1

FUTOOH USH SHAAM

“A term paper submitted to the department of History, University of Peshawar In partial
fulfilment for the requirements of course of Introduction toClassical Literature On Islamic
History Course title HIST-318.”

Submitted By: Mamoon Abdullah

Class: 6TH Semester

Roll No: 12

Submitted To: Dr. Altaf Qadir

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................3
Ground For the Invasion Of Syria.................................................................................................................4
Usama Expedition........................................................................................................................................5
Conquest under Caliph Abu Bakar...............................................................................................................6
Battle of Ajnadyn.........................................................................................................................................6
Conquest under Hazrat Umar......................................................................................................................8
Battle Of Yarmuk.........................................................................................................................................8
Siege Of Damascus....................................................................................................................................12
Syria Under Muslims..................................................................................................................................15
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................16
References.................................................................................................................................................17
Bibliography...............................................................................................................................................18

Introduction
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Futooh-sh-sham is one of the most prominent historical book written by the the famous muslim
historian, Umar Bin Muhammad Al-Waqidi(130-207AH). This renowned work chronicles the
Islamic conquest of Syria (Al-Sham) during the Rashidun Caliphate, specifically under the
leadership of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn Al-Khattab. This book is written on how muslims Futooh-
ush-Sham is one of the most prominent historical book written by the famous muslim historian,
Umar bin Muhammad Al-Waqidi(130-207 AH. This renowned work chronicles the conquered
Syria which was occupied by the Ghassanid, the Satellite State of the Byzantine Empire. In this
book it is extensively discussed that how muslim defeated the Ghassanid on the border area
and captured their main Cities and then established their own Government and rule. The Syria
which was conquered by the muslims was actually called at that time as Kingdom of Bostra
which was ultimately conquered at the time of Hazrat Umar( may Allah be pleased with him).
So, this book discussed all these events in very detail by Al-Waqidi. Composed in the 8th
century, Futooh ush Sham is considered one of the most authoritative and detailed accounts of
the early Islamic period, offering a unique glimpse into the military campaigns, political
dynamics, and social landscape of the time.

Al-Waqidi's this famous work is based upon a comprehensive historical methodology, gain
knowledge earlier sources, oral traditions, and eyewitness testimonies to write a
comprehensive and authoritative record of the conquest of Syria. As a pioneering historian of
his time, Al-Waqidi's work demonstrating a commitment to accuracy, objectivity, and attention
to detail. The role of key companions like Khalid ibn al-Walid and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah,
and the impact of the conquest on the indigenous populations of Syria.

This assignment will also investigate Al-Waqidi's perspective and methodology, exploring how
his work reflects the intellectual and cultural currents of his time. We will examine how Futooh
ush Sham contributes to our understanding of Islamic history, the spread of Islam, and the
development of the Islamic empire. By shedding light on Al-Waqidi's contributions to Islamic
historiography, this assignment will demonstrate the enduring significance of Futooh ush Sham
as a foundational text in the study of Islamic history and civilization.

Ground For the Invasion Of Syria

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When the Holy Prophet(Peace be upon him) sent letters to the head of the States after the
Conquest of Makkah in 8 AH, in which the Holy Prophet offered to accept Islam and became
muslims and our brothers or otherwise accept our suzerainty and pay tribute the State

Medina , similar letter was sent to the Vassal state of Bynatinum Empire, the Kingdom of Bostra
at the Border of Arabs( Present day Syria) but Ghassanid killed the messenger of Medina which
was clear violation of laws between the states and did not accept the offer of Prophet. When
the News reached Medina the muslim enraged upon this act of Ghassanid and decided to
launch a military Campaign against them. So, an army under Zaid Bin Usama was prepared to
contest war with the Syria. As we know that Syria is in the North of Arabia Penensula. The Other
commanders in this force were renowned companions of the Holy Prophet they were, Zaid Bin
Hartha, Abu Ubaida Bin Al- Jarrah, and Abdullah Bin Rawaha which were instructed that if one
got martyrdom then the other was supposed to hold the command of the Muslims
subsequently1.

