The Mysterious SE ASIAN

Kingdom of Panduranga

Dr Uday Dokras

FEATURING The ANCIENT SECRET Cities of Hindu

Champapura

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THE FORMIDABLE Hindu Kingdom of Champa

Champa was a religiously tolerant kingdom, with many different faiths coexisted peacefully or
have merged with indigenous Cham beliefs. Religiously and culturally, the Chams were grouped
into two major religio-cultural groups; the Balamon Chams (also called Cham Ahiér) that adhere to
an indigenized form of Islam and Hinduism. Another northern group inhabiting around Bình
Định and Phú Yên provinces is the Cham Hroi (Haroi), who practice Chamic animism. Under the
previous Republic of Vietnam, they were considered a distinct ethnic group. Since 1979, they have
been reclassified by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam government as a subgroup of the Cham. It
had 4 principalities and 1 city that of Indrapur.

 Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành) was the capital of Champa
from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern village of Đồng
Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da Nang is the ancient
Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which has been identified with an
archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a
number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The associated port was at modern Hội
An. The territory once controlled by this principality included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng
Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.
 Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The earliest
mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar.

 Vijaya was located in present-day Bình Định Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is
made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. The capital has been identified with the
archaeological site at Cha Ban. The associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important
excavations have also been conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious
and cultural centre. Vijaya became the political and cultural center of Champa around 1150s. It
remained the center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of
Champa was again displaced toward the south.[138] In its time, the principality of Vijaya
controlled much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru)
Provinces.
 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural center was the temple of Po Nagar, several
towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784 AD inscription
at Po Nagar.
 Panduranga was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang)
in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with capital Parik, was the last of the
Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was the most autonomous, sometimes
independent, princedom/principality of Champa. Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD
inscription at Po Nagar.
Within the four principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in Vietnamese)
and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in Amravati and Vijaya,
while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans differed in their customs and
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habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even war. But they usually managed to
settle disagreements through intermarriage.
Hinduism and Buddhism

Po Nagar/’ Ninh Thuận

Apsara with Saraswati (right)/Dancing Sivas, both from c. 10th century AD

Hindus of Champa

The Cham Hindus of Vietnam are an almost forgotten people, remnants of the Cham dynasty
which endured in the region now known as central Vietnam from the 7th century well into the
19th. Yet they are 60,000 strong, and they have kept their traditions alive for centuries, far from
India’s shores. Builders of cities named Indrapura, Simhapura, Amaravati, Vijaya and Panduranga,
these Hindu people and their culture continue to flourish to this day. When we speak of the
Champa people, it is not a trek through history; we are speaking of a living culture with roots going
back thousands of years.While today the Cham are Vietnam’s only surviving Hindus, the nation
once harbored some of the world’s most exquisite and vibrant Hindu cultures. The entire region of
Southeast Asia, in fact, was home to numerous Hindu kingdoms. The many magnificient temples
and artifacts, from Angkor Wat to Prambana, remain as potent testimonials to their splendor and
accomplishments. These grand edifices still stand, though the societies around them no longer
worship there or practice the lost traditions.

Champa was a formidible Hindu kingdom, renowned for its immense wealth and sophisticated
culture. Its major port was Kattigara. Nearly 2,000 years ago, Claudius Ptolemy wrote
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of Cattigara and outlined it on his map of the world. Modern scholarship has
confirmed Cattigara as the forerunner of Saigon (modern day Ho Chi Minh City).Cattigara was,
in fact, the main port at the mouth of the Mekong River, a name derived from Mae Nam Khong, the
Mother Water Ganga.

Another early Champa king was Bhadravarman, who ruled from 349-361CE. His capital was the
citadel of Simhapura or ‘Lion City,’ now called Tra Kieu. Badravarman built a number of temples,
conquered his rivals, ruled well and in his final years abdicated his throne and spent his last days in
India on the banks of the Ganges River.

Historic Champa was divided into five regions. Indrapura (present-day Dong Duong) served as the
religious center of the kingdom; Amaravati is the present day Quong Nam province; Vijya is now
Cha Ban; Kauthara is the modern Nha Trang; and Panduranga is known today simply as Phan.
Panduranga was the last Cham territory to be conquered by the Sino-Vietnamese.

Few know that Christopher Columbus, on his fourth and last voyage, had attempted to reach the
Champa Kingdom and actually believed he had reached Vietnam. In ancient days well-worn trade
routes had linked Europe with India and the entire region of South and Southeast Asia, and for
countless centuries the wealth and wisdom of India had flowed to the markets and institutions of
the world. By the 1400s, however, political instability had disrupted direct trade links with India
and the West. Columbus was convinced that by sailing west from Spain he could circle the globe—
a concept ridiculed by most Europeans, who still believed the Earth was flat—and thus find a new
trade route and reestablish the long-lost link to the wealth of the East. His planned route would take
him south along the Vietnamese coast, past the Cape of Kattigara and on to Malacca; he believed
this to be the route Marco Polo had followed from China to India in 1292. Reaching Cariay on the
coast of Costa Rica, he thought he had found Vietnam and was very close to one of his coveted
destinations, the famous gold mines of the Champa Kingdom. Fortunately for Vietnam, he was
mistaken.

Another Vietnamese Hindu kingdom was Funan, which flourished between the 1st and 6th
centuries ce. Its capital was the Oc Eo Citadel. While exploring sea passages to India in the year
250 ce, two Chinese envoys, Kang Dai and Zhu Ying, described Funan as “having its own taxation
system, ruled by a king in a walled palace.” Professor Louis Malleret has unearthed much evidence
of significant seaborne trade between Oc Eo, Persia and Rome.
Vast Temple Complexes

In ancient times the Champa built vast temple complexes that remain standing to this day.
Primarily dedicated to Lord Siva, these structures honor Lord Siva as the founder and protector of
the Champa Dynasty. The most important of these is known as My Son, a Hindu religious and
literary center. Originally, this temple complex featured 70 structures, of which 25 survive. Sadly,
the main tower was severely damaged by American bombers in 1969 during the Vietnam War.

The Sivalinga was the primary form worshiped at My Son, its aniconic form also representing the
divine authority of the Siva-empowered king. Today the Cham people continue to worship this
form of Lord Siva.

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Champa art, Hindu temples and statues have been found in many parts of Vietnam.The term
"Balamon" derived from "Brahman" or "Brahmin", one of Hindu caste of religious elite. Balamon
Chams adhere to the old religion of their ancestor, an indigenized form of Hinduism that thrived
since the ancient era of Kingdom of Champa in 5th century AD. While today the Bacam (Bacham)
are the only surviving Hindus in Vietnam, the region once hosted some of the most exquisite and
vibrant Hindu cultures in the world. The entire region of Southeast Asia, in fact, was home to
numerous sophisticated Hindu kingdoms. From Angkor in neighbouring Cambodia,
to Java and Bali in Indonesia. The Cham Sunni in the Mekong Delta often refer the Balamon
as Kafir (Derived from Arabic Kāfir for infidels)

9th-century Dong Duong (Indrapura) lintel describing the early life of Prince Siddhārtha
Gautama (who is sitting on a mule)./10th-century Cham Saivite relief of Śiva
Before the conquest of Champa by the Đại Việt ruler Le Thánh Tông in 1471, the dominant
religion of the Cham upper class (Thar patao bamao maâh) was Hinduism, and the culture was
heavily influenced by that of India. The commoners generally accepted Hindu influence, but they
embedded it with much as possible indigenous Cham beliefs to become parts of the Ahier religion
today. The Hinduism of Champa was overwhelmingly Shaiva and it was liberally combined with
elements of local religious cults such as the worship of the Earth goddess Lady Po Nagar. The
main symbols of Cham Shaivism were the lingam, the mukhalinga, the jaṭāliṅgam, the
segmented liṅgam, and the kośa.

 A liṅga (or liṅgam) is black stone pillar that serves as a representation of Shiva. Cham kings
frequently erected and dedicated stone lingas as the central religious images in royal temples.
The name a Cham king would give to such a linga would be a composite of the king's own
name and suffix "-iśvara", which stands for Shiva.
 A mukhaliṅga is a linga upon which has been painted or carved an image of Shiva as a human
being or a human face.
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 A jaṭāliṅga is a linga upon which has been engraved a stylised representation of Shiva's
chignon hairstyle.
 A segmented liṅga is a linga post divided into three sections to represent the three aspects of
the Hindu godhead or trimurti: the lowest section, square in shape, represents Brahma; the
middle section, octagonal in shape, represents Vishnu, and the top section, circular in shape,
represents Shiva.
 A kośa is a cylindrical basket of precious metal used to cover a linga. The donation of a kośa
to the decoration of a liṅga was a distinguishing characteristic of Cham Shaivism. Cham kings
gave names to special kośas in much the way that they gave names to the liṅgas themselves.

The predominance of Hinduism in Cham religion was interrupted for a time in the 9th and 10th
centuries AD, when a dynasty at Indrapura (modern Đồng Dương, Quảng Nam Province, Vietnam)
adopted Mahayana Buddhism as its faith. King Indravarman II (r. 854–893) built a giant Buddhist
monastery, meditation halls, and temples for Champa's monks (Sangha), and celebrated the
veneration of the Buddhist deity Lokeśvara under the name Laksmindra Lokeśvara Svabhayada in
875. Mahayana in Champa was blended with observable elements of Tantric Buddhism,
manifesting in many traces. For example, Indravarman's successor Jaya Simhavarman I (r. 897–
904) according to his verbatim in 902, Vajrapāṇi is the Bodhisattva capable of leading humans into
the "path of the Vajra." The Buddhist art of Đồng Dương has received special acclaim for its
originality.

Buddhist art of Champa also shared the same unique aesthetics, paralleling with Dvāravatī (Mon)
art, highlighting in the similarities of both cultures in their iconographic form of the Buddha-Stūpa-
Triad, where the Buddha seats in padmāsana (lotus) flanked by on either side by a depiction of a
stūpa. Other shared features are makara lintel, fishtail-shaped sampot illustrating, Gaja-Lakṣmī,
pendant-legged Buddhas. The sources of Mon–Cham cultural interaction may be the inland routes
between the Muang Fa Daed site on Khorat region, near a lost kingdom called Wèndān by the
Chinese (probably the site of Kantarawichai in Kantharawichai, Maha Sarakham) Southern Laos,
via Savannakhet, then to Central Vietnam coast through Lao Bảo and Mụ Giạ Passes.

Beginning in the 10th century AD, Hinduism again became the predominant religion of Champa.
Some of the sites that have yielded important works of religious art and architecture from this
period are, aside from Mỹ Sơn, Khương Mỹ, Trà Kiệu, Chanh Lo, and Tháp Mắm. From the 13th
to 15th centuries, Mahayana among the Cham was practiced in form of syncretic Saivite–
Buddhism or the fusion of the worship of Śiva (seen as the protector) and Buddha (seen as the
savior). Buddhism prevailed secondary. With the decline of royal power of the ruling
Simhavarmanid dynasty in the 15th century and the fall of their capital Vijaya in 1471, all
Mahayana or Vajrayana traces of Champa disappeared, enabling space for the rising Islamic faith.

Yajna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ, romanized: yajña, lit. 'sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering') refers
in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras.[1] Yajna has been
a Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called Brahmanas, as well
as Yajurveda The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to
symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire (Agni).
Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the Karma-kanda (ritual works) portion of the Vedic
literature, in contrast to Jnana-kanda (knowledge) portion contained in the Vedic Upanishads. The
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proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of Hindu
philosophy. Yajna have continued to play a central role in a Hindu's rites of passage, such as
weddings.[4] Modern major Hindu temple ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic
initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based on Agamic rituals.
The word yajna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ) has its root in the Sanskrit yaj meaning 'to worship, adore,
honour, revere' and appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE. In
Rigveda, Yajurveda (itself a derivative of this root) and others, it means "worship, devotion to
anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and
sacrifice".[5] In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, ceremony or devotion with
an actual or symbolic offering or effort.
A yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts
and community events. It has, states Nigal, a threefold meaning of worship of the deities
(devapujana), unity (sangatikarana) and charity (dána).
The Sanskrit word is related to the Avestan term yasna of Zoroastrianism. Unlike the Vedic yajna,
however, the Yasna is the name of a specific religious service, not a class of rituals, and they have
"to do with water rather than fire"The Sanskrit word is further related to Ancient

Greek ἅζομαι (házomai), "to revere", deriving from the Proto-Indo-European root *Hyeh₂ǵ- ("to
worship"). Way back in 1879, at the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, K.F.Holle drew
attention to the performance of Somayajna (Sanskrit: सोमयज्ञ, or Somayaga or Soma
sacrifice is a Hindu ritual. It is a type of yajna associated with the lunar cycle, and regarded to be
performed for the maintenance of the cosmic order. This ritual is based on methods described in
the Vedas. Soma is used as the main offering in this yajna, regarded to be able to propitiate deities.
It is prescribed to be performed only by the Brahmanas. A priest who performs this yajna is termed
as a Somayaji.
The seven types of Somayajna are

 Agniṣṭoma – The first and main type, the six others are considered variations of this
 Uktya
 Ṣoḍaśī
 Atyagniṣṭoma

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 Atirātra
 Āptoryāma
 Vājapeya
 And Soma Yagna a metallurgical process and offering to G

Aṣṭāśri yūpa 'eight-corner pillar' (8)_ as Viṣṇubhāga of Śivalinga of the Hindu civilization in
Binjor and in Laos

aṣṭāśri yūpa 'eight-corner pillar' is an integral part of Śivalinga. The same shape finds expression
in a fire-altar discovered in Binjor, on the banks of Sarasvati River, near Anupgarh.

I have posited that the octagonal shape of the linga is sourced from the Skambha,Yupa used in
Soma Samstha yajna described in the veda texts. This is the pillar of flame, fire and light which
infuses carbon element into molten metal to harden it. A celebration and veneration of an
extraordinary metallurgical process of ancient Hindus. This Yupas with inscriptions
proclaiming performance of such yajna. The yuipas are octagonal in shape.aṣṭāśri is vedic term.

19 pillars have been found all over India and in Borneo, inscribed by Mūlavarman. aṣṭāśri yūpa is
a ketu, a sign of proclamation, of performance of Soma Samstha Yajna. Archaeological attestation
that aṣṭāśri yūpa is a metaphor to signifty infusion of carbon element into molten metal in a fire-
altar to create aṣṭāśrī 'eight forms of a linga.

This new Kurukshetra of SE Asia remained a spiritual centre for Sanskrit of Kambuja Desa for
~1000 yrs till the decline of Hinduism. Kurukshetra Mahatmya can be read from an inscription
on same ~1500 yrs old stele of king Devanika. But it wasn't like creating a new tirtha --------out of
nowhere. There was a reason for Sanskritized of the region to perceive it as holy. In 456CE
Cham king Devanika issued an inscription recording consecration of the site near royal city
Shreshthapur as Kurukshetra. And it was the sanctity of mountain that was probably reflected in
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 king's decision to consecrate the area as New Kurukshetra, A holy mountain known as Linga
Parvata in ancient inscriptions of Laos, S E Asia. Note the natural linga (almost 10 meter high)
on top of mountain.!

Establishment of the city of Lingapuram

A new city called Linga puram was established nearby and a royal road directly linked this tirtha
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ragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Deel 125, 2de Afl. (1969), pp. 193-206/Also see: Nr̥
simha signifying a Skambha, Yupa with caṣāla 'wheat chaff' carbon infusion
https://www.academia.edu/…/Nr_simha_signifying_a_Skambha_Yu…&
https://tinyurl.com/y6jolc6p
to new capital city of Angkor vat. Over time Khmer emperors endowed it with impressive
temples, palaces tanks and roads. Today it is known as Vat Phou temple complex. Eventually it
became the part of Khmer Empire of Kambuja Desa (modern Combodia) but the area retained
same spiritual significance. All the structures were built in such a masterful manner so as to
align entire complex with the Swayambhu linga on the top of the mountain. A road flanked by
lotus columns leading to the main shrine of Shiva on the mountain. as if symbolizing
journey from earth to heaven! Main shrine of Shiva on Lingaparvata. ShivaLinga consecrated in
shrine was known as Bhadreshwara after the patron saint of Chams.

Some impressive carving on the walls of Vat phou complex

1)Indra on his Airavat
2)Kaliyadaman
3)Vishnu on Garuda
4)Shiva riding on Kala.
Bronze image of Shiva and Parvati from the Vat Phou temple complex area. Large no. of Shiva
Lingas were also found from the area. After the decline of Hinduism it vanished from the
memory of the people and eventually converted into Thervada Buddhist temple. However it
shows how fame of Kurukshetra as important Sanakrit tirtha reached as far as South East Asia as
early as 5th century/Gupta Age.And more than that it shows how well entrenched Sanskrit
civilization was in South East Asia during ancient times

Standing at four ft tall, holding the pride of place among exhibits, the massive stone pillar is an
awe-inspiring sight. On closer scrutiny, it is not a stone pillar but a Siva lingam and it is at the
Museum of Vietnamese History, Hochi Minh city, Vietnam, and is a local find.
This isn’t some Vietnamese version of the Siva lingam, rather the one that has been perfectly
sculpted as stipulated in the Agamas or the Iconographic canons.
The main stem of the Lingam that is seen here is paired with its pedestal called the Avudai to
make up the lingam that one can see in all our temples. Further, the main stem of the lingam is
made up of three distinct parts – the bottom most being square shaped denoting the Brahma
Bagam, the middle being octagonal – Vishnu Bagam and the top most cylindrical, the Rudra
Bagam. When matched with the Avudai, which is circular at the base and oval on top, with a
hole bored through it in the middle to hold the stem, the Brahma Bagam would be below the
Avudai, the Vishnu Bagam within it and the Rudra Bagam would be visible on top. The actual

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dimensions, proportions and further intricacies like inscribing the lines of the Brahma sutras are
subjects of serious study but it is worthy to note that in the Vietnamese lingam, there is a face
sculpted just above the Vishnu Bagam. Such are called Mukha Lingams though the Indian
variants have more pronounced features.
For those who are already feeling heady it is worthy to point out that one of the world’s oldest
Siva lingam is found in Gudimallam, situated about 21 kms from the Kalahasti temple. Dated
between 2nd C BCE and 1st C BCE, this imposing Lingam measures an exact five ft in
height and has one of most interesting sculptures carved on it.

The two armed figure, holds a ram by its hind legs with his right hand, holds a pitcher with his
left hand and has an Axe slung over his left shoulder. The facial features are unique but for such
an early date, the quality of the sculpture is splendid, especially the ornamentation, the necklace,
earrings and detailing of the head dress.
Siva is standing on a massive demon, who is shown as kneeling down and supporting the weight
with both his hands on his knees. His face is grotesque, ears are pointed like those of a bat and
his cheeks marked with deep lines but he seems to be grinning with both rows of teeth exposed.
His head dress and ornaments have been sculpted in style as well. It is important to notice that
this early Lingam does not have the three distinct bagams as advocated in the Agamas and thus
the cannons must have evolved and crystallised sometime during the interim period.-The Hindu,
S. Vijay Kumar / 2015 https://www.facebook.com/pawansayam.gond
Bhadreshwara

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In the early start of the 1st millennium, the region now forming Cambodia and Laos was ruled by
the Champa dynasty of kings. They were called the Cham rulers. In 400 AD, the Cham King
Devanika faced constant attacks from invaders coming from near the South China Sea.

One day, very fearful and dejected about losing, King Devanika wandered into the forests in deep
thought and worry. Tired, worn out and with depressing thoughts, Devanika took refuge in a
mountain cave. An old wise sage, who was meditating in that cave, saw the dejected Devanika
sitting down in a slump, and in his booming voice addressed the emperor – “Glory be to the divine
powers. O King! What brings you here. King Devanika immediately fell at his feet and poured out
his heart to the wise man “Oh wise sage, attackers are annexing my territory. My people are being
killed and their families are being broken. I am at fault, because I have been incapable of
protecting my people! It is a shame O great sage!”

The omniscient wise man just smiled and said “O almighty king, the time has come for you to
regain your glory in a new land. Did you know that Lord Shiva himself has descended from the
heavens and taken abode atop a mountain? The lingam stands resplendent in the rising sun. Go and
find the Lord, O King! Build a stately temple that is as majestic as Lord Shiva himself. Worship
that lingam, and all your former glory will be restored. You shall build a new empire, your progeny
shall flourish and dharma shall be established. Go! Do not waste precious time in lamenting thus!
With the grace of the Lord, anything can be achieved” King Devanika’s courage was restored by
the auspicious words of the sage. He bowed to him in deep respect and set out for his search.

King Devanika assembled his troubled people, and they all began their pilgrimage in search of
Lord Shiva. After several weeks of tiring journey, they arrived at the base of a tall mountain and
decided to camp for the night. At dawn, the golden rays of the sun began to escape the horizon and
lit up the sky in a beautiful tint of red. Devanika was awakened by the chirping birds, and he stood
up, rubbing his eyes and lo! On the top of that very same mountain stood the lingam glowing in the
golden rays of the rising sun. He was stunned by this breath-taking view. When everyone awoke,
they celebrated for having found the abode of Lord Shiva.

As foretold by the sage, Devanika had found the new land where he had to establish his dharmic
rule. Inspired by the principles set forth in the Mahabharata war, he named this land “New
Kurukshetra”. The mountain was named “Lingaparvata” (the mountain of the linga). Devanika
established his new empire with Shreshthapur as his capital. The people that lived in the region
along with the people who came with Devanika, became the forerunners of the prosperous Khmer
people.
A huge temple called Wat Phu was also built. Wat Phu exists even today. The original buildings
were replace around 11th century but it is in ruins. If the ruins themselves are so majestic and
astounding in their architecture, we can only perceive how magnificent the original temple would
have been.
Mahabharata had happened in 3102 BCE. King Devanika had found the lingaparvata in 456 CE.
4800 years after the great war. The Khmer kings that followed Devanika were also very
prosperous, until their decline in 14th century was caused by western aggression.

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 Glories of Kurukshetra ( Kurukshetra Mahtmya )

A stone inscription describes the glories of

Kurukshetra (Kurukshetra mahtmya) 1000 miles away from India in the following words.

TRANSLATION

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Kurukshetra and Linga Parvata in Laos

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PANDURANGA

Panduranga and Kauthara are two areas inhabited by the Cau tribe, one of the two main tribes that
later formed the Cham people . In Panduranga, coastal cities soon formed where the Cham people
were skilled in navigation. Urban areas still exist today in Vietnam with names converted to Sino-
Vietnamese such as: Panrang (Panduranga) into Phan Rang , Panrik into Phan Ri , Pajai into Pho
Hai , Hamu Lithit into Phan Thiet . Religious architectural works such as Cham towers were built
continuously over time, from the 8th to the 17th century. Po Nagar towers (in the 8th
century), Hoa Lai tower , Phu Hai tower , Po Dam tower (9th century), Po Klaung Garai
tower (13th century), Po Rome tower (17th century).

Panduranga was the last area of the Cham people before being completely annexed
into Vietnam in 1832. Therefore, currently, the largest number of Cham people concentrate and
live here in the country. The areas where Cham people live are villages in Phan Rang , Ninh
Phuoc , Ninh Hai , Ninh Thuan province and villages in Bac Binh and Tuy Phong , Binh Thuan
province. Currently, there are about 120,000 Cham people here and still retain ancient customs.

The first Panduranga was a small state that existed in the period 757 - 1832, corresponding to the
area Currently it is Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan . Panduranga is known as the Champa land with
the widest territory and the last to exist, when the Champa kingdom was destroyed by the
Vietnamese in 1471 and 1653.Early Champa history through historical documents and inscriptions
only shows information in the North in the Amaravati and Vijaya regions . Information about the
southern regions/states such as Panduraga and Kauthara comes later. There are research projects
that before being merged into Lam Ap, Panduranga was a vassal territory of the Funan kingdom .
The meaning of Panduranga is : A deity, One with pale white complexion, Lord Vishnu, With pale
white complexion, One of many names of Lord Vishnu.

After the collapse of the northern dynasties during the Linyi period, in 757 a new southern dynasty
took control of all of Champa, with the capital at Virapura , during the Panduranga state. Virapura
in particular and Panduranga in general were truly the center of power of the kingdom, and it was
not until 859 that their central role ended until the 15th century. However, over time, Panduranga
became a victim of oppression. prosperity, neighboring forces continuously invaded and
looted. During 21 years, from 854 to 875 , the army of the Angkor empire repeatedly attacked
Panduranga, occupied large areas of land along the left bank of the Dong Nai river, sometimes
even crossed the Langbian plateau, breaking into Panduranga territory. pillage. Vikrantavarman III
died in 854 (worshiped under the Buddhist name Vikrantasvara), without an heir, there were
internal disputes within the court. In 859 , a king with many victories, named Laksmindra
Bhumisvara Gramasvamin , was brought to the throne by his court, with the title Jaya Indravarman
II . The national name Campapura (country of the Cham people - in ancient Sanskrit) was
officially used by Indravarman II. Chinese history books transliterate it
23

as Changcheng or Champa or Champa, in the Western language it is Champa.

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Since 1471, after the capital Vijaya fell to Dai Viet, Champa lost the northern territories from Cu
Mong pass outward. The Cham people focused on returning to the southern region with the new
23
 kingdom of Panduranga. From then on, the Panduranga area became the administrative center of
the Cham people until 1832 when the Nguyen Dynasty completely abolished the autonomous
status.

 The state of Panduranga was established in 757 as a consequence of the dissolution of the
Linyi state . Panduranga's territory may be limited to the area of Ninh Thuan province today. It
was independent until 859, when it united with four other states to form the Champa nation ,
but its autonomy remained intact. This country established its capital at Virapura (Hung Trang
citadel), then Palai Bachong village, Hoa Trinh commune, An Phuoc district, Ninh
Thuan province , now Phuoc Nam commune , Thuan Nam district , on Highway 1 , far
from Ho Chi Minh City. Minh is about 310 km . The small state of Panduranga is considered
the predecessor of the Panduranga kingdom, established in 1471, with some changes in
territory and population.
 According to Dai Viet Complete History , after Le Thanh Tong annexed the northern lands of
Champa into Quang Nam province. That is the land from the south of Thu Bon River to the
north of Cu Mong Pass (ie Thua Tuyen Quang Nam region during the Le dynasty, Quang Nam
region during Nguyen Hoang's reign to defend Thuan - Quang). [2] A Champa general, Bo Tri
Tri, retired to Phan Rang to take the throne and govern the remaining territory from Ca
Pass to Binh Thuan as a vassal of Dai Viet. This land is divided into three regions: Dai Chiem,
Nam Ban and Hoa Anh [2] . In particular, Dai Chiem was the territory of Champa including the
small states of Kauthara, Panduranga and later also the small state of Aiaru in the north of
Kauthara, which was the territory of the former United Kingdom.
 In 1579, Nguyen Hoang sent general Luong Van Chinh to attack Hoa Anh (present-day Phu
Yen). In 1611, Nguyen Hoang defended Dang Trong and continued to attack Panduraga-Cham
Pa and annexed Phu Yen region into Dang Trong territory. In 1653, Nguyen Phuc Tan attacked
and annexed the Khanh Hoa region into Dang Trong territory.
 In 1594, a Cham king sent a fleet to Malaysia to help the Johor kingdom fight
against Portugal . In 1693, General Nguyen Huu Canh continued to attack and annex the
remaining territories of Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan. However, due to the resistance of the
Cham people, the Nguyen lords also wanted to focus resources on attacking Cambodia , so
they withdrew and gave the Cham government autonomy.
 From 1828-1832, the Champa government was an ally of Gia Dinh governor Le Van Duyet in
the dispute with Minh Mang. In 1832, Minh Mang ended the autonomy of the Cham people
after establishing Binh Thuan province on this last land.
24
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Hoan Vuong period (757 - 859) Prithi Indravarman :757 - 774

24
 Hoan Kingdom was born after a change of power in Lam Ap , the kingdom that existed in this
region before.

In 757 , a small king in the south of Lam Ap rose up and deposed Bhadravarman II - the young
king of Lam Ap who had just ascended the throne - and then proclaimed himself king, with the
name Prithi Indravarman , ending the northern Gangaraja line.

According to the read inscription, Prithi Indravarman was the one who unified the Champa
territory in the most legitimate way, because he was recognized by the court as "the ruler of the
entire country like Indra, the god of gods". Although the country has been unified, this territory
still does not have a name. When going to China to pay tribute, it is unknown how Prithi
Indravarman's envoy explained that ancient Chinese records named the new territory of the Cham
people during this period as Hoan Kingdom (i.e. kingship returning to the old homeland). ). Prithi
Indravarman's first action was to move the capital Sinhapura (the lion city, Tra Kieu, Quang
Nam today) to Virapura .

Under Prithi Indravarman, Indian civilization and culture from the south overwhelmed all activities
of the Cham people in the north; Sanskrit was widely spread among royalty and places of
worship; Brahmanism is followed by many people; Theravada Buddhism thrives among
the people ; Temples, mansions and pagodas were built everywhere, most often in Khu Lap
( Hue ), Amavarati ( My Son ), Sinhapura (Tra Kieu)... to give thanks to the gods. However, the
principle of autonomy of the northern emirates is still respected, because there is no image or
image of the goddess Bhagavati - the protective deity Panduranga chosen by Prithi Indravarman to
be the "Mother of the Land" for people to worship. phoenix – in archaeological sites in the
northern territory.

The wooden tower that formerly worshiped Queen Jagadharma ( 646 - 653 ) was rebuilt by Prithi
Indravarman with hard materials at Aia Trang ( Nha Trang ), on a high hill next to the Cai River
estuary (Xom Bong), to worship Statue of goddess Bhagavati (golden). This tower later became
known as Po Nagar , or Thap Ba .

Prithi Indravarman was a talented king, the country was peaceful and very prosperous. The wealth
of the Hoan Kingdom attracted neighboring kingdoms, especially Srivijaya (Palembang), Malayu
( Malaysia ), Javadvipa (Java), Nagara Phatom ( Thailand ), Sriksetra ( Burma ) and Angkor
( Chenla ). ); They came to exchange or wait for an opportunity to loot.

In 774 , Austronesian troops ( Javanese and Malays ) landed from offshore at Kauthara and
Panduranga, occupying Virapura. King Prithi Indravarman fought back fiercely but died in the
rebel army (later worshiped by the people under the Buddhist name Rudraloka). An inscription
read at the Po Nagar tower states "unlucky and weak people came from far away places, ate food
more terrible than corpses, and were cruel. These people came to rob the linga statue of the god
Sri. Sambhu, burned down the [Po Nagar] temple". After this attack, the Austronesian army stole
many treasures, including a golden statue of goddess Bhagavati.
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 Satyavarman :774 - 786

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As soon as Prithi Indravarman died in battle, a nephew who called him uncle named Cri
Satyavarman was honored by the royal family to replace him. But as soon as he ascended the
25
 throne, Satyavarman and the royal family fled to the north ( Binh Dinh ) to take refuge. Here, the
king was helped by the Cham community and local Montagnards ( Ba Na , Hre ) to form a
powerful army to go down to Kauthara to attack the Austronesian army. Faced with Satyavarman's
power, the Austronesian army boarded a boat and fled to sea. The new king led the royal family
back to Virapura. Here, the king built a new palace in Krong Laa citadel and unexpectedly
invented a new custom that later kings imitated, which is the custom of planting the Kraik tree, the
royal symbol, in front of the palace. electricity. Po Nagar Temple, destroyed by the Austronesian
army, was rebuilt by Satyavarman with bricks, completed in 784 and exists to this day. In 786 ,
Satyavarman died (worshiped by the people under the Dharma name Isvaraloka), his youngest
brother was put on the throne by the royal family, named Indravarman I (also known as Nhan Da
La Bat Ma) ( 786 - 801 ).

 Indravarman I : 786 - 801

Hearing the news of Satyavarman's death, in 787 , Javanese troops from the sea again invaded
Virapura, looted, killed many soldiers and people, and destroyed the Hoa Lai tower worshiping the
god Bhadradhipatisvara in the west of Virapura citadel (near Phan Rang today). The Austronesian
army divided into two groups, one group captured many women and treasures to transport back to
the country, another group occupied Panduranga. By 799 , Indravarman I was able to chase the
Austronesian army out to sea to rebuild the country. In Virapura, the king rebuilt Hoa Lai tower
with three new towers, called Kalan Three Towers, worshiping the gods Indrabhadresvara, Sankara
and Narayana. Indravarman I quelled the armies that arose from everywhere, such as in Candra
(North), Indra (Northeast), Agni (East), Yama (Southeast), and most importantly, the Yakshas
rebellion (South). Yakshas were Montagnard tribes residing in the territory of the Angkor empire ,
not the Khmer army.

 Harivarman I : 801 - 817

In the early 9th century , Indravarman I died, and his brother-in-law, Prince Deva Rajadhiraja, took
over, with the title Harivarman I (Kha Le Bat Ma). During the first two years, the new king put all
his efforts into rebuilding the country and restoring military power . To receive more support from
the masses, the king ordered his prime minister Senapati Pangro to restore the Po Nagar tower in
817 and build two new towers next to the main tower, one in the south and one in the northwest for
people to reach. Admire the statue of goddess Bhagavati, carved in marble .

After great efforts, the Hoan Kingdom prospered again, Harivarman I decided to attack the
countries that had plundered the country before. In January 803 , the Cham army attacked Chau
Hoan (Ty Canh, now Nghe An ) and Ai (Hai Am, now Thanh Hoa ), bringing back many
items. With the amount of rice brought from the north, the Hoan Kingdom navy sailed to punish
the kingdoms of Kelantan in Java and Patani in Malaysia. When he returned, the king sent people
to the mountains to recruit more soldiers. With this army, twice (in 803 and 817 ), Harivarman I
entered the upper Dong Nai plateau, defeated the Khmer army and controlled a large area of land.

To have more food sources, in 808 , Harivarman I led his army to conquer Hoan and Ai continents
26

again, but was defeated by the governor Truong Chau : 59 members of the royal family were
captured alive, many elephants, warships and troops. Military equipment was confiscated, more
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than 30,000 people died in battle. The following year, in 809 , Harivarman I recaptured Hoan and
Ai easily and brought back many artifacts.
26
  Vikrantavarman III : 817 -
Harivarman I's son, the emir of Panduranga, succeeded him in 817 , with the title Vikrantavarman
III (Thich Loi Ti Kien Da Bat Ma). Because the new king was still young, the court appointed
Prime Minister Senapati Par, the little king of Manidhi, as his father-in-law. This prime minister
organized many attacks on the territory of Kambujas ( present-day Cambodia ), ruled by King
Jayavarman II, destroying many Khmer strongholds on the upper Dong Nai plateau. To thank the
Mother of the Land, in the Po Nagar campus, Senapati Par built two new towers to the west and
southwest, and later built three more towers: one in the central area worshiping Sri Shambu, one in
the west. The north worships Shandhaka and the south worships Ganesha. Despite this,
the political and religious center was still maintained at Virapura, the capital of Panduranga.

Under Vikrantavarman III, the Hoan Kingdom was a prosperous country with a powerful army. An
inscription, found at the Po Nagar tower, describes Vikrantavarman III as follows:

"[He] wears golden strings studded with pearls and sapphires, like the full moon, covering
a white parasol that covers all four corners of the sky because the parasol is deeper than
the ocean, [His] body is adorned with crowns, belts, bracelets, earrings, rubies... of gold,
from which radiated light like [sparkling] vines" .
Ancient Chinese scriptures (Old Tang Books) further describe: "[The king] wore a white-leaf
collared shirt... on top he wore pearls and gold necklaces made into a chain..." . Aristocrats
and royal women also wore precious jewelry: "Ladies wear ancient fabrics of millions of
millions... they are decorated with gold chains and pearls" or "... the army is equipped with
many types of equipment." different weapons..."

Period 859 - 1471 During this period Panduranga was ruled by Champa kings from Simhapura
(Tra Kieu) and Vijaya (Do Ban). Panduranga was invaded many times by the Khmer empire.
Po Klong Garai
As a Champa king of Panduranga origin, he ruled for about 50 years. Po Klong Garai had the
merit of leading the Cham people to resist foreign invaders, stabilize the country and develop
agriculture, and was revered by the Cham people as a king. god of irrigation.
27
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27
 Po Klong Garai Tower - the
religious center of Panduranga
Period 1471 - 1692
After being conquered by Dai Viet in 1471, the Cham royal family from Nam Ban (from
Quang Nam to Do Ban) led by Bo Tri Tri, grandson of Tra Toan, fled to Southern Champa to
take refuge and dispute power with the royal lines. local religion in southern Phan Rang
(Virapura). Local people were urged not to recognize the Bo Tri Tri (Jayavarman Mafoungnan)
family because they were only the executive level of the previous kings.

The Bo Tri Tri family did not reign long. In 1478, Bo Tri Tri lost his younger brother, Koulai,
and replaced him, but was assassinated in 1505. Koulai's son succeeded him and ruled until
1530, when he died. From that day on, the descendants of the Nam Ban royal family were
honored by the royal court and the people as kings. Tra Toai's son, the younger brother of Tra
Toan, the last king of Vijaya, was Prince Po Krut Drak who was promoted to succeed Chakou
Poulo to rule Panduranga.

 Jayavarman Mafoungnan (1471-1494)

 Po Kabih (1494-1530)
 Po Krut Drak (1530-1536)
 Po Maha Sarak (1536-1541)
 Po Kunarai (1541-1553)
 Po At (1553-1579)
 Po Klong Halau (1579-1603)
 Po Nit (1603-1613)
 Po Chai Paran (1613-1618), younger brother of King Po Nit - after losing the Phu
Yen region , moved the capital Bal Chon. Phan Rang to the south in Phan Ri (Panrik), the
new capital was named Bal Canar . Bal Canar was also the last capital of Champa, ending
its role in 1832
28

 Po Ehklan (1618-1622)
 Po Po Klong Menai (Mahataha) (1622-1627), usurped the throne from Po Ehklan
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 Po Rome (1627-1651), son-in-law of Po Mahataha, was later captured by the Nguyen

Dynasty and died in Phu Xuan after the battle in 1651.
28
  Po Nraup (1651-1653) – Mrs. Tam
 Po Thot (1653-1659), at this time Champa lost the Khanh Hoa region , leaving only Ninh
Thuan and Binh Thuan
 Po Sout (1659-1692) - Mrs. Tranh, was captured and brought to Phu Xuan after the battle
with the Nguyen Dynasty in 1692 and died in 1694
Thuan Thanh town (1693 - 1832)
Under pressure from the Vietnamese to advance south , in 1693 General Nguyen Huu
Canh attacked and annexed the last land of the Champa government into the territory of Dang
Trong , however from 1693 to 1697 the Cham people resisted. At the same time, the Dang Trong
government also wanted to devote resources to conquering Chan Lap , so in 1697 it returned power
to the Cham kings, but changed the name in the document to Tran Thuan Thanh, or Thuan Thanh
town. Tran Thuan Thanh is an autonomous territory and at the same time a vassal of the Dang
Trong government. The capital was located in Bal Canar , now in Binh Thuan province.

During the Tay Son war, Thuan Thanh town was the battlefield where the dispute occurred
between the Tay Son and Nguyen Anh dynasties . Since 1794, Panduranga land was considered an
outpost of the Nguyen lords to prevent the advance of the Tay Son army into Gia Dinh land - the
capital of the Nguyen army at that time.

However, from 1828 to 1832, the Champa government here was under the protection of the
governor of Gia Dinh , Le Van Duyet . After Le Van Duyet died, King Minh Mang abolished the
autonomy of the Cham people and established Binh Thuan province. The last government of
Thuan Thanh town in particular, and Champa in general, ended there. The Kingdom of Champa
ceased to exist after 1832.
29
Page

Po Nagar Tower is the religious center of KautharaPo Nagar is a Cham temple tower founded
before 781 C.E. and located in the medieval principality of Kauthara, near modern Nha Trang

29
 in.#Vietnam. It is dedicated to Yan Po Nagar, the goddess of the country, identified Hindu
goddesses Maa Bhagavati and Mahishasuramardini, and who in Vietnamese is called Thiên Y
Thánh Mâu.
Kauthara was one of four states under the Champa federation that existed as soon as this kingdom
was formed. It is a Champa area distributed in a space from Phu Yen (Ea Riu) stretching to the end
Let's go to Cam Ranh Bay . This place's terrain is mainly a small and narrow coastal plain with a
connection between the mountains and the sea. The regular deposition of alluvium along the river
basins flowing to the estuary has created the central Kauthara area. Completely socio-economic
development is the convergence of trade junctions along with bustling cultural and social activities,
second only to the capital Vijaya .

