roof painted in white;
and, presents a grand view from a distance. This Ghat was, for a long time, used as the principal
point of embarkment and disembarkment for the distinguished visitors to the city of Calcutta. For
instance; in 1875, when Albert Edward, Prince of Wales and the eldest son of Queen Victoria
visited Calcutta, he was welcomed at the Princep Ghat. Later in 1905, when Prince of Wales
(later King George V) and in 1911, the British royal family visited India, the Prinsep Ghat was
the witness to all those visits and events.

James Prinsep died soon after he turned forty. But, the details of his last days are unclear. Some
say; Prinsep overworked himself to death.

William Prinsep , the brother of James Prinsep was a noted artist , in his own right. His
role in the LAST RITES of Raja Rammohan Rai
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Rajah Ram Mohan Roy came to Britain in 1833, to petition the government to ensure the
practice of sati remained illegal. He decided to come and visit Lant Carpenter (father of Mary
Carpenter) in Bristol. Sadly, Raja Ram Mohan Roy died of meningitis on 27 September 1833, in
Sophia Haldimand’s home at 31 Belgrave Square. And, was originally buried on 18 October
1833, in the grounds of Stapleton Grove, where he had been staying.His body was placed in its
wooden and lead coffin in a deep brick-built vault, over seven feet underground. A large plot on
that Ceremonial Way was bought by William Carr and William Prinsep, as they realized that the
original burial place of the Raja was not appropriate.Two years after this, Dwarkanath
Tagore helped pay for the Chattri (a small but splendid Mantap, in Indian style) that is raised
above this vault.
The mausoleum – Chattri (literally meaning umbrella) – was designed by the artist William
Prinsep, the elder brother of James Prinsep, to honour the remains of Raja Rammahun Roy
Bahadoor, known as the father of modern India; and, the first Indian to be buried in Britain, in
1833.

Although the Raja’s died in 1833, he was moved to his final resting place on the 29th May 1843.
Rajah Rammohun Roy | Arnos Vale

[ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Prinsep

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http://gibberandsqueak.blogspot.com/2009/03/unreal-city-dhrupad-nights-in-benares.html ]

Kashi today

34.1. The problems of today’s Kashi, as anywhere else, are human callousness and lack of
reverence for life; but, they somehow look more pronounced here. You witness here , more than
what you would normally put up with, pollution, squalor, ignorance, dirt, deceit and
wretchedness. How much and how long can the beleaguered Ganga Maa wash the unrepentant
sins of the countless multitudes who pollute her each day …!!

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Sources and References
Ancient Indian tribes by Bimala Churn Law, 1926
Political History Of ancient India By Hemchandra Raychaudhuri, 1923
Varanasi Vistas (Early view of the Holy City) By Jagmohan Mahajan
Benares Illustrated in a series of Drawings by James Prinsep
Luminous Kashi to Vibrant Varanasi by Chandramouli
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varanasi
http://www.aeongroup.com/caprcrn.htm
[ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Prinsep
http://gibberandsqueak.blogspot.com/2009/03/unreal-city-dhrupad-nights-in-benares.html
http://www.bharatvani.org/books/rig/ch4.htm
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ALL PICTURES ARE FROM INTERNET

33 Comments
Posted by sreenivasaraos on October 8, 2012 in General Interest, Kashi -Varanasi

Tags: Banaras, Benares, Buddha in Kashi, City of lights, history of Kashi, Kashi, Kasi, Varanasi

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 Indian Architecture
Ratneshwar Mahadev – The Leaning Temple of Varanasi.
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 With 25 lithos and never before seen pics

Dr Uday Dokras
As it has often been said; Kashi is without doubt the oldest inhabited city in the world. It
never stopped being a living city for over three thousand years. Mark Twain who visited
India in the last decade of the nineteenth century said Kashi is “Older than history, older
than tradition, older even than legend, and looks twice as old as all of them put together.”
The old texts call the city Avimukta, the city that never was abandoned despite invasions,
repeated ravages and bigoted violence. Kashi has reigned over the upheavals of time; and,
has never stopped being a lively and animated town.

1.2. Kashi is the holy city not only for the Hindus but also for the Buddhists, the Jains and the
Sikhs. Sri Guru Nanak is said to have visited the Holy City two times around 1502 and 1506. It
has also long been a major center of education, of philosophical debates, of dialectics; and, of
traditional medicine (Ayurveda), yoga and astrology.
1.3. As Alain Danielou says:
“Kashi the city of refinement and beauty was the spiritual and cultural capital of ancient
India. It had always been a sacred city, a centre of learning (jnana puri), of art and
pleasures, the heart of Indian civilization, whose origins are lost in the mists of antiquity”.

[A Geo-exploration study conducted by IIT-Kharagpur – using GPS, one of the latest tech tools –
indicates that Varanasi (particularly, the Gomati Sangam area ) has been a continuous human
settlement since the days of the Indus Valley Civilization, around 6000 years ago..]

The ancient city has always been at the centre of Indian consciousness. Kashi has a distinct
individuality, which it developed over the ages since the hoary past. Its history, culture and
people; its temples and tirthas, mathas and institutions; its scholars, some of them the best
in the country; its festivals; its literature, music, painting and culture; its silk trade and
craft; and, its typical inhabitants: sadhus, courtesans, pundits, musicians, artists, weavers,
wrestlers, pandas, babus, thugs and gundas are archetypal of its cultural milieu; and , are
uniquely Indian.
2.1. Prof. D Sampath elsewhere remarked “Benares has a very strong geo-physical
significance…it is one of the navels of earth”. That seems to be supported by R.E.
Wilkinson who in Temple India observes that the holy city of Varanasi lies in the arc of
Capricorn. According to Wilkinson : “The Capricorn sign’s 30 degrees begin at 60/61
degrees the Capricorn east and continue to the mouth of the Ganges. Its alignment
identifies India and Varanasi as the point of the clearest spiritual vision.
“It is the one point”, said the Mother of Sri Aurobindo Ashram, “where the psychic law
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can and must reign, and the time has come for that to occur.”