So, the force leave Medina for the battle against them which was fought in Mutah, known as
Battle of Mutah in 630 AD. As this not the Ghzwa( the Military campaign in which the Holy
Prophet personaly participated) because the did not participate but organized and sent the
campaign. On the other hand, Ghassanid were approximately 200,000 in number under the
command of the brother of Heraclius, the Roman Emperor. The Muslims were iformed that
such a large number were gahthered in Balqa. The Muslims engaged the Byzantines at their
camp by the village of Musharif and then withdrew towards Mu'tah. It was here that the two
armies fought. Some Muslim sources report that the battle was fought in a valley between two
heights, which negated the Byzantines' numerical superiority. During the battle, all three
Muslim leaders fell one after the other as they took command of the force: first, Zayd, then
Ja'far, then 'Abdullah. After the death of 'Abdullah, the Muslim soldiers were in danger of being
routed. Thabit ibn Aqram, seeing the desperate state of the Muslim forces, took up the banner
and rallied his comrades, thus saving the army from complete destruction. After the battle, ibn
Aqram took the banner, before asking Khalid ibn al-Walid to take the lead 2.

Usama Expedition
The Expedition of Usama bin Zayd was a military expedition of the early Muslim Caliphate led
by Usama ibn Zayd that took place in June 632, in which Muslim forces raided Byzantine Syria.
The expedition came three years after the Battle of Mu'tah.

After the Farewell Pilgrimage, the Islamic prophet Muhammad appointed Usama ibn Zayd as
the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade the region of Balqa in the
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Byzantine Empire. Muhammad sent Usama to Syria to avenge the Muslim martyrs of the Battle
of Mu'tah, in which Usama's father and Muhammad's adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah, had
been killed.

Usama's campaign was successful and his army was the first Muslim force to successfully invade
and raid Byzantine territory, thus paving the way for the subsequent Muslim conquest of the
Levant and Muslim conquest of Egypt, both of which took place during Usama's lifetime 3.

Conquest under Caliph Abu Bakar

When Hazrat Abu Bakar became the caliph after the death of Holy Prophet, several revolts
arose at that time which he had to crush them. One of the most important matter was the army
of Usama Bin Zaid to send him or not against the Roman. Hazrat Abu Bakar was of the view that
I have no right to not sent the force which was prepared by the Holy Prophet himself but the
other advisors of the caliph tried to convince him to not send them before tackling the revolts
within their state. So, he sent the force of Usama to the border with Byzantine Syria. After 40
days the force returned to Medina after Successful Campaign.

Battle of Ajnadyn
Byzantine sources do not specifically mention a battle of Ajnadayn, perhaps conflating it with
Dathin and with Jabiya-Yarmuk. Some Arabic sources state that Muslim armies concentrated at
Ajnadayn, under Khalid b. al-Walld or, less likely, 'Amr b. al-'As. Its location has been
satisfactorily identified between Ramla and Bayt Jibrln on the Wadl'l Samt in modern Israel
about 9 kilometers northeast of Bet Guvrin. Its probable date was 30 July 634. The earliest
extant source is probably the Latin Chronicle of Fredegarius, composed c. 658/60, who briefly
reports concerning the Muslim or "Saracen" invaders that "Heraclius sent soldiers against them
in order to resist them. When, however, it came to a battle, the Saracens defeated the Roman
soldiers and inflicted a serious defeat on them. In that battle 150,000 Roman soldiers were
slain. The booty, however, the Saracens offered through their envoys to Heraclius for
repurchase. Heraclius, who wished to take revenge on these Saracens, did not wish to
repurchase any of this stolen goods.The Muslim envoys' unsuccessful attempt to sell booty and
possibly also prisoners back to Heraclius is not inconceivable. Other sources provide more
details4.

The Byzantines, under Theodore, the brother of Heraclius, and possibly also under Wardan,
who according to some traditions was the military governor or patricius of Emesa (Hims),
massed in the hopes of striking decisively at the Muslims in order to drive them out of
Palestine. Such action probably made the situation of Muslims far to the north in the areas east
of the Dead Sea and Jordan untenable or at least dangerously exposed.
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The Wardan of al-Azdi is also called Artabun, who is probably the same person. This name is
not fanciful. It is confirmed by the small scrap of Syriac text which is nearly contemporary with
the events. It refers to the patricius who fought and fell at the battle as , which was wrongly
translated as "into the Jordan" or "son of Iardan," but in fact it is an Armenian name Vardan,
which has been disguised when transliterated into Syriac. It indicates that a Vardan -
presumably an Armenian, possibly from the Mamikonian family - held a military post in
Palestine in 634. Also there was another prominent Armenian commander, who was Vahan or
Baanes. Heraclius relied heavily on Armenians for his appointees in that period, just as he
appointed the Armenian Manuel in Egypt, who also was a military commander imposed in a
civilian post. This is a confirmation of some of the details mentioned in Azdl 5.