Period 757 - 1471

In the 8th century, the political center of Champa temporarily shifted from My Son to the
Panduranga and Kauthara areas, centered around the temple complex of Thap Ba (Po Nagar tower)
near present-day Nha Trang. A place to worship the earth goddess Yan Po Nagar. In 774,
the Javanese destroyed Kauthara, burned the Po Nagar temple, and carried away
the Shiva statue.The Cham king Satyavarman chased the enemy and defeated them in a naval
battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, claiming victory and control over the entire
area and rebuilt the temple. In 787, the Javanese again burned down the Shiva temple
near Panduranga .

In 944 and 945, Khmer troops from Angkor invaded the Kauthara area. Around 950, the Khmer
destroyed Po Nagar temple and took away the goddess statue. In 960, the Cham king Jaya
Indravaman I sent an envoy to the Song dynasty (at this time the capital was in Kaifeng ). In 965,
the king rebuilt the Po Nagar temple and the goddess statue to replace the one that was taken away.

Period 1471 - 1611

Unlike the fate of the other four regions, Kauthara was relatively unaffected by wars thanks to its
distance from both Dai Viet and the Khmer Empire . Only in 1471, the Dai Viet army invaded
Champa and destroyed the capital Vijaya, King Le Thanh Tong decided to cut off the coastal land
from Cu Mong pass to Ca pass and return it to the Champa people , crowning the lord of this
land. Both Kauthara, Panduranga , and Jarai became subordinates of the first Le dynasty .

In 1578, Luong Van Chanh, a general of Lord Nguyen Hoang , led his army into Kauthara,
besieged and defeated An Nghiep citadel - the most fortified and massive citadel in Champa
history, located in Phu Hoa district , west of Tuy Hoa city today. now - push them back to the old
boundary south of Ca Pass . The battle was only aimed at restoring the old order, but Luong Van
Chanh also took a step forward in sending displaced people to exploit this land, scattered from the
south of Cu Mong pass to the Da Dien river delta . During about 10 years at the end of the 16th
century and the beginning of the 17th century, Panduranga from the south encroached on Kauthara
land, killing and expelling Vietnamese people residing in this land.
30

Period 1611 - 1653

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In 1611, Lord Nguyen Hoang sent a Cham general, known in Vietnamese history as Van Phong, to
capture two districts of Dong Xuan and Tuy Hoa to establish Phu Yen palace , later changed to

30
 Tran Bien palace. In 1653, taking advantage of Champa king Po Nraop (Ba Tam)'s harassment of
the southern border, Lord Nguyen Phuc Tan sent an army to attack Champa, advance to Phan Rang
river, and capture King Po Nraop. about Hue . On the old land of the Kauthara emirate, Lord
Nguyen Phuc Tan established two palaces: Thai Khang (now Ninh Hoa and Van Ninh ) and Dien
Ninh (now Dien Khanh , Nha Trang , Cam Lam and Cam Ranh ). So in 1653 Kauthara was
completely annexed into Dai Viet territory . Kauthara fell, Po Nagar temple in Nha Trang fell
under the control of the Nguyen Dynasty. That's why the Champa king decided to bring the statue
of Po Ina Nagar to Phan Rang to be worshiped in a temple in Mong Duc near Huu Duc village
(Phan Rang) now

Version of Vo Canh Beer in Khanh Hoa

Most of Kauthara's territory belonged to Lord Nguyen since 1653. Lord Nguyen brought
immigrants from Quang Nam , Thuan Hoa to Khanh Hoa, and Vietnamese immigrants lived
intermingled with Cham people in clusters. Viet Cham conflicts often occur in this land, mostly
due to land disputes, the losers often belong to the Cham people. In 1712, Lord Nguyen Phuc Chu
had to agree on five terms to protect the rights and treat the Cham people fairly. In the 18th
century, many European missionaries reported seeing many Cham villages near Nha
Trang. However, today there are no more Cham villages to be seen. [1] Although the Cham people
almost no longer live in Khanh Hoa province, this province still retains many important vestiges of
the small kingdom of Kauthara such as Po Nagar Tower , Thanh Hoi, Ong Thac temple, Chua
Temple. Currently, in Van Phong Bay, there is a small island named Hon Diep (or Hon Bip), over
10 km from the shore, on which there is an ethnic group living isolated in a few dozen houses, not
communicating with the outside world. , the Vietnamese people in Van Ninh call them "Dang Ha
people" or "Ha people". The islanders have dark skin, pale ears, white eyes, and are quiet; They
don't carry burdens like Vietnamese people, but carry them on their heads. In the early 1930s, Van
Ninh district officials called all the islanders to register for the Bo Dinh book, but when asked for
their names, they only had first names and no last names. Finally, the district official said: "Well,
31

the men take the Dinh family name, and the women take the Tran family name." Judging by
customs, habits and human appearance, perhaps these are the last Cham people still existing in
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Khanh Hoa to this day.

31
 III
INTRODUCTION TO ANCIENT CITIES
The Mystery 5 Capital Cities of Champa Kingdom!

The Cham came to power in the 2nd century, AD, which eventually grew and became the site of
five capital cities:

- Simhapura (4th-8th centuries)

- Indrapura (9th-10th centuries)
- Vijaya (10th-15th centuries)
- Kauthara (8th-17th centuries)
- Panduranga (8th-19th centuries)

Settled along the coastal areas of central Vietnam. The economy was based on maritime trade with
ports at Hoi An and Qui Nhon and also piracy. Sometime in the 4th century, contact with Indian
traders brought the influence of Hindu religion, art, and social customs to Cham society. During
the 9th century, the Cham embraced Buddhism, and later Islam during the 17th century. Today
there are more than 77,000 Cham descendants living in southern Vietnam and in neighboring
Cambodia.

The Cham are believed to be of Austronesian origin; they are ethnically and culturally distinct
from the Viet to the north and the Khmer to the west. Early mention of the Cham are contained in
Chinese records dating to 192 AD. Efforts to expand their kingdom resulted in battles with the Han
Chinese for control of provinces near the Red River Delta to the north in the 4th century. The
Chinese regained control of the area and attacked the Champa capital of Simhapura in 446 AD.
Ongoing rebellion over the centuries by the Viet resulted in Vietnam’s independence in the 10th
century. However, the Cham battled the Viet for control of their northern border.

Likewise the Cham was faced with regular incursions by the powerful Khmer kingdom in the
south. Ultimately, the Cham retaliated by capturing the Khmer capital at Angkor in 1177 AD. The
reaction of the Khmers under Jayavarman VII was fierce and decisive. By 1190 Champa was split
32

into two kingdoms, one became a Khmer vassal state and the other was linked to Angkor by
dynastic right. By 1220 AD the Champa region was annexed by the Khmer, and the art reflects the
Page

noteworthy influence of that occupation. Politically, the Viet posed the greater threat to the Cham
kingdom and it slowly moved south claiming territory. In 1471 the Viet overcame the Cham at
32
 their capital of Vijaya ending their independence. With little cultural ties to their Hindu heritage
and with the introduction of Islam to what remained of their kingdom, Cham culture diminished.
By 1820 the last Cham king and many
of his subjects fled to neighboring Cambodia or Malaysia.

What remains of 1,200 years of the Kingdom of Champa are the beautiful sculptures which
combine aspects native beliefs and Hindu and Buddhist imagery. Established in 1915 by the
French, the Cham Museum in Danang displays fine examples of Hindu deities including Brahma,
Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati, Saraswati, and Ganesh. Demons, devas, and demigods show stylistic
influences of Hindu culture but also reflect unique Cham artistic elements. Of great interest are the
unique pedestals on display. These symbols of fertility called uroja (meaning “women’s breasts)
likely reveal the esteem afforded women in Cham culture.

A closed city or town is a settlement where travel or residency restrictions are applied so that
specific authorization is required to visit or remain overnight. Such places may be sensitive
military establishments or secret research installations that require much more space or internal
freedom than is available in a conventional military base. There may also be a wider variety of
permanent residents, including close family members of workers or trusted traders who are not
directly connected with clandestine purposes. Closed cities are sometimes only represented
on classified maps that are not available to the general public In some cases there may be no road
signs or directions to closed cities, and they are usually omitted from railroad timetables and bus
routes.

What are secret towns?

Some cities are so top-secret they can't even be found on a map. Others are padlocked, hidden in
the forest, or buried deep underground. In this article I shall expose some information of what I call
33

seldom known cities of the Hindu Kingdom of Champa.

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33
 Champa also
known as Champapura was a religiously tolerant Hindu kingdom, with many different faiths
coexisted peacefully or have merged with indigenous Cham beliefs. Religiously and culturally,
the Chams were grouped into two major religio-cultural groups; the Balamon Chams (also called
Cham Ahiér) that adhere to an indigenized form of Islam and Hinduism. Another northern group
inhabiting around Bình Định and Phú Yên provinces is the Cham Hroi (Haroi), who practice
Chamic animism. Under the previous Republic of Vietnam, they were considered a distinct ethnic
group. Since 1979, they have been reclassified by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam government as
a subgroup of the Cham. Champa is the name of a flower favourite to God Vishnu it is said-hence
the name Champapura or city of the Champa flower which means city where Vishnu Lives.

Champa was a formidible Hindu kingdom, renowned for its immense wealth and sophisticated
culture. Its major port was Kattigara. Nearly 2,000 years ago, Claudius Ptolemy wrote
of Cattigara and outlined it on his map of the world. Modern scholarship has
34

confirmed Cattigara as the forerunner of Saigon (modern day Ho Chi Minh City).Cattigara was,
in fact, the main port at the mouth of the Mekong River, a name derived from Mae Nam Khong, the
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Mother Water Ganga.

34
 Another early Champa king was Bhadravarman, who ruled from 349-361CE. His capital was
the citadel of Simhapura or ‘Lion City,’ now called Tra Kieu. Badravarman built a number of
temples, conquered his rivals, ruled well and in his final years abdicated his throne and spent his
last days in India on the banks of the Ganges River.

Historic Champa was divided into five regions. Indrapura (present-day Dong Duong) served as the
religious center of the kingdom; Amaravati is the present day Quong Nam province; Vijya is now
Cha Ban; Kauthara is the modern Nha Trang; and Panduranga is known today simply as Phan.
Panduranga was the last Cham territory to be conquered by the Sino-Vietnamese.These secret
cities of which we know little yet they are so intreiguing as they bear Sanskrit (also HINDI) names

 Indrapura ("City of Indra", was the capital of Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It
was located at the site of the modern village of Đồng Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang.
Also found in the region of Da Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the
Lion"), the location of which has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern
village of Trà Kiệu, and the valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a number of ruined temples and towers
can still be seen. The associated port was at modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by
this principality included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.

 Amaravati ( Immortal City) was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi
Province. The earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar.

 Vijaya (Victorious city or city of the Victorious King)was located in present-day Bình Định
Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po
Nagar. The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The associated
port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important excavations have also been conducted at nearby
Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious and cultural centre. Vijaya became the political
and cultural center of Champa around 1150s. It remained the center of Champa until 1471,
when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa was again displaced toward the
south.[138] In its time, the principality of Vijaya controlled much of present-day Quang Nam,
Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru) Provinces.

 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural center was the temple of Po Nagar, several
towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784 AD inscription
at Po Nagar.

 Panduranga (name OF God Vishnu) was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–Tháp
Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with capital Parik,
was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was the most
autonomous, sometimes independent, princedom/principality of Champa. Panduranga is first
mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.
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 Simhapura ( city of Lions) was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa
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Kingdom.d Simhapura, from the 4th century to the 8th century CE. There has been much
debate regarding Simhapura now called Trà Kiệu, as it is believed by some to be the capital
35
 city of Champa Kingdom and by others to be the capital city of the Kingdom of Lâm
Ấp (Linyi).

 Virpura Capital of Kautnara- meaning city of Brave ( people )

 Kompong Cham has Banteay Prei Nokor, Former name of Ho Chi Minh City/Saigon or
'The Waiting Port' is the capital city of Kampong Cham Province in southeastern Cambodia. It
is the 12th largest city in Cambodia with a population of 61,750 people (2021) and is located
on the Mekong River. Kampong Cham is 124 kilometers northeast from national
capital Phnom Penh.

Within the four principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in Vietnamese)
and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in Amravati and Vijaya,
while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans differed in their customs and
habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even war. But they usually managed to
settle disagreements through intermarriage.
Hinduism and Buddhism

Po Nagar/’ Ninh Thuận

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Apsara with Saraswati (right)/Dancing Sivas, both from c. 10th century AD

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36
 Hindus of Champa

HISTORY-OF-VIETNAM---Vietnam has a rich history dating back around 20,000 years,

beginning with its earliest known inhabitants, the Hoabinhians. Over millennia, the region's
strategic geographical features facilitated the development of several ancient cultures, including the
Đông Sơn in the north and the Sa Huynh in central Vietnam. While often under Chinese rule,
Vietnam saw intermittent periods of independence led by local figures like the Trưng Sisters and
Ngô Quyền. With the introduction of Buddhism and Hinduism, Vietnam became a unique cultural
crossroads influenced by both Chinese and Indian civilizations.The country faced various invasions
and occupations, including those by Imperial China and later the French Empire, which left long-
lasting impacts. The latter's rule led to widespread resentment, setting the stage for political
upheaval and the rise of communism after World War II. Vietnam's history is marked by its
resilience and complex interplay between indigenous cultures and external influences of China,
India, France and the United States.

The Cham Hindus of Vietnam are an almost forgotten people, remnants of the Cham dynasty
which endured in the region now known as central Vietnam from the 7th century well into the
19th. Yet they are 60,000 strong, and they have kept their traditions alive for centuries, far from
India’s shores. Builders of cities named Indrapura, Simhapura, Amaravati, Vijaya and Panduranga,
these Hindu people and their culture continue to flourish to this day. When we speak of the
Champa people, it is not a trek through history; we are speaking of a living culture with roots going
back thousands of years.While today the Cham are Vietnam’s only surviving Hindus, the nation
once harbored some of the world’s most exquisite and vibrant Hindu cultures. The entire region of
Southeast Asia, in fact, was home to numerous Hindu kingdoms. The many magnificient temples
and artifacts, from Angkor Wat to Prambana, remain as potent testimonials to their splendor and
accomplishments. These grand edifices still stand, though the societies around them no longer
worship there or practice the lost traditions.

Few know that Christopher Columbus, on his fourth and last voyage, had attempted to reach the
Champa Kingdom and actually believed he had reached Vietnam. In ancient days well-worn trade
routes had linked Europe with India and the entire region of South and Southeast Asia, and for
countless centuries the wealth and wisdom of India had flowed to the markets and institutions of
the world. By the 1400s, however, political instability had disrupted direct trade links with India
and the West. Columbus was convinced that by sailing west from Spain he could circle the globe—
a concept ridiculed by most Europeans, who still believed the Earth was flat—and thus find a new
trade route and reestablish the long-lost link to the wealth of the East. His planned route would take
him south along the Vietnamese coast, past the Cape of Kattigara and on to Malacca; he believed
this to be the route Marco Polo had followed from China to India in 1292. Reaching Cariay on the
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coast of Costa Rica, he thought he had found Vietnam and was very close to one of his coveted
destinations, the famous gold mines of the Champa Kingdom. Fortunately for Vietnam, he was
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mistaken.

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 Another Vietnamese Hindu kingdom was Funan, which flourished between the 1st and 6th
centuries ce. Its capital was the Oc Eo Citadel. While exploring sea passages to India in the year
250 ce, two Chinese envoys, Kang Dai and Zhu Ying, described Funan as “having its own taxation
system, ruled by a king in a walled palace.” Professor Louis Malleret has unearthed much evidence
of significant seaborne trade between Oc Eo, Persia and Rome.

Vast Temple Complexes

In ancient times the Champa built vast temple complexes that remain standing to this day.
Primarily dedicated to Lord Siva, these structures honor Lord Siva as the founder and protector of
the Champa Dynasty. The most important of these is known as My Son, a Hindu religious and
literary center. Originally, this temple complex featured 70 structures, of which 25 survive. Sadly,
the main tower was severely damaged by American bombers in 1969 during the Vietnam War.
The Sivalinga was the primary form worshiped at My Son, its aniconic form also representing the
divine authority of the Siva-empowered king. Today the Cham people continue to worship this
form of Lord Siva.

Champa art, Hindu temples and statues have been found in many parts of Vietnam.The term
"Balamon" derived from "Brahman" or "Brahmin", one of Hindu caste of religious elite. Balamon
Chams adhere to the old religion of their ancestor, an indigenized form of Hinduism that thrived
since the ancient era of Kingdom of Champa in 5th century AD. While today the Bacam (Bacham)
are the only surviving Hindus in Vietnam, the region once hosted some of the most exquisite and
vibrant Hindu cultures in the world. The entire region of Southeast Asia, in fact, was home to
numerous sophisticated Hindu kingdoms. From Angkor in neighbouring Cambodia,
to Java and Bali in Indonesia. The Cham Sunni in the Mekong Delta often refer the Balamon
as Kafir (Derived from Arabic Kāfir for infidels)
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9th-century Dong Duong (Indrapura) lintel describing the early life of Prince Siddhārtha
Gautama (who is sitting on a mule)./10th-century Cham Saivite relief of Śiva
38
 Before the conquest of Champa by the Đại Việt ruler Le Thánh Tông in 1471, the dominant
religion of the Cham upper class (Thar patao bamao maâh) was Hinduism, and the culture was
heavily influenced by that of India. The commoners generally accepted Hindu influence, but they
embedded it with much as possible indigenous Cham beliefs to become parts of the Ahier religion
today. The Hinduism of Champa was overwhelmingly Shaiva and it was liberally combined with
elements of local religious cults such as the worship of the Earth goddess Lady Po Nagar. The
main symbols of Cham Shaivism were the lingam, the mukhalinga, the jaṭāliṅgam, the
segmented liṅgam, and the kośa.
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 Page 40

40
  A liṅga (or liṅgam) is black stone pillar that serves as a representation of Shiva. Cham kings
frequently erected and dedicated stone lingas as the central religious images in royal temples.
The name a Cham king would give to such a linga would be a composite of the king's own
name and suffix "-iśvara", which stands for Shiva.
 A mukhaliṅga is a linga upon which has been painted or carved an image of Shiva as a human
being or a human face.
 A jaṭāliṅga is a linga upon which has been engraved a stylised representation of Shiva's
chignon hairstyle.
 A segmented liṅga is a linga post divided into three sections to represent the three aspects of
the Hindu godhead or trimurti: the lowest section, square in shape, represents Brahma; the
middle section, octagonal in shape, represents Vishnu, and the top section, circular in shape,
represents Shiva.
 A kośa is a cylindrical basket of precious metal used to cover a linga. The donation of a kośa
to the decoration of a liṅga was a distinguishing characteristic of Cham Shaivism. Cham kings
gave names to special kośas in much the way that they gave names to the liṅgas themselves.

The predominance of Hinduism in Cham religion was interrupted for a time in the 9th and 10th
centuries AD, when a dynasty at Indrapura (modern Đồng Dương, Quảng Nam Province, Vietnam)
adopted Mahayana Buddhism as its faith. King Indravarman II (r. 854–893) built a giant Buddhist
monastery, meditation halls, and temples for Champa's monks (Sangha), and celebrated the
veneration of the Buddhist deity Lokeśvara under the name Laksmindra Lokeśvara Svabhayada in
875. Mahayana in Champa was blended with observable elements of Tantric Buddhism,
manifesting in many traces. For example, Indravarman's successor Jaya Simhavarman I (r. 897–
904) according to his verbatim in 902, Vajrapāṇi is the Bodhisattva capable of leading humans into
the "path of the Vajra." The Buddhist art of Đồng Dương has received special acclaim for its
originality.

Buddhist art of Champa also shared the same unique aesthetics, paralleling with Dvāravatī (Mon)
art, highlighting in the similarities of both cultures in their iconographic form of the Buddha-Stūpa-
Triad, where the Buddha seats in padmāsana (lotus) flanked by on either side by a depiction of a
stūpa. Other shared features are makara lintel, fishtail-shaped sampot illustrating, Gaja-Lakṣmī,
pendant-legged Buddhas. The sources of Mon–Cham cultural interaction may be the inland routes
between the Muang Fa Daed site on Khorat region, near a lost kingdom called Wèndān by the
Chinese (probably the site of Kantarawichai in Kantharawichai, Maha Sarakham) Southern Laos,
via Savannakhet, then to Central Vietnam coast through Lao Bảo and Mụ Giạ Passes.

Beginning in the 10th century AD, Hinduism again became the predominant religion of Champa.
Some of the sites that have yielded important works of religious art and architecture from this
period are, aside from Mỹ Sơn, Khương Mỹ, Trà Kiệu, Chanh Lo, and Tháp Mắm.
From the 13th to 15th centuries, Mahayana among the Cham was practiced in form of syncretic
Saivite–Buddhism or the fusion of the worship of Śiva (seen as the protector) and Buddha (seen as
the savior). Buddhism prevailed secondary. With the decline of royal power of the ruling
Simhavarmanid dynasty in the 15th century and the fall of their capital Vijaya in 1471, all
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Mahayana or Vajrayana traces of Champa disappeared, enabling space for the rising Islamic faith.
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41
 Yajna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ, romanized: yajña, lit. 'sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering') refers
in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras.[1] Yajna has been
a Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called Brahmanas, as well
as Yajurveda The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to
symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire (Agni).
Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the Karma-kanda (ritual works) portion of the Vedic
literature, in contrast to Jnana-kanda (knowledge) portion contained in the Vedic Upanishads. The
proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of Hindu
philosophy. Yajna have continued to play a central role in a Hindu's rites of passage, such as
weddings.[4] Modern major Hindu temple ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic
initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based on Agamic rituals.
The word yajna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ) has its root in the Sanskrit yaj meaning 'to worship, adore,
honour, revere' and appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE. In
Rigveda, Yajurveda (itself a derivative of this root) and others, it means "worship, devotion to
anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and
sacrifice".[5] In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, ceremony or devotion with
an actual or symbolic offering or effort.
A yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts
and community events. It has, states Nigal, a threefold meaning of worship of the deities
(devapujana), unity (sangatikarana) and charity (dána). The Sanskrit word is related to
the Avestan term yasna of Zoroastrianism. Unlike the Vedic yajna, however, the Yasna is the name
of a specific religious service, not a class of rituals, and they have "to do with water rather than
fire"The Sanskrit word is further related to Ancient Greek ἅζομαι (házomai), "to revere", deriving
from the Proto-Indo-European root *Hyeh₂ǵ- ("to worship"). Way back in 1879, at the Batavian
Society of Arts and Sciences, K.F.Holle drew attention to the performance of
Somayajna (Sanskrit: सोमयज्ञ, or Somayaga or Soma sacrifice is a Hindu ritual. It is a type
of yajna associated with the lunar cycle, and regarded to be performed for the maintenance of the
cosmic order. This ritual is based on methods described in the Vedas. Soma is used as the main
offering in this yajna, regarded to be able to propitiate deities. It is prescribed to be performed only
by the Brahmanas. A priest who performs this yajna is termed as a Somayaji.
The seven types of Somayajna are

 Agniṣṭoma – The first and main type, the six others are considered variations of this
 Uktya
 Ṣoḍaśī
 Atyagniṣṭoma
 Atirātra
 Āptoryāma
 Vājapeya
 And Soma Yagna a metallurgical process and offering to G
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42
 Aṣṭāśri yūpa 'eight-corner pillar' (8)_ as Viṣṇubhāga of Śivalinga of the Hindu civilization in
Binjor and in Laos
aṣṭāśri yūpa 'eight-corner pillar' is an integral part of Śivalinga. The same shape finds expression

in a fire-altar discovered in Binjor, on the banks of Sarasvati River, near Anupgarh INDIA

It has been posited that the octagonal shape of the linga is sourced from the Skambha,Yupa used
in Soma Samstha yajna described in the veda texts. This is the pillar of flame, fire and light which
infuses carbon element into molten metal to harden it. A celebration and veneration of an
extraordinary metallurgical process of ancient Hindus. This Yupas with inscriptions proclaiming
performance of such yajna. The yuipas are octagonal in shape.aṣṭāśri is vedic term.

19 pillars have been found all over India and in Borneo, inscribed by Mūlavarman. aṣṭāśri yūpa
is a ketu, a sign of proclamation, of performance of Soma Samstha Yajna. Archaeological
attestation that aṣṭāśri yūpa is a metaphor to signifty infusion of carbon element into molten metal
in a fire-altar to create aṣṭāśrī 'eight forms of a linga. This new Kurukshetra of SE Asia remained
a spiritual centre for sanskrit of Kambuja Desa for
~1000 yrs till the decline of Hinduism. Kurukshetra Mahatmya can be read from an inscription
on same ~1500 yrs old stele of king Devanika. But it wasn't like creating a new tirtha out of
nowhere. There was a reason for Sanskritized ppl of the region to perceive it as holy. In 456CE
Cham king Devanika issued an inscription recording consecration of the site near royal city
Shreshthapur as Kurukshetra. And it was the sanctity of mountain that was probably reflected in
king's decision to consecrate the area as New Kurukshetra, A holy mountain known as Linga
Parvata in ancient inscriptions of Laos, S E Asia. Note the natural linga (almost 10 meter high)
on top of mountain.1

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Deel 125, 2de Afl. (1969), pp. 193-206/Also see: Nr̥
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simha signifying a Skambha, Yupa with caṣāla 'wheat chaff' carbon infusion
https://www.academia.edu/…/Nr_simha_signifying_a_Skambha_Yu…
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https://tinyurl.com/y6jolc6p

43
 Establishment of the city of Lingapuram

A new city called Linga puram was established nearby and a royal road directly linked this tirtha
to new capital city of Angkor vat. Over time Khmer emperors endowed it with impressive
temples, palaces tanks and roads. Today it is known as Vat Phou temple complex. Eventually it
became the part of Khmer Empire of Kambuja Desa (modern Combodia) but the area retained
same spiritual significance. All the structures were built in such a masterful manner so as to
align entire complex with the Swayambhu linga on the top of the mountain. A road flanked by
lotus columns leading to the main shrine of Shiva on the mountain. as if symbolizing
journey from earth to heaven! Main shrine of Shiva on Lingaparvata. ShivaLinga consecrated in
shrine was known as Bhadreshwara after the patron saint of Chams.
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Vat Phou, the ancient khmer temple in Laos= ancient history

44
 Laos: In the fifth century, Champasak was thought to be the centre of the Laotian universe. Today
it’s a drowsy one-car village clutching the western bank of the Mekong River in southern Laos and
home to the tiny Hindu-built Vat Phou, which some archaeologists believe may have been the first
Angkor temple ever built.

At a glance, Vat Phou doesn’t seem like the kind of structure that would initiate an empire. A tiny
prayer hall at the top of a precarious stone stairway, with two reception halls on the plains below,
Vat Phou lacks the jaw-dropping awesomeness of temples in Cambodia’s Angkor Archaeological
Park. But as with the Angkor temples, its symbolism is extraordinary.

Tucked under the phallic-shaped mountain peak of Phu Kao – thought to represent Mount Meru,
the sacred mountain at the centre of the Hindu cosmology – Vat Phou was worshipped as the
embodiment of Shiva. The spring nearby was associated with Shiva’s wife, the goddess Parvati.
Water runs underground from Phu Kao’s peak, rising through Parvati. From here, passing a series
of barays (man-made dams) and linga (phallic statues), water flows into the Mekong, blessing
everything on its journey south.

Vat Phou could quite well have been the first, the pre-eminent, Angkor temple,- worshippers took a
piece of Vat Phou stone and placed it under every subsequent temple they built.On the map, a well-
45

defined line leading from one of the reception halls at Vat Phou to the temple of Angkor Wat
which used to be a pilgrims’ road during the Khmer Empire -the kingdom that reigned over much
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of south-east Asia between the ninth and thirteenth centuries and used the Angkor Archaelogical
Park as the capital. They had roadhouses every six miles (nine kilometres) with accommodation,
45
 food, shelter for the animals and hospitals; six miles being the average distance a bullock cart
could travel in a day.
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However, archaeologists at Vat Phou know a lot less than they would like to. “We have excavated
about 5 per cent of the area,” says Laurent Delfour, a French architect who has been working with
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UNESCO to manage the site for the past three-and-a-half years. “That translates as 5 per cent

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 knowledge on the area. We believe that Vat Phou marked the beginning of the Angkor Empire but
nothing is certain.”
What is certain is the race against time Champasak’s hidden treasures face. A new highway linking
the town with the regional capital of Pakse and the Thai border post of Chong Mek, has already
disturbed six ancient temples beneath the ground. Champasak was designated a World Heritage
zone in 2001; building without assessments, and approval, is not permitted.

“The Laos Ministry of Information and Culture did a little research into the area where the road
was going,” says a long-term Champasak resident who requested anonymity. “But the findings
were just pushed aside and work on the road accelerated.”
The local government is hoping the road, which will extend to the Cambodian border, will bring in
busloads of tourists.Parcels of land on the road to Vat Phou have been partitioned for infrastructure
such as entertainment complexes and restaurants.

At a glance, Champasak doesn’t seem to have changed since my first visit in the late 1990s, when
the trickle of visitors who made it this far south stayed in bamboo-built bungalows and getting to
Pakse, 50 kilometres away, required crossing the Mekong by ferry, then negotiating a muddy trail
into town.Champasak’s streets are still lined with gently decaying colonial buildings and shop-
houses selling refreshments such as pho and tam mak hung – spicy papaya salad. The preferred
mode of transport has been upgraded from bicycle to motorbike. There is also a clutch of recently
opened boutique hotels.

From Champasak, you can take a long-tail wooden boat south to Si Phan Don, literally translated
as “four thousand islands”. Here the Mekong stretches its girth across 14 kilometres and splits into
countless tributaries, forming an archipelago of islands and sand bars peppered with palm trees and
fishermen’s stilt-built villages. An hour or two east by car is the Bolaven Plateau, a cool, misty
mountain range teeming with tracts of old-growth rainforest, waterfalls and coffee plantations.
Introduced by French colonists in the early twentieth century, coffee is southern Laos’s biggest
export. It has instigated a small tourism industry, with plantations opening on-site restaurants and
The region’s greatest hit is still Vat Phou. Accessible via a set of 77 stone stairs that rise past old
frangipani trees and deity statues, the tiny temple is as enchanting as its surrounds. Behind is a
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sheer cliff face; below stretches the moss-green plains that hold the riddles of ancient cities and
civilisations.
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 At the heart of the temple, which barely measures five metres by three, is a towering stone Buddha
(Buddhism replaced Hinduism here in the thirteenth century), crowded by three smaller statues and
a spread of offerings: flowers, incense, garlands and a Sprite bottle, with straw. They have been left
by the local caretakers and a trickle of visitors who still worship here. It’s quiet, peaceful and
absolutely captivating; for now.
Some impressive carving on the walls of Vat phou complex
1)Indra on his Airavat
2)Kaliyadaman
3)Vishnu on Garuda
4)Shiva riding on Kala.

Bronze image of Shiva and Parvati ---from the Vat Phou temple complex area. Large no. of
Shiva Lingas were also found from the area. After the decline of Hinduism it vanished from the
memory of the people and eventually converted into Thervada Buddhist temple. However it
shows how fame of Kurukshetra as important Sanakrit tirtha reached as far as South East Asia as
early as 5th century/Gupta Age.And more than that it shows how well entrenched Sanskrit
civilization was in South East Asia during ancient times
Standing at four ft tall, holding the pride of place among exhibits, the massive stone pillar is an
awe-inspiring sight. On closer scrutiny, it is not a stone pillar but a Siva lingam and it is at the
Museum of Vietnamese History, Hochi Minh city, Vietnam, and is a local find.
This isn’t some Vietnamese version of the Siva lingam, rather the one that has been perfectly
sculpted as stipulated in the Agamas or the Iconographic canons.
The main stem of the Lingam that is seen here is paired with its pedestal called the Avudai to
make up the lingam that one can see in all our temples. Further, the main stem of the lingam is
made up of three distinct parts – the bottom most being square shaped denoting the Brahma
Bagam, the middle being octagonal – Vishnu Bagam and the top most cylindrical, the Rudra
Bagam. When matched with the Avudai, which is circular at the base and oval on top, with a
hole bored through it in the middle to hold the stem, the Brahma Bagam would be below the
Avudai, the Vishnu Bagam within it and the Rudra Bagam would be visible on top. The actual
dimensions, proportions and further intricacies like inscribing the lines of the Brahma sutras are
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subjects of serious study but it is worthy to note that in the Vietnamese lingam, there is a face
sculpted just above the Vishnu Bagam. Such are called Mukha Lingams though the Indian
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variants have more pronounced features.

For those who are already feeling heady it is worthy to point out that one of the world’s oldest
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 Siva lingam is found in Gudimallam, situated about 21 kms from the Kalahasti temple. Dated
between 2nd C BCE and 1st C BCE, this imposing Lingam measures an exact five ft in
height and has one of most interesting sculptures carved on it. The two armed figure, holds a
ram by its hind legs with his right hand, holds a pitcher with his left hand and has an Axe
slung over his left shoulder. The facial features are unique but for such an early date, the
quality of the sculpture is splendid, especially the ornamentation, the necklace, earrings and
detailing of the head dress.standing on a massive demon, who is shown as kneeling down and
supporting the weight with both his hands on his knees. His face is grotesque, ears are pointed
like those of a bat and his cheeks marked with deep lines but he seems to be grinning with
both rows of teeth exposed. His head dress and ornaments have been sculpted in style as well.
It is important to notice that this early Lingam does not have the three distinct bagams as
advocated in the Agamas and thus the cannons must have evolved and crystallised sometime
during the interim period.-The Hindu, S. Vijay Kumar / 2015
https://www.facebook.com/pawansayam.gond
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 IV
The Concept of Bhadreshwara

In the early start of the 1st millennium, the region now forming Cambodia and Laos was ruled by
the Champa dynasty of kings. They were called the Cham rulers. In 400 AD, the Cham King
Devanika faced constant attacks from invaders coming from near the South China Sea.

One day, very fearful and dejected about losing, King Devanika wandered into the forests in deep
thought and worry. Tired, worn out and with depressing thoughts, Devanika took refuge in a
mountain cave. An old wise sage, who was meditating in that cave, saw the dejected Devanika
sitting down in a slump, and in his booming voice addressed the emperor – “Glory be to the divine
powers. O King! What brings you here. King Devanika immediately fell at his feet and poured out
his heart to the wise man “Oh wise sage, attackers are annexing my territory. My people are being
killed and their families are being broken. I am at fault, because I have been incapable of

protecting my people! It is a shame O great sage!” The omniscient wise man just smiled and said
“O almighty king, the time has come for you to regain your glory in a new land. Did you know that
Lord Shiva himself has descended from the heavens and taken abode atop a mountain? The lingam
stands resplendent in the rising sun. Go and find the Lord, O King! Build a stately temple that is as
majestic as Lord Shiva himself. Worship that lingam, and all your former glory will be restored.
You shall build a new empire, your progeny shall flourish and dharma shall be established. Go! Do
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not waste precious time in lamenting thus! With the grace of the Lord, anything can be achieved”
King Devanika’s courage was restored by the auspicious words of the sage. He bowed to him in
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deep respect and set out for his search.

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 King Devanika assembled his troubled people, and they all began their pilgrimage in search of
Lord Shiva. After several weeks of tiring journey, they arrived at the base of a tall mountain and
decided to camp for the night. At dawn, the golden rays of the sun began to escape the horizon and
lit up the sky in a beautiful tint of red. Devanika was awakened by the chirping birds, and he stood
up, rubbing his eyes and lo! On the top of that very same mountain stood the lingam glowing in the
golden rays of the rising sun. He was stunned by this breath-taking view. When everyone awoke,
they celebrated for having found the abode of Lord Shiva.

As foretold by the sage, Devanika had found the new land where he had to establish his dharmic
rule. Inspired by the principles set forth in the Mahabharata war, he named this land “New
Kurukshetra”. The mountain was named “Lingaparvata” (the mountain of the linga). Devanika
established his new empire with Shreshthapur as his capital. The people that lived in the region
along with the people who came with Devanika, became the forerunners of the prosperous Khmer
people.
A huge temple called Wat Phu was also built. Wat Phu exists even today. The original buildings
were replace around 11th century but it is in ruins. If the ruins themselves are so majestic and
astounding in their architecture, we can only perceive how magnificent the original temple would
have been.
Mahabharata had happened in 3102 BCE. King Devanika had found the lingaparvata in 456 CE.
4800 years after the great war. The Khmer kings that followed Devanika were also very
prosperous, until their decline in 14th century was caused by western aggression.

Glories of Kurukshetra ( Kurukshetra Mahtmya )

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 A stone inscription describes
the glories of Kurukshetra (Kurukshetra mahtmya) 1000 miles away from India in the following
words.
TRANSLATION
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52
 Kurukshetra and Linga Parvata in Laos
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54
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Vijayapura or Vijaya

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 Vijaya meaning Victorious; also known as Vijayapura, is an ancient city in Bình Định
province, Vietnam. From the 12th century, it served as the capital of the Kingdom
of Champa until it was conquered by Dai Viet during the Champa–Dai Viet War of 1471.

Geography, economy, transport Vijaya was centred on the lowland area along lower Côn
River, in what is now the south of Bình Định Province. To the east of the plain and near the
estuary of the river is a strategic and well-protected location for a port. This led to the rise
of Cảng Thị Nại, one of the major ports of Champa. The river leading up into the highlands to
the west was important for the trade with highland peoples supplying Champa with luxury
goods such as eaglewood for export. Vijaya's geography was also important for its
agriculture. With one of the larger rivers of Champa, its soils were more fertile than that of
many other places.[2] This allowed for a relatively large concentration of people near the
centre of Vijaya, which resulted in a relatively large number of temples.
According to two noteworthy 15th century reports noted in Vietnamese grand chronicles,
the Toàn thư, Vijaya had a small number of households, just 2,500, or approximately 10,000
inhabitants. More accurate, the second report states that the city had about 70,000 people
living inside.

The area around Vijaya was probably one of earliest landfalls of the Cham people in what is
now Vietnam. However, its architecture implies that it did not become important until the
11th or 12th century. Records suggest that there was an attack on Vijaya's citadel from the
Vietnamese in 1069 (when Dai Viet was ruled by Lý Nhân Tông) to punish Champa for
armed raiding in Vietnam. The Cham king Rudravarman III was defeated and captured and
offered Champa's three northern provinces to Dai Viet (present-day Quảng Bình and Quảng
Trị provinces).

In Champa at the time there were two ruling kings–Parameśvaravarman and Rudravarman
III–in Nha Trang and Phan Rang, respectively. Rudravarman of Phan Rang had good relation
with the Chinese Song dynasty. None of them ever did manage to travel far north to counter
the Vietnamese. Northern Champa at that time was ruled by a Cham chief/warlord with title
Śrī Yuvarāja Mahāsenāpati, not related to the Parameśvaravarman–Bhadravarman–
Rudravarman family.

The Vietnamese raid in 1069 began embarking from a port in Hue on 28th day of the third
month, reached their destination of the third day of fourth month, then engaged with the
Cham. Sailing from Hue to Vijaya (Qui Nhon) within six days doesn't make sense. King Ðệ
Củ/Chế Củ had been fleeing into Cambodia (Zhenla), was then captured. They pillaged the
city of Indrapura (Phật thệ) for one month, then it took one month for them to return to
Hanoi. Michael Vickery insists that the 1069 Vietnamese raid did not target Vijaya, but
probably Châu Sa & Cổ Lũy citadels on the north and south banks of the Trà Khúc
River in Quảng Ngãi province. Châu Sa was a large port city named Amaravati, has the
temple of Chánh Lộ dating to eleventh century. He also speculates that Chế Củ was certainly
not king Rudravarman III, but a Cham chief somewhere in the north. [10] The earliest mention
of Vijaya as a Cham city was dated to around 1153 to 1184, so the explicitly application of
Vijaya for a location of Champa prior that period should be considered an historical
anachronism.
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Vijaya was involved in wars with Angkor (now Cambodia) in the 12th and 13th centuries.
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Khmer military incursions into Champa were successful for some time and Suryavarman
II managed to subdue Vijaya in the 1145, deposing Jaya Indravarman III, [5]: 75–76 but the

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 Khmer were later defeated in 1149. Vijaya was at times dominated by the Khmer
king Jayavarman VII. The Khmer king relied on Cham supporters for his successful military
campaigns in both Angkor and Champa.