[There are interesting varied sets of Tantric interpretations of Kasi’s geography. According
to one such mystic geography of Kasi, Manikarnika the Smashana is, truly, symbolic of
intrinsic death of the ascetic when his Prana soars up the Shushumna attaining the final
release.
Kasi is sometimes identified with the Ajna-chakra, the mystic centre between the nose and
the eyebrows.
But as a city, it is also identified with the subtle body as a whole. According to this
identification, the central vein of Kasi’s mystical body terminates at the cremation ground,
equating it with the highest centre of the anatomy. It is said; “The Rivers Asi and Varua
at the extremities of the city, and a third river (invisible) which flows through the centre,
represent the three main veins of the yogic body-respectively with
the Ida, Pingala and Shushumna “. ]
2.2. It is no wonder, therefore, that a massive literature, in all Indian languages, has grown
around the city over the ages. Many myths and legends have gathered round the
luminous Kashi or the vibrant Varanasi; celebrating its sacredness as the abode of the
recluse Shiva and of the gracious Mother Annapurna who guides the aspirant striving to
attain knowledge (jnana) and detachment (vairagya).

The Ratneshwar Mahadev Temple draws a lot of attention from pilgrims and tourists visiting the
holy city of Varanasi. The temple was built extremely close to the Ganga(Ganges) River and has
developed a nine-degree slant. By contrast, the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy tilts just five
degrees. No one knows why the leaning temple was built so close to the river’s edge, either. In

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fact, the temple is so close to the Ganga that part of it is actually underwater for much of the
year, the temple is also called the Kashi Karvat (Kashi is the ancient name for Varanasi and
karvat means leaning in Hindi).

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 I I सर्वमङ्गलमाङ्गल्ये शिवे सर्वार्थसाधिके।
शरण्ये त्र्यम्बके गौरि नारायणि नमोऽस्तुते ।।

Ratneshwar Mahadev Mandir (Hindi: रत्नेश्वर महादेव मंदिर) (also known as

Matri-rin Mahadev, or Leaning temple of Varanasi) is one of the most photographed temples in
the holy city of Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, India. The temple, while apparently well-preserved,
leans significantly towards the back side (north-west), and its garbhagriha is generally below the
water much of the year, except for a few months during the summer. The Ratneshwar Mahadev
Temple is situated at Manikarnika Ghat, Varanasi. The temple has developed a nine-degree slant.
It is also referred to as Kashi Karvat (Kashi is the ancient name for Varanasi and karvat means
leaning in Hindi).
There exists a temple by the same name in Karachi situated at the seaside of Clifton in a natural
cave.
Photographs from 1860s do not show the building leaning. Modern photographs show a lean of
about nine degrees The building is likely leaning because it was designed to lean. A lightning
strike in 2015 caused slight damage to some of the elements of the shikhara.
The temple in Manikarnika Ghat is located in front to the Tarkeshwar Mahadev Mandir built in
1795 by Ahilyabai Holkar where Lord Shiva is said to recite the Taraka Mantra (salvation
mantra). Between the two temple is a spot that was termed as the holiest spot in Banaras
by James Prinsep in 1832. An 1865 photograph terms one of the temples as the Vishnupad
temple. It is likely the Ganesh temple with the Charan Paduka of Lord Vishnu near it (only
distinguished individuals can be cremated at the spot). The same spot is said to have been the site
of a Sati in a 1903 print.
The temple is elegantly constructed in the classical style with a nagara shikhara
and phamsana mandapa. The site of the temple is very unusual. Unlike all other temples in
Varanasi on the coast of Ganga, the temple is built at a very low level. In fact, the water level can
reach the shikhara part of the temple. The temple leans over 9 degrees.
It is constructed at a very low spot; the builder must have known that its garbhagriha would be
underwater for much of the year. In spite of much of the temple being underwater during most of
the year, it is well preserved, except for the lean that can be noted in 20th century photos.
The temple is 12 meters in height.
The actual time of construction is unknown. However, some people claim it was built by an
unnamed servant of Raja Man Singh for his mother Ratna Bai about 500 years ago. After having
built the temple, he proudly boasted that he paid his debt to his mother (Matru-rin). However,
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since the debt to one's mother can never be repaid, the temple started leaning because of a curse
by the mother. That is the reason for the alternative name of the temple: Matru-run (Mother's
debt). According to another story, it was built by a female servant of Ahilya Bai of Indore,
named Ratna Bai. Ahilya Bai cursed it to lean because her servant had named it after herself.
Some sources claim that was built by Queen Baija Bai of Gwalior in the 19th century. According
to the revenue records, it was constructed from 1825 to 1830. [ However, according to Dr.
Ratnesh Varma of District Cultural Committee, it was constructed by the Amethi royal family in
1857. James Prinsep, who was an assay master at the Banaras Mint from 1820 to 1830, created a
series of drawings, one of which includes the Ratneshwar Mahadev temple. He commented that
when the temple entrance was underwater, the priest used to dive in the water to conduct
worship.

Munikurnuka Ghat Benares from the river by James Prinsep, 1832. Tarakeshwar temple on
the left./ Vishnu Pud and Other Temples near the Burning Gat, Benares. Acquired by King
Edward VII when Prince of Wales, 1865. The ghats are apparently under construction.