Wardan reportedly was sahib Hims, military commander of Hims, although his precise Latin or
Greek title is unknown. It was logical for the commander of Hims to become involved at
Ajnadayn, because Hims/Emesa was a communications nodal point and unquestionably was the
major military base of Heraclius in Syria before he withdrew to Antioch. At that particular date
the commander of Hims was very important, perhaps the first or second most important
military command below Heraclius during the course of the Muslim invasions, until Hims fell to
the Muslims. It is likely that he commanded troops who had come freshly from the north, from
Armenia and Constantinople, or from the units who accompanied Heraclius himself at Antioch,
although he may also have raised some local Arab tribesmen.

Theodore, the brother of Heraclius, also commanded at Ajnadayn. Heraclius used his brother
as a commander just as he had used him as a trusted commander to regain control of Edessa a
few years earlier, and just as he used his cousin Niketas in the conquest of Egypt during the
rebellion against Emperor Phocas in 610. The confusion in the Muslim sources can come from
the existence of several Byzantine commanders, which caused some Muslims who encountered
or heard of one instead of the other to imagine him to be the supreme commander there.
Divided command was not unusual in Byzantine history, even though it may be an imprudent
way to organize the chain of military authority. One Byzantine commander was said to fall at
Ajnadayn - possibly he was Wardan, or according to some, the cubicularius, possibly also
serving as sakellarios. But the other one, Heraclius' brother Theodore, escaped to fight
elsewhere. According to Byzantine sources, Theodore met defeat at the hands of Muslims,
then fled to Heraclius at Emesa, who replaced him with Vahan and Theodore Trithurios, the
sakellarios. Heraclius, angry with his brother Theodore, ordered him sent to Constantinople,
where he had his son Constantine (III) imprison him; the exact date is uncertain. Hostilities
between him and Martina, Heraclius' controversial second wife (and niece), may have
contributed to his fall from favor and disappearance6.
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Ajnadayn was a real battle in the open, and it made the Byzantines even less eager for combat
in the field against Arabs than they had been before. Henceforth there would be fear of open
conflict. In principle it took place closer to the Byzantine lines of communication, and so should
have favored them somewhat from the beginning. The precise battle tactics of both antagonists
are not well understood. Christian Arabs did help to supply the Byzantines. The Byzantines who
fled to the protection of other cities in Syria lost all coherence and effectiveness as military
units, at least for a while. The Muslims won relative freedom to overrun much of the
countryside unopposed, and paralyzed communications between towns, even between
Bethlehem and Jerusalem. Insecurity spread throughout most of Palestine, especially the areas
away from the coastal towns, where the Byzantines managed to hold out. Civilians and
ecclesiastics were shocked because they had not been expecting any such major invasions.
Heraclius departed from Hims for Antioch when he learned of the outcome of Ajnadayn, which
was not close to Hims, but the Byzantine defeat unhinged the entire Byzantine position in
southern Syria7.

Conquest under Hazrat Umar

When Hazrat Umar became caliph he also continued to launch expedition against the east and
west especially the romans.

Battle Of Yarmuk
The Battle of Yarmouk River (or Yarmuk River; also written as the Battle of Jabiya-Yarmuk) was
fought over the course of six days, from 15 to 20 August 636 CE, between the Muslim army of
the Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 CE), under Khalid ibn al-Walid (d. 642 CE) and the Byzantine
legions, under field commander Vahan of Armenia (d. 636 CE). Fighting took place near the
Yarmouk River in the Jordan valley, and the battle was a decisive victory for the heavily
outnumbered Rashidun army. This victory permanently shifted the dominion in the Levant and
Syria from the Byzantine Empire to the Caliphate. Moreover, this was the magnum opus of
Khalid, who has been immortalized in legends for his triumph

After the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, his closest confidant, Abu Bakr (r.
632-634 CE) assumed control over the community as the first Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate
(632-661 CE). Having taken the scepter, Abu Bakr faced an open rebellion from all corners of
Arabia. Various tribes, who had bowed before the Prophet, declared that their covenant with
Muhammad had ended with his life. These renegades were labeled as apostates and were
confronted with the full might of Rashidun military in a series of engagements, later styled as
the Ridda Wars (632-633 CE). Abu Bakr then launched the expansion of his empire into Iraq and
Syria. Khalid's division was sent to the former, where the caliphal army enjoyed much success
under him, but the threat of a Byzantine counterattack on the Syrian divisions, who had gained
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considerable ground, prompted Abu Bakr to send Khalid there. Khalid crossed the barren and
trackless desert with his best men, using camels as water reservoirs, and emerged on the
fringes of Syria, where after some raiding and conquest, he confronted and defeated a major
Byzantine force at Ajnadayn (634 CE)8.