Vijaya was captured by the Yuan army led by Mongol commander Sogetu in early 1283. The
Mongols were ultimately driven away, but the city was sacked. In 1377, the city was
unsuccessfully besieged by a Vietnamese army in the Battle of Vijaya. Major wars with
Vietnam were fought again in the 15th century, which eventually led to the defeat of Vijaya
and the demise of Champa in 1471. The citadel of Vijaya was besieged for one month in
1403 when the Vietnamese troops had to withdraw because of a shortage of foodThe final
attack came in early 1471 after almost 70 years without major military confrontation between
Champa and Dai Viet. It is interpreted to have been a reaction to Champa asking China for
reinforcements to attack Dai Viet. [18] Much of Champa was dissolved after the 1471 Cham–
Vietnamese War. Vijaya was completely destroyed, while other southern principalities had a
protectorate-like status within Dai Viet.

Vijaya's architecture distinguishes it from other Champa centers, because it used a

combination of stone and brick elements,[20] while most other Cham structures only used
bricks. This suggests some influence from Cambodian Angkor.[20] It also points to the relative
abundance of labour in Vijaya compared to other Champa centres of powers, because
processing stones for construction was more labour-intensive than the production of
bricks. Vijaya's style of architecture seems to have been dominant throughout Champa for
some time, given the later classification of the architecture from the period between the 12th
and 14th centuries as the 'Binh Dinh style'.

Banh It TowersDuong Long Towers

A relatively large number of towers built in Vijaya have been preserved in Bình Định
Province. They include the ruins of the citadel: Cánh Tiên tower and several temple towers.
The Dương Long towers are among Southeast Asia's tallest Hinduist buildings.

Site Date Location

late 12th - early 13th century; improved up to 14th Bình Hoà, Tây
Dương Long
- 15th century (before 1471) Sơn
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 Hưng Thạnh / Đống Đa, Quy
late 12th - early 13th century
Tháp Đôi Nhơn

Nhơn Hậu, An
Cánh Tiên late 13th - 14th/15th century
Nhơn

Thốc Lốc / Phú Bình Nghi, Tây

late 13th - 14th century
Lốc Sơn

Bình Nghi, Tây

Thủ Thiện late 13th - 14th century
Sơn

Phước Hoà, Tuy

Bình Lâm early 11th century (c. 1000)
Phước

Bánh Ít / Tháp Phước Hiệp, Tuy

early 11th century (c. 1000); improved later
Bạc Phước

The ruins of Tây Sơn era Hoang De citadel lies within the old Champa city walls.

Sack of VIJAYA

Conflict between Champa and Đại Việt did not end, however, with the abandonment of
Indrapura. Champa suffered further Viet attacks in 1021 and 1026. In 1044, a catastrophic
battle resulted in the death of the Cham King Sa Dau and the sack of Vijaya by Đại Việt
under Lý Thái Tông. The invaders captured elephants and musicians and even the Cham
queen Mi E, who preserved her honor by throwing herself into the waves as her captors
attempted to transport her to their country. Thirty thousand Cham were killed. Champa began
to pay tribute to the Viet kings, including a white rhinoceros in 1065 and a white elephant in
1068 sent to Lý Thánh Tông In 1068, however, the King of Vijaya Rudravarman III (Che Cu)
allegedly attacked Đại Việt in order to reverse the setbacks of 1044. Again the Cham were
defeated, and again Đại Việt captured and burned Vijaya. These events were repeated in 1069
when Lý Thánh Tông took a fleet to Champa, torched Vijaya, and captured Rudravarman III.
The Champa king eventually purchased his freedom in exchange for three northern districts
of his realm. Taking advantage of the debacle, a leader in southern Champa rebelled and
established an independent kingdom. The northern kings were not able to reunite the country
until 1084.
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SIMHAPURA City of Lions

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 Simhapura, now called Trà Kiệu was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa Kingdom,
from the 4th century to the 8th century CE. The site has been known to the western world
since the late 19th century. Today nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular
rampartsBửu Châu or jade hill overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the
Simhapura. There are also signs of a border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently
unknown if this was for defense, hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else
entirely. There has been much debate regarding Trà Kiệu, as it is believed by some to be the
capital city of Champa Kingdom and by others to be the capital city of the Kingdom of Lâm
Ấp (Linyi). Trà Kiệu also has two main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics
for household use and roof tiles marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings
about the iconic roof tiles with faces on them. There are two main theories about why the
faces start appearing on the tiles: the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that
workers at Trà Kiệu began carving faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was
an Indian mask maker who introduced and popularized the face motifs as this style of
decoration on roof tiles.
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The Trà Kiệu pedestal of the 10th century supports a massive lingam and ablutionary cistern.

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 A row of apsaras, or celestial nymphs, is depicted on the base of the Trà Kiệu Pedestal /The
Dancers' Pedestal of Trà Kiệu features this apsara or dancer and gandharva or musician.

Ruins of the Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary

In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of
Champa in Simhapura (Tra Kieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?)
and Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or the
Simhapura dynasty. He embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic kingdoms in
the south, and by 658 AD the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa) stretching from Quảng Bình
province in the north to present-day Ninh Hòa city, Khánh Hòa province in the south, was
unified under one ruler for the first time.[

Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known as viṣaya (district.
However, viṣaya also can be synonymous with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that
time there were two know districts: Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number
of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the
worship of three gods. They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely treasures.
Prakāśadharma built numerous temples and religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn. One structure is
amazing decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king, resembling
a theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.

Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in 653,
654, 669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous kings. The
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seventh century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese, became the chief
tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Kokuryo in the Northeast
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and Baekje in the East - though the latter was rivaled by Japan

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 Champa theory
Occupation of the Trà Kiệu site began in the 1st-2nd century, while Cham influence at the
site didn't begin until the mid to late 4th century. The city of Simhapura, now known as Trà
Kiệu, had its perimeter walls built in the early centuries of the Common Era which support
the above statements. While Champa influence began traveling out of India and into South-
Eastern Asia in the 4th century, Simhapura isn't believed to have become the capital of the
Champa Kingdom until the 10th century AD. Further mentions of Simhapura dating from the
11th century (1074–1076) when king Harivarman IV decided to restore the city back to its
golden age. Evidence of Cham influence in Trà Kiệu are sketches from Claeys that show the
district foundations on which Cham built their towers. There's evidence of bricks both broken
and intricately laid that denote the Cham's influence in Trà Kiệu. Additionally, the border
wall was made of brick which tells us that Trà Kiệu had enough Cham influence to fashion
their border walls after the Cham style. There was additionally a lot of Cham style pottery
found at Trà Kiệu, and while this is not definitive evidence there was enough pottery to make
it highly significant. Ultimately, while there is no absolute proof of the Champa Theory, there
is significant evidence of Chinese influence as well. However, the Cham influence is
undeniable and many Vietnamese Archeologists conclude that Simhapura now known as Trà
Kiệu was the capital of the Champa Kingdom.

Ceramic end tile with decoration from Trà Kiệu. Example of roof tiles with face motif.//Stone
sculpture of the god Siva on a pedestal and on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture (Da
Nang). The presence of Siva gives some credence to the Champa theory
Lin Yi theory
This theory is proposed by Leonard Aurousseau, who sent out the original documenter of Trà
Kiệu, J.-Y. Claeys. Claeys conducted flyovers of Trà Kiệu in 1927 and his research went on
to undermine Aurousseau, who thought Trà Kiệu was the capital of the Lin Yi empire that
enveloped parts of Vietnam.[9] This deviates even from the later developed "Champa theory"
explained above because Aurousseau believed Trà Kiệu to be the city that was invaded by
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China in the 5th century. This theory was based on the ancient Chinese records of the
invasion and was a shot in the dark as the precise location of Lin Yi has remained uncertain.
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It was unclear from said Chinese records if Lin Yi referred to a Kingdom or a City.

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 Another scholar, Andrew David Hardy, theorizes the name Lin Yi may have been used by the
Chinese as a catch-all for a hostile Vietnamese polity. According to Hardy, Lin Yi was
located north of Cham territory and was likely not a Cham settlement and was instead later
absorbed into the Champa polity as it expanded north. He further theorizes that the Chinese
simply extended the name Lin Yi to the Champa Thu Bồn valley. [3] As with Aurousseau's
theory, Hardy bases this hypothesis on speculation and on documentation of China's
interactions with the Champa, as well as an elusive Vietnamese polity.

Chronology
There are two main phases in the chronology of Trà Kiệu, which are as follows: Trà Kiệu I
Phase (which can be further subdivided into Ia and Ib) and Trà Kiệu II Phase. The largest
difference between Trà Kiệu I and II Phase lie in the styles of roof tiles found at the site. Trà
Kiệu I Phase is represented by the presence of roof tiles with textile impressions, while Trà
Kiệu II Phase roof tiles lack impressions. Roof tiles from Trà Kiệu II Phase are instead
decorated with motifs of human faces. A further breakdown of the chronology of Trà Kiệu
from researcher Trường Giang Đỗ is as follows:

 Trà Kiệu I Phase

o A range of pottery of coarse fabric, including:
o Ovoid jars, cord-marked jars, lids, dishes, bowls, pedestal cups and stoves and roof
tiles
 Trà Kiệu I Phase Ia
o Roof tiles marked with textile impressions
 Trà Kiệu II Phase
o No roof tiles with textile impressions on concave surface, instead decorated with
human faces
o Eaves tiles with human face motifs can be dated from the third century CE, likely
from the second quarter and onwards
Origins of face motifs

Stone image of the god Visnu on display at the Museum of

Cham Sculpture. (Da Nang) This Visnu gives further evidence to the Hindu face motif
theory.
Simhapura, was founded by King Bhadravarman in late-fourth century. The third
inscription of Bhadravarman is the oldest surviving text in Cham language and also any
Southeast Asian language. He was also the first known person to order the constructing of the
first Śiva lingam, a symbol of Saivaism, in the region. His temple was reported having been
destroyed by fire in the six century, and still remains today as one of oldest historical
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structures in Southeast Asia ever been built and used. From the third to fifth centuries, there
were dozens of small Chamic kingdoms and chiefdoms popped up south of Hue to modern-
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day Phan Rang. Stone sculptures of Cham folk divinities admixed with Hindu aesthetic
dating from fifth to sixth centuries AD were found in those settlements.

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 AMRAVATI

Hoi An or the Ancient Amaravathi in Vietnam-Hoi An Ancient Town in Central

Vietnam and surrounding district was once known as Amaravathi, heartland of the Cham
civilisation, adjacent to the capital Simhapura. Amaravati was located in present-day Châu
Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160
inscription at Po Nagar.Hoi An has more than eleven hundred architectural remains
representing ten architectural forms. These are residential houses, places of worship for
family ancestors, village communal houses, pagodas, temples, tombs, bridges, water wells,
markets and assembly halls. The foundations of Hoi An built environment go back to the
late sixteenth century. However, the present architectural remains are mainly from the
nineteenth century. There is evidence of the economic and cultural exchanges between Hoi
An and China, Japan, India and several European countries. The residents of Hoi An,
generation after generation have been living and working in the same houses. In the
Ancient Town, a large number of heritage objects are kept; traditional crafts are
maintained; and heritage dishes, habits, customs, and festivities are fostered. Hoi An is a
World Heritage site as the most intact port town of the 19th century in Asia.

In 2008, Hoi An was chosen as one of the 110 historic destinations in the world by
National Geographic magazine. Hoi An is part of the cultural route along with My Son and
its Saivite temples, and Hue World Heritage sites.

The Buddhist dynasty at Indrapura

Buddhist altar from Đồng Dương, 9th-10th century AD. Museum of Cham
Sculpture, Danang.
In 875, King Indravarman II founded a new northern dynasty at Indrapura. (Dong Duong
near Da Nang in modern Vietnam). Eager to claim an ancient lineage, Indravarman declared
himself the descendant of Bhrigu, the venerable sage whose exploits are detailed in
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the Mahabharata, and asserted that Indrapura had been founded by the same Bhrigu in ancient
times. From 877 onward, the Chinese knew Champa as "Cheng-cheng", discontinuing their
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use of the term "Huan-wang. Indravarman II repulsed an invasion by the Khmer

King Yasovarman I.

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 Indravarman was the first Cham monarch to adopt Mahayana Buddhism as an official
religion. At the center of Indrapura, he constructed a Buddhist monastery (vihara) dedicated
to the bodhisattva Lokesvara. The foundation, regrettably, was devastated during
the Vietnam War. Thankfully, some photographs and sketches survive from the prewar
period. In addition, some stone sculptures from the monastery are preserved in Vietnamese
museums. Scholars have called the artistic style typical of the Indrapura the Dong Duong
Style. The style is characterized by its dynamism and ethnic realism in the depiction of the
Cham people. Surviving masterpieces of the style include several tall sculptures of
fierce dvarapalas or temple guardians that were once positioned around the monastery. The
period in which Buddhism reigned as the principal religion of Champa came to an end in
approximately 925, at which time the Dong Duong Style also began to give way to
subsequent artistic styles linked with the restoration of Shaivism as the national religion.

Kings belonging to the dynasty of Indrapura built a number of temples at Mỹ Sơn in the 9th
and 10th centuries. Their temples at Mỹ Sơn came to define a new architectural and artistic
style, called by scholars the Mỹ Sơn A1 Style, again in reference to a particular foundation at
Mỹ Sơn regarded emblematic for the style. With the religious shift from Buddhism back to
Shaivism around the beginning of the 10th century, the center of Cham religion also shifted
from Dong Duong back to Mỹ Sơn.

Kompong Cham has Banteay Prei Nokor, Former name of Ho Chi Minh City/Saigon

Kompong Cham has Banteay Prei Nokor, Former name of Ho Chi Minh
City/Saigon before annexation by the Vietnamese in the 17th century. an
ancient temple complex in the northwest known locally as temple of "Wat Nokor in Khum of
Kompong Siem", or "Wat Angkor", around 2km from the provincial capital Kampong Cham
(city). though a sign at the entrance now officially designates the name of the temple as
Nokor Bachey Temple .The complex faces east at a bearing of 84.5°E, and covers 15ha. the
site is composed of an outer rectangular laterite wall approximately 420x370m, an inner wall
approximately 100x130m. A large reservoir or Baray some 950 meters long and 480 meters
wide is located 350 meters east of the site. Now abandoned, the reservoir area was used in the
mid 20th century as a hippodrome, evidence of which can still be seen by visitors.

The interior of the Nokor Bachey Pagoda

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The monument was built out of sandstone and laterite, and dates from the last years of the
reign of Jayavarman VII. It is composed of a central tower surrounded by four laterite wall
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enclosures. The central tower of the temple of Wat Nokor is decorated with motifs
characteristic of Bayon with Buddhist scenes on the pediments.[1]

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 The temple complex is believed to have been the headquarters of Jayavarman VII for a time,
from where he extended his influence over nearby principalities.[2]

It has a number of distinguishing characteristics other than the fact that it is the largest
ancient temple complex in Kampong Cham Province. One of these characteristics alludes to
the fact that it is built of black sandstone, which causes it to stand out from other temples of
the period which are often built of brick or reddish sandstone. The temple has an inscription
which is open to visitors to see (and even touch) in the central pavilion. Wat Nokor Bachey
boasts a 'Chartres' effect in which a more modern temple of a very different style has been
built over and around the original Angkorian structure creating a blend of architectural styles.

There are many legends surrounding the origin of the temple but the most popular one has
Oedipal overtones. According to this legend, the temple was built by a king who accidentally
killed his father and married his mother. As recounted in the Greek legend, this king was put
out by his father after a seer told him that his son would kill him. The son, however, did not
die and returned to his kingdom not knowing that his father was the king. After quarreling on
the road, the son killed the king and married his queen who was his mother. Upon
discovering his crime, the young man built Wat Nokor in penance for his crime.
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 II

III
Panduranga and its impact on Indrapura (CHAMPA)
Toponym of Lord Vishnu-
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 I
The Concept of Panduranga

Panduranga or Prangdarang or Pandharpur ( the city “pur” of Pandhari)

Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump state successor of
the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471.
It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam. It stood until late 17th century as the
Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham
polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng
was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th century onward, it had been
ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the court of the king of kings
at Vijaya, central Champa.

In the map, Panduranga is at lower right

In the Bhakti tradition, there is a highly revered Saint known as Pundalik. Pundalik has come
to be known as a symbol for Supreme, Unconditional Love. His heart was so open and his
Love forgot no one. Pundalik’s devotion caused God to go looking for him.
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Panduranga is known by many names, including: Vithoba, Vitthala, Pandharinath, Hari and
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Narayan.

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 There are several theories about the origins and meanings of these names. Varkari tradition
suggests that the name Vitthala (also spelled as Vitthal, Viththal, Vittala and
Vithal; Marathi: विठ्ठल, composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words: viṭ, which means
'brick'; and thal, which may have originated from the Sanskrit sthala, meaning 'standing'.
Thus, Vitthala would mean 'one standing on a brick'.The prescribed iconography of Vithoba
stipulates that he be shown standing arms-akimbo upon a brick, which is associated with the
legend of the devotee Pundalik.
Definition of Vittala: "Vidaa Jnanena Taan Shoonyan Laati Gruhnaati Yaha Swayam
AjnaanugrahaKruddevo Vittalah Kathyate Budhaiah" - Prikryaya Kaumudi Vyakhyana
However, the Varkari poet-saint Tukaram proposed a different etymology—that Vitthala is
composed of the words vittha (ignorance) and la (one who accepts), thus meaning 'one who
accepts innocent people who are devoid of knowledge'. [5] Historian Ramakrishna Gopal
Bhandarkar offers yet another possibility—that Vitthu (Viṭhu) is a Kannada corruption of the
name Vishnu adopted in Marathi. The suffixes -la and -ba (meaning 'father' in Marathi) were
appended for reverence, producing the names Vitthala and Vithoba. This corruption of
Vishnu to Vitthu could have been due to tendency of Marathi and Kannada people to
pronounce.
According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the Deccan College, Pundalik—who is assumed
to be a historical figure—was instrumental in persuading
the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana alias Bittidev to build the Pandharpur temple dedicated to
Vishnu. The deity was subsequently named as Vitthala, a derivative of Bittidev, by the
builder-king. Other variants of the name include Viṭhurāyā (King Vitthala),
and Viṭhāī (Mother Vitthala). The people of Gujarat add the suffix -nath (Lord) to Vitthala,
which yields the name Vitthal-nath. The additional honorific suffix -ji may be added, giving
the name Vitthalnathji. This name is generally used in the Pushtimarg sect.
Panduranga also spelt as Pandurang and Pandaranga, is another popular epithet for Vithoba,
which means 'the white god' in Sanskrit. The Jain author-saint Hemachandra (1089–1172
AD) notes it is also used as an epithet for the god Rudra-Shiva. Even though Vithoba is
depicted with dark complexion, he is called a "white god". Bhandarkar explains this paradox,
proposing that Panduranga may be an epithet for the form of Shiva worshipped in
Pandharpur, and whose temple still stands. Later, with the increasing popularity of Vithoba's
cult, this was also transferred to Vithoba. [10] Another theory suggests that Vithoba may
initially have been a Shaiva god (related to Shiva), only later identified with Vishnu, thus
explaining the usage of Panduranga for Vithoba. Crooke, however, proposed that
Panduranga is a Sanskritised form of Pandaraga (belonging to Pandarga), referring to the old
name of Pandharpur.[4] Another name, Pandharinath, also refers to Vithoba as the lord of
Pandhari (yet another variant for Pandharpur).
Finally, Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Vishnu like Hari and Narayana, in
the Vaishnava sect
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68
 Vithoba-Devanagari = विठोबा-
Sanskrit_Transliteration = Viṭhobā
Affiliation = Form of Vishnu or Krishna
Abode = Pandharpur
Consort = Rakhumai (Rukmini)
Mount = Garuda, when associated with Vishnu

Vithoba ( Marathi: Viṭhobā, विठोबा ),

Vitthala ( Sanskrit: Viṭṭhala, विठ्ठल,
Kannada: Viṭṭala, and Panduranga

Vithoba ( Marathi: Viṭhobā, विठोबा ), also known as Vitthala ( Sanskrit: Viṭṭhala, विठ्ठ
ल, Kannada: Viṭṭala, and Panduranga, is the Hindu god Vishnu
worshiped predominately in the Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka . Generally consi
dered a manifestation of the Hindu deities Vishnu or Krishna, he is sometimes associated wit
h the god Shiva . He is often depicted as a dark young boy, standing arms-
akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his main consort Rakhumai.

Vithoba is
sect of Maharashtra and the Haridasa sect of Karnataka. Vithoba's main temple stands at Pand
harpur in Maharashtra, close to the Karnataka border. The legends of Vithoba revolve around
the devotee Pundalik – who is credited with bringing the deity to Pandharpur –
and around Vithoba's role as a savior to the saint- of the Varkari faith. Poets have written vari
ous Marathi devotional compositions called abhangas dedicated to Vithoba. Other devotional
literature includes Kannada hymns by the Haridasas and Marathi aratis. The most important f
estivals of Vithoba are Ashadhi Ekadashi (Shayani Ekadashi) and Kartik Ekadashi (Prabodini
Ekadashi).
Like the origins of his names, the historicity of Vithoba and his cult is contested. In the proce
ss of his final identification with Vishnu, Vithoba – at different stages – was lin
ked with a cattle-god, a hero stone, a Jain saint, Shiva and even Buddha. Though the origins o
f his cult and his main temple are unclear, there is clear evidence that they existed in the 13th
century.
Etymology and other names
There are many conflicting theories about the origins of the names of the deity. Varkari etym
ology suggests that the word "Vitthala", also spelled as "Vitthal", "Viththal",
"Vittala" and "Vithal", is composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words,
"Viṭ" meaning "brick" and "thal", which may have originated from the Sanskrit "sthala", mea
ning "standing". Thus "Vitthala" means "one standing on a brick". It could be
Kannada corruption of the word "Vishnu", which was adopted in Marathi, and the suffixes 'la'
and 'ba' -meaning "father" in Marathi

Pundalik is an historical figure rather than a mythical one, the devotee Pundalik was instrume
69

ntal in coaxing the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana to build the Pandharpur temple to Vishnu.
The deity Vitthala was named by the builder king "Bittidev", the alias of Vishnuvardhana.
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Other variants of the name include "Viṭhurāyā" ("King Vitthala"), and "Viṭhāī"
("Mother Vitthala"). The people of Gujarat add the suffix "Nath"

69
 ("Lord") to Vitthala, which yields the name "Vitthal-nath), the other popular epithet for Vitho
ba,
"Panduranga" or "Pandaranga", meaning "the white god" in Sanskrit, is an epithet for the god
Rudra-Shiva. It is an
epithet for the form of Shiva, worshipped in Pandharpur and whose temple still stands.

Another theory suggests that Vithoba may initially be a Shaiva (related to the cult of the god
Shiva) god and later identified with Vishnu, thus the name Panduranga of Vithoba.
Crooke suggests that Panduranga is a Sanskritised term of "Pandaraga" –
"belonging to Pandarga – the old name of Pandharpur." Another name "Pandharinath"
relates to Vithoba being "the lord of Pandhari (a name of Pandharpur)". Vithoba is also addre
ssed by universal Vaishnava names like "Hari" and "Narayana", which are related to the cult
of the god Vishnu

The Lord Vithal, or Panduranga Vittala, is an incarnation of Lord Vishnu and is worshipped
in the world famous Pandarpur Rukmini Vi- thal Temple at Pandarpur in Maharashtra. There
is an interesting story that explains about the incarnation of Lord Vithal at Pandarpur.

Origins and development

The hymn "Panduranga Stotra" by Adi Shankaracharya, if genuine, establishes that Vithoba
worship existed as early as the ninth century AD, the period of its author.The image of Vitho
ba was first worshipped as a pastoral god as early as the sixth century and is similar to Bir Ku
70

ar, the cattle-god of the Ahirs of Bihar, who is now also associated with Krishna.
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Vithoba was later assimilated in the Shaiva pantheon and identified with the god Shiva like m
ost other pastoral gods. The temple at Pandharpur is also

70
 surrounded by Shaiva temples, most notably of the devotee Pundalik himself, and that the hea
dgear of Vithoba is a Linga, the symbol of Shiva. However in the 13th century, the saints Na
mdev, Eknath and Tukaram recognized Vithoba as a form of Vishnu. It is suggested that the
worship originated at Pandharpur before 1000 CE. Under the possible influence of a Krishna-
worshiping Mahanubhava sect, the town was transformed into a Vaishnava center of pilgrima
ge, though there are still remnants of Shaiva worship in the town.

Otherd suggest Vithoba worship is more ancient than the worship of Krishna, "Vedic or pre-
edic", about 6th century BCE. According to Dhere, Vithoba is an amalgam of various local h
eroes, who gave their lives to save their cattle, and was worshiped first as a Dhangar (a sheph
erd, cowherd community) deity. Dhere thinks the rise of the Yadava dynasty, which had cow
herd ancestry, led to the glorification of Vithoba as Krishna, who is often depicted as a cowhe
rd. This also led to conversion of the Shaiva Pundarika shrine to the shrine of the devotee Pun
dalik, who brought Vithoba to Pandharpur. Vithoba is also assimilated in Buddhism as a form
of Buddha, who in turn in Hinduism is viewed as a form of Vishnu.cite encyclopedia.( "Sri-
Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvay (Marathi)" by R.C. Dhere
volume = 5) Despite assimilation in Vaishnavism as Krishna-
Vishnu, Vithoba does not inherit the erotic overtones of Krishna such as his dalliance with th
e milkmaids. Vithoba is associated more with "compassion, an infinite love and tenderness fo
r his "bhaktas"
(devotees) that can be compared to the love of the mother for her children...pining for the pre
sence of his devotees the way a cow pines for her far-away calf.
G. A. Deleury proposes that the image of Vithoba is a "Viragal"
(hero stone), which was later identified with Vishnu in his form as Krishna, and that Pundalik
transformed the Puranic, ritualistic puja worship into the bhakti-focused "interiorized adoratio
n prescinding caste distinction and institutional priesthood... [Deleury in Sand p. 38]

Tilak suggests that Vithoba emerged as "an alternative to existing panthenon" of Brahminica
l (related to classical, ritualistic Hinduism) deities. The emergence of Vithoba was concurrent
with rise of a "new type of lay devotee", the Varkari. While Vishnu and Shiva were bound in
rigid ritualistic worship and Brahmin (priest class) control, Vithoba,
"the God of the subaltern, became increasingly human". Vithoba is often praised as the protec
tor of the poor and needy.

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II

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 Indrapura (CHAMPA) and its Principalities
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 Popular Hindu Gods
Hinduism is one of the most interesting religions in the world; with a pantheon of Gods and
Goddesses, each one has a story worth looking at and a knowing. But there are certain stories
that just grip people, and the characters associated with them become memorable. Such is the
case with this list! Whether you practice Indian spirituality or not, it’s hard to be at least
somewhat aware of these figures. These 5 Gods are so memorable, they have come to signify
the entire culture of India. And don’t worry- if you are looking for the Goddesses, we’ll be
doing those soon!

Krishna

Krishna is considered to be one of the most important Gods ever in Hindu mythology, namely
because of his hand in creating the Bhagavad Gita, the most widely read Hindu text of all
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time. The most complete incarnation of Vishnu, he is probably the most popular God on this
list. He has influenced nearly every single aspect of Indian culture- music, literature, art,
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philosophy, dance, and mysticism. His blue likeness is nearly always depicted when
referencing Hinduism; in fact, most people think of Krishna when they think of the religion!

73
 Ganesha

Ganesha has become almost a pop icon in the last 5 years. With his elephant head, human
body, and mouse for a ride, he’s unmistakable. Created by Parvati and known as the
harbinger of success and destroyer of obstacles, it’s easy to understand how so many people
would be attracted to this God.

Hanuman

Hanuman is one of the most popular deities, and is a symbol of strength, devotion, loyalty,
and perseverance. Believed to be an incarnation of Shiva, the Hanuman Chalisa is often
chanted in Hindu culture when troubles plague the devotee.

Shiva

Known as “the destroyer”, Shiva is easily the most powerful God on this list. Shiva
represents the immortal quality of death and dissolution in the universe, and is part of the
Hindu trinity (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva). Shiva is worshiped in the form of a “Shiva
Lingam”, a phallic symbol that symbolizes the universe and is considered to be the first form
in creation.

Rama

Of all the Hindu Gods, Rama is the one of the few that’s considered to be an actual historical
figure, possibly a famous king. According to myth, however, Rama is the incarnation of
Vishnu- the God of “preservation” or life in the Hindu trinity. Rama is considered to be the
embodiment of truth, chivalry, virtue, and an ideal king. His stories inspired the creation of
the Ramayana, one of the most popular written texts in Hinduism next to the Bhagavad Gita.
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74
 Cities of the Srivijaya Monuments of the Srivijaya
1. Palembang 1. Borobudur
South Sumatra, Indonesia Central Java, Indonesia
GPS: -3.01485, 104.73436 GPS: -7.60721, 110.20334
2. Muaro Jambi (Jambi) 2. Candi Muara Takus
Jambi, Indonesia Riau, Indonesia
GPS: -1.47763, 103.66707 GPS: 0.33456, 100.64098
3. Batujaya 3. Candi Muaro Jambi
Jakarta, Indonesia Jambi, Indonesia
GPS: -6.05634, 107.15491 GPS: -1.47763, 103.66707
4. Singapura (Singapore) 4. Candi Bahal Portibi Temples
Singapore, Singapore North Sumatra, Indonesia
GPS: 1.34789, 103.87427 GPS: 1.40516, 99.73049
5. Tambralinga (Nakhon Si 5. Wat Long
Thammarat) Surat Thani, Thailand
Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand GPS: 9.38213, 99.19039
GPS: 8.41206, 99.96645
6. Chaiya
Surat Thani, Thailand
GPS: 9.38461, 99.18544

Champa was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of
what is contemporary present-day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd
century AD until 1832, when the last remaining principality of Champa was annexed by
the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty under its emperor Minh Mạng as part of its
expansionist Nam tiến policy.The kingdom was known as
Nagaracampa (Sanskrit: नगरचम्प) The Kingdoms of Champa and the Chams contribute
profound and direct impacts to the history of Vietnam, Southeast Asia, as well as their
present day. Early Champa, evolved from seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh
culture off the coast of modern-day Vietnam. The emergence of Champa at the late 2nd
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century AD shows testimony of early Southeast Asian statecrafting and crucial stage of
the making of Southeast Asia. The peoples of Champa had been established and maintained a
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vast system of lucrative trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian
Ocean and Eastern Asia, until the 17th century. In Champa, historians also witness the first
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 and oldest native Southeast Asian language literature being written down around c. 350 AD,
predating first Khmer, Mon, Malay texts by centuries.
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Map of Mainland Southeast Asia circa 1000 - 1100 CE, showing Khmer Empire in red,
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Lavo kingdom/Dvaravati in light blue, Haripunjaya in green, Champa in yellow, Dai

Viet in blue, Kingdom of Pagan in pink, Srivijaya in lime and surrounding states.

76
 The name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka (pronounced /tʃampaka/), which
refers to Magnolia champaca, a species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers. It is
proposed that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from
Central Vietnam arrived in present-day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri, an
ancient sacred city in Buddhism, for trade, then adopted the name for their people back in
their homeland. While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa was brought by Indians to
Central Vietnam. All this doen not bolster the claim of the author that the area was named
after the Godess SARASWATI the Hindu Goddess of Knowledge whose favourite flower
was indeed “Champa” literal and figurative meaning.

Goddess Saraswati and her flower Champa

Recent academics however dispute the Indic origin explanation, which was conceived
by Louis Finot, a colonial-era board director of the École française d'Extrême-Orient. In his
2005 Champa revised, Michael Vickery challenges Finot's idea. He argues that the Cham
people always refer themselves as Čaṃ rather than Champa (pa–abbreviation
of peśvara, Campādeśa, Campānagara). Most indigenous Austronesian ethnic groups in
Central Vietnam such as the Rade, Jarai, Chru, Roglai peoples call the Cham by similar
lexemes which likely derived from Čaṃ. Vietnamese historical accounts also have the Cham
named as Chiêm. Most importantly, the official designation of Champa in Chinese historical
texts was Zhànchéng –meaning "the city of the Cham," "why not city of the Champa?,"
Vickery doubts.

The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the major remnants of this former
kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian closely related
to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages that is spoken throughout maritime Southeast Asia.
Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the broader culture of Champa, the
kingdom had a multiethnic population, which consisted of Austronesian Chamic-speaking
peoples that made up the majority of its demographics. The people who used to inhabit the
region are the present-day Chamic-speaking Cham, Rade and Jarai peoples in South and
Central Vietnam and Cambodia; the Acehnese from Northern Sumatra, Indonesia, along with
elements of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic-speaking peoples in Central Vietnam.
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Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese), or Linyi ,
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that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship
between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th

77
 centuries AD. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt, the
Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi. In 1832, the Vietnamese
emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories.
Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the
4th century AD, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by
the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham
lands. Mỹ Sơn, a former religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are
now World Heritage Sites. Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which
began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th
century; they are called the Bani. There are, however, the Bacam who still retain and preserve
their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals. The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-
Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world, with a culture dating back thousands of years.
The other being the Balinese Hindus of the Balinese of Indonesia.
Historical Champa consisted of up to six principalities:Interesting to note the names –all after
Hindu Gods:
Indrapura (Champa)

Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành) was the capital of Champa
from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern village of Đồng
Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da Nang is the ancient
Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which has been identified with
an archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a
number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The associated port was at
modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by this principality included present-
day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces. It was built and ruled under the
reign of Buddhist king Indravarman II (r. 875-890) and some of his successors belonging to
the Bhrgu dynasty in Đồng Dương. [5] The word Indrapura means "City of Indra" in Sanskrit,
Indra being the Hindu God of Storm and War, and King of the Gods in the Rig Veda.
Indrapura (nowadays Đồng Dương) was transcribed in both Chinese and Vietnamese sources
as Fóshì/Phật Thệ .
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Sculpture of Cham monks, c. 10th century, Dong Duong style. Museum of Cham
Sculpture, Danang.

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 Influence of Mahayana Buddhism
Buddhist temples extended as far north as Quảng Bình and across northern Champa. This led
the 13th century Vietnamese king Trần Nhân Tông, a Buddhist devotee, to travel to Champa
for nine months during which he visited Buddhist sacred sites.[8]
End and destruction

The rise of two neighboring powers, Đại Cồ Việt in the north and the Khmer empire in the
West, posed new threats to Champa. A war between Champa and the Khmer empire in 945,
and another with Đại Cồ Việt under the Early Lê dynasty in 979, together weakened Champa.
In 982, King of the Đại Việt, Lê Hoàn, led armies to sack a city in Northern Champa (Quảng
Bình) in the Cham–Vietnamese War (982), killing the Cham king Paramesvaravarman I. His
successor retreated 700 li (300 km/186 mi) to the city of Indrapura.
In 983, a Vietnamese named Lưu Kế Tông (Liu Jizong) dethroned the ruling king of Champa,
and in 986 he proclaimed himself king of Champa, while sending envoy to Song China to
find recognition, and his story was recorded in the History of the Song dynasty (Song Shi)
and Song Huiyao Jigao. Many Chams fled to China's Hainan Island. In 988, the new king of
Champa, Harivarman II, who was referred to in Chinese sources (in the Song Shi and SHYJG)
as Yángtuópái sent an envoy to the Song dynasty. The Song Shi reports that a Cham envoy in
1007 reported that "my country was formerly subject to Jiaozhou, then we fled to Foshi
[Indrapura], 700 li south of our former location." The Vietnamese chronicle Khâm định Việt
sử Thông giám cương mục relates that Huế was once in Cham territory, or had been belonged
to the Principality of Foshi [Indrapura]. There was no proof that yāï po ku vijaya śrī
Harivarman (r. 989–997), who was elected by the Cham to overthrow Lưu Kế Tông, had ever
moved the capital south to Bình Ðịnh. These historical accounts could be seen as evidence
that a Vietnamese attack in 982 not on Indrapura, but on a city ruled by a minor king from the
same Indrapura dynasty in modern-day Quảng Bình. Early scholarship misinterpretation had
failed to recognize the fact that 'Foshi' in both Chinese and Vietnamese sources was indeed
Indrapura, not Vijaya. Michael Vickery suggests it was likely an ostensibly endeavor of
colonial-era scholars to link Chinese eponym Foshi with Southeast Asian Vijaya to solder the
existence of the posited Srivijaya empire (rediscovered in 1911) which located in modern-
day Indonesia
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Đồng Dương before its destruction during the Vietnam War/Crumbling ruins of the
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Monastery in 2011

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 Đồng Dương and surrounding sites during the height of the war were hotspots of the NLF
(Vietcong) activities and bunkers. After the war as Champa sites throughout South Vietnam
had received massive destructions, research on Champa resumed in the late 1980s and 1990s.
In recent decades, Indrapura/Đồng Dương has been re-excavated, revealing new insights
about the city during its magnificence.
Modern-day vestiges of Indrapura/Đồng Dương are barely recognizable: eroded citadel; the
royal palace area; watch towers; ruins of the Monastery; paved roads, bridges, and sewer
system. It was a highly organized, well-urbanized city. Except for the remaining temples and
shrines, most buildings in medieval Indrapura might have been constructed with wooden
materials such as logs or bamboo.

Indrapura ruins in Champa

The Buddhist dynasty at Indrapura

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 Buddhist altar from Đồng Dương, 9th-10th century AD. Museum of Cham
Sculpture, Danang.
In 875, King Indravarman II founded a new northern dynasty at Indrapura . (Dong Duong
near Da Nang in modern Vietnam). Eager to claim an ancient lineage, Indravarman declared
himself the descendant of Bhrigu, the venerable sage whose exploits are detailed in
the Mahabharata, and asserted that Indrapura had been founded by the same Bhrigu in ancient
times. From 877 onward, the Chinese knew Champa as "Cheng-cheng", discontinuing their
use of the term "Huan-wang." Indravarman II repulsed an invasion by the Khmer
King Yasovarman I. Indravarman was the first Cham monarch to adopt Mahayana
Buddhism as an official religion. At the center of Indrapura, he constructed a Buddhist
monastery (vihara) dedicated to the bodhisattva Lokesvara The foundation, regrettably, was
devastated during the Vietnam War. Thankfully, some photographs and sketches survive
from the prewar period. In addition, some stone sculptures from the monastery are preserved
in Vietnamese museums. Scholars have called the artistic style typical of the Indrapura
the Dong Duong Style. The style is characterized by its dynamism and ethnic realism in the
depiction of the Cham people. Surviving masterpieces of the style include several tall
sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or temple guardians that were once positioned around the
monastery. The period in which Buddhism reigned as the principal religion of Champa came
to an end in approximately 925, at which time the Dong Duong Style also began to give way
to subsequent artistic styles linked with the restoration of Shaivism as the national religion.[
Kings belonging to the dynasty of Indrapura built a number of temples at Mỹ Sơn in the 9th
and 10th centuries. Their temples at Mỹ Sơn came to define a new architectural and artistic
style, called by scholars the Mỹ Sơn A1 Style, again in reference to a particular foundation at
Mỹ Sơn regarded emblematic for the style. With the religious shift from Buddhism back to
Shaivism around the beginning of the 10th century, the center of Cham religion also shifted
from Dong Duong back to Mỹ Sơn.

Principalities of Champa
Champa was the capital of ancient Anga in the sixth century BC. It was of great commercial
importance. It was a river port from which ships world said down the Ganga and coast to
south India and Sri Lanka. During the medieval age, the Champa Kingdom benefited greatly
from the luxurious maritime trade routes through the South China Sea and overland trade
networks connecting Angkor and Bagan to Champa. Urbanization in Champa took place
progressively from the first to eighth centuries AD, from the late Sahuynhian to the early
Champa period. List of Sanscritized names of the Champa polity include:
1. Simhapura( City of Lions- Lion here could mean Avatara NARASIMHA
2. Amarendrapur
3. Indrapur
4. Amravati
5. Vijaya
6. Virapura
7. Panduranga
8. Ratnapura
9. Vishnupura
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These were also named after Hindu Gods or incidental to these

81
  Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. Amaravati,
meaning “Abode of the Gods,” was said to be the site where the mythical beings devas,
yakshas, and kinnaras performed penance to the Hindu god Shiva to vanquish the demon
Tarakasura.

Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes
feats by King Jaya Indravarman I (r. 960-972).Amravati Stupa,India

 Vijaya meaning Victory and could be the victory of Ram over Ravana or Pandavas over
Kauravas in Mahabharata.was located in present-day Bình Định
Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po
Nagar. The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The
associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important excavations have also been
conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious and cultural centre.
Vijaya became the political and cultural centre of Champa around 1150s. It remained the
center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa
was again displaced toward the south. In its time, the principality of Vijaya controlled
much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru)
Provinces. Interesting parallels may be observed between the history of northern Champa
(Indrapura and Vijaya) and that of its neighbor and rival to the west,
the Khmer civilization of Angkor, located just to the north of the great lake Tonlé Sap in
what is now Cambodia. The foundation of the Cham dynasty at Indrapura in 875 was
followed by the foundation of the Khmer empire at Roluos in 877 by King Indravarman I,
who united two previously independent regions of Cambodia. The parallels continued as
the two peoples flourished from the 10th through 12th centuries, then went into gradual
decline, suffering their ultimate defeat in the 15th century. In 982, King Lê Hoàn of Đại
Việt sent army invaded Champa, sacked Indrapura and beheaded Champa king. The new
Champa king agreed to pay tributes to Vietnamese court every year until 1064. In 1238,
the Khmer lost control of their western possessions around Sukhothai as the result of a
Thai revolt. The successful revolt not only ushered in the era of Thai independence but
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also foreshadowed the eventual abandonment of Angkor in 1431, following its sack by
Thai invaders from the kingdom of Ayutthaya, which had absorbed Sukhothai in 1376.
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The decline of Champa was roughly contemporaneous with that of Angkor and was

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 precipitated by pressure from Đại Việt of what is now northern Vietnam, culminating in
the conquest and obliteration of Vijaya in 1471.
 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural centre was the temple of Po Nagar,
several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784
AD inscription at Po Nagar. The word Kauthar is derived from the root Kathu , which has
meanings of "to increase in number, to outnumber, to happen frequently; to show pride in
wealth and/or children; to be rich, plentiful, abundance." The form Kawthar itself is an
intensive deverbal noun, meaning "abundance, multitude."

In the 8th century, during the time when the Chinese knew the country as "Huanwang",
the political center of Champa shifted temporarily from Mỹ Sơn southward to the regions
of Panduranga and Kauthara, centered around the temple complex of Po Nagar near
modern Nha Trang that was dedicated to the indigenous Earth goddess Yan Po Nagar. In
774, raiders from Java disembarked in Kauthara, burned the temple of Po Nagar, and
carried off the image of Shiva. The Cham king Satyavarman (r. 770–787) pursued the
raiders and defeated them in a naval battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po
Nagar, declaring that he had regained control of the area and had restored the temple. In
787, Javanese raiders destroyed a temple dedicated to Shiva near Panduranga.

 Panduranga named after Vishnu, was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–
Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with
capital Parik, was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was
the most autonomous, sometimes independent, princedom/principality of
Champa. Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.
 Simhapura or city of Lions meaning the avatar of Shiva as |Narasimha

Plo kong Garai

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Within the principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in Vietnamese)
and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in Amravati and

83
 Vijaya, while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans differed in their
customs and habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even war. But they
usually managed to settle disagreements through intermarriage.
Indrapura and Vijaya, Two notable examples of this multi-centric nature of Champa were
the principalities of Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga. When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to the
Vietnamese in 1471, Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched. Kauthara fell to
the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653, while Panduranga was annexed in 1832. Pāṇḍurṅga
had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832, which both Vietnamese and
European sources had verified. So Pāṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its
foreign affairs without permission from the court of the king of kings.
Trà Kiệu is located in the Thu Bồn river valley 18 kilometres (11 mi) inland from Hội An,
which has since moved putting the site on the southern bank of the Bà Rén river, a tributary
of the Thu Bồn river.
Simhapura
Trà Kiệu was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa Kingdom, then named Simhapura,
from the 4th century to the 8th century CE. The site has been known to the western world
since the late 19th century. Today nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular
ramparts. Bửu Châu or jade hill overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the
Simhapura. There are also signs of a border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently
unknown if this was for defense, hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else
entirely.[1] There has been much debate regarding Trà Kiệu, as it is believed by some to be the
capital city of Champa Kingdom and by others to be the capital city of the Kingdom of Lâm
Ấp (Linyi). Trà Kiệu also has two main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics
for household use and roof tiles marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings
about the iconic roof tiles with faces on them. There are two main theories about why the
faces start appearing on the tiles: the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that
workers at Trà Kiệu began carving faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was
an Indian mask maker who introduced and popularized the face motifs as this style of
decoration on roof tiles.

1. The Trà Kiệu pedestal of the 10th century supports a massive lingam and
ablutionary cistern.

2. A row of apsaras, or celestial nymphs, is depicted on the base of the Trà Kiệu
Pedestal.
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3. The Dancers' Pedestal of Trà Kiệu features this apsara or dancer

and gandharva or musician.
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84
 Champa theory
Occupation of the Trà Kiệu site began in the 1st-2nd century, while Cham influence at the
site didn't begin until the mid to late 4th century. [7] The city of Simhapura, now known as Trà
Kiệu, had its perimeter walls built in the early centuries of the Common Era which support
the above statements. While Champa influence began traveling out of India and into South-
Eastern Asia in the 4th century, Simhapura isn't believed to have become the capital of the
Champa Kingdom until the 10th century AD. Further mentions of Simhapura dating from the
11th century (1074–1076) when king Harivarman IV decided to restore the city back to its
golden age. Evidence of Cham influence in Trà Kiệu are sketches from Claeys that show the
district foundations on which Cham built their towers. [9] There's evidence of bricks both
broken and intricately laid that denote the Cham's influence in Trà Kiệu. Additionally, the
border wall was made of brick which tells us that Trà Kiệu had enough Cham influence to
fashion their border walls after the Cham style. There was additionally a lot of Cham style
pottery found at Trà Kiệu, and while this is not definitive evidence there was enough pottery
to make it highly significant.[3] Ultimately, while there is no absolute proof of the Champa
Theory, there is significant evidence of Chinese influence as well. However, the Cham
influence is undeniable and many Vietnamese Archeologists conclude that Simhapura now
known as Trà Kiệu was the capital of the Champa Kingdom.

Ceramic end tile with decoration from Trà Kiệu. Example of roof tiles with face
motif//Stone sculpture of the god Siva on a pedestal and on display at the Museum of
Cham Sculpture (Da Nang). The presence of Siva gives some credence to the Champa
theory

Lin Yi theory
This theory is proposed by Leonard Aurousseau, who sent out the original documenter of Trà
Kiệu, J.-Y. Claeys. Claeys conducted flyovers of Trà Kiệu in 1927 and his research went on
to undermine Aurousseau, who thought Trà Kiệu was the capital of the Lin Yi empire that
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enveloped parts of Vietnam.[9] This deviates even from the later developed "Champa theory"
explained above because Aurousseau believed Trà Kiệu to be the city that was invaded by
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China in the 5th century. This theory was based on the ancient Chinese records of the

85
 invasion and was a shot in the dark as the precise location of Lin Yi has remained uncertain.
It was unclear from said Chinese records if Lin Yi referred to a Kingdom or a City.
Another scholar, Andrew David Hardy, theorizes the name Lin Yi may have been used by the
Chinese as a catch-all for a hostile Vietnamese polity. According to Hardy, Lin Yi was
located north of Cham territory and was likely not a Cham settlement and was instead later
absorbed into the Champa polity as it expanded north. He further theorizes that the Chinese
simply extended the name Lin Yi to the Champa Thu Bồn valley. As with Aurousseau's
theory, Hardy bases this hypothesis on speculation and on documentation of China's
interactions with the Champa, as well as an elusive Vietnamese polity.
Chronology
There are two main phases in the chronology of Trà Kiệu, which are as follows: Trà Kiệu I
Phase (which can be further subdivided into Ia and Ib) and Trà Kiệu II Phase. [1] The largest
difference between Trà Kiệu I and II Phase lie in the styles of roof tiles found at the site. Trà
Kiệu I Phase is represented by the presence of roof tiles with textile impressions, while Trà
Kiệu II Phase roof tiles lack impressions. Roof tiles from Trà Kiệu II Phase are instead
decorated with motifs of human faces. A further breakdown of the chronology of Trà Kiệu
from researcher Trường Giang Đỗ is as follows:

 Trà Kiệu I Phase

o A range of pottery of coarse fabric, including:
o Ovoid jars, cord-marked jars, lids, dishes, bowls, pedestal cups and stoves and roof
tiles
 Trà Kiệu I Phase Ia
o Roof tiles marked with textile impressions
 Trà Kiệu II Phase
o No roof tiles with textile impressions on concave surface, instead decorated with
human faces
o Eaves tiles with human face motifs can be dated from the third century CE, likely
from the second quarter and onwards
Origins of face motifs

Stone image of the god Visnu on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture. (Da Nang) This
Visnu gives further evidence to the Hindu face motif theory.
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The leading theory on the origins of the face motifs on roof tiles from Trà Kiệu comes from
Japanese researcher Nishimura Masanari, who studied roof tiles excavated from the site
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of Lũng Khê in Thuận Thành district, Bắc Ninh province, and compared them to roof tiles
excavated from Nanjing, China. Roof tiles from these locations include face motifs similar to

86
 those found at Trà Kiệu. The main difference in the styles of these tiles is that those
excavated from Lũng Khê also feature lotus motifs, which are not seen in Trà Kiệu. [1] Dr.
Nishimura attributes this difference in motif styles to religious and ideological differences,
mainly that of Hinduism (face motif) and Buddhism (lotus motif). His theory states that the
spread of Buddhism did not have as much as an impact at Trà Kiệu as it did at Lũng Khê, and
that Trà Kiệu may have had more Hindu influence. An additional theory of Indian influence
is the possibility that the face motif roof tiles at Trà Kiệu may have been introduced and
popularized by an Indian mask maker.

Panduranga or Prangdarang or Pandharpur ( the city “pur” of Pandhari)

Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump state successor of
the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471.
It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam. It stood until late 17th century as the
Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham
polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng
was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th century onward, it had been
ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the court of the king of kings
at Vijaya, central Champa.
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87
 In the map, Panduranga is at
lower right

In the Bhakti tradition, there is a highly revered Saint known as Pundalik. Pundalik has come
to be known as a symbol for Supreme, Unconditional Love. His heart was so open and his
Love forgot no one. Pundalik’s devotion caused God to go looking for him.

Champa, Chinese Lin-yi, ancient Indochinese kingdom lasting from the 2nd to the 17th
century AD and extending over the central and southern coastal region of Vietnam from
roughly the 18th parallel in the north to Point Ke Ga (Cape Varella) in the south. Established
by the Cham, a people of Malayo-Polynesian stock and Indianized culture, Champa was
finally absorbed by the Vietnamese, who in turn were strongly influenced by Cham culture.

Champa was formed in AD 192, during the breakup of the Han dynasty of China, when the
Han official in charge of the region established his own kingdom around the area of the
present city of Hue. Although the territory was at first inhabited mainly by wild tribes
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involved in incessant struggles with the Chinese colonies in Tonkin, it gradually came under
Indian cultural influence, evolving into a decentralized country composed of four small
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states, named after regions of India—Amaravati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Binh Dinh); Kauthara

88
 (Nha Trang); and Panduranga (Phan Rang)—whose populations remained concentrated in
small coastal enclaves. It had a powerful fleet that was used for commerce and for piracy.

In about AD 400 Champa was united under the rule of King Bhadravarman. In retaliation for
Cham raids on their coast, the Chinese invaded Champa in 446, bringing the region under
their suzerainty once again. Finally, under a new dynasty in the 6th century, Champa threw
off its allegiance to China and entered into an era of great independent prosperity and artistic
achievements. The centre of the nation began to shift from north to south; around the middle
of the 8th century Chinese sources cease to mention Lin-yi and begin to refer to the kingdom
as Huan-wang, a Sinicization of the name of the northernmost province, Panduranga (Phan
Rang). In the late 8th century the Chams were distracted by attacks from Java, but in the 9th
century they renewed their pressure on the Chinese provinces to the north and the growing
Khmer (Cambodian) Empire to the west. Under Indravarman II, who established the
Indrapura dynasty (the sixth in Champan history) in 875, the capital of the country was
moved back to the northern province of Amaravati (Quang Nam), near present Hue, and
elaborate palaces and temples were constructed.

In the 10th century the Vietnamese kingdom of Dai Viet began to exert pressure on Champa,
forcing it to relinquish Amaravati in 1000 and Vijaya in 1069. Harivarman IV, who in 1074
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founded the ninth Cham dynasty, was able to stave off further Vietnamese and Cambodian
attacks, but in 1145 the Khmers, under the aggressive leadership of Suryavarman II, invaded
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and conquered Champa. Two years later a new Cham king, Jaya Harivarman I, arose and
threw off Khmer rule, and his successor, in 1177, sacked the Cambodian capital at Angkor.

89
 Between 1190 and 1220 the Chams again came under Cambodian suzerainty, and later in the
13th century they were attacked by the Tran kings of Vietnam, as well as by the Mongols in
1284. By the late 15th century, incessant wars of aggression and defense had for all practical
purposes wiped out the Champa kingdom; one by one their provinces were annexed until
Champa was entirely absorbed in the 17th century.

Its end marked the demise of the only culture of mainland Asia with Oceanian features. Cham
painting is known only from the inscriptions on the temples. Cham sculptors, under the
influence of Indian Gupta art, evolved a very personal style, characterized by forms springing
with wild energy. Architecture generally was confined to tiered brick towers.

Early period
From 1060 to 1074, Panduranga was the capital of king Rudravarman III (r. 1061–1074).
During the 12th century when Khmer Empire invaded Champa and occupied most of the
kingdom in 1145–1150, prince Sivänandana or Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1147–1162), son of
refugee king Rudravarman IV, fled to Panduranga, then led a rebellion that resisted the
Khmer and inflicted defeats on the invaders, forcing them to make a withdrawal in 1149. In
1151, province of Amaravarti (Quảng Ngãi province) revolted against Harivarman, followed
by Panduranga in 1155. In 1190, Cham Prince Vidyanandana (r. 1192–1203) who had
defected to the Khmer was nominated as puppet king of Pänduranga. Revolts ousted Khmer
Prince In of Vijaya in 1191, which prompted Vidyanandana to rebel against the Khmer in
1192 and then reunified Champa. He faced massive retribution from Jayavarman VII of
Angkor in the next year, but Vidyanandana's struggle for Champa lasted until 1203 when the
capital of Vijaya fell to the Khmer and Vidyanandana himself fled and died in Dai Viet.
According to the Sakarai dak rai patao (Panduranga annals), the first king of Panduranga
Principality was Sri Aragang. His rule lasted between 1195/1205 to 1235/1247. The king of
kings at Vijaya still wrested certain suzerainty over Panduranga. Sri Aragang was succeeded
by Cei Anâk, who reigned between 1235/1247 - 1269/1281. After the Aragang dynasty,
Panduranga continued maintaining its sovereignty under the Dobatasuar dynasty (1269-
1373).
By the late 14th century, the whole of Champa had been unified again under the rule of a
single strong dynasty, founded by Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). Panduranga
remained autonomous but asymmetrical and maintained a tributary relationship with the
Simhavarmanids in Vijaya.

Collapse of Vijaya and the beginning of Panduranga period

When the Vietnamese under Le Thanh Tong attacked Champa in early 1471, the whole
northern part of the kingdom was razed, cities ransacked, and tens of thousand people were
killed, either massacred or enslaved by the invaders. The Vietnamese king also captured the
Cham king Tra Toan and Vijaya clansmen, deporting them to the north, ending the dynasty's
reign. This event is widely recognized as the end of the Champa Kingdom, according
to Georges Maspero's logics.[13] However, it is noteworthy to know that the fall of Vijaya was
not a "shift" of Champa power to the south or the end of the kingdom, but rather, reflects the
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multicentric nature of Champa, a confederation of semiindependent kingdoms which now

were no longer under the prestige of the Vijaya king of kings.
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Unsurprisingly, a massive wave of Cham emigration radiated across Southeast Asia: In

Cambodia, Cham refugees were welcomed, but the sources do not provide how they arrived

90
 in Cambodia and where they settled. In Thailand, there were records of Cham presence since
Ayudhaya period. In the Malay archipelago, the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) states that
after the collapse of Vijaya in 1471, two Cham princes named Indera Berma Shah and Shah
Palembang sought asylum in Melaka and Aceh. Shortly after his conversion to Islam, Indera
Berma Shah was appointed minister at the court of Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sejarah
Melayu also mentions Cham presences in Pahang, Kelantan, where the Kampung Laut
Mosque is said to be built by Champa sailors, on their way to Java and Aceh.
According to Vietnamese sources, on 22 March 1471, after the loss of the capital Vijaya to
the Vietnamese force under Le Thanh Tong, a Cham general named Bố Trì Trì (T'chai Ya Ma
Fou Ngan in Chinese annals) fled to Panduranga's capital Pa Rang and set up his own rule
and submitted to Le Thanh Tong seven days later. Thanh Tong agreed, but he divided the
Cham remnants into three smaller polities: Kauthara, Panduranga, and the northern part
of Central Highlands.[19] Champa was reduced in six regions: Aia Ru (Phú Yên), Aia Trang
(Khánh Hòa), Panrang (Phan Rang), Kraong (Long Hương), Parik (Phan Rí Cửa) and Pajai
(Phú Hài [vi]). The Chinese Ming Shilu provides another deviation of the timeline: Although
the Vietnamese sacking of Vijaya in March 1471, T'chai Ya Ma Fou Ngan still facilitated
token diplomacy with Ming Empire in unoccassional years, in 1478, 1505, and 1515, the son
of Fou Ngan received succession prescription from the Ming; their last contact occurred in
1543.
According to the Cham annal, from 1421/1448 to 1567/1579, the capital of Panduranga was
Biuh Bal Batsinâng. From 1567/1579 to 1653, it had been relocated to Bal Pangdarang
(present day Phan Rang). From the late 17th century until 1832, the capital of Panduranga
was once again moved south to Phan Rí Cửa.
The Cham stopped paying tribute to the Viet court when the Le was usurped by the Mac
dynasty in 1526.
Revival

Temple of King Po Rome (r. 1627-1651)///The Boxer Codex depiction of Chamcia

(Cham) couple, c. 1595
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During the sixteenth century, as Dai Viet fragmented in the north, Panduranga Champa again
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gained prosper from the rise of the international trade. Throughout the seventeenth century,
Cham merchants traded actively in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani,

91
 and Makassar. A Spanish record reported that "many Muslims live in Champa, whose Hindu
king wanted Islam to be spoken and taught, resulted in many mosques existed along with
Hindu temples.
In 1578, Panduranga assaulted Nguyen lord's domain near Đà Rằng River. In 1594,
Panduranga king sent a fleet of 400 warships to aid the Johor Sultanate in its struggles against
the Portuguese in Melaka
Panduranga also helped its neighbor Cambodia during the Cambodian–Spanish War, which
resulted in delivering a fiasco to the Spanish conquistadors. Governor of Malina, Luis Pérez
Dasmariñas (fl. 1593–96) sent a letter to the court of king Philip II in late 1595, antagonizing
the Cham king as "a vicious dangerous tyrant who was treacherous and full of evil deeds,"
while his second letter suggested that just around 200–300 Spanish soldiers and 500 local
mercenaries would be needed to conquer Champa. During that time, the Cham were
remembered by Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch merchants and seamen as ferocious pirates of
the South China Sea who numerously boarded merchant ships, plundering cargos, kidnapping
crew members, and routinely took European hostages to slavery. Cham kings were described
to be at least involved or actively encouraging raids against foreign ships.
In 1611, in an attempt to retake land from the Nguyen lord, Champa mounted an attack in
Phu Yen, but gained no success, and the Kauthara principality was lost to the Nguyen after a
counterattack.

Later period under Po Rome dynasty

With the rise of nearby Hội An, most foreign traders now were leaving Champa. Japanese
seal trade ships ceased to trade with Champa in 1623. [30] In 1611, lord Nguyen Phuc
Nguyen sent an army led by Văn Phong, a Cham defector, attacking Panduranga, annexing
the entire Kauthara Principality. Nguyen lord then resettled 30,000 Trinh POWs in Phu Yen.
Notable Cham king of this period, Po Rome (r. 1627-1651), was known for his great
erudition of Islam after having a sojourn study in Kelantan, Malay Peninsula, and the mass
conversion to Islam by his people. He encouraged trade, granting the Dutch permission to
arrange free trade in his country unless they do not attack Portuguese merchants at his ports.
[32]
To resolve discontents between Muslims and Balamon, Po Rome ordered the Cham Bani
to have their religion more integrated with Cham customs and beliefs, while pressing the
Ahier to accept Allah as the most supreme God but allowed them to retain their worships of
traditional Cham divinities, excellently reforging peace and cohesion in his kingdom. King
Po Rome is an important deity that is being venerated by the Cham people today.
Connections between Pandaranga and the extra Malay/Islamic world blossomed. Syncretism
was widely practiced at all levels, best known for incorporating cosmopolitan Islamic
doctrines into existing indigenous Cham beliefs and Hindu pantheons. The multipurpose
lunisolar sakawi calendar, was likely Po Rome's best combination of previous Cham Śaka
era with the Islamic lunar calendar.
European missionaries described Champa in the 1670s as having the majority of its
population being Muslims, a Muslim sultan, and a Muslim court. In 1680 Panduranga
king Po Saut (r. 1659–1692) styled himself with Malay horrific Paduka Seri Sultan in his
hand letter to the Dutch in Java. In 1686, the Cham and Malay Muslim communities in Siam
92

reportedly joined the Makassars rebellion against king Narai of Ayudhya.

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WARS

92
 Under Po Rome's dynasty, Panduranga suffered several incursions from the Southern
Vietnamese Nguyen kingdom which centered around trading centers Hue-Hoi An, the old
center region of Champa which had been recently Vietnamized. Lords Nguyễn Phúc
Nguyên, Nguyễn Phúc Tần, and Nguyễn Phúc Chu repeatedly invaded Panduranga in 1611,
1629, 1653, 1692. During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Nguyen of Cochinchina
were too preoccupied dealing with their northern enemies, the Trịnh, rather than with the
Cham. Though was not recorded in official chronicles, but in dynastic genealogy and
pseudonymous Cham sources, in 1631 Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên arranged the marriage of his
princess Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Khoa to king Po Rome.[36][37] Alexander de Rhodes describes
sometime in 1639, the Nguyen still placed several galleys in the port of Ran Ran (Phú Yên)
to prevent seaborne incursion from Champa.
Having successfully fended off the Trinh, the Nguyen thalassocracy turned its attention to the
south, dispatching their first interference in Cambodia, overthrowing its first and only
Muslim king Ramathipadi I in 1658. The Nguyen had periodically invaded Cambodia several
times from 1658 to 1692 on par with Siam. In 1682, Panduranga reportedly sent envoys led
by the king's brothers who had fled after the king's coronation to Ayudhya in a possible
search for Siamese protection.
In 1692, lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu invaded Panduranga, arresting King Po Saut and renaming
Panduranga to Trấn Thuận Thành (Principality of Thuận Thành). The lord established Bình
Thuận District inside the Principality as free lands for ethnic Viet settler colonialism,[40] but
Cham revolts in 1693–96 forced the Nguyen lord to mitigate the resentment by abolishing the
Binh Thuan county, restoring the Cham monarchy with full rights, however, becoming a
vassal of the Nguyen, according to a following treaty signed in 1712. In 1694 Panduranga
king Po Saktiraydapatih (r. 1695–1727) received the title King of Thuan Thanh From 1695
onward, Panduranga had been reduced to a client state of the Nguyen domain, known as
the Principality of Thuận Thành (Trấn Thuận Thành – Principality of 'Submissive Citadel').

Mercantile Role
During the 16th century, Cham merchants renewed their commercial links and actively traded
in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani, and Makassar. Among their
exports, Cham textile was famously consumed.
The 17th-century Chinese compendium Xiyang Chao Gong Dian Lu (Tributes from the
countries of the Western Sea, c. 1650) describes a type of Cham brewed liquor that is made
from cooked rice, mixed with wine and medicines, contained in pottery, and is drunk by long
bamboo straws. People would sit around the container and take sips.
Proselytization of Islam increased sharply after the fall of Vijaya, as missionary Gabriel de
San Antonio wrote a description in 1585: "The locals (Chams) hated the Castilians and
believed prophecies made by the Moro, that there would be a king Mahoma, and many would
embrace the new faith."
Currently, there are two theories among academic consensus regard the apostle of Islam to
Champa, proposed by scholars Antoine Cabaton and Pierre-Yves Manguin. The first theory
states that Islam could have been introduced by Arab, Persian, Indian merchants, scholars,
religious leaders, during from the 10th to 14th century. The second theory argues that Islam
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arrived in Champa through a later, shorter, indirectly way from the Malays (jawa, melayu,
chvea), according to Manguin, is more convincing and valid. Most historians agree that the
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Cham only began converting to Islam en masse after the destruction of Vijaya. [44] In his
conclusion, Manguin attributes the Islamization of the Cham people to their active

93
 participation in the regional maritime networks, and the Malay states and Malay traders
which also contributed great impacts to the process. Panduranga had its own revolt against
the court of king Jaya Paramesvaravarman I (r. 1044–1060) in 1050.[ In contrast with
scholars who view Champa as the kingdom exclusively of the Cham, recent scholars such
as Po Dharma and Richard O’Connor, rebrand Champa as a multiethnic kingdom. They note
that Champa was highly likely a coalition of the Cham lowlanders and the indigenous
inhabitants of the Central Highlands, although Cham culture is usually associated with the
broader culture of Champa

Panduranga is named after Panduiranga another toponym of Lord Vishnu

IV
Cities of Panduranga and Dvaraka of Thailand and India
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 A four-armed Vithoba, a 19th-century painting from Tiruchchirappalli, Tamil Nadu.
Here, Vithoba is depicted as an arms-akimbo Vishnu///The Vitthala temple in Hampi,
Karnataka, was built by Krishnadevaraya, whose guru Vyasatirtha was a key Haridasa
figure/// This bronze image from a home shrine inherits the traditional attributes of
Vithoba's Pandharpur image like the conical headgear, the fish shaped earrings, the gem
stubbed necklace, and the brick. This image shows Vithoba's right hand making a blessing
gesture and his left hand holding a shankha.
Introduction: Many cities in South East India and in several countries bore Sanskrit names
inspired by Holy Hindu texts as well as legand. Not just to bring good fortunes to the |Kings
and his inhabitants but also to affirm that the trend of naming after Hindu Gods was not left
behing in their domain. Vithala is also another name of Krishna and there is no difference
between Krishna and Panduranga or Pundalik as he is fondly called.

When Krishna arrived at Pundaliks house. Pundalik was busy taking care of his parents.
Krishna announced his arrival to Pundalik. Pundalik knew it was Krishna but being devoted
to his parents, he could not leave them that instant. So Pundalik threw a brick outside and told
Krishna to stand on it. Krishna was pleased at Pundaliks ‘s devotion towards his parents . So
he stood on the brick.
I repeat Krishna stood on the brick.
Brick in Marathi is known as Vhit.
Thal is Ground.
Hence he is also known as God standing on Brick- Vitthal.

1. Dwarka has also been referred to throughout its history as “Mokshapuri”,

“Dwarkamati”, and “Dwarkavati”. It is mentioned in the ancient prehistoric epic
period of the Mahabharata. According to legend, Krishna settled here after he
defeated and killed his uncle Kansa at Mathura.

2. Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump

state successor of the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese
emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471. It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam.
It stood until late 17th century as the Nguyễn lords of Đàng Trong, a powerful
Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham polity under the name Principality of
Thuận Thành.

Was Krishna an avatar?

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Krishna playing the flute

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 . Krishna, Sanskrit Kṛṣṇa, one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian
divinities, worshipped as the eighth incarnation (avatar, or avatara) of the Hindu
god Vishnu and also as a supreme god in his own right. Krishna became the focus of
numerous bhakti (devotional) cults, which have over the centuries produced a wealth of
religious poetry, music, and painting. The basic sources of Krishna’s mythology are the
epic Mahabharata and its 5th-century-CE appendix, the Harivamsha, and the Puranas,
particularly Books X and XI of the Bhagavata-purana. They relate how Krishna (literally
“black,” or “dark as a cloud”) was born into the Yadava clan, the son of Vasudeva and
Devaki, who was the sister of Kamsa, the wicked king of Mathura (in modern Uttar Pradesh).
Kamsa, hearing a prophecy that he would be destroyed by Devaki’s child, tried to slay her
children, but Krishna was smuggled across the Yamuna River to Gokula (or Vraja, modern
Gokul), where he was raised by the leader of the cowherds, Nanda, and his wife Yashoda.

The child Krishna was adored for his mischievous pranks; he also performed many miracles
and slew demons. As a youth, the cowherd Krishna became renowned as a lover, the sound of
his flute prompting the gopis (wives and daughters of the cowherds) to leave their homes to
dance ecstatically with him in the moonlight. His favourite among them was the
beautiful Radha. At length, Krishna and his brother Balarama returned to Mathura to slay the
wicked Kamsa. Afterward, finding the kingdom unsafe, Krishna led the Yadavas to the
western coast of Kathiawar and established his court at Dvaraka (modern Dwarka, Gujarat).
He married the princess Rukmini and took other wives as well.

Krishna refused to bear arms in the great war between the Kauravas (sons of Dhritarashtra,
the descendant of Kuru) and the Pandavas (sons of Pandu), but he offered a choice of his
personal attendance to one side and the loan of his army to the other. The Pandavas chose the
former, and Krishna thus served as charioteer for Arjuna, one of the Pandava brothers. On his
return to Dvaraka, a brawl broke out one day among the Yadava chiefs in which Krishna’s
brother and son were slain. As the god sat in the forest lamenting, a huntsman, mistaking him
for a deer, shot him in his one vulnerable spot, the heel, killing him.

Krishna’s personality is clearly a composite one, though the different elements are not easily
separated. Vasudeva-Krishna was deified by the 5th century BCE. The cowherd Krishna was
probably the god of a pastoral community. The Krishna who emerged from the blending of
these figures was ultimately identified with the supreme god Vishnu-Narayana and, hence,
considered his avatar. His worship preserved distinctive traits, chief among them an
exploration of the analogies between divine love and human love. Thus, Krishna’s youthful
dalliances with the gopis are interpreted as symbolic of the loving interplay between God and
the human soul.

The rich variety of legends associated with Krishna’s life led to an abundance of
representation in painting and sculpture. The child Krishna (Balakrishna) is depicted crawling
on his hands and knees or dancing with joy, a ball of butter held in his hands. The divine
lover—the most common representation—is shown playing the flute, surrounded by
adoring gopis. In 17th- and 18th-century Rajasthani and Pahari painting, Krishna is
characteristically depicted with blue-black skin, wearing a yellow dhoti (loincloth) and a
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crown of peacock feathers.

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PANDURANG or PANGURANGA is a very Typical name of Lord Vishnu that caught my

attention years ago when studying the history of the Cham Brahmins of Vietnam.

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 This is lts story:
Champa, ancient Vietnam as it was called, was preceded in the region by a kingdom
called Lâm Ấp, that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship
between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th
centuries AD. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt, the
Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi. In 1832, the Vietnamese
emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories.

Campa (Tsiompa) and Panduranga/Panrang (Padarang) RIGHT PIC Thai Dwaravati

Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the
4th century AD, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by
the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham
lands. Mỹ Sơn, a former religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are
now World Heritage Sites. Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which
began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th
century; they are called the Bani (Ni tục, from Arabic: Bani). There are, however, the Bacam
(Bacham, Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals.
The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world,
with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hinduism of
Balinese of Indonesia.
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 Indian Dwarka

Historical Champa consisted of up to five principalities:Interesting to note the names –all

after Hindu Gods:

 Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành) was the capital of
Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern
village of Đồng Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da
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Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which
has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the
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valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The

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 associated port was at modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by this principality
included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.

Indrapura ruins in Champa

Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. Amaravati,
meaning “Abode of the Gods,” was said to be the site where the mythical beings devas,
yakshas, and kinnaras performed penance to the Hindu god Shiva to vanquish the demon
Tarakasura.

Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes
feats by King Jaya Indravarman I (r. 960-972).Amravati Stupa,India

 Vijaya meaning Victory and could be the victory of Ram over Ravana or Pandavas over
Kauravas in Mahabharata.was located in present-day Bình Định
Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po
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Nagar. The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The
associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important excavations have also been
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conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious and cultural centre.
Vijaya became the political and cultural centre of Champa around 1150s. It remained the

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 center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa
was again displaced toward the south. In its time, the principality of Vijaya controlled
much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru)
Provinces.
 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural centre was the temple of Po Nagar,
several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784
AD inscription at Po Nagar. The word Kauthar is derived from the root Kathu , which has
meanings of "to increase in number, to outnumber, to happen frequently; to show
pride in wealth and/or children; to be rich, plentiful, abundance." The form Kawthar
itself is an intensive deverbal noun, meaning "abundance, multitude"
 Panduranga named after Vishnu, was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–
Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with
capital Parik, was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was
the most autonomous, sometimes independent, princedom/principality of
Champa. Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.

Panduranga or Prangdarang or Pandharpur ( the city “pur” of Pandhari)

Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump state successor of
the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471.
It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam. It stood until late 17th century as the
Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham
polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng
was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th century onward, it had been
ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the court of the king of kings
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at Vijaya, central Champa.

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 In the map, Panduranga is at lower right

In the Bhakti tradition, there is a highly revered Saint known as Pundalik. Pundalik has come
to be known as a symbol for Supreme, Unconditional Love. His heart was so open and his
Love forgot no one. Pundalik’s devotion caused God to go looking for him.
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Champa, Chinese Lin-yi, ancient Indochinese kingdom lasting from the 2nd to the 17th
century AD and extending over the central and southern coastal region of Vietnam from
roughly the 18th parallel in the north to Point Ke Ga (Cape Varella) in the south. Established
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by the Cham, a people of Malayo-Polynesian stock and Indianized culture, Champa was
finally absorbed by the Vietnamese, who in turn were strongly influenced by Cham culture.

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 Champa was formed in AD 192, during the breakup of the Han dynasty of China, when the
Han official in charge of the region established his own kingdom around the area of the
present city of Hue. Although the territory was at first inhabited mainly by wild tribes
involved in incessant struggles with the Chinese colonies in Tonkin, it gradually came under
Indian cultural influence, evolving into a decentralized country composed of four small
states, named after regions of India—Amaravati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Binh Dinh); Kauthara
(Nha Trang); and Panduranga (Phan Rang)—whose populations remained concentrated in
small coastal enclaves. It had a powerful fleet that was used for commerce and for piracy.

In about AD 400 Champa was united under the rule of King Bhadravarman. In retaliation for
Cham raids on their coast, the Chinese invaded Champa in 446, bringing the region under
their suzerainty once again. Finally, under a new dynasty in the 6th century, Champa threw
off its allegiance to China and entered into an era of great independent prosperity and artistic
achievements. The centre of the nation began to shift from north to south; around the middle
of the 8th century Chinese sources cease to mention Lin-yi and begin to refer to the kingdom
as Huan-wang, a Sinicization of the name of the northernmost province, Panduranga (Phan
Rang). In the late 8th century the Chams were distracted by attacks from Java, but in the 9th
century they renewed their pressure on the Chinese provinces to the north and the growing
Khmer (Cambodian) Empire to the west. Under Indravarman II, who established the
Indrapura dynasty (the sixth in Champan history) in 875, the capital of the country was
moved back to the northern province of Amaravati (Quang Nam), near present Hue, and
elaborate palaces and temples were constructed.

In the 10th century the Vietnamese kingdom of Dai Viet began to exert pressure on Champa,
forcing it to relinquish Amaravati in 1000 and Vijaya in 1069. Harivarman IV, who in 1074
founded the ninth Cham dynasty, was able to stave off further Vietnamese and Cambodian
attacks, but in 1145 the Khmers, under the aggressive leadership of Suryavarman II, invaded
and conquered Champa. Two years later a new Cham king, Jaya Harivarman I, arose and
threw off Khmer rule, and his successor, in 1177, sacked the Cambodian capital at Angkor.
Between 1190 and 1220 the Chams again came under Cambodian suzerainty, and later in the
13th century they were attacked by the Tran kings of Vietnam, as well as by the Mongols in
1284. By the late 15th century, incessant wars of aggression and defense had for all practical
purposes wiped out the Champa kingdom; one by one their provinces were annexed until
Champa was entirely absorbed in the 17th century.

Its end marked the demise of the only culture of mainland Asia with Oceanian features. Cham
painting is known only from the inscriptions on the temples. Cham sculptors, under the
influence of Indian Gupta art, evolved a very personal style, characterized by forms springing
with wild energy. Architecture generally was confined to tiered brick towers.

Early period
From 1060 to 1074, Panduranga was the capital of king Rudravarman III (r. 1061–1074).
During the 12th century when Khmer Empire invaded Champa and occupied most of the
kingdom in 1145–1150, prince Sivänandana or Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1147–1162), son of
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refugee king Rudravarman IV, fled to Panduranga, then led a rebellion that resisted the
Khmer and inflicted defeats on the invaders, forcing them to make a withdrawal in 1149. In
1151, province of Amaravarti (Quảng Ngãi province) revolted against Harivarman, followed
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by Panduranga in 1155. In 1190, Cham Prince Vidyanandana (r. 1192–1203) who had
defected to the Khmer was nominated as puppet king of Pänduranga. Revolts ousted Khmer

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 Prince In of Vijaya in 1191, which prompted Vidyanandana to rebel against the Khmer in
1192 and then reunified Champa. He faced massive retribution from Jayavarman VII of
Angkor in the next year, but Vidyanandana's struggle for Champa lasted until 1203 when the
capital of Vijaya fell to the Khmer and Vidyanandana himself fled and died in Dai Viet.
According to the Sakarai dak rai patao (Panduranga annals), the first king of Panduranga
Principality was Sri Aragang. His rule lasted between 1195/1205 to 1235/1247. The king of
kings at Vijaya still wrested certain suzerainty over Panduranga. Sri Aragang was succeeded
by Cei Anâk, who reigned between 1235/1247 - 1269/1281. After the Aragang dynasty,
Panduranga continued maintaining its sovereignty under the Dobatasuar dynasty (1269-
1373).
By the late 14th century, the whole of Champa had been unified again under the rule of a
single strong dynasty, founded by Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). Panduranga
remained autonomous but asymmetrical and maintained a tributary relationship with the
Simhavarmanids in Vijaya.

Collapse of Vijaya and the beginning of Panduranga period

When the Vietnamese under Le Thanh Tong attacked Champa in early 1471, the whole
northern part of the kingdom was razed, cities ransacked, and tens of thousand people were
killed, either massacred or enslaved by the invaders. The Vietnamese king also captured the
Cham king Tra Toan and Vijaya clansmen, deporting them to the north, ending the dynasty's
reign. This event is widely recognized as the end of the Champa Kingdom, according
to Georges Maspero's logics.[13] However, it is noteworthy to know that the fall of Vijaya was
not a "shift" of Champa power to the south or the end of the kingdom, but rather, reflects the
multicentric nature of Champa, a confederation of semiindependent kingdoms which now
were no longer under the prestige of the Vijaya king of kings.
Unsurprisingly, a massive wave of Cham emigration radiated across Southeast Asia: In
Cambodia, Cham refugees were welcomed, but the sources do not provide how they arrived
in Cambodia and where they settled. In Thailand, there were records of Cham presence since
Ayudhaya period. In the Malay archipelago, the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) states that
after the collapse of Vijaya in 1471, two Cham princes named Indera Berma Shah and Shah
Palembang sought asylum in Melaka and Aceh. Shortly after his conversion to Islam, Indera
Berma Shah was appointed minister at the court of Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sejarah
Melayu also mentions Cham presences in Pahang, Kelantan, where the Kampung Laut
Mosque is said to be built by Champa sailors, on their way to Java and Aceh.
According to Vietnamese sources, on 22 March 1471, after the loss of the capital Vijaya to
the Vietnamese force under Le Thanh Tong, a Cham general named Bố Trì Trì (T'chai Ya Ma
Fou Ngan in Chinese annals) fled to Panduranga's capital Pa Rang and set up his own rule
and submitted to Le Thanh Tong seven days later. Thanh Tong agreed, but he divided the
Cham remnants into three smaller polities: Kauthara, Panduranga, and the northern part
of Central Highlands.[19] Champa was reduced in six regions: Aia Ru (Phú Yên), Aia Trang
(Khánh Hòa), Panrang (Phan Rang), Kraong (Long Hương), Parik (Phan Rí Cửa) and Pajai
(Phú Hài [vi]). The Chinese Ming Shilu provides another deviation of the timeline: Although
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the Vietnamese sacking of Vijaya in March 1471, T'chai Ya Ma Fou Ngan still facilitated
token diplomacy with Ming Empire in unoccassional years, in 1478, 1505, and 1515, the son
of Fou Ngan received succession prescription from the Ming; their last contact occurred in
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1543.