"Suttee" pillar, 1903 Stereograph/date unknown

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1953/ Submerged temple, 2011. Taken from an angle that does not show the lean./2013

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 TEMPLES OF VARANASIFEATUREDTRAVEL
Ratneshwar Mahadev or the leaning temple of Varanasi is one of the only 2 leaning temples in
the world. Ratneshwar Mahadev which is also known by the name Matr Rin is often confused
as Kashi Karvat temple by locals.

Ratneshwar Mahadev
in Winters (picture by Vivek Mishra)
The Ratneshwar Mahadev temple is one of the most photographed locations in Varanasi. You
can find its pictures easily on any social media with a simple search. Located at the Manikarnika
Ghat this temple is gradually gaining the attention it deserves.

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Entry gate of the Ratneshwar Mahadev’s sanctum (picture by Unnati Sharma) The inner sanctum
of Ratneshwar Mahadev Temple (picture by Unnati Sharma) The inner sanctum of Ratneshwar
Mahadev Temple (picture by Unnati Sharma)

Inside Ratneshwar
Mahadev Temple (picture by Unnati Sharma)
The story of Ratneshwar Mahadev is as mysterious as the temple itself looks at first glance.
Attached to so many legends and stories there are no confirmed resources on who actually built
it.
Legends Related To Ratneshwar Mahadev

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 Ratneshwa
r Mahadev in Mist (Picture by Piyush Singh)
According to the legends Ratneshwar Mahadev Temple was built by one of the servants of Raja
Man Singh in memory of his late mother Ratna Bai. Upon completing the construction he told
everyone that he’s paid the debt of his mother by building this temple. Since the mother’s debt
(Matri-rin) can never be paid back, the temple got cursed. This is why the temple is also known
as Matri-rin Mahadev.
Another legend states that the temple was built by Ratna Bai, a servant of Ahilya Bai. The queen
cursed this temple when Ratna Bai named it on herself as Ratneshwar Mahadev.
Ratneshwar Mahadev Historical Records
There is no concrete evidence of who actually built the temple a few scholars suggest that it was
built by Queen Baija Bai of Gwalior but as per the revenue records of the city the temple was
built between 1825-1830. Also, the below drawing by James Princep shows the tower of the
temple. It confirms that the temple was there during the serving time of James Princep(1820-
1830).
Ratneshwar Mahadev temple as seen in James Princep’s Drawing (extreme right)
Tilt Of Ratneshwar Mahadev
The tilt we see today wasn’t always there and the old photos of Ratneshwar Mahadev temple also
confirm the same. But today it leans at a staggering 9° which is approx 5° more than Italy’s
famous leaning tower.

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 Ratnes
hwar Mahadev before it started leaning (captured in 1865)
To understand this phenomenon we need to understand the geography of Ghat and its
surrounding.
In monsoon when the river Ganges swells to its full capacity all the Ghats get submerged in
water, sometimes they totally disappear in it. For this reason, most of the temples were built on a
higher platform.
The mason was aware of it and even if wasn’t then It might have taken at least a year and a half
to complete the temple at the quickest. So, the temple would have gone underwater at least one
time for a few months at the time of its construction. Which confirms that the selection of
location was intentional.
As ignorant as it may sound, digging deep into archives shows that Ratneshwar Mahadev wasn’t
the only temple built at a lower platform. There were also a few temples that were intentionally
built on the lower ground for unknown reasons.
City of Benares, pencil, and watercolor on paper by Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Ramus Forrest
(1750-1827)
Out of these ill-fated structures, only Ratneshwar Mahadev was able to survive the test of time.
Reasons Behind Tilt
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Since there is no official study done by the government so, we can only point a few possible
reasons which can be proved/disapproved later on with further research.
Defected Foundation

A sinking foundation
A sinking foundation. According to UrDesignMag, this is the most common foundation defect
found in most of buildings. A sinking foundation is often caused by soil changes under the
architecture.
The foundation of Ratneshwar Mahadev or Matra-Rin temple sits on a silt which cannot behold
the weight of the temple. Especially the weight of its main sanctum towards which it is leaning.
Another old tilted structure at Manikarnika Ghat

The velocity of Ganges as surveyed by Kumar Gaurav ( Summers, May 2019)

The Ganges is known for its roaring form in the monsoon. The river as it moves continuously
keeps shaping the banks and surroundings. The kinetic energy of the river puts a significant
amount of pressure on anything which abrupts its course. This adds up immense pressure on a
structure that stays submerged for most of the months in the year.
Diesel Boats
The waves generated by diesel boats passing frequently breaks where they find a solid object.
Prolonged exposure to such waves can cause soil erosion and further escalate the process of
sinking.
A similar issue is faced by many Ghats where huge cavities develop underneath the stairs and the
area later caves-in.
We will only be able to figure out the main reason when the Government takes up the

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River Velocity

conservation process.
2016 Lightning Strike & Damage

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In 2016 a lightning struck the Shikhar of the temple destroying a part of it. As per locals, a loud
boom was heard in daylight and the parts of Shikhar were scattered everywhere.
Later, a local group of artists wanted to take up the work of restoration but never received any
help from the government. As time passed by the pieces of the broken shikar vanished into the
Ganges.
Save Ratneshwar Mahadev
Kashi is there for eternity but the leaning temple won’t survive the test of time. The tilt for which
it is famous will also make it collapse into the Ganges one day.
We have started a petition to bring the attention of the Government towards this vanishing
marvel. If you would like to help, please sign the petition on the link mentioned below and share
it with your friends.