Abu Bakr, in the meanwhile, died of natural causes and was replaced by Umar (r. 634-644 CE),
who stripped Khalid of his command, either because of a personal grudge or because of his
harsh personality. In his stead, Abu Ubaidah (l. 583-639 CE), a man renowned for his moral
standards, was made the governor of Syria and the commander of the Rashidun corps stationed
there. The Muslims continued to engulf the area, Damascus fell in 634 CE, the Byzantine
garrison of Palestine was defeated in the battle of Fahl (Pella; 635 CE), and Emesa (Homs) fell in
636 CE, leaving Aleppo only a march away. The Byzantine emperor Heraclius (r. 610-641 CE),
determined to rid his land of the Arabs, mustered up a huge force at Antioch to crush the
invaders.

Although Arab chroniclers are notorious for inflating enemy numbers and shrinking their own in
comparison, the Muslim army was indeed heavily outnumbered by the Byzantines on this
occasion. A huge imperial force, consisting of Greeks, Slavs, Franks, Armenians, Georgians, and
Ghassanid (Christian) Arab vassals of Syria, had a cumulative strength of around 40,000. The
Byzantine field commander, Vahan, was an Armenian and had formerly served as the Magister
militum per Orientem (Master of the Soldiers in the East; top military commander) of Emesa.
Theodore Trithurius, the state treasurer, held the command in theory, but his presence was
merely to boost the morale of the troops. Another notable figure among the Byzantine ranks
was Jabalah (d. 645 CE), the Ghassanid ruler who had profited much from his alliance with the
Byzantines and felt no compunction in serving them against fellow Arabs.

The Rashidun army, originally spread across Palestine, Jordan, Caesarea, and Emesa after their
earlier triumphs, was regrouped and withdrawn southwards to the Yarmouk Plateau. There,
they were further reinforced by fresh combatants from Medina, the Islamic capital, bringing
their numbers up to 20-25,000 on the eve of the battle9.

The Battle

Although Khalid was not officially in command, he was highly respected for his skill in battle,
and Abu Ubaidah, who lacked such expertise, ceded the command to him. Initially, the
Byzantines delayed their advance, wishing to strike simultaneously with the Sassanids whom
they had allied with after decades of war. But the ruler of the Sassanian Empire, Yazdegerd III (r.
632-651 CE), required time to prepare, and the Byzantines, ever-impatient to drive the Arabs
out, advanced on their own. Khalid, knowing that their position in the north was vulnerable,
withdrew his forces all the way to the valley beyond the Yarmouk River. This plateau was an
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undulating flat land-mass, making it very suitable for the Arab light cavalry, which accounted for
a quarter of his army's strength.

Negotiations dragged on for around three months, and during this time, the Rashidun army was
reinforced from Medina. Not content with further delay, both sides prepared for combat.
Vahan used his numerical superiority to fan out his frontline to about 13 kilometers, forcing the
Muslim line to stretch thinner and cover a ground of 12 kilometers to face them. The Byzantine
forces were placed in front of the Allan river, with their right anchoring the gorge to the south
and their left bordering the Jabiya hills. Vahan arranged his forces as such:

Ghassanid light cavalry, under Jabalah, acted as the vanguard for screening and skirmishingThe
left flank consisted of the Slavic infantry (facing the Muslim right)Armenian infantry (under
Vahan himself) and European contingents made up the centerGreek infantry manned the right
flank (facing the Muslim left)Cavalry divisions, mostly consisting of cataphracts - elite heavy
mounted troops, were stationed behind each flank and the two central divisionsKhalid arrayed
his 36 infantry regiments in a similar fashion, in front of the Harir River, with 3 light cavalry
divisions positioned behind the line, and one larger cavalry reserve under his personal
command in the rear. Unlike the multiethnic Byzantine forces, the Arabs were united not only
in their nationalist sentiment but also by a common faith. In both armies, infantry consisted of
melee fighters and skirmishers (such as archers), and although the Muslims lacked heavy
troops, which abounded in the ranks of their foes, they made up for this loss with higher
mobility and unparalleled skill in hand-to-hand combat10.