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 According to the Cham annal, from 1421/1448 to 1567/1579, the capital of Panduranga was
Biuh Bal Batsinâng. From 1567/1579 to 1653, it had been relocated to Bal Pangdarang
(present day Phan Rang).[23] From the late 17th century until 1832, the capital of Panduranga
was once again moved south to Phan Rí Cửa.
The Cham stopped paying tribute to the Viet court when the Le was usurped by the Mac
dynasty in 1526.

Revival

Temple of King Po Rome (r. 1627-1651)///The Boxer Codex depiction of Chamcia

(Cham) couple, c. 1595
During the sixteenth century, as Dai Viet fragmented in the north, Panduranga Champa again
gained prosper from the rise of the international trade. Throughout the seventeenth century,
Cham merchants traded actively in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani,
and Makassar. A Spanish record reported that "many Muslims live in Champa, whose Hindu
king wanted Islam to be spoken and taught, resulted in many mosques existed along with
Hindu temples.
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In 1578, Panduranga assaulted Nguyen lord's domain near Đà Rằng River. In 1594,
Panduranga king sent a fleet of 400 warships to aid the Johor Sultanate in its struggles against
the Portuguese in Melaka
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Panduranga also helped its neighbor Cambodia during the Cambodian–Spanish War, which
resulted in delivering a fiasco to the Spanish conquistadors. Governor of Malina, Luis Pérez

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 Dasmariñas (fl. 1593–96) sent a letter to the court of king Philip II in late 1595, antagonizing
the Cham king as "a vicious dangerous tyrant who was treacherous and full of evil deeds,"
while his second letter suggested that just around 200–300 Spanish soldiers and 500 local
mercenaries would be needed to conquer Champa. During that time, the Cham were
remembered by Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch merchants and seamen as ferocious pirates of
the South China Sea who numerously boarded merchant ships, plundering cargos, kidnapping
crew members, and routinely took European hostages to slavery. Cham kings were described
to be at least involved or actively encouraging raids against foreign ships.
In 1611, in an attempt to retake land from the Nguyen lord, Champa mounted an attack in
Phu Yen, but gained no success, and the Kauthara principality was lost to the Nguyen after a
counterattack.
Later period under Po Rome dynasty
With the rise of nearby Hội An, most foreign traders now were leaving Champa. Japanese
seal trade ships ceased to trade with Champa in 1623. [30] In 1611, lord Nguyen Phuc
Nguyen sent an army led by Văn Phong, a Cham defector, attacking Panduranga, annexing
the entire Kauthara Principality. Nguyen lord then resettled 30,000 Trinh POWs in Phu Yen.
Notable Cham king of this period, Po Rome (r. 1627-1651), was known for his great
erudition of Islam after having a sojourn study in Kelantan, Malay Peninsula, and the mass
conversion to Islam by his people. He encouraged trade, granting the Dutch permission to
arrange free trade in his country unless they do not attack Portuguese merchants at his ports.
[32]
To resolve discontents between Muslims and Balamon, Po Rome ordered the Cham Bani
to have their religion more integrated with Cham customs and beliefs, while pressing the
Ahier to accept Allah as the most supreme God but allowed them to retain their worships of
traditional Cham divinities, excellently reforging peace and cohesion in his kingdom. King
Po Rome is an important deity that is being venerated by the Cham people today.
Connections between Pandaranga and the extra Malay/Islamic world blossomed. Syncretism
was widely practiced at all levels, best known for incorporating cosmopolitan Islamic
doctrines into existing indigenous Cham beliefs and Hindu pantheons. The multipurpose
lunisolar sakawi calendar, was likely Po Rome's best combination of previous Cham Śaka
era with the Islamic lunar calendar.
European missionaries described Champa in the 1670s as having the majority of its
population being Muslims, a Muslim sultan, and a Muslim court. In 1680 Panduranga
king Po Saut (r. 1659–1692) styled himself with Malay horrific Paduka Seri Sultan in his
hand letter to the Dutch in Java. In 1686, the Cham and Malay Muslim communities in Siam
reportedly joined the Makassars rebellion against king Narai of Ayudhya.
WARS
Under Po Rome's dynasty, Panduranga suffered several incursions from the Southern
Vietnamese Nguyen kingdom which centered around trading centers Hue-Hoi An, the old
center region of Champa which had been recently Vietnamized. Lords Nguyễn Phúc
Nguyên, Nguyễn Phúc Tần, and Nguyễn Phúc Chu repeatedly invaded Panduranga in 1611,
1629, 1653, 1692.[35] During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Nguyen of
Cochinchina were too preoccupied dealing with their northern enemies, the Trịnh, rather than
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with the Cham. Though was not recorded in official chronicles, but in dynastic genealogy and
pseudonymous Cham sources, in 1631 Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên arranged the marriage of his
princess Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Khoa to king Po Rome. Alexander de Rhodes describes
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sometime in 1639, the Nguyen still placed several galleys in the port of Ran Ran (Phú Yên)
to prevent seaborne incursion from Champa.

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 Having successfully fended off the Trinh, the Nguyen thalassocracy turned its attention to the
south, dispatching their first interference in Cambodia, overthrowing its first and only
Muslim king Ramathipadi I in 1658. The Nguyen had periodically invaded Cambodia several
times from 1658 to 1692 on par with Siam. In 1682, Panduranga reportedly sent envoys led
by the king's brothers who had fled after the king's coronation to Ayudhya in a possible
search for Siamese protection.
In 1692, lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu invaded Panduranga, arresting King Po Saut and renaming
Panduranga to Trấn Thuận Thành (Principality of Thuận Thành). The lord established Bình
Thuận District inside the Principality as free lands for ethnic Viet settler colonialism,[40] but
Cham revolts in 1693–96 forced the Nguyen lord to mitigate the resentment by abolishing the
Binh Thuan county, restoring the Cham monarchy with full rights, however, becoming a
vassal of the Nguyen, according to a following treaty signed in 1712. In 1694 Panduranga
king Po Saktiraydapatih (r. 1695–1727) received the title King of Thuan Thanh From 1695
onward, Panduranga had been reduced to a client state of the Nguyen domain, known as
the Principality of Thuận Thành (Trấn Thuận Thành – Principality of 'Submissive Citadel').
Mercantile Role
During the 16th century, Cham merchants renewed their commercial links and actively traded
in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani, and Makassar. Among their
exports, Cham textile was famously consumed.
The 17th-century Chinese compendium Xiyang Chao Gong Dian Lu (Tributes from the
countries of the Western Sea, c. 1650) describes a type of Cham brewed liquor that is made
from cooked rice, mixed with wine and medicines, contained in pottery, and is drunk by long
bamboo straws. People would sit around the container and take sips.
Proselytization of Islam increased sharply after the fall of Vijaya, as missionary Gabriel de
San Antonio wrote a description in 1585: "The locals (Chams) hated the Castilians and
believed prophecies made by the Moro, that there would be a king Mahoma, and many would
embrace the new faith."
Currently, there are two theories among academic consensus regard the apostle of Islam to
Champa, proposed by scholars Antoine Cabaton and Pierre-Yves Manguin. The first theory
states that Islam could have been introduced by Arab, Persian, Indian merchants, scholars,
religious leaders, during from the 10th to 14th century. The second theory argues that Islam
arrived in Champa through a later, shorter, indirectly way from the Malays (jawa, melayu,
chvea), according to Manguin, is more convincing and valid. Most historians agree that the
Cham only began converting to Islam en masse after the destruction of Vijaya. [44] In his
conclusion, Manguin attributes the Islamization of the Cham people to their active
participation in the regional maritime networks, and the Malay states and Malay traders
which also contributed great impacts to the process. Panduranga had its own revolt against
the court of king Jaya Paramesvaravarman I (r. 1044–1060) in 1050.[ In contrast with
scholars who view Champa as the kingdom exclusively of the Cham, recent scholars such
as Po Dharma and Richard O’Connor, rebrand Champa as a multiethnic kingdom. They note
that Champa was highly likely a coalition of the Cham lowlanders and the indigenous
inhabitants of the Central Highlands, although Cham culture is usually associated with the
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broader culture of Champa

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 Panduranga is named after Panduiranga another toponym of Lord Vishnu
Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly
worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a
manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar, Krishna. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark
young boy, standing arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his
consort Rakhumai.
Vithoba is the focus of an essentially monotheistic, non-ritualistic bhakti-driven. Varkari faith
of Maharashtra and the Haridasa faith of Karnataka. Vithoba Temple, Pandharpur is his main
temple. Vithoba legends revolve around his devotee Pundalik who is credited for bringing the
deity to Pandharpur, and around Vithoba's role as a saviour to the poet-saints of the Varkari
faith. The Varkari poet-saints are known for their unique genre of devotional lyric,
the abhang, dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature
dedicated to Vithoba includes the Kannada hymns of the Haridasa and the Marathi versions
of the generic aarti songs associated with rituals of offering light to the deity. The most
important festivals of Vithoba are held on Devshayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha,
and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the month of Kartik.
The historiography of Vithoba and his sect is an area of continuing debate, even regarding his
name. Though the origins of both his sect and his main temple are likewise debated, there is
clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century.
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 Most significant temples around Panduranga
The culturally most important temples of historical Champa were the temple of Bhadresvara
located at Mỹ Sơn near modern Da Nang, and the temple of the goddess known
as Bhagavati (her Hindu name) or Yan Po Nagar (her Cham name) located just outside
modern Nha Trang.
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The temple of Po Nagar in Nha Trang.

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  The temple of Bhadresvara was the principle religious foundations of northern Champa
(known as Campadesa, Campapura or nagara Campa in the inscriptions). Scholars have
identified the temple of Bhadresvara, a local incarnation of the universal deity Shiva,
with the edifice "A1" at Mỹ Sơn. Though today A1 is in the process of devolving into a
pile of rubble, it still existed as a magnificent tower when French scholars described it at
the beginning of the 20th century
 The temple of Yan Po Nagar was the principal religious foundation of southern Champa
(or Panduranga, a word that is the basis for the modern name "Phan Rang.") Its buildings
date from between the 8th and 13th centuries. The temple remains standing to this day
across the Cai River from Nha Trang, and is in relatively good condition.

Its present name is Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm.

Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, commonly known as Phan Rang, is a city in Vietnam and the
capital of Ninh Thuận Province. The community has a population of 161,000 (2004), of
which 91,000 (2004) live in the main city.
The name Phan Rang' is the Vietnamese pronunciation of Panduranga (a Sanskrit word
of Hindu origin) or Parang. The name Tháp Chàm means "Cham Temple/Tower" and is
named after the Po Klong Garai Temple in the northern part of the city.
What is now Phan Rang was formerly known as Panduranga, the capital of the kingdom
of Champa.
The town of Phan Rang was established in 1917 during the Nguyễn dynasty, by edict of
Emperor Khải Định, and remained the provincial capital of Ninh Thuận Province until 1976,
when the province merged with Bình Thuận Province to form Thuận Hải Province.
When the Japanese occupied the country in World War II, they established an airfield and it
was later used by the French. During the Republic of Vietnam, Phan Rang was the site of
the United States Air Force's Phan Rang Air Base in the Vietnam War.
The town was divided into Phan Rang in the east, which became part of Ninh Hải District and
Tháp Chàm in the west, which became part of An Son district. The two were again combined
in 1992 to become Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, the capital of Ninh Thuận Province, achieving
city status in 2007
Cham Culture
Tháp Chàm and Phan Rang district has become a center for the maintenance of Cham culture.
Much of the district is occupied by Cham people where they have rice paddies, orchards of
grapes and peaches, flocks of goats and Brahman cattle. Their towers (the 'Thap') are
beautiful memorials to their kings and queens. There are several Cham sites with dilapidated
towers along the central coast of Vietnam and major sites in Mỹ Sơn and Nha Trang.
However, there are two sites in the Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm being maintained and culturally
active. Two kilometers west of the Tháp Chàm Railway Station, there is excellent hilltop
Cham tower complex dedicated to the king Po Klong Garai, the last reigning king; his
likeness is depicted on a lingam in the sanctuary of the central tower. A second tower for the
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king Po Re Do is located about 20 km south west of Tháp Chàm, via Phu Quy to Phouc Hou
and the village Hau Sanh; this tower is undergoing extensive renovation (July 2012).
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The towers are currently used for the very colorful Cham festivals, particularly "Kate" in
October (Oct 15 in 2012) when they still sacrifice a bullock and other food offerings. Other

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 ceremonies for Ramadan, a Rain Festival (as required), weddings and other celebrations are
also held. Apart from the incorporation of Islam into their cultural and religious practice,
another point of cultural difference is that their heredity line is maternal. The animist
foundation of Cham culture, with fire motif on the towers, rustic traditions and very colorful
ceremonial dress makes the Cham culture an ideal tourist resource for Vietnam, as yet poorly
developed.
Architecturally, the towers are intricately built in small red bricks, almost dry stone
construction with very fine mortar lines. The towers are topped by calyx like minarets, arches
are rimmed by special bricks fired with tongue like extensions on the extremities to represent
flames; it is very intricate brick work requiring sophisticated engineering to deal with the
overhang.
Associated with the Po Klong Garai complex there is a cultural center, more functionally
built with concrete, bricks, mortar and render, but at least with some of the line of the Cham
architecture and housing a display of cultural and handi-works, and excellent photographs
and paintings by Cham artists.

Phan Rang Look Out

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 16 April Park Monument, Phan Rang

God Panduranga Vishnu Avatar

Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu god predominantly

worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a
manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar Krishna.Panduranga is known by many names,
including: Vithoba, Vitthala, Pandharinath, Hari and Narayan.
There are several theories about the origins and meanings of these names. Varkari tradition
suggests that the name Vitthala (also spelled as Vitthal, Viththal, Vittala and
Vithal; Marathi: विठ्ठल, composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words: viṭ, which means
'brick'; and thal, which may have originated from the Sanskrit sthala, meaning 'standing'.
Thus, Vitthala would mean 'one standing on a brick'. The prescribed iconography of Vithoba
stipulates that he be shown standing arms-akimbo upon a brick, which is associated with the
legend of the devotee Pundalik.
Definition of Vittala: "Vidaa Jnanena Taan Shoonyan Laati Gruhnaati Yaha Swayam
AjnaanugrahaKruddevo Vittalah Kathyate Budhaiah" - Prikryaya Kaumudi Vyakhyana
However, the Varkari poet-saint Tukaram proposed a different etymology—that Vitthala is
composed of the words vittha (ignorance) and la (one who accepts), thus meaning 'one who
accepts innocent people who are devoid of knowledge'. [5] Historian Ramakrishna Gopal
Bhandarkar offers yet another possibility—that Vitthu (Viṭhu) is a Kannada corruption of the
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name Vishnu adopted in Marathi. The suffixes -la and -ba (meaning 'father' in Marathi) were
appended for reverence, producing the names Vitthala and Vithoba. This corruption of
Vishnu to Vitthu could have been due to tendency of Marathi and Kannada people to
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pronounce.

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 According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the Deccan College, Pundalik—who is assumed
to be a historical figure—was instrumental in persuading
the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana alias Bittidev to build the Pandharpur temple dedicated to
Vishnu. The deity was subsequently named as Vitthala, a derivative of Bittidev, by the
builder-king. Other variants of the name include Viṭhurāyā (King Vitthala),
and Viṭhāī (Mother Vitthala). The people of Gujarat add the suffix -nath (Lord) to Vitthala,
which yields the name Vitthal-nath. The additional honorific suffix -ji may be added, giving
the name Vitthalnathji. This name is generally used in the Pushtimarg sect.
Panduranga also spelt as Pandurang and Pandaranga, is another popular epithet for Vithoba,
which means 'the white god' in Sanskrit. The Jain author-saint Hemachandra (1089–1172
AD) notes it is also used as an epithet for the god Rudra-Shiva. Even though Vithoba is
depicted with dark complexion, he is called a "white god". Bhandarkar explains this paradox,
proposing that Panduranga may be an epithet for the form of Shiva worshipped in
Pandharpur, and whose temple still stands. Later, with the increasing popularity of Vithoba's
cult, this was also transferred to Vithoba. [10] Another theory suggests that Vithoba may
initially have been a Shaiva god (related to Shiva), only later identified with Vishnu, thus
explaining the usage of Panduranga for Vithoba. Crooke, however, proposed that
Panduranga is a Sanskritised form of Pandaraga (belonging to Pandarga), referring to the old
name of Pandharpur.[4] Another name, Pandharinath, also refers to Vithoba as the lord of
Pandhari (yet another variant for Pandharpur).
Finally, Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Vishnu like Hari and Narayana, in
the Vaishnava sect

DVARAVATI in INDIA
Dvārakā, in India is also known as Dvāravatī (Sanskrit द्वारका "the gated [city]",
possibly meaning having many gates, or alternatively having one or several very grand
gates), is a sacred historic city in the sacred literature of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. It
is also alternatively spelled as Dvarika. The name Dvaraka is said to have been given to the
place by Krishna, a major deity in Hinduism. Dvaraka is one of the Sapta Puri (seven sacred
cities) of Hinduism.
In the Mahabharata, it was a city located in what is now Dwarka, formerly called
Kushasthali, the fort of which had to be repaired by the Yadavas. In this epic, the city is
described as a capital of the Anarta Kingdom. According to the Harivamsa the city was
located in the region of the Sindhu Kingdom.
In the Hindu epics and the Puranas, Dvaraka is called Dvaravati and is one of
seven Tirtha (pilgrimage) sites for spiritual liberation. The other six
are Mathura, Ayodhya, Kashi, Kanchipuram, Avantika (Ujjain) and Puri

 In Harivamsa, Dvaraka is described as largely built on "submerged land", "released by

the ocean" (2.55.118 and 2.58.34).
 The city was the former "sporting ground of the King Raivataka" called "Dvāravāti",
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which "was squared like a chess board" (2.56.29).

 Nearby was the mountain range Raivataka (2.56.27), "the living place of the gods"
(2.55.111).
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 The city was measured by Brahmins; the foundations of the houses were laid and at least
some of the houses were built by the Yadavas (2.58.9 - 15).

112
  It was built by Vishwakarman in one day (2.58.40) "mentally" (2.58.41 and 44).
 It had surrounding walls (2.58.48 and 53) with four main gates (2.58.16).
 Its houses were arranged in lines (2.58.41) and the city had "high buildings" (2.58.50 and
54) (2.58.53), which "almost touched the sky" (2.58.50), and had "doors that had the
colour of white clouds" (2.58.48).
 The fort walls of the city were "shining with the colour of the Sun and pots of gold" and
"sounds emanating from grand houses sparkling with golden colour" (2.58.53)
 It had a temple area with a palace for Krishna himself, which had a separate bathroom
(2.58.43).
 "The city is beautified on Earth by the ocean" like Indra's heavenly city is "beautified by
an assembly of important jewels" (2.58.47 - 66, (2.58.49).

Description

View of Dwaraka
The following description of Dvaraka during Krishna's presence there appears in
the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam; 10.69.1-12) in connection with the sage
Narada's visit.
The City was filled with the sounds of birds and bees flying about the parks and pleasure
gardens, while its lakes, crowded with blooming indivara, ambhoja, kahlara, kumuda, and
utpala lotuses, resounded with the calls of swans and cranes.
Dvaraka boasted 900,000 royal palaces, all constructed with crystal and silver and
splendorously decorated with huge emeralds. Inside these palaces, the furnishings were
bedecked with gold and jewels.
Traffic moved along a well laid-out system of boulevards, roads, intersections, and
marketplaces, and many assembly houses and temples of demigods graced the charming city.
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The roads, courtyards, commercial streets, and residential patios were all sprinkled with
water and shaded from the sun's heat by banners waving from flagpoles.
In the city of Dvaraka was a beautiful private quarter worshiped by the planetary rulers. This
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district, where the demigod Vishvakarma had shown all his divine skill, was the residential

113
 area of Lord Hari Krishna, and thus it was gorgeously decorated by the sixteen thousand
palaces of Lord Krishna's queens. Narada Muni entered one of these immense palaces.
Supporting the palace were coral pillars decoratively inlaid with vaidurya gems. Sapphires
bedecked the walls, and the floors glowed with perpetual brilliance. In that palace Tvashta
had arranged canopies with hanging strands of pearls; there were also seats and beds
fashioned of ivory and precious jewels. In attendance were many well-dressed maidservants
bearing lockets on their necks, and also armor-clad guards with turbans, fine uniforms, and
jeweled earrings.
The glow of numerous jewel-studded lamps dispelled all darkness in the palace. My dear
king, on the ornate ridges of the roof danced loudly crying peacocks, who saw the fragrant
aguru incense escaping through the holes of the latticed windows and mistook it for a cloud.
Events

 Pandu's sons lived in Dwaraka during their exile to woods. Their servants headed by
Indrasena lived there for one year (the 13th year) (4,72).
 Bala Rama mentioned about a sacrificial fire of Dwaraka, before he set for his pilgrimage
over Sarasvati River (9,35).
 One should proceed with subdued senses and regulated diet to Dwaravati, where by
bathing in "the holy place called Pindaraka",one obtaineth the fruit of the gift of gold in
abundance (3,82).
 King Nriga, in consequence of a single fault of his, had to dwell for a long time at
Dwaravati, and Krishna became the cause of his rescue from that miserable plight.
(13,72).
 Sage Durvasa resided at Dwaravati for a long time (13,160).
 Arjuna visited Dwaravati during his military campaign after the Kurukshetra
War (14,83).
 When the Pandavas retire from the world they visit the place where Dvaraka once used to
be and see the city submerged under water.
During 1983-1990, the Marine Archaeology Unit of India's National Institute of
Oceanography (NIO) carried out underwater excavations at Dwarka and Bet Dwarka.
[14]
According to S. R. Rao "The available archaeological evidence from onshore and offshore
excavations confirms the existence of a city-state with a couple of satellite towns in 1500
B.C." He considered it reasonable to conclude that this submerged city is the Dvaraka as
described in the Mahabharata.
In the Mausala Parva of the Mahabharata, Arjuna witnesses the submergence of Dvaraka
and describes it as follows:
The sea, which had been beating against the shores, suddenly broke the boundary that was
imposed on it by nature. The sea rushed into the city. It coursed through the streets of the
beautiful city. The sea covered up everything in the city. I saw the beautiful buildings
becoming submerged one by one. In a matter of a few moments it was all over. The sea had
now become as placid as a lake. There was no trace of the city. Dvaraka was just a name; just
a memory.
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— Mausala Parva of Mahabharata

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 III

The Ancient City of PANDURANGA

Dr Uday Dokras

1. The Amazing Hindu Toponyms of Ancient Cham Principalities,

https://www.academia.edu/82516346/The_Amazing_Hindu_Toponyms_of_Ancient_
Cham_Principalities
2. The Many Pur(as )of the Khmer Empire Dr |Uday Dokras,
https://www.academia.edu/83916391/The_Many_Pur_as_of_the_Khmer_Empire_Dr_
Uday_Dokras
In my above mentioned papers I have already dealt in detail with ancient cities of
Cham and Cambodia
PANDURANG or PANGURANGA is a very Typical name of Lord Vishnu that caught my
attention years ago when studying the history of the Cham Brahmins of Vietnam.
This is lts story:
Champa, ancient Vietnam as it was called, was preceded in the region by a kingdom
called Lâm Ấp, that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship
between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th
centuries AD. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt, the
Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi. In 1832, the Vietnamese
emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories.
Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the
4th century AD, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by
the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham
lands. Mỹ Sơn, a former religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are
now World Heritage Sites. Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which
began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th
century; they are called the Bani (Ni tục, from Arabic: Bani). There are, however, the Bacam
(Bacham, Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals.
The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world,
with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hinduism of
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Balinese of Indonesia.
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 Historical Champa consisted of up to five principalities:Interesting to note the names –all
after Hindu Gods:

 Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành) was the capital of
Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern
village of Đồng Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da
Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which
has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the
valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The
associated port was at modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by this principality
included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.

Indrapura ruins in Champa

 Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. Amaravati,
meaning “Abode of the Gods,” was said to be the site where the mythical beings devas,
yakshas, and kinnaras performed penance to the Hindu god Shiva to vanquish the demon
Tarakasura.
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 Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes
feats by King Jaya Indravarman I (r. 960-972).Amravati Stupa,India

 Vijaya meaning Victory and could be the victory of Ram over Ravana or Pandavas over
Kauravas in Mahabharata.was located in present-day Bình Định
Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po
Nagar. The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The
associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important excavations have also been
conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious and cultural centre.
Vijaya became the political and cultural centre of Champa around 1150s. It remained the
center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa
was again displaced toward the south. In its time, the principality of Vijaya controlled
much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru)
Provinces.
 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural centre was the temple of Po Nagar,
several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784
AD inscription at Po Nagar. The word Kauthar is derived from the root Kathu , which has
meanings of "to increase in number, to outnumber, to happen frequently; to show
pride in wealth and/or children; to be rich, plentiful, abundance." The form Kawthar
itself is an intensive deverbal noun, meaning "abundance, multitude"
 Panduranga named after Vishnu, was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–
Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with
capital Parik, was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was
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the most autonomous, sometimes independent, princedom/principality of

Champa. Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.
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117
 Plo kong Garai

Within the four principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in
Vietnamese) and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in
Amravati and Vijaya, while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans
differed in their customs and habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even
war. But they usually managed to settle disagreements through intermarriage.
Indrapura and Vijaya, Two notable examples of this multi-centric nature of Champa were the
principalities of Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga. When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to the
Vietnamese in 1471, Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched. Kauthara fell to
the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653, while Panduranga was annexed in 1832. Pāṇḍurṅga
had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832, which both Vietnamese and
European sources had verified. So Pāṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its
foreign affairs without permission from the court of the king of kings
Panduranga or Prangdarang or Pandharpur ( the city “pur” of Pandhari)

Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump state successor of
the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471.
It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam. It stood until late 17th century as the
Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham
polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng
was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th century onward, it had been
ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the court of the king of kings
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at Vijaya, central Champa.

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118
 In the map, Panduranga is at
lower right

In the Bhakti tradition, there is a highly revered Saint known as Pundalik. Pundalik has come
to be known as a symbol for Supreme, Unconditional Love. His heart was so open and his
Love forgot no one. Pundalik’s devotion caused God to go looking for him.

Champa, Chinese Lin-yi, ancient Indochinese kingdom lasting from the 2nd to the 17th
century AD and extending over the central and southern coastal region of Vietnam from
roughly the 18th parallel in the north to Point Ke Ga (Cape Varella) in the south. Established
by the Cham, a people of Malayo-Polynesian stock and Indianized culture, Champa was
finally absorbed by the Vietnamese, who in turn were strongly influenced by Cham culture.

Champa was formed in AD 192, during the breakup of the Han dynasty of China, when the
Han official in charge of the region established his own kingdom around the area of the
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present city of Hue. Although the territory was at first inhabited mainly by wild tribes
involved in incessant struggles with the Chinese colonies in Tonkin, it gradually came under
Indian cultural influence, evolving into a decentralized country composed of four small
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states, named after regions of India—Amaravati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Binh Dinh); Kauthara

119
 (Nha Trang); and Panduranga (Phan Rang)—whose populations remained concentrated in
small coastal enclaves. It had a powerful fleet that was used for commerce and for piracy.

In about AD 400 Champa was united under the rule of King Bhadravarman. In retaliation for
Cham raids on their coast, the Chinese invaded Champa in 446, bringing the region under
their suzerainty once again. Finally, under a new dynasty in the 6th century, Champa threw
off its allegiance to China and entered into an era of great independent prosperity and artistic
achievements. The centre of the nation began to shift from north to south; around the middle
of the 8th century Chinese sources cease to mention Lin-yi and begin to refer to the kingdom
as Huan-wang, a Sinicization of the name of the northernmost province, Panduranga (Phan
Rang). In the late 8th century the Chams were distracted by attacks from Java, but in the 9th
century they renewed their pressure on the Chinese provinces to the north and the growing
Khmer (Cambodian) Empire to the west. Under Indravarman II, who established the
Indrapura dynasty (the sixth in Champan history) in 875, the capital of the country was
moved back to the northern province of Amaravati (Quang Nam), near present Hue, and
elaborate palaces and temples were constructed.

In the 10th century the Vietnamese kingdom of Dai Viet began to exert pressure on Champa,
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forcing it to relinquish Amaravati in 1000 and Vijaya in 1069. Harivarman IV, who in 1074
founded the ninth Cham dynasty, was able to stave off further Vietnamese and Cambodian
attacks, but in 1145 the Khmers, under the aggressive leadership of Suryavarman II, invaded
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and conquered Champa. Two years later a new Cham king, Jaya Harivarman I, arose and
threw off Khmer rule, and his successor, in 1177, sacked the Cambodian capital at Angkor.

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 Between 1190 and 1220 the Chams again came under Cambodian suzerainty, and later in the
13th century they were attacked by the Tran kings of Vietnam, as well as by the Mongols in
1284. By the late 15th century, incessant wars of aggression and defense had for all practical
purposes wiped out the Champa kingdom; one by one their provinces were annexed until
Champa was entirely absorbed in the 17th century.

Its end marked the demise of the only culture of mainland Asia with Oceanian features. Cham
painting is known only from the inscriptions on the temples. Cham sculptors, under the
influence of Indian Gupta art, evolved a very personal style, characterized by forms springing
with wild energy. Architecture generally was confined to tiered brick towers.

Early period
From 1060 to 1074, Panduranga was the capital of king Rudravarman III (r. 1061–1074).
During the 12th century when Khmer Empire invaded Champa and occupied most of the
kingdom in 1145–1150, prince Sivänandana or Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1147–1162), son of
refugee king Rudravarman IV, fled to Panduranga, then led a rebellion that resisted the
Khmer and inflicted defeats on the invaders, forcing them to make a withdrawal in 1149. In
1151, province of Amaravarti (Quảng Ngãi province) revolted against Harivarman, followed
by Panduranga in 1155. In 1190, Cham Prince Vidyanandana (r. 1192–1203) who had
defected to the Khmer was nominated as puppet king of Pänduranga. Revolts ousted Khmer
Prince In of Vijaya in 1191, which prompted Vidyanandana to rebel against the Khmer in
1192 and then reunified Champa. He faced massive retribution from Jayavarman VII of
Angkor in the next year, but Vidyanandana's struggle for Champa lasted until 1203 when the
capital of Vijaya fell to the Khmer and Vidyanandana himself fled and died in Dai Viet.
According to the Sakarai dak rai patao (Panduranga annals), the first king of Panduranga
Principality was Sri Aragang. His rule lasted between 1195/1205 to 1235/1247. The king of
kings at Vijaya still wrested certain suzerainty over Panduranga. Sri Aragang was succeeded
by Cei Anâk, who reigned between 1235/1247 - 1269/1281. After the Aragang dynasty,
Panduranga continued maintaining its sovereignty under the Dobatasuar dynasty (1269-
1373).
By the late 14th century, the whole of Champa had been unified again under the rule of a
single strong dynasty, founded by Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). Panduranga
remained autonomous but asymmetrical and maintained a tributary relationship with the
Simhavarmanids in Vijaya.

Collapse of Vijaya and the beginning of Panduranga period

When the Vietnamese under Le Thanh Tong attacked Champa in early 1471, the whole
northern part of the kingdom was razed, cities ransacked, and tens of thousand people were
killed, either massacred or enslaved by the invaders. The Vietnamese king also captured the
Cham king Tra Toan and Vijaya clansmen, deporting them to the north, ending the dynasty's
reign. This event is widely recognized as the end of the Champa Kingdom, according
to Georges Maspero's logics.[13] However, it is noteworthy to know that the fall of Vijaya was
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not a "shift" of Champa power to the south or the end of the kingdom, but rather, reflects the
multicentric nature of Champa, a confederation of semiindependent kingdoms which now
were no longer under the prestige of the Vijaya king of kings.
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Unsurprisingly, a massive wave of Cham emigration radiated across Southeast Asia: In

Cambodia, Cham refugees were welcomed, but the sources do not provide how they arrived

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 in Cambodia and where they settled. In Thailand, there were records of Cham presence since
Ayudhaya period. In the Malay archipelago, the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) states that
after the collapse of Vijaya in 1471, two Cham princes named Indera Berma Shah and Shah
Palembang sought asylum in Melaka and Aceh. Shortly after his conversion to Islam, Indera
Berma Shah was appointed minister at the court of Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sejarah
Melayu also mentions Cham presences in Pahang, Kelantan, where the Kampung Laut
Mosque is said to be built by Champa sailors, on their way to Java and Aceh.
According to Vietnamese sources, on 22 March 1471, after the loss of the capital Vijaya to
the Vietnamese force under Le Thanh Tong, a Cham general named Bố Trì Trì (T'chai Ya Ma
Fou Ngan in Chinese annals) fled to Panduranga's capital Pa Rang and set up his own rule
and submitted to Le Thanh Tong seven days later. Thanh Tong agreed, but he divided the
Cham remnants into three smaller polities: Kauthara, Panduranga, and the northern part
of Central Highlands.[19] Champa was reduced in six regions: Aia Ru (Phú Yên), Aia Trang
(Khánh Hòa), Panrang (Phan Rang), Kraong (Long Hương), Parik (Phan Rí Cửa) and Pajai
(Phú Hài [vi]). The Chinese Ming Shilu provides another deviation of the timeline: Although
the Vietnamese sacking of Vijaya in March 1471, T'chai Ya Ma Fou Ngan still facilitated
token diplomacy with Ming Empire in unoccassional years, in 1478, 1505, and 1515, the son
of Fou Ngan received succession prescription from the Ming; their last contact occurred in
1543.
According to the Cham annal, from 1421/1448 to 1567/1579, the capital of Panduranga was
Biuh Bal Batsinâng. From 1567/1579 to 1653, it had been relocated to Bal Pangdarang
(present day Phan Rang).[23] From the late 17th century until 1832, the capital of Panduranga
was once again moved south to Phan Rí Cửa.
The Cham stopped paying tribute to the Viet court when the Le was usurped by the Mac
dynasty in 1526.

Revival
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 Temple of King Po Rome (r. 1627-1651)///The Boxer Codex depiction of Chamcia
(Cham) couple, c. 1595
During the sixteenth century, as Dai Viet fragmented in the north, Panduranga Champa again
gained prosper from the rise of the international trade. Throughout the seventeenth century,
Cham merchants traded actively in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani,
and Makassar. A Spanish record reported that "many Muslims live in Champa, whose Hindu
king wanted Islam to be spoken and taught, resulted in many mosques existed along with
Hindu temples.
In 1578, Panduranga assaulted Nguyen lord's domain near Đà Rằng River. In 1594,
Panduranga king sent a fleet of 400 warships to aid the Johor Sultanate in its struggles against
the Portuguese in Melaka
Panduranga also helped its neighbor Cambodia during the Cambodian–Spanish War, which
resulted in delivering a fiasco to the Spanish conquistadors. Governor of Malina, Luis Pérez
Dasmariñas (fl. 1593–96) sent a letter to the court of king Philip II in late 1595, antagonizing
the Cham king as "a vicious dangerous tyrant who was treacherous and full of evil deeds,"
while his second letter suggested that just around 200–300 Spanish soldiers and 500 local
mercenaries would be needed to conquer Champa. During that time, the Cham were
remembered by Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch merchants and seamen as ferocious pirates of
the South China Sea who numerously boarded merchant ships, plundering cargos, kidnapping
crew members, and routinely took European hostages to slavery. Cham kings were described
to be at least involved or actively encouraging raids against foreign ships.
In 1611, in an attempt to retake land from the Nguyen lord, Champa mounted an attack in
Phu Yen, but gained no success, and the Kauthara principality was lost to the Nguyen after a
counterattack.
Later period under Po Rome dynasty
With the rise of nearby Hội An, most foreign traders now were leaving Champa. Japanese
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seal trade ships ceased to trade with Champa in 1623. [30] In 1611, lord Nguyen Phuc
Nguyen sent an army led by Văn Phong, a Cham defector, attacking Panduranga, annexing
the entire Kauthara Principality. Nguyen lord then resettled 30,000 Trinh POWs in Phu Yen.
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 Notable Cham king of this period, Po Rome (r. 1627-1651), was known for his great
erudition of Islam after having a sojourn study in Kelantan, Malay Peninsula, and the mass
conversion to Islam by his people. He encouraged trade, granting the Dutch permission to
arrange free trade in his country unless they do not attack Portuguese merchants at his ports.
[32]
To resolve discontents between Muslims and Balamon, Po Rome ordered the Cham Bani
to have their religion more integrated with Cham customs and beliefs, while pressing the
Ahier to accept Allah as the most supreme God but allowed them to retain their worships of
traditional Cham divinities, excellently reforging peace and cohesion in his kingdom. King
Po Rome is an important deity that is being venerated by the Cham people today.
Connections between Pandaranga and the extra Malay/Islamic world blossomed. Syncretism
was widely practiced at all levels, best known for incorporating cosmopolitan Islamic
doctrines into existing indigenous Cham beliefs and Hindu pantheons. The multipurpose
lunisolar sakawi calendar, was likely Po Rome's best combination of previous Cham Śaka
era with the Islamic lunar calendar.
European missionaries described Champa in the 1670s as having the majority of its
population being Muslims, a Muslim sultan, and a Muslim court. In 1680 Panduranga
king Po Saut (r. 1659–1692) styled himself with Malay horrific Paduka Seri Sultan in his
hand letter to the Dutch in Java. In 1686, the Cham and Malay Muslim communities in Siam
reportedly joined the Makassars rebellion against king Narai of Ayudhya.
WARS
Under Po Rome's dynasty, Panduranga suffered several incursions from the Southern
Vietnamese Nguyen kingdom which centered around trading centers Hue-Hoi An, the old
center region of Champa which had been recently Vietnamized. Lords Nguyễn Phúc
Nguyên, Nguyễn Phúc Tần, and Nguyễn Phúc Chu repeatedly invaded Panduranga in 1611,
1629, 1653, 1692.[35] During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Nguyen of
Cochinchina were too preoccupied dealing with their northern enemies, the Trịnh, rather than
with the Cham. Though was not recorded in official chronicles, but in dynastic genealogy and
pseudonymous Cham sources, in 1631 Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên arranged the marriage of his
princess Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Khoa to king Po Rome.[36][37] Alexander de Rhodes describes
sometime in 1639, the Nguyen still placed several galleys in the port of Ran Ran (Phú Yên)
to prevent seaborne incursion from Champa.
Having successfully fended off the Trinh, the Nguyen thalassocracy turned its attention to the
south, dispatching their first interference in Cambodia, overthrowing its first and only
Muslim king Ramathipadi I in 1658. The Nguyen had periodically invaded Cambodia several
times from 1658 to 1692 on par with Siam. In 1682, Panduranga reportedly sent envoys led
by the king's brothers who had fled after the king's coronation to Ayudhya in a possible
search for Siamese protection.[39]
In 1692, lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu invaded Panduranga, arresting King Po Saut and renaming
Panduranga to Trấn Thuận Thành (Principality of Thuận Thành). The lord established Bình
Thuận District inside the Principality as free lands for ethnic Viet settler colonialism,[40] but
Cham revolts in 1693–96 forced the Nguyen lord to mitigate the resentment by abolishing the
Binh Thuan county, restoring the Cham monarchy with full rights, however, becoming a
vassal of the Nguyen, according to a following treaty signed in 1712. In 1694 Panduranga
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king Po Saktiraydapatih (r. 1695–1727) received the title King of Thuan Thanh From 1695
onward, Panduranga had been reduced to a client state of the Nguyen domain, known as
the Principality of Thuận Thành (Trấn Thuận Thành – Principality of 'Submissive Citadel').
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Mercantile Role

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 During the 16th century, Cham merchants renewed their commercial links and actively traded
in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani, and Makassar. Among their
exports, Cham textile was famously consumed.
The 17th-century Chinese compendium Xiyang Chao Gong Dian Lu (Tributes from the
countries of the Western Sea, c. 1650) describes a type of Cham brewed liquor that is made
from cooked rice, mixed with wine and medicines, contained in pottery, and is drunk by long
bamboo straws. People would sit around the container and take sips.
Proselytization of Islam increased sharply after the fall of Vijaya, as missionary Gabriel de
San Antonio wrote a description in 1585: "The locals (Chams) hated the Castilians and
believed prophecies made by the Moro, that there would be a king Mahoma, and many would
embrace the new faith."
Currently, there are two theories among academic consensus regard the apostle of Islam to
Champa, proposed by scholars Antoine Cabaton and Pierre-Yves Manguin. The first theory
states that Islam could have been introduced by Arab, Persian, Indian merchants, scholars,
religious leaders, during from the 10th to 14th century. The second theory argues that Islam
arrived in Champa through a later, shorter, indirectly way from the Malays (jawa, melayu,
chvea), according to Manguin, is more convincing and valid. Most historians agree that the
Cham only began converting to Islam en masse after the destruction of Vijaya. [44] In his
conclusion, Manguin attributes the Islamization of the Cham people to their active
participation in the regional maritime networks, and the Malay states and Malay traders
which also contributed great impacts to the process. Panduranga had its own revolt against
the court of king Jaya Paramesvaravarman I (r. 1044–1060) in 1050.[ In contrast with
scholars who view Champa as the kingdom exclusively of the Cham, recent scholars such
as Po Dharma and Richard O’Connor, rebrand Champa as a multiethnic kingdom. They note
that Champa was highly likely a coalition of the Cham lowlanders and the indigenous
inhabitants of the Central Highlands, although Cham culture is usually associated with the
broader culture of Champa
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Panduranga is named after Panduiranga another toponym of Lord Vishnu

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Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly

worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a

125
 manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar, Krishna. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark
young boy, standing arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his
consort Rakhumai.
Vithoba is the focus of an essentially monotheistic, non-ritualistic bhakti-driven. Varkari faith
of Maharashtra and the Haridasa faith of Karnataka. Vithoba Temple, Pandharpur is his main
temple. Vithoba legends revolve around his devotee Pundalik who is credited for bringing the
deity to Pandharpur, and around Vithoba's role as a saviour to the poet-saints of the Varkari
faith. The Varkari poet-saints are known for their unique genre of devotional lyric,
the abhang, dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature
dedicated to Vithoba includes the Kannada hymns of the Haridasa and the Marathi versions
of the generic aarti songs associated with rituals of offering light to the deity. The most
important festivals of Vithoba are held on Devshayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha,
and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the month of Kartik.
The historiography of Vithoba and his sect is an area of continuing debate, even regarding his
name. Though the origins of both his sect and his main temple are likewise debated, there is
clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century.