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 Kashi, the three Khandas— Vishveshvara, Kedara, and
Omkareshvara: Symbolism, Territory & the Circuits.
Rana P.B. Singh & Pravin S. Rana

Shiva and Varanasi

There are many legends and Puranic descriptions about the origin of worship
of Shiva in an anthropomorphic and ithyphallic form, usually as the
stylized lingam. Most of the Western scholars believe in the latter concept.
But according to another interpretation the Shiva lingam consists of three
parts: a square at the bottom, an octagon in the centre and a cylinder with
spherical end at the top. Symbolically the square represents Brahma, the
creator; the octagon represents Vishnu, the preserver; and the round portion
which vanishes at the top even without a point represents Shiva, the
destroyer. Thus, the lingam integrates evolution, existence and involution,
i.e. shristhi, sthiti, and samhara (Pillai 1959: 19-20). This number three also
to be compared with Shiva’s trishula― three-pronged spear, Trident. These
are symbolized in the landscape of Varanasi with the three sacred segments,
each having antargriha (inner circuit) route along with their associated
patron deity: Omkareshvara in the north, Vishveshvara in the centre, and
Kedareshvara in the south, (Fig. 4.1). It is this perception that Kashi is
believed to be settled on the trishula.

According to popular religious traditions there appear 56 pilgrimage routes

(sacred journeys) and all having a fixed symbolic number of deities,
symbolising cosmogonic perspective. Among these pilgrimages the eight are
the most common and still in practice at different degrees; they are
Panchakroshi Yatra (PY), Nagar Pradakshina (NP), Avimukta Yatra (AV),
Vishveshvara Antargriha (VA), Kedareshvara Antargriha (KA), Omkareshvara
Antargriha (OA), Uttaramanas Yatra (UM), and Dakshinamanas Yatra (DM).
Altogether in these eight yatras total 774 divine images are ritually
worshipped. The most common form of divinity is Shiva (444), his consort
goddess (80), son Ganesha (58), his assistants (22), and his black-form (21);
thus, his and his associates number records around 81 per cent of share in
the total number of divinities (cf. Table 1). Almost all these images and the
routes are described in a late 15th century text, Gurucharitra, which clearly
justify the historicity of these pilgrimage routes and the affiliated deities.

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Table 1. Kashi (Varanasi): Divine Forms/ Deities in the main
Tirthayatras.

Scroll horizontally to view all fields on smaller screens

Pilgrimage/ N
PY AV KA VA OA UM DM A-K
Tirthayatra P

Divine form/ Deity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Shiva/ Linga Form 56 38 46 72 56 67 58 51 444

Vinayaka/
11 10 11 7 6 2 3 8 58
Ganesha

Shiva Gana 10 -- -- 6 -- 1 3 2 22

Devi/ Shakti form 9 5 3 11 3 1 7 13 49

Durga/ her Form 1 6 4 8 3 3 1 5 31

Vishnu/ his Form 4 4 2 2 1 6 4 6 29

Bhairava 2 1 1 6 1 2 5 3 21

Sacred site/
2 -- -- 2 -- 2 1 -- 7
Kshetra

River/ water spot 5 4 -- 4 -- 3 1 9 26

Kunda/ Kupa/ Tank 8 3 4 7 1 20 21 9 73

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 Pilgrimage/ N
PY AV KA VA OA UM DM A-K
Tirthayatra P

Aditya/ Surya
-- 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 11
(Sun)

10 12 10 10 10
TOTAL 72 72 72 774
8 6 8 8 8

[1 PY Panchakroshi Yatra, 2 NP Nagar Pradakshina, 3 AY Avimukta

Yatra, 4 KA Kedareshvara Antargriha, 5 VA Vishveshvara Antargriha,
6 OA Omkareshvara Antargriha, 7 UM Uttaramanas Yatra, 8 DM
Dakshinamanas Yatra; 9 A-K Total Kashi].

Vishveshvara (Khanda) Antargriha (inner sanctum) Yatra

The Vishveshvara Antargriha journey is prescribed as an essential

introductory or closing rite before or after performing the Panchakroshi
Yatra. This symbolises the unity of the beginning and the end, thus finally
converging into a mandala. This journey was so important that James Prinsep
in his 1822 map of the City has fully outlined it. Presently around half of the
pilgrims performing Panchakroshi Yatra perform Antargiha Yatra at the
different stages. The total shrines and temples attached to this route
numbered to 72 (Fig. 4.2).

This Yatra is eulogised in detail in ca 13th century text, the Kashi

Khanda (KKh 100.76a-95), the fourth part of the Skanda Purana, and also in
an early ca 16th century Marathi text, the Guru Charitra, GC (41.161-187).
The Marathi text described the shrines with some variation in the sequence
and sometimes even new shrines added. This situation is possible because
the author of the GC was not an inhabitant of Varanasi and probably not
knowing full the pronunciation. There is also possibility that in that period
some local deities added to this journey with variant names. By our field
experiences, it is obvious that the presently existing pilgrimage routes and
associated deities and shrines are according to the narration given in the
KKh.

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The pilgrimage journey route around the Vishveshvara delimits the sacred
territory of his inner sanctum (antargriha). According to puranic description
its four directional boundaries can be fixed as: the Ganga river in the east,
Gokarneshvara in the west, Bharabhuteshvara in the north and
Brahmeshvara in the south (Kashi Khanda, KKh 74.45). Besides the
Vishveshvara Antargiha, there also exists two more antargihas, viz.
Omkareshvara and Kedareshvara (Fig. 4.1). Of course, the Vishveshvara
Antargiha Yatra is more widely eulogised in the puranas and treatises, and
very popular among the pilgrims. The literary sources prescribe to perform
this sacred journey daily, if not possible then once in a fortnight or a month,
but certainly once in a year. The most common period to perform this sacred
journey is the 14th day of light-half of every month but more suitably in the
months of Phalguna (February-March), Karttika (October-November), and
Margashirsha (November-December). However, the Maha Shivaratri (Shiva’s
day of marriage, i.e. the 13 th day of dark-half fortnight in Phalguna) is the
most suitable for bestowing religious merits. Those performing annual
Panchakroshi Yatra, complete the journey on the day of Maha Shivaratri.