On 15 August, fighting was initiated with several duels, as was the custom in the region, in
which the Muslim champions appear to have bested their foes. Following this, Vahan ordered
the advance of merely a third of his force to probe the Muslim lines for weaknesses; the
fighting was not extreme and the Byzantines retreated after the day's end. Seeking to catch the
Arabs by surprise, Vahan advanced at dawn on the following day, probably knowing that the
Muslims would be busy offering their (Fajr) prayers. Khalid, however, had stationed scout
patrols ahead of the main army in anticipation of such a surprise attack. The Byzantines, upon
finding the Muslims completely alert, attacked anyway and locked their center in place as their
flanks delivered the blows from either side. Muslim flanks, first the right and then the left,
retreated to their camps, where, aided by their women, they managed to hold the enemy until
relieved by Khalid's cavalry reserve. The Byzantines continued to attempt to push through the
Muslim ranks for the next two days, and just as Vahan's troops appeared to have made a
breakthrough, Khalid would use his reserve to send them on the run. Seeking to buy some
respite for his men, the Armenian field commander sued for peace on the fifth day. To the great
shock of Abu Ubaidah, who was happily willing to comply, Khalid rejected the offer; the cunning
general knew that the time to act was then. The fifth day ended without much fighting, and
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Khalid, knowing that his foes were demoralized, prepared an all-out assault for the next day,
which had been his plan all along. In the dark of the night, he sent a cavalry detachment around
the field to take over the only bridge on the Wadi Ruqqad, cutting off the only escape route of
the imperial army. The fighting started on 20 August 636 CE with another duel, where Abu
Ubaidah got the best of his foe, a Greek commanding officer named Gregory, and then the
entire Muslim line charged. As the infantry locked their kind on the opposing side in place,
Khalid sprang into action and led a huge cavalry force, gathered from all of his cavalry divisions,
around the Byzantine left flank. Vahan, realizing too late that he had been outwitted, failed to
organize his disarrayed cavalry in time, and the Muslims smashed the Byzantine left into their
center11.

Surrounded on three fronts, and with no hope of assistance from the cataphracts, the imperial
troops began to rout, but unbeknownst to them, their escape had already been cut off. Imperial
troops were massacred in their retreat, and many drowned in the river, while some fell to their
deaths from steep hills of the valley (many jumped to their deaths to avoid a melee with the
Arabs). Khalid all but annihilated his foe and secured a crushing victory, whilst only taking
around 4,000 casualties. Vahan either perished in the battle or, according to some, adopted a
monastic lifestyle after the pulverizing defeat. Jabalah is said to have defected to the Rashidun
side during the climax of the battle, and accepted Islam in 638 CE, only to apostatize later on
and escape to Armenia.

Aftermath & Conclusion

With this stunning victory, the Muslims held uncontested power over the Levant and Syria.
Jerusalem, a holy city for three monotheistic religions - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam -
surrendered personally to the Caliph in 637 CE after receiving assurances of safety. Khalid ibn
al-Walid, however, did not receive the prestige that was rightfully his. Umar officially discharged
him of duty upon his visit to the region soon after the battle. Though Khalid's morals did not
equal Umar's standards (there were some controversies against him), this action was much
criticized, for it had been Khalid who saved the Muslim cause from certain doom, but Umar
announced that he had done so to show the people that it was God alone who gave them
victory.Khalid retired peacefully (although he is said to have complained to Umar, saying that
he was being treated like dirt), died in 642 CE, and was buried in Homs. Though he had been
encouraged by many to rebel against Umar, Khalid refused to do so. The Muslims soon engulfed
Egypt, parts of North Africa, and several islands in the Mediterranean. On the Sassanian front, a
similarly spectacular victory at the Battle of al-Qadisiyya (636 CE) also opened up a similar
channel of conquest, swelling the Islamic empire to a titanic size in a matter of mere
decades.Muslim success against these superpowers was due to a combination of reasons.
Firstly, their maltreatment of the Syrian and Iraqis, respectively, inclined these people to not
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only welcome the new invaders but even assist them. Secondly, the years of fighting with each
other had significantly weakened the two colossal empires. Thirdly, though the equipment of
the Arabs did not parallel that of their foes, their skill in combat was unexcelled and the
contributions of great generals like Khalid ibn al-Walid cannot be underestimated either 12.

Siege Of Damascus
The siege of Damascus (634) lasted from 21 August to 19 September 634 before the city fell to
the Rashidun Caliphate. Damascus was the first major city of the Eastern Roman Empire to fall
in the Muslim conquest of Syria.