Most significant temples around Panduranga

The culturally most important temples of historical Champa were the temple of Bhadresvara
located at Mỹ Sơn near modern Da Nang, and the temple of the goddess known
as Bhagavati (her Hindu name) or Yan Po Nagar (her Cham name) located just outside
modern Nha Trang.
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 The temple of Po Nagar in Nha Trang.

 The temple of Bhadresvara was the principle religious foundations of northern Champa
(known as Campadesa, Campapura or nagara Campa in the inscriptions). Scholars have
identified the temple of Bhadresvara, a local incarnation of the universal deity Shiva,
with the edifice "A1" at Mỹ Sơn. Though today A1 is in the process of devolving into a
pile of rubble, it still existed as a magnificent tower when French scholars described it at
the beginning of the 20th century
 The temple of Yan Po Nagar was the principal religious foundation of southern Champa
(or Panduranga, a word that is the basis for the modern name "Phan Rang.") Its buildings
date from between the 8th and 13th centuries. The temple remains standing to this day
across the Cai River from Nha Trang, and is in relatively good condition.

Its present name is Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm.

Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, commonly known as Phan Rang, is a city in Vietnam and the
capital of Ninh Thuận Province. The community has a population of 161,000 (2004), of
which 91,000 (2004) live in the main city.
The name Phan Rang' is the Vietnamese pronunciation of Panduranga (a Sanskrit word
of Hindu origin) or Parang. The name Tháp Chàm means "Cham Temple/Tower" and is
named after the Po Klong Garai Temple in the northern part of the city.
What is now Phan Rang was formerly known as Panduranga, the capital of the kingdom
of Champa.
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The town of Phan Rang was established in 1917 during the Nguyễn dynasty, by edict of
Emperor Khải Định, and remained the provincial capital of Ninh Thuận Province until 1976,
when the province merged with Bình Thuận Province to form Thuận Hải Province.
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 When the Japanese occupied the country in World War II, they established an airfield and it
was later used by the French. During the Republic of Vietnam, Phan Rang was the site of
the United States Air Force's Phan Rang Air Base in the Vietnam War.
The town was divided into Phan Rang in the east, which became part of Ninh Hải District and
Tháp Chàm in the west, which became part of An Son district. The two were again combined
in 1992 to become Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, the capital of Ninh Thuận Province, achieving
city status in 2007
Cham Culture
Tháp Chàm and Phan Rang district has become a center for the maintenance of Cham culture.
Much of the district is occupied by Cham people where they have rice paddies, orchards of
grapes and peaches, flocks of goats and Brahman cattle. Their towers (the 'Thap') are
beautiful memorials to their kings and queens. There are several Cham sites with dilapidated
towers along the central coast of Vietnam and major sites in Mỹ Sơn and Nha Trang.
However, there are two sites in the Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm being maintained and culturally
active. Two kilometers west of the Tháp Chàm Railway Station, there is excellent hilltop
Cham tower complex dedicated to the king Po Klong Garai, the last reigning king; his
likeness is depicted on a lingam in the sanctuary of the central tower. A second tower for the
king Po Re Do is located about 20 km south west of Tháp Chàm, via Phu Quy to Phouc Hou
and the village Hau Sanh; this tower is undergoing extensive renovation (July 2012).
The towers are currently used for the very colorful Cham festivals, particularly "Kate" in
October (Oct 15 in 2012) when they still sacrifice a bullock and other food offerings. Other
ceremonies for Ramadan, a Rain Festival (as required), weddings and other celebrations are
also held. Apart from the incorporation of Islam into their cultural and religious practice,
another point of cultural difference is that their heredity line is maternal. The animist
foundation of Cham culture, with fire motif on the towers, rustic traditions and very colorful
ceremonial dress makes the Cham culture an ideal tourist resource for Vietnam, as yet poorly
developed.
Architecturally, the towers are intricately built in small red bricks, almost dry stone
construction with very fine mortar lines. The towers are topped by calyx like minarets, arches
are rimmed by special bricks fired with tongue like extensions on the extremities to represent
flames; it is very intricate brick work requiring sophisticated engineering to deal with the
overhang.
Associated with the Po Klong Garai complex there is a cultural center, more functionally
built with concrete, bricks, mortar and render, but at least with some of the line of the Cham
architecture and housing a display of cultural and handi-works, and excellent photographs
and paintings by Cham artists.
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 Phan Rang Look Out

16 April Park Monument, Phan Rang

The Concept of Panduranga

Panduranga is known by many names, including: Vithoba, Vitthala, Pandharinath, Hari and
Narayan.
There are several theories about the origins and meanings of these names. Varkari tradition
suggests that the name Vitthala (also spelled as Vitthal, Viththal, Vittala and
Vithal; Marathi: विठ्ठल, composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words: viṭ, which means
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'brick'; and thal, which may have originated from the Sanskrit sthala, meaning 'standing'.
Thus, Vitthala would mean 'one standing on a brick'.The prescribed iconography of Vithoba
stipulates that he be shown standing arms-akimbo upon a brick, which is associated with the
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legend of the devotee Pundalik.

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 Definition of Vittala: "Vidaa Jnanena Taan Shoonyan Laati Gruhnaati Yaha Swayam
AjnaanugrahaKruddevo Vittalah Kathyate Budhaiah" - Prikryaya Kaumudi Vyakhyana
However, the Varkari poet-saint Tukaram proposed a different etymology—that Vitthala is
composed of the words vittha (ignorance) and la (one who accepts), thus meaning 'one who
accepts innocent people who are devoid of knowledge'. [5] Historian Ramakrishna Gopal
Bhandarkar offers yet another possibility—that Vitthu (Viṭhu) is a Kannada corruption of the
name Vishnu adopted in Marathi. The suffixes -la and -ba (meaning 'father' in Marathi) were
appended for reverence, producing the names Vitthala and Vithoba. This corruption of
Vishnu to Vitthu could have been due to tendency of Marathi and Kannada people to
pronounce.
According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the Deccan College, Pundalik—who is assumed
to be a historical figure—was instrumental in persuading
the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana alias Bittidev to build the Pandharpur temple dedicated to
Vishnu. The deity was subsequently named as Vitthala, a derivative of Bittidev, by the
builder-king. Other variants of the name include Viṭhurāyā (King Vitthala),
and Viṭhāī (Mother Vitthala). The people of Gujarat add the suffix -nath (Lord) to Vitthala,
which yields the name Vitthal-nath. The additional honorific suffix -ji may be added, giving
the name Vitthalnathji. This name is generally used in the Pushtimarg sect.
Panduranga also spelt as Pandurang and Pandaranga, is another popular epithet for Vithoba,
which means 'the white god' in Sanskrit. The Jain author-saint Hemachandra (1089–1172
AD) notes it is also used as an epithet for the god Rudra-Shiva. Even though Vithoba is
depicted with dark complexion, he is called a "white god". Bhandarkar explains this paradox,
proposing that Panduranga may be an epithet for the form of Shiva worshipped in
Pandharpur, and whose temple still stands. Later, with the increasing popularity of Vithoba's
cult, this was also transferred to Vithoba. [10] Another theory suggests that Vithoba may
initially have been a Shaiva god (related to Shiva), only later identified with Vishnu, thus
explaining the usage of Panduranga for Vithoba. Crooke, however, proposed that
Panduranga is a Sanskritised form of Pandaraga (belonging to Pandarga), referring to the old
name of Pandharpur.[4] Another name, Pandharinath, also refers to Vithoba as the lord of
Pandhari (yet another variant for Pandharpur).
Finally, Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Vishnu like Hari and Narayana, in
the Vaishnava sect

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 IV
The Principalities of CHAMPA with Sanskrit names of Hindu Gods

Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar.

Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes
feats by the Champa kings///Statue of Shiva from Thap Banh It, Vijaya (now in Guimet
Museum)
VIJAYA

Vijaya (meaning Victorious also known as Vijayapura) , is an ancient city in Bình Định
province, Vietnam. From the 12th century, it served as the capital of the Kingdom
of Champa until it was conquered by Dai Viet during the Champa–Dai Viet War of 1471.
Vijaya was centred on the lowland area along lower Côn River, in what is now the south
of Bình Định Province. To the east of the plain and near the estuary of the river is a strategic
and well-protected location for a port. This led to the rise of Cảng Thị Nại, one of the major
ports of Champa. The river leading up into the highlands to the west was important for the
trade with highland peoples supplying Champa with luxury goods such as eaglewood for
export. Vijaya's geography was also important for its agriculture. With one of the larger
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rivers of Champa, its soils were more fertile than that of many other places. This allowed for
a relatively large concentration of people near the centre of Vijaya, which resulted in a
relatively large number of temples.
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 According to two noteworthy 15th century reports noted in Vietnamese grand chronicles,
the Toàn thư, Vijaya had a small number of households, just 2,500, or approximately 10,000
inhabitants. More accurate, the second report states that the city had about 70,000 people
living inside
HISTORY
Vijaya or Tumpraukvijaya is the area which is one of earliest landfalls of the Cham people in
what is now Vietnam. However, its architecture implies that it did not become important until
the 11th or 12th century. Records suggest that there was an attack on Vijaya's citadel from the
Vietnamese in 1069 (when Dai Viet was ruled by Lý Nhân Tông) to punish Champa for
armed raiding in Vietnam. The Cham king Rudravarman III was defeated and captured and
offered Champa's three northern provinces to Dai Viet (present-day Quảng Bình and Quảng
Trị provinces).
In Champa at the time there were two ruling kings–Parameśvaravarman and Rudravarman
III–in Nha Trang and Phan Rang, respectively. Rudravarman of Phan Rang had good relation
with the Chinese Song dynasty. None of them ever did manage to travel far north to counter
the Vietnamese. Northern Champa at that time was ruled by a Cham chief/warlord with title
Śrī Yuvarāja Mahāsenāpati, not related to the Parameśvaravarman–Bhadravarman–
Rudravarman family.
The Vietnamese raid in 1069 began embarking from a port in Hue on 28th day of the third
month, reached their destination of the third day of fourth month, then engaged with the
Cham. Sailing from Hue to Vijaya (Qui Nhon) within six days doesn't make sense. King Ðệ
Củ/Chế Củ had been fleeing into Cambodia (Zhenla), was then captured. They pillaged the
city of Indrapura (Phật thệ) for one month, then it took one month for them to return to
Hanoi. Michael Vickery insists that the 1069 Vietnamese raid did not target Vijaya, but
probably Châu Sa & Cổ Lũy citadels on the north and south banks of the Trà Khúc
River in Quảng Ngãi province. Châu Sa was a large port city named Amaravati, has the
temple of Chánh Lộ dating to eleventh century. He also speculates that Chế Củ was certainly
not king Rudravarman III, but a Cham chief somewhere in the north. The earliest mention of
Vijaya as a Cham city was dated to around 1153 to 1184, so the explicitly application of
Vijaya for a location of Champa prior that period should be considered an historical
anachronism.
Vijaya was involved in wars with Angkor (now Cambodia) in the 12th and 13th centuries.
Khmer military incursions into Champa were successful for some time and Suryavarman
II managed to subdue Vijaya in the 1145, deposing Jaya Indravarman III, but the Khmer were
later defeated in 1149. Vijaya was at times dominated by the Khmer king Jayavarman
VII. The Khmer king relied on Cham supporters for his successful military campaigns in both
Angkor and Champa.
Vijaya was captured by the Yuan army led by Mongol commander Sogetu in early 1283. The
Mongols were ultimately driven away, but the city was sacked. In 1377, the city was
unsuccessfully besieged by a Vietnamese army in the Battle of Vijaya. Major wars with
Vietnam were fought again in the 15th century, which eventually led to the defeat of Vijaya
and the demise of Champa in 1471. The citadel of Vijaya was besieged for one month in
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1403 when the Vietnamese troops had to withdraw because of a shortage of food. [ The final
attack came in early 1471 after almost 70 years without major military confrontation between
Champa and Dai Viet. It is interpreted to have been a reaction to Champa asking China for
reinforcements to attack Dai Viet. [18] Much of Champa was dissolved after the 1471 Cham–
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 Vietnamese War; Vijaya was complete destroyed; while other southern principalities had a
protectorate-like status within Dai Viet.
Vijaya's architecture distinguishes it from other Champa centers, because it used a
combination of stone and brick elements, while most other Cham structures only used bricks.
This suggests some influence from Cambodian Angkor.[20] It also points to the relative
abundance of labour in Vijaya compared to other Champa centres of powers, because
processing stones for construction was more labour-intensive than the production of
bricks Vijaya's style of architecture seems to have been dominant throughout Champa for
some time, given the later classification of the architecture from the period between the 12th
and 14th centuries as the 'Binh Dinh style'.

Banh It Towers/Duong Long Towers

Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. The capital has been
identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The associated port was at present-day Qui
Nhơn. Important excavations have also been conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may
have been a religious and cultural centre. Vijaya became the political and cultural centre of
Champa around 1150s. It remained the center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by
the Việt and the center of Champa was again displaced toward the south. In its time, the
principality of Vijaya controlled much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định,
and Phú Yên (Aia Ru) Provinces.

Yanpunagara ( today’s Kauthara)

3. Yanpunagara ( today’s Kauthara) was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia
Trang) in Khánh Hòa Province. Its religious and cultural centre was the temple of Po Nagar,
several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784 AD
inscription at Po Nagar. Today it is known as Nha Trang and is a coastal city and capital
of Khánh Hòa Province, on the South Central Coast of Vietnam. It is bounded on the north
by Ninh Hoà town, on the south by Cam Ranh city and on the west by Diên Khánh District.
.
Historically, the city was known as Kauthara under rule of the Kingdom of Champa.
There is no word in Sanskrit called YANPU, neither in Vietnamese. Yanpu is a Mandarin
Word that means Main and Nagara in Sanskrit meand city. Therefore Yanpu-nagar would
mean Main City.
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Panduranga
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Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar. It was located in the

area of present-day Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận

133
 province. Panduranga with capital Parik, was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed
by the Vietnamese. It was the most autonomous, sometimes independent,
princedom/principality of Champa. Within the four principalities were two main clans: the
"Dừa" (means "coconut" in Vietnamese) and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in
Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in Amravati and Vijaya, while the Cau lived in Kauthara and
Panduranga. The two clans differed in their customs and habits and conflicting interests led
to many clashes and even war. But they usually managed to settle disagreements through
intermarriage.
The Cham principality of Panduranga had its center in Ninh Thuận province, but also
included much of what is now Bình Thuận province. Ninh Thuận is a province in the South
Central Coast region of Vietnam (sometimes seen as part of the Southeast region).
.Panduranga became the political centre of Champa after the fall of Vijaya in 1471. It
remained independent until 1832, when emperor Minh Mạng annexed it. Ninh Thuận was
merged into Bình Thuận province in 1976, together with Bình Tuy province, Ninh Thuận
became a separate province again in 1991.

Panduranga or Prangdarang was the rump state successor of the Champa kingdom, which was
destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471. Established by Bố Trì Trì, a
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Cham general who fled to the south after northern Champa was annexed by Dai Viet. It stood
until late 17th century as the Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan,
vassalized it and put the Cham polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
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Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn

Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng) was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th

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 century onward, it had been ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the
court of the king of kings at Vijaya, central Champa.
Early period
On 22 March 1471, after the loss of the capital Vijaya to the Vietnamese force under Le
Thanh Tong, a Cham general, Bố Trì Trì (T'chai Ya Ma Fou Ngan in Chinese annals), had
fled to Phan Rang and set up his own rule. On 29 March, he submitted to Thanh Tong as
vassal. Thanh Tong agreed, but he divided the Cham remnants into three smaller polities:
Kauthara, Panduranga, and the northern part of Central Highlands.[1] Champa was reduced in
six regions: Aia Ru (Phú Yên), Aia Trang (Khánh Hòa), Panrang (Phan Rang), Kraong (Long
Hương), Parik (Phan Rí Cửa) and Pajai (Phú Hài [vi]). Panduranga continued to send tribute
to the Dai Viet court until Mac Dang Dung usurped power from the Le in 1526.
The last diplomatic mission between Champa and China was arranged in 1543.
Revival
During the sixteenth century, as Dai Viet fragmented in the north, Panduranga Champa again
gained prosper from the rise of the international trade. Throughout the seventeenth century,
Cham merchants traded actively in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani,
and Makassar. A Spanish record reported that "many Muslims live in Champa, whose Hindu
king wanted Islam to be spoken and taught, resulted in many mosques existed along with
Hindu temples. The Bani Cham religion was formed as a combination of Chamic-Hindu
traditions and Shi'a faiths.
In 1578, Panduranga assaulted Nguyen lord's domain near Đà Rằng River. In 1594, Champa
sent its troops to aid the Johor Sultanate in struggles against the Portuguese. Panduranga also
helped its neighbor Cambodia during the Cambodian–Spanish War, which resulted in
delivering a fiasco to the Spanish conquistadors. Governor of Malina, Luis Pérez
Dasmariñas (fl. 1593–96) sent a letter to the court of king Philip II in late 1595, antagonizing
the Cham king as "a vicious dangerous tyrant who was treacherous and full of evil deeds,"
while his second letter suggested that just around 200–300 Spanish soldiers and 500 local
mercenaries would be needed to conquer Champa. During that time, the Cham were
remembered by Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch merchants and seamen as ferocious pirates of
the South China Sea who numerously boarded merchant ships, plundering cargos, kidnapping
crew members, and routinely taking European hostages to slavery.
In 1611, in an attempt to retake land from the Nguyen lord, Champa mounted an attack in
Phu Yen, but gained no success, and the Kauthara principality was lost to the Nguyen after a
counterattack. Albeit had been reduced to a small insignificant power 100 years ago, the
Cham polity was making its last remarkable successes in late 16th-early 17th century along
with the rising Islamic faith in Southeast Asia.
Later period
With the rise of nearby Hội An, most foreign traders now were leaving Champa. Japanese
seal trade ships ceased to trade with Champa in 1623. In 1611, lord Nguyen Phuc
Nguyen sent an army led by Văn Phong, a Cham defector, attacking Panduranga, annexing
the entire Kauthara Principality. Nguyen lord then resettled 30,000 Trinh POWs in Phu Yen.
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During the reign of Po Rome (r. 1627–1651), Dutch merchants were allowed to freely trade
in the country. Po Rome was known for his sojourn study in Kelantan, Malay Peninsula, and
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the conversion to Islam by his people. King Po Rome is an important deity that is still
venerated by the Cham today. The lunisolar sakawi calendar, was likely king Rome's best

135
 combination of previous Cham Śaka era with the Islamic lunar calendar. In 1653 or 1655, Po
Nraup raided Phu Yen. Lord Nguyễn Phúc Tần responded by sending an army of 3,000 under
Hùng Lộc to invade Panduranga, arresting Po Nraup in front of French missionary Joseph
Tissanier (1618–1688). The Vietnamese then annexed Cam Ranh, set up Khánh Hòa
Province.
The Nguyen and Mạc lords from Dai Viet, who had heavily influenced on Cambodian
politics since the sixteenth century, have claimed Bien Hoa in 1658. Panduranga was
surrounded by Nguyen lord in both north and south.[13] In 1692, lord Nguyễn Phúc
Chu invaded Panduranga, arresting King Po Sout and renaming Panduranga to Trấn Thuận
Thành (Principality of Thuận Thành). The lord established Bình Thuận District inside the
Principality as free lands for ethnic Viet settler colonialism.[14] In December 1693, Cham
people revolted against Nguyen lord, calling for independence. Because of the movement's
pressures, Nguyễn Phúc Chu decided to abolish the Bình Thuận District in 1695, and agreed
to grant the Cham king autonomy
Ninh Thuận's topography is typical for the South Central Coast in that high mountains are
located not only near the western border to the Central Highlands, but also near the coast, the
highest of which is Chúa mountain (Vietnamese: Núi Chúa) at 1,040 metres (3,410 ft) in the
north east of the province. Several other peaks with heights up to 643 metres (2,110 ft),
including Đá Bạc mountain (Vietnamese: Núi Đá Bạc) in the south, are located along the
coast. The highest mountains are located at the borders to Khánh Hòa province and Lâm
Đồng province, with three mountains of over 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) and the highest at 1,652
metres (5,420 ft), Sương Mù mountain (Vietnamese: Núi Sương Mù).[2] Only a small part of
the province around Phan Rang has elevations of under 50 metres (160 ft). The province's
major river is the Dinh River, which flows through the main lowland of the province as well
as Phan Rang. It has several tributaries in the province and is connected to Don Duong Lake
in Lâm Đồng province.
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Temples of Po Klong Garai, near Phan Rang; one of the best preserved shrines of the
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Cham, originally dedicated to the god Shiva.

Ninh Thuận is subdivided into 7 district-level sub-divisions:

136
 6 districts:
1. Bác Ái
2. Ninh Hải
3. Ninh Phước
4. Ninh Sơn
5. Thuận Bắc
6. Thuận Nam
1 provincial city:
 Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm (capital)
They are further subdivided into 3 commune-level towns (or townlets), 47 communes, and 15
wards.
Cham villages
Cham names for Cham villages in Ninh Thuận province are as follows (Sakaya 2014:755-
756).
 Thuận Nam District
o Ram Văn Lâm
o Aia Li-u: Phước Lập
o Aia Binguk: Nghĩa Lập (Chăm Jat)
o Pabhan: Vụ Bổn
o Palaw: Hiếu Thiện
 Ninh Phước District
o Hamu Craok: Bầu Trúc
o Caklaing: Mỹ Nghiệp
o Bal Caong: Chung Mỹ
o Hamu Tanran: Hữu Đức
o Thuen: Hậu Sanh
o Mblang Kathaih: Phất Thế
o Padra: Như Ngọc
o Cakhaok: Bình Chữ
o Boah Bini: Hoài Trung
o Boah Dana: Chất Thường
o Caok: Hiếu Lễ
o Mblang Kacak: Phước Đồng
o Baoh Deng: Phú Nhuận
o Katuh: Tuấn Tú
o Cuah Patih: Thành Tín
 Ninh Sơn District
o Cang: Lương Tri
 Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm
o Tabeng: Thành Ý
 Ninh Hải District
o Pamblap Klak: An Nhơn
o Pamblap Birau: Phước Nhơn
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 Thuận Bắc District

o Bal Riya: Bỉnh Nghĩa
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137
 Tháp Po Rome, Ninh Thuận/// Tcham1
Much of what is now Bình Thuận province was part of the Cham principality of
Panduranga, which had its political centre in neighbouring Ninh Thuận province. It is located
on the country's South Central Coast. It is sometimes seen as part of the Southeast region.
The province is known for its scenery and beaches. There are also a number of sites of
archaeological significance. It was the last independent principality after the fall of Vijaya in
1471. Bình Thuận was later incorporated into Vietnam, while Ninh Thuận remained
independent longer, until 1832. Before 1976, Bình Thuận province was much smaller
because much of the west was in the separate Bình Tuy province). Bình Tuy, Bình Thuận and
Ninh Thuận were merged in 1976 to form Thuận Hải province. It was divided again into
Ninh Thuận and Binh Thuận in 1991, while Bình Tuy remained part of Bình Thuận Province.
Bình Thuận borders Lâm Đồng province in the north, Ninh Thuận province in the northeast,
and Đồng Nai and Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu provinces in the west. Much of the borders with Lâm
Đồng and Ninh Thuận are mountainous, while much of the rest of the province is relatively
flat. However, there are several hills with a height of at least 200 m along the coast of the
province.. The highest peak in the province (1548m) is in northwestern Tánh Linh District,
near Lâm Đồng.
Phú Quý island is located around 120 km south-east of Phan Thiết. It is a separate district.
There are several much smaller islands off the coast of Bình Thuận, including Câu Island (cù
lao Câu) in the east, Lao Island (hòn Lao) at Mũi Né, and Bà Island (hòn Bà) in the west.
Bình Thuận has several rivers mostly originating in the province itself or in the highlands of
neighboring Lâm Đồng Province. Most flow into the East Vietnam Sea. Some of the major
rivers are the Luỹ River (Sông Luỹ) in the east, the Cái River (Sông Cái) in the centre, and
the Dinh River (Sông Dinh) in the west. La Ngà River (Sông La Ngà) flows through four
districts in the northwest of the province and is a major tributary of the Đồng Nai River.
[1]
The largest lake is Sông Quán Lake (hồ Sông Quán) in the centre of the province around
30 km north of Phan Thiết. Another major lake is Biển Lạc in the northwest region of the
province.
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 An arms-akimbo Panduranga (Vishnu) from Udaygiri Caves./// The central image
at Vitthal Temple in Pandharpur
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 V
Christopher Columbus in Champa?
Historical Champa consisted of up to five principalities:

 Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành) was the capital of
Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern
village of Đồng Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da
Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which
has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the
valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The
associated port was at modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by this principality
included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.
 Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar.

 Vijaya was located in present-day Bình Định Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention
is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. The capital has been identified with
the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn.
Important excavations have also been conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have
been a religious and cultural centre. Vijaya became the political and cultural center of
Champa around 1150s. It remained the center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked
by the Việt and the center of Champa was again displaced toward the south. [138] In its
time, the principality of Vijaya controlled much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai,
Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru) Provinces.
 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural center was the temple of Po Nagar,
several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784
AD inscription at Po Nagar.
 Panduranga was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang)
in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with capital Parik, was the last of
the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was the most autonomous,
sometimes independent, princedom/principality of Champa. Panduranga is first
mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.
Within the four principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in
Vietnamese) and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in
Amravati and Vijaya, while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans
differed in their customs and habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even
war. But they usually managed to settle disagreements through intermarriage.
Champa was a religiously tolerant kingdom, with many different faiths coexisted peacefully
or have merged with indigenous Cham beliefs. Religiously and culturally, the Chams were
grouped into two major religio-cultural groups; the Balamon Chams (also called Cham Ahiér)
that adhere to an indigenized form of Islam and Hinduism. Another northern group inhabiting
around Bình Định and Phú Yên provinces is the Cham Hroi (Haroi), who practice
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Chamic animism. Under the previous Republic of Vietnam, they were considered a distinct
ethnic group. Since 1979, they have been reclassified by the Socialist Republic of
Vietnam government as a subgroup of the Cham.
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Hinduism and Buddhism

140
 Po Nagar/’ Ninh Thuận

Apsara with Saraswati (right)/Dancing Sivas, both from c. 10th century AD

The forgotten Hindus of Vietnam’s Champa Kingdom

The Cham Hindus of Vietnam are builders of cities named Indrapura, Simhapura, Amaravati,
Vijaya and Panduranga, these Hindu people and their culture continue to flourish to this day.
When we speak of the Champa people, it is not a trek through history; we are speaking of a
living culture with roots going back thousands of years.While today the Cham are Vietnam’s
only surviving Hindus, the nation once harbored some of the world’s most exquisite and
vibrant Hindu cultures. The entire region of Southeast Asia, in fact, was home to numerous
Hindu kingdoms. The many magnificient temples and artifacts, from Angkor Wat to
Prambana, remain as potent testimonials to their splendor and accomplishments. These grand
edifices still stand, though the societies around them no longer worship there or practice the
lost traditions.
Champa was a formidible Hindu kingdom, renowned for its immense wealth and
sophisticated culture. Its major port was Kattigara. Nearly 2,000 years ago, Claudius Ptolemy
wrote of Cattigara and outlined it on his map of the world. Modern scholarship has
confirmed Cattigara as the forerunner of Saigon (modern day Ho Chi Minh
City).Cattigara was, in fact, the main port at the mouth of the Mekong River, a name derived
from Mae Nam Khong, the Mother Water Ganga.
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Another early Champa king was Bhadravarman, who ruled from 349-361CE. His capital was
the citadel of Simhapura or ‘Lion City,’ now called Tra Kieu. Badravarman built a number of
temples, conquered his rivals, ruled well and in his final years abdicated his throne and spent
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his last days in India on the banks of the Ganges River.

141
 Historic Champa was divided into five regions. Indrapura (present-day Dong Duong) served
as the religious center of the kingdom; Amaravati is the present day Quong Nam province;
Vijya is now Cha Ban; Kauthara is the modern Nha Trang; and Panduranga is known today
simply as Phan. Panduranga was the last Cham territory to be conquered by the Sino-
Vietnamese.
Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus Was Not His Real Name- Although Columbus remains a
prominent historical figure around the world and has been researched and written about for
centuries, there are many details of his life that are still a mystery. Many scholars agree that
he was born in Genoa, which is now part of Italy, although there are theories that he may
have originated in Spain or even in Poland or Greece. In Italian he is known as Cristoforo
Colombo, which was long thought to be his birth name, and in Spanish as Cristóbal Colón.
But he has also been referred to, by himself and others, as Christoual, Christovam,
Christofferus de Colombo, and even Xpoual de Colón. There is even a theory that he adopted
the name from a pirate named Colombo.

Speaking of Names, Those Boats Were Not Named What You Think

Christopher ColumbusThe Granger Collection, New York/Christopher Columbus's fleetKean

Collection/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Ask any American schoolchildren and they’ll tell you Columbus’s ships were
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named Niña, Pinta, and Santa Maria. However, at least two of those were likely nicknames.
In Columbus’s time it was the custom in Spain to name ships after saints and to call them by
nicknames instead. La Niña was likely a nickname for a ship called Santa Clara. The
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nickname is thought to have come from the name of the ship’s owner, Juan Niño. It is

142
 unknown what the Pinta’s original name might have been. Santa Maria is a perfectly saintly
name for the third, which was also nicknamed La Gallega.
 He Made Four Journeys to the “New World”

Landing of ColumbusArchitect of the Capitol

In 1492 Columbus did sail the ocean blue. He also sailed it in 1493, 1498, and 1502.
Although many people may have an image of Columbus planting a flag in the lower half of
Florida, he really only explored a small area of the Caribbean—which included the Bahamas,
Cuba, and Jamaica—and parts of Central America.
His Remains Did About as Much Traveling as He Did in Life
143
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143
 Ptolemy: world mapLibrary of Congress, Washington, D.C./Christopher
ColumbusJupiterimages

After Columbus died in 1506, he was buried in Valladolid, Spain. Three years later his
remains were taken to his family mausoleum, which was in Sevilla. In 1542, in accordance
with the will of his son Diego, Columbus’s remains were transferred to Santo Domingo,
Hispaniola (now in the Dominican Republic). Hispaniola was ceded to France by Spain, and
in 1795 Columbus’s bones were moved to Havana, Cuba. More than a hundred years later
they were shipped back across the Atlantic and returned to Sevilla in 1898.

He (Maybe) Was Not Great at Math

At the time Columbus made his famous journey, a lot of overseas travel was guesswork. The
exact size of the planet Earth was unknown, and there were two main ways of measuring
degrees of latitude—the method developed by the Greek philosopher Poseidonius and the
method developed by the medieval Arabs. In making his own calculations, Columbus argued
that the circumference yielded by both methods was the same…ignoring, or forgetting, that
Arab miles were longer than Roman miles. Using that data, which ultimately rendered the
planet about 25 percent smaller, Columbus assured his backers that his small wooden ships
could make it from Spain to Japan in 30 days. Some scholars think Columbus willfully
misrepresented the distance, but the jury is still out.

Few know that Christopher Columbus, on his fourth and last voyage, had attempted to reach
the Champa Kingdom and actually believed he had reached Vietnam. In ancient days well-
worn trade routes had linked Europe with India and the entire region of South and Southeast
Asia, and for countless centuries the wealth and wisdom of India had flowed to the markets
and institutions of the world. By the 1400s, however, political instability had disrupted direct
trade links with India and the West. Columbus was convinced that by sailing west from Spain
he could circle the globe—a concept ridiculed by most Europeans, who still believed the
Earth was flat—and thus find a new trade route and reestablish the long-lost link to the
wealth of the East. His planned route would take him south along the Vietnamese coast, past
the Cape of Kattigara and on to Malacca; he believed this to be the route Marco Polo had
followed from China to India in 1292. Reaching Cariay on the coast of Costa Rica, he
thought he had found Vietnam and was very close to one of his coveted destinations, the
famous gold mines of the Champa Kingdom. Fortunately for Vietnam, he was mistaken.

O0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0ooo0oooo0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o
0o0o
VI
The Interpretational Issues of the Word CHAMPA
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Champa is not just a city, it’s a breathing thriving civilization which has its origin in the
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Puranas. This city stands proof to the various facts from the Ramayana, Mahabharatha time
which are often referred to as Mythology by our historians. Cham’s CHAMPA Empire

144
 Shares Its Name With one Ancient City in Central India, but more so from the favourite
flower of Goddess Saraswati.

An ancient city located in present-day Madhya Pradesh, Champa is a familiar name for
readers of ancient religious and literary texts. The kingdom of Champa which contrary to
popular notion, is not entirely fictional. According to historical records, Champa is a city
likely to have been located in central India, what is now the state of Madhya Pradesh. The
city finds mention in numerous records as well as tales, which suggest that it was a capital
city and an socio-political centre.

It is believed that Champa was a part of the Avanti kingdom, an ancient Indian janapada.
Puranic records suggest that Avanti was split by the Vindhyas into two parts—while the
capital was Ujjayini, located in the north, and was the headquarters of the Southern part.
Though historical accounts and stories offer conflicting views, the city is considered to
have been the erstwhile capital of the Haihayas, an ancient confederacy of five clans that
ruled over large parts of Western and Central India.

Sanskrit place-names in South East Asian Countries are formed with the help of theonymes
taken from the Indian faiths and words are derived from nouns and adjectives denoting
positive, favourable and auspicious notions. Simply put, they are related to hindu gods and
goddesses or dieties. Before the conquest of Champa by the Đại Việt ruler Le Thanh Tong in
1471, the dominant religion of the Cham upper class (Thar patao bamao maâh)
was Hinduism, and the culture was heavily influenced by that of India. The commoners
generally accepted Hindu influence, but they embedded it with much as possible indigenous
Cham beliefs to become parts of the Ahier religion today. The Hinduism of Champa was
overwhelmingly Shaiva and it was liberally combined with elements of local religious cults
such as the worship of the Earth goddess Lady Po Nagar. The main symbols of Cham
Shaivism were the lingam, the mukhalinga, the jaṭāliṅgam, the segmented liṅgam, and
the kośa.

Po Nagar/Ninh Thuận
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145
 Apsara with Saraswati (right)/Dancing Siva, c. 10th century AD

Cham port-cities

Two Cham women playing Polo. c. 600–900 AD./Cham man playing flute. c. 600–750
AD.

Champa was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of
what is contemporary present-day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd
century AD until 1832, when the last remaining principality of Champa was annexed by
the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty under its emperor Minh Mạng as part of its
expansionist Nam tiến policy. Anga was an ancient Indian kingdom that flourished on the
eastern Indian subcontinent and one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It lay to the east of its
neighbour and rival, Magadha, and was separated from it by the river Champa in the modern
day Bhagalpur and Munger in the state of Bihar. The capital of Anga was located on the bank
of this river and was also named Champa and Malini. It was prominent for its wealth and
commerce.
Champa was the capital of ancient Anga in the sixth century BC. It was of great commercial
importance. It was a river port from which ships world said down the Ganga and coast to
south India and Sri Lanka.
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The kingdom was known as Nagaracampa (Sanskrit: नगरचम्प) and it contributes profound
and direct impacts to the history of Vietnam, Southeast Asia, as well as their present day.
Early Champa, evolved from seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh culture off the coast
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of modern-day Vietnam. The emergence of Champa at the late 2nd century AD shows
testimony of early Southeast Asian statecrafting and crucial stage of the making of Southeast

146
 Asia. The peoples of Champa had been established and maintained a vast system of lucrative
trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian Ocean and Eastern Asia, until the
17th century. In Champa, historians also witness the first and oldest native Southeast Asian
language literature being written down around c. 350 AD, predating
first Khmer, Mon, Malay texts by centuries. The Cambodians or Khmers also used Sanskrit
names. In my research paper- The Many PURAS of the Khmer Empire I pointed out the use
of the sanskrit toponym of Khmer cities .
https://www.academia.edu/83916391/
The_Many_Pur_as_of_the_Khmer_Empire_Dr_Uday_Dokras
In fact the country of |Cambodia is historically called by several Sanskrit names:
1. Kambudesa –
2. Kambujarashtára –
3. Kambupuri –
4. Dharmapradeh
5. India was called in ancient Cambodian inscriptions with two names, Aryadeasa and
Madhyadesa.
6. Two more names ending in -desa denote the country, i.e. Kambudesa and
Narapatidesa.
7. Five other names: Jayantadesa, Bhupendradesa, Madhyamadesa, Dviradadesa and
Muladesa, were granted after a god, after a founder, after a geographical feature, an
animal, and after a special event.
Pur means a town or settlement. Why the suffix pur has been translated as …PURA is not
understandable. It shows lack of knowledge of Sanskrit or other related languages.The
Chams, for instance, had the earliest pur.. Simhapura (605-757) Virapura (757-875)
Indrapura (875–982) and without the suffix towns such as Vijaya (982–1471) Kauthara polity
(757–1653) Panduranga polity (1471–1832).
Archaeological excavations at Tra Kieu (Simhapura), a early Lam Ap/Champa site, show that
the common assumption of Lam Ap as a merely "Indianized" polity is rather irrational and
fundamentally misunderstanding. Instead, evidence gathered from excavations displays a
fascinating, dynamic history of the early stages of formation of the Cham civilization, with
artifacts reflect cross multicultural influence and trade connections between early Champa
with ancient Eurasian powers such as the Han Empire, the Gupta Empire, the South
Indian Pallava dynasty, and the Mediterranean. The Gupta and Pallava ofcourse were Hindu
Kingdoms in what is today the territory of India.
The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman, who reigned from 380 to
413. At Mỹ Sơn, King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara, whose name
was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva. The
worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued
through the centuries that followed. Moreover, Bhadravarman's third inscription (C.
174, c. 4th–5th century AD) at Tra Kieu, which renders Old Cham, is the oldest surviving
text of any Southeast Asian language. The authorities of king Bhadravarman might have
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spanned from nowadays Quảng Nam to Chợ Dinh, Phú Yên, near the Đà Rằng river.
Trà Kiệu was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa Kingdom, then named Simhapura,
from the 4th century to the 8th century CE. The site has been known to the western world
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since the late 19th century Today nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular
ramparts. Bửu Châu or jade hill overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the
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 Simhapura. There are also signs of a border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently
unknown if this was for defense, hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else
entirely.
Trà Kiệu also has two main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics for household
use and roof tiles marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings about the iconic
roof tiles with faces on them. There are two main theories about why the faces start appearing
on the tiles: the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that workers at Trà Kiệu
began carving faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was an Indian mask maker
who introduced and popularized the face motifs as this style of decoration on roof tiles.

Stone image of the god Visnu on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture. (Da Nang)
This Visnu gives further evidence to the Hindu face motif theory.