Following the Kashi Khanda (KKh 100.76a-95), the pilgrims perform

introductory rites after purificatory bath in the Ganga at Manikarnika Ghat,
followed by glancing and worship to Vishveshvara, Annapurna and the Five
Vinayakas (Ganeshas: Moda, Promoda, Surmukha, Durmukha and
Gananntha). Then they take vow for completion of the journey (sankalpa) in
the Muktimandapa at Jñānavāpi. Again, the pilgrims go to the shrine of
Manikarnika Devi (site no. 1) from where the actual journey gets start. Before
closing the journey Five Vinayakas again to be worshipped, followed by
Vishveshvara and Annapurna. The Five Vinayakas are counted together as
one unit. That is how the total number of shrines/sites along this sacred
route reaches to 72 (Fig. 4.2).

The 72 sacred sites/shrines exist along the pilgrimage route which forms a
seven round spiral (cf. Fig. 4.3). These may be categorised into seven
groups, among which Shiva and His forms record the highest share, i.e. 56
(cf. Table 2). Among the Shiva shrines, his images as specific dominate. The
appearance of Shiva at 56 sites refers to guardian symbolism. According to
Tantric mandala there appear seven chakras (spinal energy area) in the body
representing seven plexuses; their cosmic integrity can be established in
eight directions; thus, 7 spiral circuits X 8 directions comes to 56. That is how
Shiva protects his territory in all the ways, as Kashi is His own body.

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Table 2. Vishveshvara (Khanda) Antargiha Yatra, Varanasi: Typology
of Shrines

Scroll horizontally to view all fields on smaller screens

No
Deity/shrine Form of Shiva No.
.

1. Shiva and His

56 Jyotira 4
Forms

2. Devi/ goddess 6 Svayambhu 2

3. Vinayaka/ Founded by
6 9
Ganesha sages

Founded by
4. Bhairava 1 8
ganas

Founded by
5. Vishu 1 3
kings

6. Aditya/ Sun 1 Myth-related 8

7. Vapi/ sacred well 1 Specific forms 22

TOTAL 72 TOTAL 56

The number 72 represents the product of 12 zodiacs, or 12 months and 2

hemispheric (ayana) routes of the sun (the northerly and the southerly) and
3 mythical realms, i.e. the heaven, the earth, and the atmosphere in
between (12 x 2 x 3). The centre, axis mundi ― the Vishveshvara, interlinks
the three realms and attributes to the manifestation of the cosmic mandala.
This is the symbol of coincidentia oppositorum, expressed by the zero ― a
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‘dot’ and also denotes an unlimited entity, the productive point of
potentiality. Moreover, philosophically “this central point shows mediation on
the paradox of the maximum potential contained within an irreducible
minimum...” (Lannoy 1971: 344). Other inferences refer this cosmic mandala
as the product of (i) the 12 zodiacs and 6 seasons, (ii) the 24 homologies and
3 mythical realms, and (iii) the 9 planets and 8 directions, etc.

The number of shrines related to Devi, and Vinnyaka both comes to 6,

symbolising again the protection and control of the four directions in addition
to above (heaven) and below (earth). The rest four shrines are related to
Bhairava (a terrifying form of Shiva who controls this City by his stick),
Vishnu (in the form of Keshava, having close affinity with the Ganga river),
Aditya (the Older Sun god proving light since time immemorial), and Vapi (a
sacred well giving bliss of wisdom).

The Antargiha Yatra route moves into seven layers in the form of spiral
cycles starting from Manikarnika Devi and closing to Vishveshvara (cf. Fig.
4.3). The seven groups of divinities have correspondence with seven spiral
cycles. Margold (1991: 7) feels that ― ‘perhaps the physical Earth has been
set up in order for each of us to take a spiralling ride through the convoluted
chronicles of humanity in as many ways as we possibly can’. The number
seven is one of the ways of alchemy, transforming idea into actuality, thus
the seven spiral cycles of antargiha show the seven spinal chakras (cf. Table
3) symbolising sequentially from our survival (1) to the realm of spirituality
(7). These seven chakras “make us a vital part of the energy vortex behind
all life here, and they are the conduits to make this world whatever we need
it to be for ourselves” (ibid.: 47). There also exists ‘a cyclical rhythm to
sevens that moves a unity of beginning to a unity of end with a revelation of
its various parts through the middle’ (ibid.: 67). This cyclic rhythm forms a
mandala running from unity (oneness), duality (twoness), trinity (threeness),
and afterwards multiplicity (manyness) forming an apex or bridge from
where the cycle takes turn towards trinity, duality and unity once again. This
is parallel to the planes of human consciousness and humanity like mental,
astral, etheric, and physical as bridge, followed by the descending order and
finally reaching to mental. Furthermore, the ascending mental plan refers to
‘oneness of innocence› while the descending mental plane forms: oneness of
experience’.

Table 3. Vishveshvara (Khanda) Antargiha Yatra, Varanasi: Seven

Spiral cycles and homology.