The last of the Roman–Persian Wars ended in 628, after Heraclius concluded a successful
campaign against the Persians in Mesopotamia. At the same time, Muhammad united the
Arabs under the banner of Islam. After his death in 632, Abu Bakr succeeded him as the first
Rashidun Caliph. Suppressing several internal revolts, Abu Bakr sought to expand the empire
beyond the confines of the Arabian Peninsula.In April 634, Abu Bakr invaded the Byzantine
Empire in the Levant and decisively defeated a Byzantine army at the Battle of Ajnadayn. The
Muslim armies marched north and laid siege to Damascus. The city was taken after a
monophysite bishop informed Khalid ibn al-Walid, the Muslim commander in chief, that it was
possible to breach city walls by attacking a position only lightly defended at night. While Khalid
entered the city by assault from the Eastern gate, Thomas, commander of the Byzantine
garrison, negotiated a peaceful surrender at the Jabiyah gate with Abu Ubaidah, Khalid's second
in command. After the surrender of the city, the commanders disputed the terms of the peace
agreement. The commanders finally agreed that the peace terms given by Abu Ubaidah would
be met. The peace terms included an assurance that no pursuit will be undertaken by Muslims
against the departing Roman convoy for three days. Having acquiesced to the peace terms, it
was three days after the surrender of the city that Khalid set out after the Damascan refugees
towards Antioch and defeated them in battle six days later, near present day Al Jayyad 13.

Emperor Heraclius was at Antioch at the beginning of the siege and on 9 September, he
dispatched a relief force, thought to have numbered around 12,000 men. Scouts posted on the
road from Emesa to Damascus reported the approach of a Byzantine army. Upon hearing this
news, Khalid sent Rafay bin Umayr with 5,000 troops. They met 20 miles (32 km) north of
Damascus at Uqab Pass (Eagle Pass) on the Damascus-Emesa road. That force proved
insufficient and was soon surrounded by the Byzantine troops. However before the Byzantines
could defeat the Muslim detachment, Khalid arrived with another column of 4,000 men and
routed them. It has since come to be known as Battle of the pass of Uqab. The Muslim siege
forces had been weakened by the withdrawal of 9,000 men to repel the Byzantine relief force.
If the Byzantine garrison had sallied out against the Muslim army, historians suspect the
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defenders would have broken through the Muslim lines and lifted the siege. Understanding the
danger of the situation, Khalid hurriedly returned to Damascus14.

First Byzantine Attack

After realizing that no reinforcements would come, Thomas decided to launch a counter
offensive. Early in the third week of September, Thomas drew men from all sectors of the city
to form a force strong enough to break through the Gate of Thomas. He was there faced by
Shurahbil with his corps of about 5,000 men. The Byzantine attack began with a concentrated
shower of arrows against the Muslims. The Byzantine infantry, covered by the archers on the
wall, rushed through the gate and fanned out into battle formation. Thomas himself led the
assault. During this action, Thomas was struck in his right eye by an arrow. Unsuccessful in
breaking the Muslim lines, the Byzantines retreated back to the fortress. The wounded Thomas
is said to have sworn to take a thousand eyes in return. He ordered another great sortie for that
night.

Second Byzantine attack

This time Thomas planned to launch simultaneous sorties from four gates. The main sector was
to be again the Thomas gate, to take full advantage of the exhausted Muslim corps stationed
there. The attacks from the other gates—Jabiya Gate, the Small Gate and the Eastern Gate—
were intended to tie down the other Muslim corps so that they could not aid Shurhabil's corps
at the Thomas gate.At the Eastern Gate, Thomas assembled more forces than at the other
gates, so that Khalid would be unable to move to Shurahbil's assistance and take command in
that decisive sector. Thomas' attack at several gates also gave more flexibility to the operation:
if success were achieved in any sector other than the Gate of Thomas, such success could be
exploited by sending troops to that sector to achieve the breakthrough. Thomas ordered Khalid
to be taken alive15.

After some hard fighting at the Jabiya Gate, commander Abu Ubaidah and his men, repulsed
the sally and the Byzantines hastened back to the city. The battle was intense at the Small Gate,
which was guarded by commander Yazid and his men. Yazid had fewer troops but Dharar came
to Yazid's aid with his 2,000 cavalry of the Mobile Guard. The cavalry attacked the flank of the
Byzantine sortie force and repulsed the sally. At the East Gate, the situation also became
serious, for a larger Byzantine force had been assigned to this sector. Rafay was unable to
withstand their attacks. The timely arrival of Khalid with his reserve of 400 veteran cavalry and
his subsequent attack on the Roman flank, marked the turning point in the sally at the Eastern
Gate.The heaviest fighting occurred at the Thomas gate, where Thomas again commanded the
sally in person. After intense fighting, Thomas, seeing that there was no weakening in the
Muslim front, decided that continuing the attack would be fruitless and would lead to even
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heavier casualties among his men. He ordered a withdrawal and the Romans moved back at a
steady pace, during which they were subjected to a concentrated shower of arrows by the
Muslims. This was the last attempt by Thomas to break the siege. The attempt had failed. He
had lost thousands[clarification needed] of men in these sallies, and could no longer afford to
fight outside the walls of the city16.