At Mỹ Sơn, the name Campā occurs in the first time on a important Cham inscription code
named C. 96 dating from metaphysically year 658 AD
Consolidation under Prakasadharma and the Simhapura dynasty

Ruins of the Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary

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In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of

Champa in Simhapura (Tra Kieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?)
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and Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or the
Simhapura dynasty. He embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic kingdoms in

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 the south, and by 658 AD the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa) stretching from Quảng Bình
province in the north to present-day Ninh Hòa city, Khánh Hòa province in the south, was
unified under one ruler for the first time
Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known as viṣaya (district.
However, viṣaya also can be synonymous with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that
time there were two know districts: Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number
of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the
worship of three gods. They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely treasures.
[52]
Prakāśadharma built numerous temples and religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn. One
structure is amazing decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king,
resembling a theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.
Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in 653,
654, 669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous kings. The
seventh century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese, became the chief
tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Kokuryo in the Northeast
and Baekje in the East — though the latter was rivaled by Japan.
Religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn
By the second half of the 7th century, royal temples were beginning to appear at Mỹ Sơn. The
dominant religious practice was that of the Hindu god Shiva, but temples were also dedicated
to Vishnu. Scholars have called the architectural style of this period Mỹ Sơn E1, in reference
to a particular edifice at Mỹ Sơn that is regarded as emblematic of the style. Important
surviving works of art in this style include a pedestal for a linga that has come to be known as
the Mỹ Sơn E1 Pedestal and a pediment depicting the birth of Brahma from a lotus issuing
from the navel of the sleeping Vishnu.

Stone pedestal of a temple with an Apsara dancer and a Gandharva musician (Trà Kiệu
style)
In an important stone inscription dated 657, found at Mỹ Sơn, King Prakasadharma, who took
on the name Vikrantavarman I at his coronation, claimed to be descended through his mother
from the Brahman Kaundinya and the serpent princess Soma, the legendary ancestors of
the Khmer of Cambodia. This inscription underlines the ethnic and cultural connection of
Champa with the Khmer Empire, its perennial rival to the west. It also commemorates the
king's dedication of a monument, probably a linga, to Shiva. Another inscription documents
the king's almost mystical devotion to Shiva, "who is the source of the supreme end of life,
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difficult to attain; whose true nature is beyond the domain of thought and speech, yet whose
image, identical with the universe, is manifested by his forms."
Temporary pre-eminence of Kauthara
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149
 Kathur means Hard and Cruel in Sanskrit. Katha means narrative or story. Kathura also
means head-quarters in Harnavi. What exactly was the pronounciation of Kathura and did it
lead to another (second) name with pur as the suffix is not known.The city of Pandurang
means
In the 8th century, during the time when the Chinese knew the country as "Huanwang", the
political center of Champa shifted temporarily from Mỹ Sơn southward to the regions of
Panduranga and Kauthara, centered around the temple complex of Po Nagar near
modern Nha Trang that was dedicated to the indigenous Earth goddess Yan Po Nagar. In 774,
raiders from Java disembarked in Kauthara, burned the temple of Po Nagar, and carried off
the image of Shiva. The Cham king Satyavarman (r. 770–787) pursued the raiders and
defeated them in a naval battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, declaring
that he had regained control of the area and had restored the temple. In 787, Javanese raiders
destroyed a temple dedicated to Shiva near Panduranga. Pandurang is the name of Shiva and
is a manifestation. He is generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or
his avatar, Krishna.

Puras or PUR in FUNAN

Even earlier to the Chams were cities suffixed with Pur in Funan (perhaps a Chinese
transcription of pnom, “mountain”) which was the first important Hinduized kingdom in
southeast Asia. It covered portions of what are now Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia.
Vyādhapura, (Sanskrit: “City of the Hunters”), capital city of the ancient Hindu kingdom of
Funan, which flourished from the 1st to the 6th century ad in an area that comprises modern
Cambodia and Vietnam.
Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the
word Funan. It is often said that the name Funan. Later Han pronunciations represents
a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges
Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word Funan, ancient Chinese scholars were
transcribing a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning
"mountain").
However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a
mistranslation of the Sanskrit word parvatabùpála in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to
the Khmer word bnaṃ and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in
them as the conqueror of Funan. It has also been observed that in Chinese the
character 南 (pinyin: nán, Vietnamese: nam) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean
"South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of
Southeast Asia, such as Annam.
Thus, Funan may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all.
Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names,
such as >
1.Bhavapura,
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2.Aninditapura,
3.Shresthapura and
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150
 4.Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in
the region and give a more accurate idea of the geography of the ancient Khmer regions than
the names Funan or Zhenla are unknown in the Old Khmer language.
INDIANIZATION of FUNAN

Gupta and Pallava Dynasties: It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society,
including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization
advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava
dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of
Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a
scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia.
These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the
Funanese.
Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts. Among
the Khmer Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants
of ancient Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of
Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma,
Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia.
In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a
Pre-Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he
tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that
Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King
Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over
Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states
honour his order to their heads”
The Capital City of Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter).

On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern
Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory
on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧, pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".
151

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern
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Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.

151
  Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory
on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧, pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern
Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory
on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧, pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter."

PUR of ANGKOR

Hall, K. R. (2019). In his book Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast
Asia. United States: University of Hawaii Press talks about Suryavarman I who established
diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India (Tamilnadu) around 1012.
Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to the Chola Emperor Rajaraja Chola I. It seems
that the Khmer king Suryavarman I requested aid from the powerful Chola Emperor Rajendra
Chola against the Tambralinga kingdom
And during his reign, 47 cities (known as 47 pura) were under the control of Khmer Empire.
Some of these names would never be known and some difficult to find on the knowledgebase
of the Internert. Angkor. ('Capital city'), was also known as Yasodharapura : यशोधरपुर in
Sanskrit, and was the capital city of the Khmer Empire. The city and empire flourished from
approximately the 9th to the 15th centuries.

 Hariharalaya. (early 9th cent.) The dwelling plave of HARI(Shiva)

 Lingapura: Koh Ker (9th cent.). Koh Ker is the modern name for an important city of
the Khmer empire. In inscriptions the town is mentioned as Lingapura (city of
lingams) or Chok Gargyar (translated as city of glance, or as iron tree forest).
 Yasodharapura (Angkor) (928–944)

Names in ancient Sanskrit of Khmer cities and sites have been changed to Khmer or
Cambodian language today:
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 Phnom Kulen.
 Preah Khan of Kampong Svay.
 Beng Mealea.
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 The Ancient City of Koh Ker.

152
  Banteay Chhmar.
 Prasat Preah Vihear.
 Kompong Thom: Sambor Prei Kuk.
 Oudong.

1. Sambalpur,
2. Berhampur,
3. Rairangpur,
4. Subarnapur,
5. Nagpur
6. Kanpur
7. Jamshedpur and many more far too many in fact.

In fact the word Pur and the word Nagar which means CITY is Sanskrit are inter-changeable
but the fact is that historically when one name was given it was seldom changed because it
created a geographic entity and point of reference where travellers could travel to and
remember those days people travelled by horses, on foot or other animals( including
humans).

Was Champa a sea port?

The Kingdom of Champa was founded in the second century, and the kingdom faced threats
from neighbouring kingdoms. The Champa military was founded as a means of protecting the
kingdom's borders and maintaining its independence. According to legends and oral
traditions, the Champa military was initially composed of small groups of warriors who were
organized into local militias. These militias were responsible for defending their local
communities and were led by local leaders who were appointed by the king. As the kingdom
grew and faced increasing external threats, the Champa military became more organized and
centralized. The Champa empire had a long naval history, and the Champa navy was an
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important part of the kingdom's military forces. However, there is little information available
about the Champa navy's specific size and capabilities, as well as the types of ships and naval
tactics used.
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The Champa navy is known to have been involved in a number of naval conflicts with the
Khmer and Dai Viet empires, as well as other neighbouring kingdoms. The Chams were
153
 skilled seamen who were known to employ a variety of naval warfare tactics, including the
use of naval mines and the use of naval irregulars.Because of its superior seamanship and
tactical flexibility, the Champa navy may have been able to effectively defend against the
Khmer and Dai Viet empires. However, it is difficult to say for certain what factors
contributed to the Champa navy's success without more detailed information.

Khmer Kingdom of Cambodia was Phnom (Mountain) known as Funan by the Chinese.
Cham of Champa started to attack Khmer Phnom Kingdom since the 1st century, but failed
every time. How large and powerful was the Champa Navy? It was larger and powerful more
than the Khmer Empire that the Khmer had to call for the Chinese help. Champa became a
very powerful Kingdom in 1192, 1195, 1198–1199, 1201-1203 invading Khmer Empire of
Cambodia. Champa seized the palace complexes of Angkor Wat from the Khmer Empire of
Cambodia and ruled Khmer for a short period of time. What kind of ships and naval tactics
did the Cham use against the Khmer? All ships in ancient times built from woods no metal
blades in the front to cut enemy ships in half when ramming. Cham and Khmer soldiers stood
up on the frontships while others sitting down for rowing. The Cham probably used the same
Khmer tactics, soldiers to swim, hide in water and clim up behind on the enemy ship to kill
the enemy behind. When the warships approached, soldiers jumped up up to the enemy ships
and fought with the spiked spears. Our Khmer King Jayavarman VII formed the large Khmer
resistance armies at Banteay Chhmar and called China for help. China sent the Chinese army
to fight side by side with the Khmer army against the Cham. The war was mostly on the
Mekong River and on the Tonle Sap Lake as people can see the Khmer-Cham navy battles on
King Jayavarman VII Bayon temple bas-reliefs in the 11th century.

Champa Civil Wars

Champa Civil Wars were conflicts throughout the history of the Champa Kingdom. These
civil wars were typically fought between rival factions or claimants to the throne, and were
often sparked by political or economic grievances, and were fought between rival factions or
claimants to the throne. Despite the conflicts, the Champa kingdom was able to survive for
many centuries, and its legacy continues to be felt today.
The first Champa Civil War took place in the early 6th century, when a prince named Fan
Hsiung rebelled against his father, the king of Champa. The rebellion was successful, and Fan
Hsiung established himself as the new king of Champa.
In the 8th century, another civil war broke out between two Champa princes who were vying
for the throne. The conflict lasted for several years and resulted in the weakening of the
Champa kingdom.
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155
 The Khmer rowing warships in the 11th century.

The Chinese army carried spiked spear in their hand wearing the Khmer army uniform.
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 In the 10th century, a Champa king named Jaya Simhavarman III was overthrown by a rival
claimant to the throne, who established himself as the new king of Champa. The conflict
resulted in the splitting of the Champa kingdom into two separate states, with one based in
the north and the other based in the south.
In the 14th century, another civil war broke out between rival factions in the Champa court.
The conflict was sparked by political grievances and resulted in the weakening of the
Champa kingdom.
Champa was the capital of ancient Anga in the sixth century BC. It was of great commercial
importance. It was a river port from which ships world said down the Ganga and coast to
south India and Sri Lanka. During the medieval age, the Champa Kingdom benefited greatly
from the luxurious maritime trade routes through the South China Sea and overland trade
networks connecting Angkor and Bagan to Champa. Urbanization in Champa took place
progressively from the first to eighth centuries AD, from the late Sahuynhian to the early
Champa period. List of Sanscritized names of the Champa polity include:
10. Simhapura
11. Amarendrapur
12. Indrapur
13. Amravati
14. Vijaya
15. Virapura
16. Panduranga
17. Ratnapura
18. Vishnupura

Champa concentrated its wealth in highly urbanized port-cities, some of them located in self-
governing regions The earliest of those was Simhapura, emerged as a riverine port-city and
Cham political center around 400 AD. Prominent examples include Amarendrapura (the
modern city of Huế); Visnupura (Nhan Bieu, Quảng Trị) and Vrddha Ratnapura (Ðại
Hữu, Quảng Bình) in the north; Indrapura and Amavarati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Qui Nhon)
in the central region; and Nha Trang, Virapura (near Phan Rang), and Panduranga in the
south. These cosmopolitan cities were loaded with surplus amount of trading goods and
exotic products, overcrowded by merchants not just from other Cham states, but also
Chinese, Khmer, Malay, Viet, Arab, and Indian traders and travellers.
The Zhu Fan Zhi describes the port cities of Champa, 'on the arrival of a trading ship in this
country, officials are sent on board with a book made of folded slips of black leather.' After
an inventory has been taken, the cargo may be landed. 20% of the goods carried on is claimed
as tax, and the rest may be traded privately. If they discovered that 'any items were hidden
away during the customs check, the whole cargo will be confiscated.'
When French scholars arrived in the mid-19th century, they were impressed with Cham ruins,
Cham urbanism, and medieval networks throughout the former kingdom. The middle-age
densely populated areas of Tra Kieu and My Son were well connected by paved stone roads,
bridges, urban ruins that were 16 feet high, rampart and stone citadel in a rectangle shape of
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984 feet by 1640 feet, which hosted temples, fortified palaces, and resident structures, and
were supplied by canals, irrigation projects, underground aqueducts and wells.
From the 4th to 15th century, these cities were relatively wealthy. Foreign traders and
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travelers from across medieval Eurasia were well-aware of Champa's richness and
eyewitnessed the crowded, prosperous Cham port-cities. Abu'l-Faradj described the city

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 of Indrapura "this temple is ancient that all the Buddhas found there enter into conversation
with the faithful and reply to all the requests made to them." Columbus during his fourth
voyage in 1502 along the coast of Central America, in accordance with contemporary
knowledge that confused Central America with eastern Asia, thought that he had reached the
kingdom of "Ciampa" visited by Marco Polo in 1290. Peter Martyr d'Anghiera recorded
in De Orbe Novo Decades that on his fourth voyage in 1502, Columbus: "found a vast
territory called Quiriquetana [ Quiriguá. in the language of the inhabitants, but he called it
Ciamba (Champa)". Portuguese travelers in the early 16th century, such as Fernão Mendes
Pinto, reported vestiges of these cities "a town of above ten thousand households" which
"encircled by a strong wall of brick, towers, and bulwarks." Because of this, Champa was the
target of multiple warring powers surrounding: the Chinese in 4th century-605 AD; the
Javanese in 774 and 787, the Vietnamese in 982, 1044, 1069, 1073, 1446, and 1471; the
Khmer in 945–950, 1074, 1126–1128, 1139–1150, 1190–1220; and the Mongol Yuan in
1283–85, many cities were ransacked by invaders and rebuilt or repaired overtime. They also
had to face constant threats from hazards per annum such as flood, tropical cyclones, fire.
Some Cham port-cities later ended up captured by Vietnamese in the mid-15th century,
which later resulted in the rise of Nguyễn domain depending on these port-cities, whom
benefited international trades, and was well-balanced enough to fend off several
northern Trịnh invasions in the 17th centur

Champa art, Hindu temples and statues have been found in many parts of Vietnam.The term
"Balamon" derived from "Brahman" or "Brahmin", one of Hindu caste of religious elite.
Balamon Chams adhere to the old religion of their ancestor, an indigenized form of Hinduism
that thrived since the ancient era of Kingdom of Champa in the 5th century AD. While today
the Bacam (Bacham) are the only surviving Hindus in Vietnam, the region once hosted some
of the most exquisite and vibrant Hindu cultures in the world. The entire region of Southeast
Asia, in fact, was home to numerous sophisticated Hindu kingdoms. From Angkor in
neighbouring Cambodia, to Java and Bali in Indonesia. The Cham Sunni in the Mekong Delta
often refer the Balamon as Kafir (Derived from Arabic Kāfir for infidels).
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10th-century Cham Saivite relief of Śiva/Cham Bodhisattva on a relief cube, c. 12th century
 A liṅga (or liṅgam) is black stone pillar that serves as a representation of Shiva. Cham
kings frequently erected and dedicated stone lingas as the central religious images in
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royal temples. The name a Cham king would give to such a linga would be a composite
of the king's own name and suffix "-iśvara", which stands for Shiva.

159
  A mukhaliṅga is a linga upon which has been painted or carved an image of Shiva as a
human being or a human face.
 A jaṭāliṅga is a linga upon which has been engraved a stylised representation of Shiva's
chignon hairstyle.
 A segmented liṅga is a linga post divided into three sections to represent the three
aspects of the Hindu godhead or trimurti: the lowest section, square in shape,
represents Brahma; the middle section, octagonal in shape, represents Vishnu, and the top
section, circular in shape, represents Shiva.
 A kośa is a cylindrical basket of precious metal used to cover a linga. The donation of a
kośa to the decoration of a liṅga was a distinguishing characteristic of Cham Shaivism.
Cham kings gave names to special kośas in much the way that they gave names to the
liṅgas themselves.

Bas relief of animals and beasties from Tra Kieu, c. 900–1100. Museum of Cham Sculpture/
9th-century Dong Duong (Indrapura) lintel describing the early life of Prince Siddhārtha
Gautama (who is sitting on a mule).
The predominance of Hinduism in Cham religion was interrupted for a time in the 9th and
10th centuries AD, when a dynasty at Indrapura (modern Đồng Dương, Quảng Nam
Province, Vietnam) adopted Mahayana Buddhism as its faith. King Indravarman II (r. 854–
893) built a giant Buddhist monastery, meditation halls, and temples for Champa's monks
(Sangha), and celebrated the veneration of the Buddhist deity Lokeśvara under the name
Laksmindra Lokeśvara Svabhayada in 875. Mahayana in Champa was blended with
observable elements of Tantric Buddhism, manifesting in many traces.[165] For example,
Indravarman's successor Jaya Simhavarman I (r. 897–904) according to his verbatim in
902, Vajrapāṇi is the Bodhisattva capable of leading humans into the "path of the Vajra."
The Buddhist art of Đồng Dương has received special acclaim for its originality.
Buddhist art of Champa also shared the same unique aesthetics, paralleling
with Dvāravatī (Mon) art, highlighting in the similarities of both cultures in their
iconographic form of the Buddha-Stūpa-Triad, where the Buddha seats in padmāsana (lotus)
flanked by on either side by a depiction of a stūpa. Other shared features are makara lintel,
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fishtail-shaped sampot illustrating, Gaja-Lakṣmī, pendant-legged Buddhas.[168] The sources

of Mon–Cham cultural interaction may be the inland routes between the Muang Fa Daed site
on Khorat region, near a lost kingdom called Wèndān by the Chinese (probably the site of
Kantarawichai in Kantharawichai, Maha Sarakham), Southern Laos, via Savannakhet, then to
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Central Vietnam coast through Lao Bảo and Mụ Giạ Passes.

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 Beginning in the 10th century AD, Hinduism again became the predominant religion of
Champa. Some of the sites that have yielded important works of religious art and architecture
from this period are, aside from Mỹ Sơn, Khương Mỹ, Trà Kiệu, Chanh Lo, and Tháp Mắm.
From the 13th to 15th centuries, Mahayana among the Cham was practiced in form of
syncretic Saivite–Buddhism or the fusion of the worship of Śiva (seen as the protector)
and Buddha (seen as the savior). Buddhism prevailed secondary. With the decline of royal
power of the ruling Simhavarmanid dynasty in the 15th century and the fall of their
capital Vijaya in 1471, all Mahayana or Vajrayana traces of Champa disappeared, enabling
space for the rising Islamic faith.
Flowers have a special significance in Hindu culture and worship. They are not only used
for pandal decoration but also offered to all the deities as a reverence. If you want to know
more about the best pooja flowers that you can offer to deities, then read more on Which God
Likes Which Flower!

Why Flowers are Offered to Hindu Deities?

According to Sharad Tilk book, ”Daivasya Mastakam Kuryatkusumopahitam Sada” that

states, the heads of all the deities must always be festooned with fresh flowers.According to
Hindu scriptures, each Hindu deity is known for their favorite flower that they love the most.
During the rituals, it is believed that gods and goddesses descend on earth and devotees adore
them by offering various bhogs, flowers, and itar. It is believed that scents from these bring
them to the place of worship.All scented things like incense, flowers, itar are used in
worshipping and rituals. Besides, devotees believe that if you rever Gods with their favorite
flower, then the God blesses that person and also fulfills all their desires.

Which God Likes Which Flower

1. Krishna / श्री कृष्णा

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Krishna or Kanha is one of the eight avatars of Vishnu, and his imperative role is mentioned
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in the Mahabharata epic. Blue and yellow flowers, especially fragrant ones appeal the most to
this diety.

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 Mantra for Offering: || Om namo bhagvate vasudevay ||

Flowers: Oleander / Kaner, Asian pigeonwings / Aparajita, Night flowering Jasmine / Parijat,
Burflower / Kadamba, Lotus / Kamal, and Ketaki.

2. Vishnu / विष्णु

Vishnu is among the Trimurti, the triple deity of the supreme divinity of Brahma, Vishnu,
and Mahesh. He is said to be the preserver of the universe, restoring the equilibrium of good
and evil. Among the four arms, Vishnu holds Kamal in one.
Mantra for Offering: || Hari Om namo narayanaya ||
Flowers: Lotus / Kamal, Maulsiri, Juhi, Ashoka, Rangoon Creeper / Malati, Canna Lily /
Vyjayanti, and Ketaki

3. Saraswati / सरस्वती
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Saraswati is the goddess of wisdom, knowledge, learning, and music. She is depicted as
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sitting atop a lotus flower, in a white saree with veena. Worshipping Goddess Saraswati
bestows with a clear vision, creativity, wisdom, and eternal knowledge.

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 Mantra for offering: || Ya devi sarvabhuteshu, vidya rupen sansthita, namastasye
namastasye namastasye namo namah ||
Flowers: Oleander / Kaner, Marigold / Genda, White Rose / Safed Gulab, Champa / White
frangipani, and Yellow Palash
4. Ganesha / गणेश

According to scripture Acha Bhushan Granth, Ganesha can be worshipped with all the
flowers except for tulasidal. As per the Padmapurana Acharatna”na Tulasya
Ganadhipam” Ganesha should never be revered with basil leaves and flowers.
Mantra for Offering: || Vakratunda mahakaya suryakoti samaprabha, nirvighnam
kurumedeva sarvakaaryeshu sarvadaa ||
Flowers: Marigold and Red Hibiscus
5. Shani Dev / शनिदेव
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Shani dev is the God of justice and karma in Hinduism, and rewards or punishes people
according to their deeds. Besides, Shani dev also wards off hurdles from devotee’s life. This
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diety is fond of dark colors, so you can use any deep blue flowers for worship and rituals.
Mantra for Offering: || Om sham shanishcharay namah ||

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 Flowers: Shameplant / Blue Lajwanti
6. Shiva / शिव जी / महादेव

Shiva or Mahadev is the third lord among the Trimurti and has been depicted
as sanharkarta and srijankarta, as he destroys the world when it reaches a peak and then re-
creates it. Devotee can offer all the flowers to shiva, except for the ketaki and champa.
Mantra for Offering: || Shree shivay namastubhyam ||
Flowers: Crown Flower / Aak / Madaar, Asian pigeonwings / Aparajita, Night Flowering
Jasmine / Parijat / Harsingar, Jimsonweed / Datura, and Nerium Oleander / Pile Kaner
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 7. Maa Durgaa / दुर्गा माँ

Deity Durga is an incarnation of parvati who is fond of red color. She is portrayed with a red
saree, and red bangles. Any flower in red color can be offered. Offering a garland of red roses
or red hibiscus to deity Durga removes all troubles in one’s life. Hibiscus is, however, the
common offering

Mantra for Offering: || Shree Durgaye Namah ||

Flowers: Hibiscus / Jason, Red Rose / Laal Gulab, and Palash

8. Laxmi / लक्ष्मी देवी

Lakshmi is a deity of wealth, prosperity, and good fortune. She is portrayed with four arms,
standing on a large lotus flower, and adorned with gold jewels. Offer white and red-hued
flowers during worship and rituals.

Mantra for Offering: || Om shree mahalakshmayi cha vidmahe, vishnu patnyai cha
Dheemahi, Tanno Lakshmi Prachodayat ||

Flowers: White Lotus / Safed kamal, White Rose / Safed gulab, Laal Gulaab / Red rose,
Rajnigandha / Tuberose, and Mogra / Arabian Jasmine
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 9. Hanuman / हनुमान

HANUMAN-MUKHI ORCHID

Dracula simia, called also monkey orchid is a family of orchid flowers that have markings
that bear remarkable resemblance not jut to a monkey's face but to Lord Hanuman complete
with the tilak at the center of the forehead. The arrangement of column, petals and lip
strongly resembles a monkey's face.The plant blooms at any season. Flowers are fragrant
with the scent of a ripe orange - the fruit that has a color that is also known to be dear to Lord
Hanuman.
This rather rare orchid is found in Ecuador and Peru highlands of South American that is said
to bear strong links with ancient India by some scholars.
Hinduism honors all creation as an expression of the Lord's divine shakti. May we all be
blessed by the darling of Anjani who manifests himself in these beautiful orchids of South
America!
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Shree Hanuman needs no introduction, who is a vanar companion and ardent devotee
of Lord Rama as depicted in Ramayana. To please Lord Hanuman, you can offer white
fragrant flowers along with vermilion while chanting Hanuman Chalisa.
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 The name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka, which refers to Magnolia
champaca, a species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers. It is proposed
that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from Central
Vietnam arrived in present-day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri, an ancient
sacred city in Buddhism, for trade, then adopted the name for their people back in their
homeland. While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa was brought by Indians to
Central Vietnam. All this doen not bolster the claim of the author that the area was named
after the Godess SARASWATI the Hindu Goddess of Knowledge whose favourite flower
was indeed “Champa” literal and figurative meaning.

Goddess Saraswati and her flower Champa

Recent academics however dispute the Indic origin explanation, which was conceived
by Louis Finot, a colonial-era board director of the École française d'Extrême-Orient. In his
2005 Champa revised, Michael Vickery challenges Finot's idea. He argues that the Cham
people always refer themselves as Čaṃ rather than Champa (pa–abbreviation
of peśvara, Campādeśa, Campānagara). Most indigenous Austronesian ethnic groups in
Central Vietnam such as the Rade, Jarai, Chru, Roglai peoples call the Cham by similar
lexemes which likely derived from Čaṃ. Vietnamese historical accounts also have the Cham
named as Chiêm. Most importantly, the official designation of Champa in Chinese historical
texts was Zhànchéng –meaning "the city of the Cham," "why not city of the Champa?,"
Vickery doubts.

The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the major remnants of this former
kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian closely related
to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages that is spoken throughout maritime Southeast Asia.
Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the broader culture of Champa, the
kingdom had a multiethnic population, which consisted of Austronesian Chamic-speaking
peoples that made up the majority of its demographics. The people who used to inhabit the
region are the present-day Chamic-speaking Cham, Rade and Jarai peoples in South and
Central Vietnam and Cambodia; the Acehnese from Northern Sumatra, Indonesia, along with
167

elements of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic-speaking peoples in Central Vietnam.

Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese), or Linyi ,
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that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship
between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th

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 centuries AD. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt, the
Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi. In 1832, the Vietnamese
emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories.
Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the
4th century AD, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by
the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham
lands. Mỹ Sơn, a former religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are
now World Heritage Sites. Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which
began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th
century; they are called the Bani. There are, however, the Bacam who still retain and preserve
their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals. The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-
Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world, with a culture dating back thousands of years.
The other being the Balinese Hindus of the Balinese of Indonesia.

VI

The many Gods of Champa-Adivaraha

Dr Uday Dokras

Vaishnavism (Vaishava dharma)

Ādivarāha is short for Ādivarāhakṣetra (or Tiruppati-Tirumala) refers to Vēṅkaṭam, one of
the 108 Vaishnava Divya Desam (divyadeśas or divyasthalas), located in the topographical
division of Vaṭanāṭu (“North India”), according to the 9th century
Nālāyirativviyappirapantam (shortly Nālāyiram).—Tradition would record the
Vaiṣṇava divyadeśas or divyasthalas are 108. The divyadeśa is a base of the cult of Viṣṇu in
Viṣṇuism [Vaiṣṇavism] tradition.
The list of 108 [viz., Ādivarāha-kṣetra] seems to have reached maturation by about the early
9th century CE as all the deśas are extolled in the hymns of the twelve Āḻvārs.
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 Throughout the history of Champa, Shiva in his various forms remained the most popular
theme of the artistic endeavors of Cham people. This elaborate ~1200-1300 years old Murtis
from Tra-Kieu (ancient Simhapura) first capital of Champa bears ample testimony to it.

Fu-nan would eventually disappear around 6th-7th century but its legacy of Kaundinya would
survive and would be taken to the new heights by the Khmer kingdom which will rose into
Cambodia ultimately culminating into largest Hindu temple of ancient world!

CHAMPA - located in southern Vietnam its name is reminiscent of Champa - famed capital
of Anga desh & one of the largest city of ancient India. The original inhabitants of Champa
were & are known as Cham people.But is it named after the flower CHAMPA as called in
Sanskrit. Sweet smelling and regale white in colour?
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169
 As Chinese sources are only available sources for early history of Champa, not much is
known about Indianized cultural penetration into early history of Champa. But Indian
influence is already apparent in early art of Champa such as this Murti of Buddha from Dong
duong
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170
 Throughout the history of Champa, Shiva in his various forms remained the most popular
theme of the artistic endeavors of Cham people. This elaborate ~1200-1300 years old Murtis
from Tra-Kieu (ancient Simhapura) first capital of Champa bears ample testimony to it.

Bhadavarman is earliest known king of Champa with Indianized name. C. 4th century he
established the first Shiva temple in My-Son & initiated worship of Shiva as Shiva
Bhadreshwara. From that point onward Shiva remained the most revered deity of Cham
people.
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171
 Nearby My-Son itself became a sacred tirtha for the Champa and many temples dedicated to
Shiva were established there. Area came to be known as Amaravati. Unfortunately temples of
My-Son were partially destructed in American bombing during Vietnam war.
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Although it wasn't only Shiva that they embraced with Indianization. Other gods of Hindu
pantheon received equal devotion of the people of Champa. Strong Indian influence would
help Champa to withstood Sinicization for a very long period of time.
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 Page 173

173
 DVARAVATI - Loated in the area comprised by modern day Thailand its name is
reminiscent of the Famed Dwarika of India. Located in the valley of Menam river it was
established by the Mon people

This elaborately carved Dhamrachakras (symbolizing Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath) were
one of the popular motif of the art of Dvaravati. . And Indeed wheel of dharma set in motion
by mon people of Dvarvati is still moving in modern day Thailand!
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174
 This elaborately carved Dhamrachakras (symbolizing Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath) were
one of the popular motif of the art of Dvaravati. . And Indeed wheel of dharma set in motion
by mon people of Dvarvati is still moving in modern day Thailand!

Vaishnava (वैष्णव, vaiṣṇava) or vaishnavism (vaiṣṇavism) represents a tradition of

Hinduism worshipping Vishnu as the supreme Lord. Similar to the Shaktism and Shaivism
traditions, Vaishnavism also developed as an individual movement, famous for its exposition
of the dashavatara (‘ten avatars of Vishnu’).
Ādivarāha (आदिवराह).—'the first boar', an epithet of Visṇu, alluding to his third or boar-
incarnation.Derivable forms: ādivarāhaḥ (आदिवराहः).Ādivarāha is a Sanskrit compound
consisting of the terms ādi and varāha (वराह).Ādivarāha (आदिवराह (-haḥ) A name of
Vishnu. E. ādi and varāha a boar; the first boar, alluding to Vishnu'S avatara or incarnation in
that form; also similar compounds, as ādiśūkaraḥ, ādyakolaḥ, &c.
Ādivarāha (आदिवराह):—[=ādi-varāha] [from ādi] m. ‘the first boar’, Name of Viṣṇu,
[Kādambarī; Harivaṃśa].Ādivārāha (आदिवाराह):—[=ādi-vārāha] [from ādi] mfn. relating
to the first boarĀdivarāha (आदिवराह):—[ādi-varāha] (haḥ) 1. m. Vishnu.
Search found 9 books and stories containing Adivaraha, Ādivarāha, Adi-varaha, Ādi-varāha,
Ādivārāha, Ādi-vārāha; (plurals include: Adivarahas, Ādivarāhas, varahas, varāhas,
Ādivārāhas, vārāhas). You can also click to the full overview containing English textual
excerpts. Below are direct links for the most relevant articles:
Later Chola Temples (by S. R. Balasubrahmanyam)
Temples in Srimushnam < [Chapter II - Temples of Kulottunga I’s Time]
Temples in Laddigam < [Chapter II - Temples of Kulottunga I’s Time]
Chaitanya Bhagavata (by Bhumipati Dāsa)
Verse 3.2.288 < [Chapter 2 - Description of the Lord’s Travel Through Bhuvaneśvara and
Other Placesto Jagannātha Purī]
Verse 3.2.281 < [Chapter 2 - Description of the Lord’s Travel Through Bhuvaneśvara and
Other Placesto Jagannātha Purī]
Verse 3.2.280 < [Chapter 2 - Description of the Lord’s Travel Through Bhuvaneśvara and
Other Placesto Jagannātha Purī]
Early Chola Temples (by S. R. Balasubrahmanyam)
Torana < [Chapter XIII - Prasada: Component Parts]
Part I, Stone < [Chapter XI - Sculpture]
Temples in Tiruvidavendai (Tiruvidavendai) < [Chapter VIII - Temples of Uttama Chola’s
Time]
The Skanda Purana (by G. V. Tagare)
Chapter 132 - The Greatness of Ādivārāha Tīrtha < [Section 3 - Revā-khaṇḍa]
Chapter 189 - The Greatness of Udīrṇa Vārāha Tīrtha < [Section 3 - Revā-khaṇḍa]
Chapter 230 - The Series of Tīrthas Enumerated < [Section 3 - Revā-khaṇḍa]
175

Triveni Journal
The Devi Bhagavata Purana (by Swami Vijñanananda)
Page

Chapter 10 - On the description of Bhuvanakoṣa < [Book 8]

175
 Varaha Cave Temple (i.e., Varaha Mandapa or the Adivaraha Cave) is a rock-cut cave
temple located at Mamallapuram, on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
in Kancheepuram District in Tamil Nadu, India. It is part of the hill top village, which is 4
kilometres (2.5 mi) to the north of the main Mahabalipurm sites of rathas and the Shore
Temple. It is an example of Indian rock-cut architecture dating from the late 7th century. The
temple is one of the finest testimonial to the ancient Hindu rock-cut cave architecture, out of
many such caves also called mandapas. Part of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram,
the temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site as inscribed in 1984 under criteria i, ii, iii and
iv.The most prominent sculpture in the cave is that of the Hindu god Vishnu in the incarnated
form of a Varaha or boar lifting Bhudevi, the mother earth goddess from the sea. Also carved
are many mythical figures.

The relief of Vishnu as Varaha lifting Bhudevi, the earth

Varaha Cave Temple is located on the hills of Mahabalipuram town, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) to
the north of the main Mahabalipurm sites of rathas and Shore Temple, on the Coromandel
Coast of the Bay of Bengal of the Indian Ocean. Now in the Kanchipuram district, it is
approximately 58 kilometres (36 mi) from Chennai city (previously Madras) and about 20
miles (32 km) from Chingelpet
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History
The cave reflects a transitional style of architecture in its columns mounted on seated lions
and frescoes carved on the walls inside the cave which evolved during the rule
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of Pallava kings Mahendra Varman I and Rajasimha or Narasimhavarman I known as

Mamalla. This style was continued by Mamalla's son Parameshvaravarman I. Historical

176
 research has also confirmed that Mahabalipuram town came to be established only after it
was named after Mamalla and the caves and rathas are all attributed to his reign during the
year 650 AD. It is the earliest known monument in Mahabalipuram though not the most
visited due its hidden location The distinctive feature of the Pallava style is that the frontage
of the cave has, without exception, finely carved columns mounted on lions in a sitting
posture. The structure is part of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO
World Heritage Site inscribed in 1984.

Architecture

Vishnu as Trivikrama taking the three strides/Gajalakshmi panel.=Durga Panel.

Layout
The temple is a small monolithic rock-cut temple with a mandapa carved into the rock face of
pink granite formations, dating from the 7th century. The cave is of smaller dimension and
has a simple plan. The fluted columns separating the openings have cushion-shaped capitals
and seated lions at the base. Certain Greco-Roman architectural styles could also be discerned
and the sitting statues are said to have likeness to the sitting styles seen in European
architecture, as against the Indian cross legged style. The style thus created at Mahabalipuram
became a forerunner for South Indian style of architecture.[1] The walls inside the cave have
several striking mythological scenes carved in relief. Vishnu rescuing the earth, Vishnu
taking three strides, Gaja Laksmi and Durga are all impressive panels carved in the
Adivaraha Cave.

Features
At the centre of the rear wall of the mandapa, opposite to the entrance, guardian figures are
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carved on either side of a shrine. Inside the mandapa, the walls have four large sculptured
panels, good examples of naturalistic Pallava art. The side walls have carved sculpture panels
of Vishnu as Trivikrama (Vamana) and northern panel, which is very large, depicts Vishnu in
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the form of Varaha, the boar, lifting Bhudevi, the earth goddess symbolically representing
removal of ignorance of human beings. In this panel, Varaha has four hands, two arms

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 carrying shankha and chakra, which are shown towards the back and in one of the arms in the
front he is carrying Bhudevi. There are no attendants fawning on him. However, the original
panel has been plastered and painted.

The Gajalakshmi panel is on the rear wall which represents Gajalakshmi, an aspect
of Lakshmi - the goddess of prosperity. The religious significance of Gajalakshmi is well
brought out in the panel. She is shown with her hand holding lotus flowers, fawned by four
attendants, and carved in "perfect beauty and gracious countenance". Two royal elephants are
filling the water vessels held by the attendants and one elephant is pouring water from the
vessel on Lakshmi and the other is about to take the vessel from the maiden's hand to pour
water over Lakshmi. The Durga panel, also on the rear wall, is indicative of victory over
ignorance. The Trivikrama panel depicts Vishnu as the Lord of the three worlds. Another
strikingly impressive panel is of Durga slaying the demon Mahishasura who is in
an anthropomorphic form of a human with a buffalo head; the scene is reminiscent of a battle
between good and evil forces, with the side of Durga represented by the confident
looking ganas advancing and the other side of Mahishasura with his army of asuras (demons)
retreating. This scene is a new architectural depiction which is appreciated as to "enhance the
drama and realism of the subject." The Brahma panel is carved with Brahma having three
heads in sambhaga or standing posture.