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Scroll horizontally to view all fields on smaller screens

Associative
Chakra (sheath) Mental state
organ

7. top of head Pineal gland Spirituality

6. brow Pituitary gland Imagination

5. throat Thyroid Communication

Earthly
4. heart Thymus gland
commodity

3. solar plexus Pancreas Sensitivity

2. chi Spleen Sexuality

1. base of spine
Sexual glands Survival, power
(kundalini)

The number seven can further be compared to other symbolic forms like 7-
days weekly cycle, 7 basic planets, and 7 directions and centres (east, west,
north, south, and central point, i.e. Vishveshvara, interlinking the heaven and
the earth). Each of the seven spinal chakras is under the control of four lunar
mansions, thus seven-round cycle covers the whole cycle of the cosmos. This
way by doing seven spiral cyclic journeys (mesocosm), the seven
spinal chakras (microcosmos) get integrated with the cosmic cycles
(macrocosmos). The importance of seven for human being has a strong
connection with the myth of seven incarnations of Vishnu in the form of man
to get relief from the curse of sage Bhigu (Matysa Purana, 47.36); this way
seven round spiral cycle receives a divine connotation. Moreover, the spiral
cycles also symbolises a climbing of steps relating to the top most celestial

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sphere where the pilgrims go from terrace by terrace up to the “pure lands”
at the highest level. This way, ultimately it converges into a mandala.

The number seven is a product of two triangles: top-apex type showing male
energy, and bottom-apex type denotes female energy. According to the
Tantric system the integration of the male and female energies together
makes the yantra in which the central point symbolises the creation; this way
there exists seven points in the yantra (cf. Singh, Rana, 2009b: 32-36). This
is fully eulogising in the Devi Bhagavata (9.9) that as to how from water the
earth originates and get sub-divided into seven oceans and seven great
islands. This creation symbol is comparable to the Bible (Genesis 1-2) which
refers that the God has created the earth in seven stages.

There are also seven serial groups of alphabets in Sanskrit (also adopted in
Hindi), i.e. A, Ka, Cha, T, Ta, Pa and Ya, and each of the series represents
cosmogonic elements symbolised together with anthropogenic elements.

After completing the pilgrimage journey, the pilgrims perform completion

ritual in the Jñānavapi Mandapa while reciting the names of all the 72
divinities and shrines again while pouring raw-rice (akshata) and ask excuse
from the divinities for the mistakes committed, unknowingly, during the
pilgrimage. This ritual of completion is similar to that of any pilgrimage
circuits, including the Panchakroshi Yatra and other khanda Yatras like
Omkareshvara (northern circuit) and Kedareshvara (southern circuit).

Kedareshvara (Khanda) Antargriha (inner sanctum) Yatra

The boundary of this segment moves around the segmentary patron deity,
Kedaeshvara. On this route of 7.5 km there lies 126 shrines/temples and
sacred site in total, among which 72 are associated to Shiva and His forms,
19 goddesses, 7 Vinayakas, and the rest to the others (Table 4; Fig. 4.4).
According to the KKm (29.28) the Kedara is the territory where crops of
liberation grow; therefore, Kedara has been replicated in all the important
holy places of India (Singh 1987: 496). Says Eck (1982: 144) that "Just as
Kashi is a microcosm of the whole India's sacred geography, so is Kedara a
microcosm of Kasi". The merit of Kedareshvara is fully eulogized in the KKh
(77.1-14, i.e. full chapter). Its area described in the KKm (3.61-63) is as
follows : in the east up to mid-stream of the Ganga, in the southeast about
half-krosha (1.76 km), in the south up to Lolarka Kunda, in the southwest up
to Sankhudhara Tirtha, in the west Vaidyanatha, in the northwest Lakshmi

223
Kunda, in the north Shulatankeshvara, and in the northeast about half-krosha
(1.76 km) in mid-stream of the Ganga.

Formerly the pilgrimage journey was started from the Harishchandra Ghat,
but after passage of time the initiation rite started taking place at the Adi
Manikarnika (no.1), Kedara Ghat. The pilgrims take bath in the Ganga at
Kedara Ghat, followed by worship to Adi Manikarnika (replicated one) and
Kedareshvara. Afterwards they follow the route as described in the Kashi
Kedara Mahatmya, KKm. The journey finally ends at Kedareshvara. This jour-
ney is performed within a day. After performing completion rites in the
Kedareshvara temple, most of the pilgrims visit Vishveshvara (Vishvanatha)
and then return to their home.

Table 4. Kedareshvara (Khanda) Antargriha Yatra, Varanasi

Scroll horizontally to view all fields on smaller screens

1.Adi Manikarnika 42. Shuskeshvara 84.Shikhi Chandi

2. Kedareshvara 43. Janakeshvara 85.Ugreshvara

3. Ganapati 44. Asi-Sangama 86.Rudrasarovara Tirtha

4. Dandapani 45. Asi Sangameshvara 87.Shulatankeshvara

88.Dashashvamedha
5. Bhairava 46. Siddheshvara
Tirtha

6. Skanda 47. Siddheshvari Devi 89.Bandi Devi

90.Dashashvamedheshv
7. Annapurna Devi 48. Sthanu Shiva
ara

8. Parvati Devi 49. Kurukshetra Tirtha 91.Govyaghreshvara

224
9. Daksinamurti 50. Durga Kunda 92.Mandhatrishvara

10.
51. Durga Vinayaka 93.Chatuhshashthi Devi
Indradyumneshvara (i)

11.
52. Durga Devi 94.Vakratunda Vinayaka
Indradyumneshvara (ii)