Khalid’s Attack

On 18 September, a Syriac monophysite priest named Jonah informed Khalid about a festival
celebration in the city that night.[e] The festivities offered Khalid an opportunity to capture the
city in a surprise attack on the relatively lightly defended walls. In return, Jonah requested
immunity for himself and his fiance. According to Muslim chronicles, she was still not handed
over to him because of the arrival of the Muslim army that was to besiege Damascus, and
according to the narrations he came to Khalid with this information only to get his wife sooner.
Jonah also converted to Islam.

With no time to make a coordinated plan of attack for the whole army, Khalid decided to storm
the East Gate himself. He, Qa'qa ibn Amr, and Mazur ibn Adi climbed the wall hand-by-hand
from the side of the gate. This part of the wall was the strongest, no guard was stationed at the
top. They secured ropes to the wall and dropped them to 100 selected soldiers waiting at the
base. Leaving a few men to assist the climbers, Khalid descended into the city, killing the guards
at the inside of the East Gate. Khalid and Qa'qa flung the gate open and the remainder of
Khalid's men entered the city. An intense battle ensued17.

When Thomas saw that the rest of the army did not move from the other gates, he assumed
first that only Khalid's army had entered the city and second that the other corps commanders
were unaware of the breach in the defenses. Thomas tried to save Damascus for one last time.
He sent envoys to the Jabiya Gate to talk with Abu Ubaidah, the second in command to Khalid,
and offered to surrender the fort peacefully and to pay the Jizya. Abu Ubaidah, who was well
known for his peace-loving nature, accepted the terms, thinking that Khalid would also agree.

The news was sent to all the corps commanders. After dawn Abu Ubaidah entered Damascus
from Jabiyah gate and the other commanders from their respective gates, while Khalid's corps
was still battling in the city from the East Gate.[26] Abu Ubaidah marched peacefully with his
corps, accompanied by Thomas, Harbees[who?], several dignitaries, and the bishops of
Damascus, toward the center of city. From the East Gate, Khalid and his men fought their way
towards the center of Damascus, killing all who resisted. The commanders met at the
Mariamite Cathedral of Damascus in the center of the city.

Capture of the city

14

Khalid argued that he had conquered the city by force. Abu Ubaidah maintained the city had
capitulated, through the peace agreement between him and Thomas.[37] The corps
commanders discussed the situation, and reportedly told Khalid that the peace agreement
must be honoured, which Khalid agreed to although reluctantly.The terms of the peace
agreement were that no one would be enslaved, no harm would be done to the temples,
nothing would be taken as booty and that safe passage was given to Thomas, Harbees, and
every citizen of Damascus who was not willing to live under Muslim rule. The peace agreement
also stated that the peace would end after three days and that the Muslims could attack after
these three days without violating the agreement.

The following pact was drawn up and signed by Khalid bin Walid:

In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. This is given by Khalid bin Al Waleed [sic] to
the people of Damascus. When the Muslims enter, they (the people) shall have safety for
themselves, their property, their temples and the walls of their city, of which nothing shall be
destroyed. They have this guarantee on behalf of Allah, Messenger of Allah, the Caliph (Umar)
and the Muslims, from whom they shall receive nothing but good so long as they pay the
Jizya18.

Syria Under Muslims

While the Arabs administered the city of Damascus, the population of Damascus remained
mostly Christian—Eastern Orthodox and Monophysite—with a growing community of Arab
Muslims from Makkah, Medina, and the Syrian Desert. The city was chosen as the capital of
Islamic Syria. Its first Muslim governor was Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan, one of the commanders of the
Muslim army that captured the city. Yazid died of plague in 640 and his younger brother,
Mu'awiya I, succeeded him. After the murder of the last Rashidun Caliph, Caliph Ali in 661,
Mu'awiya installed himself as the caliph of the Islamic empire founding the Umayyad
dynasty.Damascus subsequently became the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate and all of the
surplus revenue of the Umayyad Caliphate's provinces were forwarded to the treasury of
Damascus. Arabic was also established as the official language, giving the Arab minority of the
city an advantage over the Greek-speaking Christians in administrative affairs.