12. Kalanjeshvara 53. Kalaratri Devi 95.Pataleshvara

13. Ranadakeshvara 54.Chanda Bhairava 96.Siddheshvara

14. Dadhichishvara 55.Dvareshvara 97.Nairiteshvara

15. Nilakantheshvara 56.Shurpakarneshvara 98.Harishchandreshvara

16. Gauri Kunda 57.Kukkuteshvara 100.Puspadanteshvara

17. Harampapa Tirtha 58.Janglishvara 101.Ekadanta Vinayaka

18. Harampapeshvara 59.Tilaparneshvara 102.Garuda

19. Kirateshvara 60.Mukuteshvara 103.Garudeshvara

61.Baraka/ Panchakaudi
20. Lambodara / 104.Sarveshvara
Devi

Cintamani Vinayaka 62.Shankhudhara Tirtha 105.Someshvara

21. Shatrughneshvara 63.Dvarakanatha 106.Naradeshvara

225
22. Bharateshvara 64.Dvarakeshvara 107.Abhratakeshvara

23. Lakshmaneshvara 65.Shankukarneshvara 108.Atrishvara

24. Rameshvara 66.Vaidyanatheshvara 109.Anusuya Devi

25. Siteshvara 67.Kaholeshvara (I) 110.Anusuyeshvara

26. Hanumadishvara 68.Kamachchha Devi 111.Manasarovara Tirtha

27. Ruru Bhairava 69.Krodhana Bhairava 112.Manasarovareshvara

28. Svapneshvara 70.Batuka Bhairava 113.Surabhandeshvara

29. Svapneshvari Devi 71.Ghishneshvara 114.Vibhandeshvara

30. Akrureshvara 72.Brahmpadapadeshvara 115.Kaholeshvara (II)

31. Chamunda Devi 73.Laveshvara 116.Narmadeshvara

32. Charmamunda Devi 74.Kusheshvara 117.Sureshvara

33. Maharunda Devi 75.Rama Kunda 118.Padmasureshvara

34. Karandhameshvara 76.Rameshvara 119.Kshemeshvara

35. Arka Vinayaka 77.Karabireshvara 120.Chitrangadeshvara

36. Parashareshvara 78.Maha Lakshmishvara 121.Chitrangadeshvari

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 Devi

122.Rukamangadeshvar
37. Uddalakeshvara 79.Laksmi Kunda Tirtha
a

38. Amareshvara 80.Kunitaksha Vinayaka 123.Ambariseshvara

39. Kundodarshvara 81.Maha Laksmi 124.Tarakeshvara

40. Lolarka Kunda 82.Maha Kali 125.Adi Manikaranika

41. Lolarkaditya 83.Maha Sarasvati 126.Kedareshvara

(Source: Kashi Kedara Mahatmya, pp. 60-61. cf. Fig. 4.4).

Omkareshvara (Khanda) Antargriha (inner sanctum) Yatra

The boundary of the northern sacred segment moves around the segmentary
patron deity, Omkareshvara. Covering a distance of about 14 km route, there
lies 108 sacred sites and shrines, among which 67 are associated to Shiva,
12 sacred ponds, 6 Vishnu’s forms, 4 goddesses and rest the others (Table 5;
Fig. 4.5). According to the KP (I. 30.4-5) Omkareshvara is the supreme wis-
dom, worshipped five-fold, bestower of liberation, and to be honoured daily
by the wise in Varanasi. No textual reference of this yatra in detail has yet
been found. However, the KKh (100.44) refers only its name, and further
eulogized the glory and merits of the Omkareshvara lingam (cf. KKh 73. 76-
84; 74.1-20; 74.119-121). Probably during the Moghul rule (c. 17th century)
it had lost because the area was the most serious victim of the Muslims’
destruction, conversion and encroachment.

The route of the sacred journey is mostly based on the ancient folk tradition,
and even that is now rarely performed. The journey follows a haphazard-
route, lacking a systematic pattern like in other six pilgrimage journeys. Of
course, many of the original temples and images had lost their original sites,
later they have been re-established and re-manifested at the close by sites.
This is one of the reasons responsible for the haphazard-route at present.
Also, to be noted that the area is overall dominated by Muslim population.
227
 Following the tradition, the journey has to be completed within a day, but
commonly it is completed within two-days while passing a night-halt at
Madhia Ghat (where exists the images of Shaileshvara and Shailaputri, no.
78, 79). After worshipping Chaturmukheshvara (no.96) at Adi Keshava,
pilgrims have to go back in the northwest to Shantikari Gauri (no. 97) at the
Kakaraha Ghat along the Varana river, and then turn to Adi Keshva temple
compound. Similarly, at several places such adjustments are made.

Table 5. Omkareshvara Khanda Yatra, Varanasi (see Fig. 4.4

Scroll horizontally to view all fields on smaller screens

1.Tara Tirtha (lost) 38.Daksheshvara 75.Jvarahareshvara

2.Subhodaka Kupa 39.Nandishvara 76.Someshvara

3.Shri Guha /Shri 40.Nandishvara

77.Siddha Gana (lost)
Mukhi Kunda

4.Omkareshvara 41.Jayanteshvara 78.Shaileshvara

5.Makareshvara 42.Antakeshvara 79.Shailaputri Devi / Durga

6.Akareshvara,and
43.Hastipaleshvara 80.Varana (river) Tirtha
Shuleshvara

7.Naradeshvara 44.Airavateshvara 81.Papamochana Tirtha

8.Vindukeshvara 45.Airavata Kunda 82.Papamochaneshvara

46.Vishvakseneshva
9.Gargeshvara 83.Rinamochaneshvara
ra

10.Damanakeshvara 47.Krittivaseshvara 84.Angareshvara

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11.Prahaladeshvara 48.Hansa Tirtha 85.Dhanvantarishvara / Dhanadeshvara

12.Prahalada
49.Ratneshvara 86.Dhanvantari Kupa
Keshava

13.Vireshvara 50.Satishvara /
87.Halisheshvara
Sthanam Dakshayinishvara

14.Pilippila Tirtha 51.Rinahareshvara 88.Vishvakarmeshvara

15.Trilochaneshvara 52.Kala Kupa 89.Kapalamochana / Bhairava Tirtha

16.Arunaditya 53.Kaleshvara 90.Naubhairava

54.Kalaraja / Kala
17.Valmikishvara 91.Kapileshvara
Bhairava

55.Jaigishavyeshvar
18.Adi Mahadeva 92.Aitarini Tirtha
a

19.Badri Narayana 56.Vyaghreshvara 93.Vaitarani Tirtha

20.Udalakeshvara 57.Kandukeshvara 94.Varana-Sangama Tirtha

21.Kapileshvara/
58.Devakeshvara 95.Varana Sangameshvara
Kapila Guha

22.Vindu Madhava 59.Shatakaleshvara 96.Chaturmukheshvara/ Prayaga Lingam

23.Dhutapapeshvar
60.Hetukeshvara 97.Shantikari Gauri
a

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24.Kiraneshvara 61.Takshaka Kunda 98.Keshavaditya

25.Hanumadishvara 62.Takshakeshvara 99.Adi Keshava

26.Madhyameshvar
63.Vasukishvara 100.Jnana Keshava
a

27.Jamadagnishvara 64.Vasuki Kunda 101.Vedeshvara

65.Ishvaragangi
28.Bhairaveshvara 102.Nakshatreshvara
Kunda

29.Shivesvara 66.Jaigishavya Guha 103.Dandishvara

30.Mritunjayeshvar 67.Agnidhreshvara/
104.Tungeshvara
a/ Mritunjaya Jageshvara

68. Naga Kunda/

31.Vishveshvara 105.Gaja Tirtha
Karakotaka Vapi

32.Annapurna 69. Karkotakeshvara 106.Bhairava/ Lata Bhairava Tirtha

33.Ganesha
70. Nageshvara 107.Svarlineshvara
Vinayaka

34.Malatishvara/
71. Vigishvari Devi 108.Omkareshvara
Matalishvara

72. Vigishvari Vapi

35.Mahakaleshvara
(lost)

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36.Mahakala Kunda/ 73. Siddha Vapi
Dulhi Tirtha (lost) (lost)

37.Vriddhakaleshva
74. Siddheshvara
ra

(Source: Kurma Purana, I. 30.4-5, and ancient pilgrimage tradition;

cf. Fig. 4.5).

At present the pilgrimage journey to this Khanda is rarely performed, mostly

due to desertion of many ancient sites, encroachment of the paths and
lanes, expansion of Muslims’ neighbourhood, and also gradually decrease of
old religious sense among the inhabitants. Somehow, we have traced the
route and the related sacred spots; and with the support of local devout
Hindi its pilgrimage is survived.

The pilgrimage journeys of the above three segments (Vishveshvara,

Kedareshvara and Omkareshvara) start and end at their respective temples
of patron deities of the same name. But after completion of the journey
pilgrims certainly pay visit to Vishveshvara as mark of the last ritual which
developed in the long run of tradition.

Avimukta (‘Never forsaken') Kshetra

All the above described three segment territories (Khandas) are enveloped
by a covering circular pilgrimage route called Avimukta Kshetra (Fig. 4.6).
The myth says that the Lord Shiva does not leave this territory even in times
of dissolution and that is why it is called avimukta (‘never forsaken’). The
mythology mentions that this sacred area preserves the infinite mystical
power of the Lord Shiva, initiated with his three forms of qualities, i.e. the
truth (sat), the pleasant (chit) and the blissful (ananda). 72 sacred shrines
and sites are also spread along this route. The route moves four times in a
spiral form (see Fig. 4.6). Of course, in puranic tales this journey was
described as one of the most important one, but in passage of time it lost its
popularity. Thanks to initiatives of Svami Shivananda Sarasvati (1929-2014)
that it revived during late 1990s and regularly performed under the direction
of a religious trust, Kashi Pradakshina Darshan Yatra Samiti [‘Kashi’s
Circumambulatory Journeys and Pilgrimage Committee’] founded in 2001.

231
Basic Sources

Eck, Diana L. 1982. Banaras, City of Light. Alfred Knopf Publ., New York.

Lannoy, Richard 2002. Benares: A World within a World. The Microcosm of

Kashi Yesterday and Tomorrow. Indica Books, Varanasi.

Margold, Harlan 1991. The Alchemist’s Almanac. Bear & Co., Santa Fe, NM.

Singh, Pratibha 2004. Śiva-Kāśi: Paurāṇic Paripekṣya aur Vartmān

Saṅdarbh (Śiva-Kashi: Paurāṇic Background and Present Context).
Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan, Varanasi. [in Hindi].

Singh, Rana P.B. (eds.) 1993. Banaras (Varanasi). Cosmic Order, Sacred City,
Hindu Traditions. Tara Book Agency, Varanasi. [an anthology of 20 essays].

Singh, Rana P.B. 2004. Cultural Landscapes and the Lifeworld. The Literary
Images of Banaras. Pilgrimage and Cosmology Series: 7. Indica Books,
Varanasi.

Singh, Rana P.B. 2009. Banaras: Making of India’s Heritage City. (Planet
Earth & Cultural Understanding, Series Pub. 3). Cambridge Scholars
Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne U.K.

Singh, Rana P.B. 2009. Banaras, India’s Heritage City: Geography, History, &
Bibliography. [including Bibliography of 1276 sources, Hindu Festivals,
2006-15]. Pilgrimage and Cosmology Series: 8. Indica Books, Varanasi.

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