Trade and economics prospered in the city and under the Umayyads, Damascus remained one
of the most dazzling cities of the world, until in 750, when it fell to the Abbasids. On 25 August
750, the Abbasids, having already beaten the Umayyads in the Battle of the Zab in Iraq,
conquered Damascus after facing little resistance. With the heralding of the Abbasid Caliphate,
Damascus became eclipsed and subordinated by Baghdad, the new Islamic capital 19.

Conclusion
15

In conclusion, Futooh ush Sham by Al-Waqidi is a seminal work that offers a comprehensive and
authoritative account of the Islamic conquest of Syria during the Rashidun Caliphate. Through a
meticulous examination of this historical text, we have gained valuable insights into the military
campaigns, political dynamics, and social landscape of the early Islamic period. Al-Waqidi's
masterful narrative has provided a nuanced understanding of the leadership of Abu Bakr and
Umar ibn Al-Khattab, the role of key companions like Khalid ibn al-Walid and Abu Ubaidah ibn
al-Jarrah, and the impact of the conquest on the indigenous populations of Syria.

This assignment has demonstrated the significance of Futooh ush Sham as a foundational text
in Islamic historiography, shedding light on the author's perspective, methodology, and
contributions to our understanding of Islamic history and civilization. Al-Waqidi's commitment
to accuracy, objectivity, and attention to detail has set a high standard for historical writing,
making this work an indispensable source for scholars and researchers.The conquest of Syria, as
chronicled by Al-Waqidi, represents a pivotal moment in Islamic history, marking the expansion
of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula and the establishment of the Islamic empire. This period
of rapid growth and transformation was shaped by the leadership, military strategies, and
political dynamics of the time, all of which are meticulously documented in Futooh ush
Sham.Through this assignment, we have come to appreciate the enduring significance of
Futooh ush Sham, not only as a historical text but also as a testament to the intellectual and
cultural achievements of Islamic civilization. Al-Waqidi's work continues to inspire and inform
scholarship, offering a rich and nuanced understanding of the early Islamic period and its lasting
impact on the world.

In final thoughts, Futooh ush Sham by Al-Waqidi stands as a towering achievement in Islamic
historiography, offering a compelling narrative that has captivated readers for centuries. This
assignment has deepened our understanding of this influential work, revealing the complexities
and nuances of the early Islamic period. As we reflect on the significance of Futooh ush Sham, we are
reminded of the power of historical writing to shape our understanding of the past, inform our
present, and guide our future.

References
16

1
Phillip K. Hitti, Tareekh-e- Sham, translated, Maulana Ghulam Rasool Mehar ( Lahore: Sheikh Ghulam Ali
and Sons Publishers), 189.
2
Ibid, 209.

3
Allama M. Ibn Jarir Al-Tabari, Tareekh-e-Tabari Tareekh al um wal mulook, # edition 3. translated, Said
Muhhamad Ibrahim Nadvi ( Karachi: Nafees Academy Urdu Bazaar), 329.
4
Ibid, 330.

5
Ibid, 332.

6
Allama Imaduddin Ibn Kaseer, Tareekh-e- Ibn Kaseer, # edition 7. Translated, Maulana Akhtar Fateh Puri
(Karachi: Nafees Academy Urdu Bazaar), 17
7
Ibid, 18.

8
Ibid, 26.

9
Maulana Muhammad Ismail Raihan, Tareekh-e-Ummat-e- Muslima, # edition 1.( Karachi: Al- Manhar
Publisher), 495.
10
Ibid, 498.

11
Ibid, 501.

12
Ibid, 521.

13
Shah Moinuddin Muhammad Nadvi, Tareekh-e-Islam Ehd-e- Risalat wa Khilafat-e-Rashida, ( Lahore:
Matba-e-Islamia, 2013), 163.
14
Ibid, 168.
15
Ibid, 170.

16
Umar Bin Al-Waqidi, Islamic Conquest Of Syria. Translated, Maulana Sulyman Al-Kindi,( Lahore: Ta-Ha
Publisher Ltd,1423 AH), 67.
17
Ibid, 91.

Maulana Minhaj Ud Din, Tabaqat-i-Nasiri. Translated by, Major H.G Raverty,( Gilbert and Rivington,
1881), 26.
19
Ibid, 30.
17

Bibliography
Al-Waqidi, Umar Bin. Islamic Conquest Of Syria, translated by, Maulana Sulyman Al-Kindi. Lahore: Ta-
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Al-Tabari ibn Jari Allama M, Tareekh-e-Tabari Tareekh al um wal mulook, # edition 3. translated, Said
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Hitti K. Phillip. Tareekh-e- Sham, translated, Maulana Ghulam Rasool Mehar. Lahore: Sheikh Ghulam Ali
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