VII
Sambhubhadresvara in Champa
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Also a temple of his consort Maheshswarmardini ( DURGA) in Vietnam

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 Sambhubhadresvara is the name of Shiva and means the god of the source of happiness and
auspiciousness is one of the 1000 names of Shiva( Read my paper on List of 1000 Names of
Lord Siva on academia.edu) How these complex Sanskrit names that did not eben have a
common foothold in the narrative of temples in India found its way to Champa and held on to
the cultural religious context is amazing nt in the least mesmerizing for those of us who study
Greater India and Indian influences beyong its borders.
According to Chinese records, Sambhuvarman (Fan Fan Tche) was crowned king of Lâm
Ấp in 529. Inscriptions credit him with rehabilitating the temple to Bhadresvara after a fire.
Sambhuvarman also sent delegations and tribute to China and unsuccessfully invaded what is
now northern Vietnam. George Cœdès states that this was actually Rudravarman I, followed
by his son Sambhuvarman; their combined reigns extended from 529 to 629 When the
Vietnamese gained a brief independence under the Early Lý dynasty (544-602), King Lý
Nam Đế sent his general, Pham Tu, to pacify the Chams after they raided southern border, in
543; the Chams were defeated.
In 605, a general Liu Fang of the Chinese Sui dynasty invaded Lâm Ấp, won a battle by
luring the enemy war-elephants into an area booby-trapped with camouflaged pits, massacred
the defeated troops, and captured the capital. Sambhuvarman rebuilt the capital and the
Bhadravarman temple at Mỹ Sơn, then received Chenla King Mahendravarman's
ambassador. In the 620s, the kings of Lâm Ấp sent delegations to the court of the recently
established Tang dynasty and asked to become vassals of the Chinese court. Bhadreshwara
Temple today known as
Mỹ Sơn is a cluster of abandoned and partially ruined Hindu temples in central Vietnam,
constructed between the 4th and the 14th century by the Kings of Champa, an Indianized
kingdom of the Cham people. The temples are dedicated to the worship of the god Shiva,
known under various local names, the most important of which is Bhadreshvara.One of
these kings was Shambhuvarman stated above from the 6 th century.
The history of Champa begins in prehistory with the migration of the ancestors of the Cham
people to mainland Southeast Asia and the founding of their Indianized maritime kingdom
based in what is now central Vietnam in the early centuries AD, and ends when the final
vestiges of the kingdom were annexed and absorbed by Vietnam in 1832.
One theory holds that the people of Champa were descended from settlers who reached the
Southeast Asian mainland from Borneo about the time of the Sa Huỳnh culture, though
genetic evidence points to exchanges with India. Sa Huỳnh sites are rich in iron artifacts, by
contrast with the Đông Sơn culture sites found in northern Vietnam and elsewhere in
mainland Southeast Asia, where bronze artifacts are dominant. The Cham language is part of
the Austronesian family. According to one study, Cham is related most closely to
modern Acehnese.
Cham tradition says that the founder of the Cham state was Lady Po Nagar. She hailed
from Khánh Hòa Province, in a peasant family in the mountains of Dai An. Spirits assisted
her when she drifted on a piece of sandalwood to China, where she married a Chinese crown
prince, the son of the Emperor of China, with whom she had two children. She then became
Queen of Champa. When she returned to Champa to visit her family, the Prince refused to let
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her go, but she flung the sandalwood into the ocean, disappeared with her children and
reappeared at Nha Trang to her family. When the Chinese prince tried to follow her back to
Nha Trang, she was furious and turned him and his fleet into stone.
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The Sa Huỳnh culture was a late prehistoric metal age society on the central coast of Viet
Nam. In 1909, urns containing cremated remains and grave goods were discovered at Thanh

179
 Duc, near Sa Huỳnh, a coastal village located south of Da Nang. Since then, many more
burials have been found, from Huế to the Đồng Nai river delta. The jar burials
contain bronze mirrors, coins, bells, bracelets, axes and spearheads, iron spearheads, knives
and sickles, and beads made of gold, glass, carnelian, agate and nephrite. Radiocarbon
dating of the Sa Huỳnh culture remains range from 400 BC to the first or second century AD.
The Sa Huỳnh exchanged items along maritime trade routes with Taiwan and the Philippines.
"At present, the consensus of all evidence points to a relatively late intrusive settlement of
this region by sea from Borneo, a move which stimulated the rise of Sa Huỳnh, and then the
development of the Cham states.
Early Kingships: Lâm Ấp, Xitu, and Quduqian
Ancient Champa–Central Vietnam is said, during the regency of Duke of Zhou (1042–1035
BC), there was a tribe called Yuèshāng 越裳 (then Rinan) brought two black pheasants and one
albino to the court of the Zhou dynasty, presented as tributes. The Nanyue kingdom (204–111
BC) based from present-day Guangzhou, was founded by Zhao Tuo, a former Chinese
general of Qin Shihuangdi. Nanyue projected its power into present-day northern Vietnam,
which eventually then was becoming the southernmost parts of Nanyue. The region was
annexed by the Han emperor Wudi in 111 BC, who incorporated those territories
corresponding to modern-day north and central Vietnam into the Han Empire. Central
Vietnam from south of Ngang Pass in Hà Tĩnh then became known as Rinan (日南) province,
meaning "south of the sun."
To the Chinese, the country of Champa was known as Linyi in Mandarin and Lam Yap in
Cantonese and to the Vietnamese, Lâm Ấp (which is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation
of . According to Chinese texts, in 192 AD, a revolt erupted in Rinan led by Khu Liên (區連
Qū Lián), son of a local official, killing the Han magistrate in Xianglin. Xiànglín
in Chinese or Tượng Lâm in Vietnamese) county (modern-day Thừa Thiên Huế province).
Khu Liên then established a kingdom known to the Chinese as Lâm Ấp or Linyi. Over the
next several centuries, Chinese forces made repeated unsuccessful attempts to retake the
region.
From its neighbor Funan to the west, Lâm Ấp soon came under the influence of Indian
civilization. Scholars locate the historical beginnings of Champa in the 4th century, when the
process of Indianization was well underway. It was in this period that the Cham people began
to create stone inscriptions in both Sanskrit and in their own language, for which they created
a unique script. One such Sanskrit inscription, the Vo Canh stele Pallava Grantha inscription
hails from the early Cham territory of Kauthara, and establishes the descendant of the local
Hindu king related to the Funan kingdom, Sri Mara. He is identified with both Champa
founder Khu Liên and Fan Shih-man of Funan.
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180
 The Vo Canh Stele is the oldest Sanskrit inscription ever found in Southeast Asia/The
towers of Po Sa Nu (Pho Hai) near Phan Thiết may be the oldest extant Cham buildings.
In style, they exhibit the influence of pre-Angkorian Cambodia.

The Lion City of SIMHAPURA

Archaeological excavations at Tra Kieu (Simhapura), a early Lam Ap/Champa site, show that
the common assumption of Lam Ap as a merely "Indianized" polity is rather irrational and
fundamentally misunderstanding. Instead, evidence gathered from excavations displays a
fascinating, dynamic history of the early stages of formation of the Cham civilization, with
artifacts reflect cross multicultural influence and trade connections between early Champa
with ancient Eurasian powers such as the Han Empire, the Gupta Empire, the South
Indian Pallava dynasty, and the Mediterranean.
The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman, who reigned from 380 to
181

413. At Mỹ Sơn, King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara, whose name
was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva.[31] The
worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued
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through the centuries that followed. Moreover, Bhadravarman's third inscription (C.
174, c. 4th–5th century AD) at Tra Kieu, which renders Old Cham, is the oldest surviving

181
 text of any Southeast Asian language. The authorities of king Bhadravarman might have
spanned from nowadays Quảng Nam to Chợ Dinh, Phú Yên, near the Đà Rằng river.
Some historians doubt that the Cham of medieval time were direct descendants from the early
state of what the Chinese called Lâm Ấp/Linyi which encompassed the present-day areas
north of Hải Vân Pass to the Ngang Pass. Another significant issue that historians also
concern is the Champa unitary theory argued by early scholarship who believed that there
was only one single kingdom of early Champa and that was Lâm Ấp/Linyi recorded by the
Chinese. Linyi left no textual information, while south of Linyi were the kingdoms
of Xitu, Boliao, Quduqian, and dozens more kingdoms that their names had been lost to
history. For example, William Southworth, hypothesizes that the emergence of Champa in
the 6th century was the result of a gradual process of Chamic northward expansion from
the Thu Bồn River valley to Thừa Thiên Huế and its periphery around the 5th to 6th century
AD, though very faint. From 220 to 645, Chinese annals give almost the same title for rulers
of Linyi: Fan 范 (Middle Chinese: *buam’), that may be connected with the
The capital of Lâm Ấp at the time of Bhadravarman was the citadel of Simhapura, the
"Lion City" at present-day Trà Kiệu, located along two rivers and had a wall eight miles in
circumference. A Chinese writer described the people of Lâm Ấp as both warlike and
musical, with "deep eyes, a high straight nose, and curly black hair."
According to Chinese records, Sambhuvarman (Fan Fan Tche) was crowned king of Lâm Ấp
in 529. Inscriptions credit him with rehabilitating the temple to Bhadresvara after a fire.
Sambhuvarman also sent delegations and tribute to China and unsuccessfully invaded what is
now northern Vietnam. George Cœdès states that this was actually Rudravarman I, followed
by his son Sambhuvarman; their combined reigns extended from 529 to 629 When the
Vietnamese gained a brief independence under the Early Lý dynasty (544-602), King Lý
Nam Đế sent his general, Pham Tu, to pacify the Chams after they raided southern border, in
543; the Chams were defeated.
At Mỹ Sơn, the name Campā occurs in the first time on a important Cham inscription code
named C. 96 dating from metaphysically year 658 AD. Another undatable inscription from
Dinh Thị, Thừa Thiên Huế mentions a king with titles cāmpeśvara ('"Lord of the Cham'")
and śrī kandarppapureśvarāya ("Lord of the City of Kandarpapura of Love"), perhaps
attribute to Kandarpadharma whos the eldest son of Sambhuvarman. Correspondingly,
Cambodian inscription K. 53 (written in Sanskrit) from Kdei Ang, Prey Veng recorded an
envoy dispatched from the ruler of Champa (Cāmpeśvara) in 667 AD.
From the 7th to the 10th centuries, the Cham controlled the trade in spices and silk between
China, India, the Indonesian islands, and the Abbasid empire in Baghdad. They supplemented
their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging
in piracy and raiding.
Consolidation under Prakasadharma and the Simhapura dynasty
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182
 Stone pedestal of a temple with an Apsara dancer and a Gandharva musician (Trà Kiệu style)/
Ruins of the Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary
In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of
Champa in Simhapura (Tra Kieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?)
and Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or the
Simhapura dynasty. He embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic kingdoms in
the south, and by 658 AD the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa) stretching from Quảng Bình
province in the north to present-day Ninh Hòa city, Khánh Hòa province in the south, was
unified under one ruler for the first time
Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known as viṣaya (district.
However, viṣaya also can be synonymous with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that
time there were two know districts: Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number
of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the
worship of three gods. They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely
treasures. Prakāśadharma built numerous temples and religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn. One
structure is amazing decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king,
resembling a theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.
Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in 653,
183

654, 669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous kings. The
seventh century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese, became the chief
tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Kokuryo in the Northeast
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and Baekje in the East — though the latter was rivaled by Japan.
Religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn- Shaivism

183
 By the second half of the 7th century, royal temples were beginning to appear at Mỹ
Sơn. The dominant religious practice was that of the Hindu god Shiva, but temples were also
dedicated to Vishnu. Scholars have called the architectural style of this period Mỹ Sơn E1, in
reference to a particular edifice at Mỹ Sơn that is regarded as emblematic of the style.
Important surviving works of art in this style include a pedestal for a linga that has come to
be known as the Mỹ Sơn E1 Pedestal and a pediment depicting the birth of Brahma from a
lotus issuing from the navel of the sleeping Vishnu.
In an important stone inscription dated 657, found at Mỹ Sơn, King Prakasadharma, who took
on the name Vikrantavarman I at his coronation, claimed to be descended through his mother
from the Brahman Kaundinya and the serpent princess Soma, the legendary ancestors of
the Khmer of Cambodia. This inscription underlines the ethnic and cultural connection of
Champa with the Khmer Empire, its perennial rival to the west. It also commemorates the
king's dedication of a monument, probably a linga, to Shiva. Another inscription documents
the king's almost mystical devotion to Shiva, "who is the source of the supreme end of life,
difficult to attain; whose true nature is beyond the domain of thought and speech, yet whose
image, identical with the universe, is manifested by his forms.
Temporary preeminence of Kauthara
In the 8th century, during the time when the Chinese knew the country as "Huanwang", the
political center of Champa shifted temporarily from Mỹ Sơn southward to the regions of
Panduranga and Kauthara, centered around the temple complex of Po Nagar near
modern Nha Trang that was dedicated to the indigenous Earth goddess Yan Po Nagar. In 774,
raiders from Java disembarked in Kauthara, burned the temple of Po Nagar, and carried off
the image of Shiva. The Cham king Satyavarman (r. 770–787) pursued the raiders and
defeated them in a naval battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, declaring
that he had regained control of the area and had restored the temple. In 787, Javanese raiders
destroyed a temple dedicated to Shiva near Panduranga.
Javanese raids (774, 787–799)
In 767, Tonkin coast was hit by Java (Daba) and Kunlun raids, around modern day Hanoi the
capital of Tonkin (Annam). Around Son-tay they were vanquished at the hands of Chang Po-i
the governor, after the Kunlun and Java (Shepo) assaulted Tongking in 767.
Champa was subsequently assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787. In 774 an
assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha-trang where the pirates demolished temples, while
in 787 an assault was launched on Phang-rang. Several Champa coastal cities suffered naval
raids and assault from Java. Java armadas was called as Javabala-sanghair-nāvāgataiḥ (Java
armadas) which are recorded in Champa epigraphs. All of these raids believed was launched
by the Sailendras, ruler of Java and Srivijaya. The possible cause of Srivijaya Sailendras
assault on Champa was probably prompted by commerce rivalry on serving Chinese market.
The 787 epigraph was in Yang Tikuh while the 774 epigraph was Po-nagar.
In Kauthara province in 774, Champa's Siva-linga temple of Po Nagar was assaulted and
demolished. Champa source mentioned their invader as foreigners, sea-farers, eaters of
inferior food, of frightful appearance, extraordinarily black and thin. The 774 assault by the
Javanese happened in the rule of Isvaraloka (Satyavarman). Cham record mentioned that their
184

country was hit by ferocious, pitiless, dark-skinned sea raiders, which modern historians
believed to by Javanese. Java had commercial and cultural links to Champa. And assault was
initiated on Cambodia. Javanese raid was launched via the Pulo Condor island. Malaya,
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Sumatra or Java all could have been the origin of the assaulters. The Kauthara Nha Trang
temple of Po Nagar was ruined when ferocious, pitiless, dark-skinned men born in other

184
 countries, whose food was more horrible than corpses, and who were vicious and furious,
came in ships . . . took away the [temple linga], and set fire to the temple. In 774 according to
the Nha Trang epigraph in Sanskrit by the Chams. Men born in other lands, living on other
foods, frightful to look at, unnaturally dark and lean, cruel as death, passing over the sea in
ships assaulted in 774.
In 787, warriors from Java borne over in ships assaulted Champa. In Phan-rang the Sri
Bhadradhipatlsvara temple was arsoned by seaborne Java troops in 787, when Indravarman
was in power at the hands of the Javanese. It was mentioned the armies of Java, having come
in vessels of the 787 assault, and of the previous assault, that Satyavarman, the King of
Champa vanquished them as they were followed by good ships and beaten at sea and they
were men living on food more horrible than cadavers, frightful, completely black and gaunt,
dreadful and evil as death, came in ships in the Nha-trang Po Nagar epigraph in Sanskrit,
which called hem men born in other countries. The ruin of the temple at Panduranga in 787
came at the hands of the assaulters.
Champa was an important commerce link between China and Srivijaya. The Majapahit and
their predecessors the Javanese Mataram had ties with Champa
Further Cham diplomatic relations with Java occurred in 908 and 911 during the reign
of Bhadravarman II (r. 905–917), which the king sent two envoys to the island
The Buddhist dynasty at Indrapura
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185
 Page 186

186
 9th-century Campa bronze statues of Avalokiteśvara (Lokeśvara) and Prajñāpāramitā, from
Ðại Hữu, Quảng Bình province./Buddhist altar from Đồng Dương, 9th-10th century
AD. Museum of Cham Sculpture, Danang.
In 875, King Indravarman II founded a new northern dynasty at Indrapura (Dong Duong
near Da Nang in modern Vietnam). Eager to claim an ancient lineage, Indravarman declared
himself the descendant of Bhrigu, the venerable sage whose exploits are detailed in
the Mahabharata, and asserted that Indrapura had been founded by the same Bhrigu in ancient
times. From 877 onward, the Chinese knew Champa as "Cheng-cheng", discontinuing their
use of the term "Huan-wang." Indravarman II repulsed an invasion by the Khmer
King Yasovarman I.
Indravarman was the first Cham monarch to adopt Mahayana Buddhism as an official
religion. At the center of Indrapura, he constructed a Buddhist monastery (vihara) dedicated
to the bodhisattva Lokesvara. The foundation, regrettably, was devastated during the Vietnam
War. Thankfully, some photographs and sketches survive from the prewar period. In addition,
some stone sculptures from the monastery are preserved in Vietnamese museums. Scholars
have called the artistic style typical of the Indrapura the Dong Duong Style. The style is
characterized by its dynamism and ethnic realism in the depiction of the Cham people.
Surviving masterpieces of the style include several tall sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or
temple guardians that were once positioned around the monastery. The period in which
Buddhism reigned as the principal religion of Champa came to an end in approximately 925,
at which time the Dong Duong Style also began to give way to subsequent artistic styles
linked with the restoration of Shaivism as the national religion
Kings belonging to the dynasty of Indrapura built a number of temples at Mỹ Sơn in the 9th
and 10th centuries. Their temples at Mỹ Sơn came to define a new architectural and artistic
style, called by scholars the Mỹ Sơn A1 Style, again in reference to a particular foundation at
Mỹ Sơn regarded emblematic for the style. With the religious shift from Buddhism back to
Shaivism around the beginning of the 10th century, the center of Cham religion also shifted
from Dong Duong back to Mỹ Sơn.

The founding history of My Son

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187
 Sambhuvarman[edit]

The great temple "A1" dedicated to the god Sambhubhadresvara by King Sambhuvarman in
the 7th century is now a pile of rubble: scholars were able to make this diagram before its
destruction during the Vietnam War.
188

The original temples of Bhadravarman were mainly composed of wooden materials such
timber logs. Unfortunately, the temple complex was comsumed by a great fire occurred in
535/536 AD, during the reign of Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). In the 7th century,
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King Sambhuvarman (Phạm Phạn Chi in Vietnamese, Fan Che as transcribed from the
Chinese), who reigned from 572 until 629 and son of Rudravarman, rebuilt the temple,

188
 reinstalled the god under the name Sambhu-Bhadresvara, and erected a stele to document the
event.[10]: 326 The stele affirmed that Sambhu-Bhadresvara was the creator of the world and the
destroyer of sin, and expressed the wish that he "cause happiness in the kingdom of
Champa."[11] The stele also applauded the king himself, claiming that he was "like a terrestrial
sun illuminating the night" and that his glory rose "like the moon on an autumn evening."[12]
Ironically, perhaps, Sambhuvarman's reign was marred by one of the most devastating
invasions ever suffered by the country of Champa. In 605 AD, the Chinese general Liu Fang
led an army southwards from the area of what is now northern Vietnam, defeated the
elephant-riders of Sambhuvarman, and sacked the Cham capital, making off with an
enormous booty that included over one thousand Buddhist books as well as the gold tablets
commemorating the reigns of the previous eighteen kings. [13] Heading back north with their
heist, the Chinese invaders were struck by an epidemic that felled a large number of them,
including Liu Fang. Sambhuvarman, for his part, returned home to his kingdom, began the
process of rebuilding, and made sure to send regular shipments of tribute to the Chinese
court, in order through appeasement to prevent a recurrence of the recent disaster.[12]
French scholars investigating Mỹ Sơn at the beginning of the 20th century identified a then
still existent edifice distinguished for "its majestic proportions, the antiquity of its style, and
the richness of its decoration" as the temple of Sambhu-Bhadresvara constructed by King
Sambhuvarman. The edifice, which is known to scholars as "A1", was practically destroyed
by US aerial bombing in the Vietnam War and is now little more than a formless pile of
bricks.
My Son was the most sacred holy land of Hinduism in the Realm Champa (the former
country lying at the south of Vietnam now; today is the Southern region of Vietnam) which
was formed and existed in nine centuries, from the 4th to the 13th century. This is the only
relic remained in the South-East Asia that has that long time of development and plays a very
important role in the architectural legacies of the ethnic group Cham. In total, there are 71
relics in My Son Valley, divided into 13 groups.

In the 2nd century AD, Cham people established an independent country named Lam Ap. Till
the end of the 4th century, King Bhadravarman I chose My Son Valley to be the place to
build a temple worshipping the Saint Siva. The king selected this location because this area
reached solemnity and has obstacles to get access to, according to the conception of
Hinduism. The first temple was built in wood and had the name of Bhadresvara. Its symbol
was a set of reproduction Linga - the oldest expression of the combination of royalty and
theocracy in the South-East Asia area.

In the 6th century, about 529 - 577, unfortunately this temple was destroyed. King
Sambhuvarman rebuilt it with refined bricks and added his name into the former name,
making the temple Sambhubhadresvara. From that time, every new king decided to establish
new tower temples in My Son area or restore the old ones that had been ruined by wars.
Gradually My Son developed into the National Holy Land of the whole nation.

In 653 (the 7th century), King Prakasadharma came to the throne and attempted to build
many temples and offered a great deal of land and property for the Deities.
189

In the 8th and 9th centuries, from 749 to 875, the holy land PoNagar in Nha Trang was
venerated as the place worshipping the mother goddess of the nation. The holy land My Son
Page

thus was paid less attention. At the end of the 9th century, Buddhism which had been
penetrated many centuries ago was considered as the National religion. In 875, revering

189
 Buddhism, King Indravarman II replaced the imperial capital in Quang Nam and built a
Buddhistic Institute in Dong Duong which stayed 20 kilometres far from Tra Kieu. This was
the third largest holy land of the Realm of Champa.

In the 10th century, Siva religion was rehabilitated. The holy land My Son was restored, the
old tower temples were upgraded and a series of new holy lands were established. Hence, the
holy land My Son only lost it important role in some decades in the late 9thth
century. century and the early 10

In the 11th century, the war devastated the nation, holy lands and tower temples.

In the year 1149 of the 12th century, King Harivarman founded a new capital in Binh Dinh
and repaired My Son Holy Land. The next king used jewelries laminated on the roofs of the
tower temples. In 1170, a war between the Realm of Champa and neighbouring countries
happened. Cham people lost their sovereignty many times. In 1190, Khmer people in
Cambodia attacked and occupied Champa as revenge. Until 1220, the independence of the
country was regained.

In the 13th century, the tower temples were repaired and worshipped but people did not build
any more temples. The realm of Champa was on a recession.

In 1470 (the 15th century), Champa's existence was actually put to an end. The holy land
turned deserted. Champa's kings came to Phan Rang and established a capital named
Pandurang there.

In the 19th century, after 300 years of oblivion, the holy land My Son was discovered by
M.C. Paris (a French person) in 1898.

In the 20th century, in 1969, American soldiers bombarded the area of tower temples. After
the liberation of Vietnam country, until the 80s, My Son could not get any attentions. From
1981 until now, embellishing activities have been carried out.
https://en.skydoor.net/entry/The_founding_history_of_My_Son/180

LIMITED TIMELINE of CHAMPA

Year Date Event

Austronesian Chamic people migrated to Hue, Central

1000 BC
Vietnam coast and forged a metal-age culture in Sa Huỳnh
190

Year Date Event

Page

190
 111 BC Han conquest of Nanyue

Chams revolted against the Chinese Han dynasty and

AD 100
destroyed Han administration buildings.

136 Chams revolted against the Han dynasty

Cham revolt spread to the Red River Delta and was

144
suppressed.

Cham leader Khu Liên led a successful revolt against the

192 Chinese Han dynasty. Khu Liên (Sri Mara) found the kingdom
of Lâm Ấp, the first Cham state

3rd century[

Year Date Event

220 Phạm Hùng became King of Lâm Ấp.

Lâm Ấp attacked Jiaozhou and provoked a rebellion

248
in Jiuzhen.

Phạm Hùng raided Jiaozhou with aid from king of Funan Fan
270
Hsün.[

Phạm Dật became king of Lâm Ấp and sent the first mission
284
to Imperial China.[

4th century

Year Date Event

191

The chief minister of Phạm Dật, Phạm Văn became king.

336 Phạm Văn was a Chinese man who was being sold as a slave
to Champa when he was a child.
Page

191
 Phạm Văn pacified barbarian tribes and sent a mission to
340
Imperial China.

Phạm Văn seized part of Rinan south of the Hoành Sơn

347
mountain

Phạm Phật succeeds his father Phạm Văn, who died in early
349
that year.

Phạm Phật launched several incursions on the Chinese

351–359
province of Jiaozhou.

372 Phạm Phật sent mission to China

Phạm Phật was succeeded by his son Phạm Hồ Đạt, who

380 converted to Hinduism and styled himself as Bhadravarman
I.

Bhadravarman I launched an invasion of Rinan, but was

399
driven back by the Chinese governor Du Yian.

5th century

Year Date Event

405 Chams raid Rinan

Bhadravarman I launched another invasion on Rinan,

413
but was defeated and beheaded by Du Xuedu

The new king of Lâm Ấp, Phạm Dương Mại

420 I attacked the Jin dynasty, but suffered a defeat. Half
of Lâm Ấp's population was massacred
192

Phạm Dương Mại II attacked Jiaozhou but was driven

Page

431
back.

192
 Phạm Dương Mại II requested the Liu Song court for
432
the chairman of the Prefect of Jiao.

Liu Song dynasty invaded Lâm Ấp, besieged the

446 May Cham capital of Kandarapura, sacked the city, killed
the Cham king, and looted 100,000 pounds of gold.[13]

Son of Phạm Dương Mại II, Fan Chen-ch'eng, sent

456
embassy to China

late 5th century Lâm Ấp's economy flourished

6th century

Year Date Event

Vijayavarman died. A Brahman named Rudravarman became

529
king of the new dynasty.

534 Rudravarman sent mission to China

572 Rudravarman died. Sambhuvarman became king of Lâm Ấp

Sambhuvarman sent an embassy to the emperor of new

595
unified Sui China.

7th century

Year Date Event

Sambhuvarman constructed the Bhadresvara temple

600 of Mỹ Sơn and a new sanctuary called
Sambhubhadresvara.
193

605 Sino–Cham war: Chinese general Liu Fang invaded Lâm Ấp

and overcame Sambhuvarman's army; Cham
Page

capital Simhapura was sacked; Lâm Ấp was briefly occupied

193
 into three Chinese counties; Liu Fang died of disease during
withdraw

Sambhuvarman reasserted Cham independence and sent an

623
mission to the new Tang Empire.

Sambhuvarman died and was succeeded by his

629 son Kandarpadharma. Since then, Chams have used Champa
to refer to their state

631 Kandarpadharma sent missions to the Tang.

Prabhasadharma became king of Champa and sent mission to

640
the Tang.

645 Prabhasadharma was assassinated by his minister.[18]

A sister of Prabhasadharma, princess Isanavarman became

650
ruler of Champa

Prakäsadharma, a son of a Cham prince named Jagaddharma

(grandson of Kandarpadharma) and Khmer princess Sarväpi
653
(daughter of Isanavarman I of Chenla), ascended the throne
of Champa as Vikrantavarman I

Vikrantavarman II became king of Champa; Cham territories

686
extended to the south.[19]

8th century

Year Date Event

Champa and Chenla assisted Mai Thúc Loan's rebellion

722
against the Tang Empire.
194

731 Rudravarman II succeeded Vikrantavarman II.

Page

194
 749 Rudravarman II sent an mission to Tang China.

757 Prithindravarman became king of Champa.

770 Satyavarman became king of Champa.

Javanese raiders pillaged and destroyed the Po Nagar

774
Temple in Nha Trang.

784 Satyavarman restored and rebuilt the temple.

Satyavarman's younger brother, Indravarman, became king

787 of Champa. Javanese raiders destroyed Bhadrädhipatisvara
Temple in Phan Rang.

793 Indravarman sent a mission to China.

799 Indravarman restored the temple of Bhadrädhipatisvara

The Cult of DURGA the wife of Sambhubhadresvara

The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples of Champa , particularly the sculptures, were
perhaps widely influenced by or similar with South Indian, and Indianized architecture of
neighboring Cambodian and Javanese temples. The artistic legacy of Champa consists
primarily of sandstone sculptures - both sculpture in the round and relief sculpture - and brick
buildings. Some metal statues and decorative items have also survived. Much of the
remaining art expresses religious themes, and though some pieces would have been purely
decorative, others would have served important functions in the religious life of the Chams,
which synthesized elements of Hinduism (especially Saivism), Buddhism and indigenous
cults.
Unlike the Khmer of Angkor, who for the most part employed a grey sandstone to construct
their religious buildings, the Cham built their temples from reddish bricks. Some of these
brick structures can be still be visited in the Vietnamese countryside. The most important
remaining sites include Mỹ Sơn near Da Nang, Đồ Bàn (Vijaya) near Quy Nhơn, Po
Nagar near Nha Trang, and Po Klong Garai near Phan Rang.
195

Buildings constituting a
Page

195
 The temple of Po Nagar in Nha Trang./Hòa Lai Towers in Ninh Thuận province.
Typically, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different kinds of buildings.

 The kalan was the brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower, used to house the
deity.
 The mandapa was an entry hallway contiguous with a sanctuary.
 The kosagrha or "fire-house" was the construction, typically with a saddle-shaped roof,
used to house the valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity.
 The gopura was a gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex.
These building types are typical for Hindu temples in general; the classification is valid not
only for the architecture of Champa, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater
India.
Most significant temples
The culturally most important temples of historical Champa were the temple of Bhadresvara
located at Mỹ Sơn near modern Da Nang, and the temple of the goddess known
as Bhagavati (her Hindu name) or Yan Po Nagar (her Cham name) located just outside
modern Nha Trang.

 The temple of Bhadresvara was the principle religious foundations of northern Champa
(known as Campadesa, Campapura or nagara Campa in the inscriptions). Scholars have
identified the temple of Bhadresvara, a local incarnation of the universal deity Shiva,
with the edifice "A1" at Mỹ Sơn. Though today A1 is in the process of devolving into a
pile of rubble, it still existed as a magnificent tower when French scholars described it at
the beginning of the 20th century.[10]
 The temple of Yan Po Nagar was the principal religious foundation of southern Champa
(or Panduranga, a word that is the basis for the modern name "Phan Rang.") Its buildings
date from between the 8th and 13th centuries. The temple remains standing to this day
across the Cai River from Nha Trang, and is in relatively good condition.

The Cult of Hindu goddesses Bhagavati and Mahishasuramardini

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Between the 8 th and 10 th century the Cult f Durga or wife(Consort) of Lord shiva the
Sambhubhadresvara had spread to atleast 2 countries in a major way – JAVA and
Vietnam(CHAM)
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Like Prambhanam in Yogakarta,Java- Po Nagar is a Cham temple tower founded

sometime before 781 C.E. and located in the medieval principality of Kauthara, near

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 modern Nha Trang in Vietnam. It is dedicated to Yan Po Nagar, the goddess of the country,
who came to be identified with the Hindu goddesses Bhagavati and Mahishasuramardini, and
who in Vietnamese is called Thiên Y Thánh Mẫu.

The
towers of Po Nagar are located on a hill.
The Po Nagar complex is situated on Cù Lao Mountain. It consists of three levels, the highest
of which encompasses two rows of towers. The main tower is about 25 m high.
The temple's central image is a 1.2m tall stone statue of the goddess Yan Po Nagar sitting
cross-legged, dressed only in a skirt, with ten hands holding various symbolic items.
According to Vietnamese scholar Ngô Vǎn Doanh, these attributes show that Yan Po Nagar
was identified also with the Hindu goddess Mahishasuramardini or Durga, the slayer of the
buffalo-demon. Another sculpture of the goddess Mahishasuramardini may be found in
the pediment above the entrance to the temple: it depicts the four-armed goddess holding a
hatchet, a lotus and a club, and standing on a buffalo. This sculpture belongs to the Tra
Kieu style of Cham art from the end of the 10th century or the beginning of the 11th century.
A stele dated 781 indicates that the Cham King Satyavarman regained power in the area of
"Ha-Ra Bridge", and that he restored the devastated temple. From this inscription can be
deduced that the area previously had come under temporary foreign dominion, and that
foreign vandals had damaged the already existing temple. Other steles indicate that the
temple had contained a mukhalinga decorated with jewelry and resembling an angel's head.
Foreign robbers, perhaps from Java, "men living on food more horrible than cadavers,
frightful, completely black and gaunt, dreadful and evil as death" had arrived in ships, had
stolen the jewelry and had broken the linga. Though the king had chased the robbers out to
sea, the treasure had been lost forever. The steles also indicate that the king restored the linga
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in 784.
The Cham military leader Senapati Par, under the reign of Harivarman I, made endowments
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in 817. Senapati made attacks on the Khmers under Jayavarman II. Harivarman I was
succeeded by his son, Vikrantavarman III, who also made endowments.

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 A stele dated 918 by the Cham King Indravarman III states an order to build a golden statue
to the goddess Bhagavati. Later steles report that the original gold statue was stolen by
the Khmer's Rajendravarman II in 950, and that in 965, the king Jaya Indravarman I replaced
the lost statue with a new stone one. A stele dated 1050 says that offerings of land, slaves,
jewelry, and precious metals were made to the statue by Jaya Paramesvaravarman I.
Paramabhodisattva made "rich offerings" in 1084 after reuniting the country. Jaya
Indravarman III gave the temple a Shivalinga and a Shrishana Vishnu in 1141 and another
donation in 1143. 1160, Jaya Harivarman I "offered rich gifts".An inscription
states Jayavarman VII of the Khmer Empire, "took the capital of Champa and carried of all
the lingas." Later steles indicate the celebration of a cult in honor of the goddess Yan Po
Nagar, as well as the presence of statues dedicated to the principal deities
of Hinduism and Buddhism.
In the 17th century, the Viet people occupied Champa and took over the temple tower, calling
it Thiên Y Thánh Mâu Tower. A number of Vietnamese legends regarding the goddess and
the tower have come into being.

The Site

Durga, the slayer of the buffalo-demon, is represented on the pediment above the
entrance to the temple.
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 In his book The Goddess Durgā in the East-Javanese Period, author Hariani Santiko,
(Asian Folklore Studies,Vol. 56, No. 2 (1997), pp. 209-226 (18 pages Published By: Nanzan
University) underlines the Cult of Durga that was popular from the 10 th to 15 th century in
Java but her slaying of mahisa the demon became the foundation for a tantric outlook on the
goddess as a evil one.

Smallest of four temples dedicated to Lord Ganesh in Po Nagar in Nha Trang/ Vietnam
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 Please refer to my book THE TEMPLE OF Mahishasuramardini -in JAVA,Indonesia, co-
authored with Architect Arch. Srishti Dokras
https://www.academia.edu/70426908/THE_TEMPLE_OF_Mahishasuramardini_in_JA
VA_Indonesia_book
THE TEMPLE OF Mahishasuramardini
In Indonesia

Srishti Dokras Architect

Dr Uday Dokras
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 Why is Krishna called Panduranga?

In Maharashtra Karnataka , Vishnu is called vitthal the one who is standing on vith(red rectangle
stone ) , he is also called panduranga because when he came from dwaraka to pandharpur though he
was black the White sands were all over his face , so he was called pandra-ranga (panduranga). The
earliest Krishna literature, the Mahabharata, tells tales of Krishna's adulthood. There, Draupadi is
referred to as Krishna, the dark complexioned lady. That would make Krishna, the dark complexioned
man.According to Devdatt Pattnaik, In the Sanskrit Valmiki’s Ramayana, Hanuman describes Ram as
‘shyama-varna’, which means one of dark-complexion. In folk poetry, poets describe Krishna as
‘ghana-shyam’, as dark as monsoon clouds. Yet, in our most popular art, we find Ram and Krishna
visualised in blue colour. So, we wonder, are they black, and blue, or only blue? One is met with a
stony silence.

In the old temples in the Gangetic plains, such as the Banke Bihari temple in Vrindavan, Krishna
images are carved of black stone, and they stand in stunning splendour, bedecked with flowers and
fabric. Often, in stark contrast, the image of Radha is made of marble, or bronze. He the dark-one; she
the fair one. However, in many new temples, people are increasingly choosing images of Krishna in
marble over black stone.

There are cave paintings suggesting two men on a chariot. Is that Krishna and Arjuna? We can only
speculate. The earliest Krishna literature, the Mahabharata, tells tales of Krishna’s adulthood. There,
Draupadi is referred to as Krishna, the dark complexioned lady. That would make Krishna, the dark
complexioned man. This is about 2,000 years old. In Bhakti literature, that is less than a thousand
years old, Krishna’s beauty becomes the object of veneration. He is increasingly linked to dark
monsoon clouds and to blue lotuses. His dark complexion in the full moon night is the subject of
poetry.

The earliest images of Krishna are probably Indo-Greek coins, nearly 2,000 years old, showing a man
holding a wheel. Then come the Gupta stone statues, about 1,500 years old, showing a hero fighting a
horse, most probably Krishna fighting Keshin. The earliest paintings of Krishna probably come from
miniature art that flourished around temples, like the patta-chitra around Jagannath Puri temple of
Odisha. The image enshrined in the temple is made of wood and covered with paint, refreshed almost
daily. Here, Jagannath, who is simultaneously Vishnu, Ram and Krishna, is painted with black soot.
In the paintings made in nearby villages by artisans, Krishna is depicted in black colour.

About 500 years ago, Persian miniature painting was introduced by the Mughals and became widely
popular in North India, influencing the Pahari school of painting and the Pichhvai school of
Nathdvara temples. Here, Krishna can be seen distinctly as blue: light blue of the day sky, not the dark
blue of the sapphire. The images of Krishna, Ram and Vishnu, on the grand gopurams of South India,
show them as blue, even though in early Tamil songs of the Sangam period there is reference to the
dark beloved pastoral god, Mayon, believed to be an early form of Krishna.

Folk songs repeatedly refer to the contrast between the dark Krishna and the fair Radha, or the dark
Vishnu and the fair Shiva. When did the natural black become the supernatural blue? Does this
something have to do with India’s infamous discomfort with the dark complexion? In China, the
tanned complexion is seen as inferior, as it is indicative of the peasant who works in the sun. India too
is an agricultural country and may have shared such prejudices. After all, the princess ‘untouched by
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the sun’ or a-surya-sparsha, is an object of fascination in folk tales.

Wandering in the forest during exile, and wandering in pastures with his cows, may have
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tanned Ram and Krishna. But, before the sun had its way, was their skin black, brown or
blue?
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 I
The Concept of Panduranga

A four-armed Vithoba, a 19th-century painting from Tiruchchirappalli, Tamil Nadu. Here, Vithoba is
depicted as an arms-akimbo Vishnu///The Vitthala temple in Hampi, Karnataka, was built
by Krishnadevaraya, whose guru Vyasatirtha was a key Haridasa figure/// This bronze image from a home
shrine inherits the traditional attributes of Vithoba's Pandharpur image like the conical headgear, the fish
shaped earrings, the gem stubbed necklace, and the brick. This image shows Vithoba's right hand making a
blessing gesture and his left hand holding a shankha.
Introduction: Many cities in South East India and in several countries bore Sanskrit names
inspired by Holy Hindu texts as well as legand. Not just to bring good fortunes to the |Kings
and his inhabitants but also to affirm that the trend of naming after Hindu Gods was not left
behing in their domain. Vithala is also another name of Krishna and th ere is no
difference between Krishna and Panduranga or Pundalik as he is fondly called.

When Krishna arrived at Pundaliks house. Pundalik was busy taking care of his parents.
Krishna announced his arrival to Pundalik. Pundalik knew it was Krishna but being devoted
to his parents, he could not leave them that instant. So Pundalik threw a brick outside and told
Krishna to stand on it. Krishna was pleased at Pundaliks ‘s devotion towards his parents . So
he stood on the brick.
I repeat Krishna stood on the brick.
Brick in Marathi is known as Vhit.
Thal is Ground.
Hence he is also known as God standing on Brick- Vitthal.
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3. Dwarka has also been referred to throughout its history as “Mokshapuri”,

“Dwarkamati”, and “Dwarkavati”. It is mentioned in the ancient prehistoric epic
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period of the Mahabharata. According to legend, Krishna settled here after he

defeated and killed his uncle Kansa at Mathura.

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 4. Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump
state successor of the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese
emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471. It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam.
It stood until late 17th century as the Nguyễn lords of Đàng Trong, a powerful
Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham polity under the name Principality of
Thuận Thành.

Was Krishna an avatar?

Krishna playing the flute

. Krishna, Sanskrit Kṛṣṇa, one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian
divinities, worshipped as the eighth incarnation (avatar, or avatara) of the Hindu
god Vishnu and also as a supreme god in his own right. Krishna became the focus of
numerous bhakti (devotional) cults, which have over the centuries produced a wealth of
religious poetry, music, and painting. The basic sources of Krishna’s mythology are the
epic Mahabharata and its 5th-century-CE appendix, the Harivamsha, and the Puranas,
particularly Books X and XI of the Bhagavata-purana. They relate how Krishna (literally
“black,” or “dark as a cloud”) was born into the Yadava clan, the son of Vasudeva and
Devaki, who was the sister of Kamsa, the wicked king of Mathura (in modern Uttar Pradesh).
Kamsa, hearing a prophecy that he would be destroyed by Devaki’s child, tried to slay her
children, but Krishna was smuggled across the Yamuna River to Gokula (or Vraja, modern
Gokul), where he was raised by the leader of the cowherds, Nanda, and his wife Yashoda.

The child Krishna was adored for his mischievous pranks; he also performed many miracles
and slew demons. As a youth, the cowherd Krishna became renowned as a lover, the sound of
his flute prompting the gopis (wives and daughters of the cowherds) to leave their homes to
dance ecstatically with him in the moonlight. His favourite among them was the
beautiful Radha. At length, Krishna and his brother Balarama returned to Mathura to slay the
wicked Kamsa. Afterward, finding the kingdom unsafe, Krishna led the Yadavas to the
western coast of Kathiawar and established his court at Dvaraka (modern Dwarka, Gujarat).
He married the princess Rukmini and took other wives as well.
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Krishna refused to bear arms in the great war between the Kauravas (sons of Dhritarashtra,
the descendant of Kuru) and the Pandavas (sons of Pandu), but he offered a choice of his
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personal attendance to one side and the loan of his army to the other. The Pandavas chose the
former, and Krishna thus served as charioteer for Arjuna, one of the Pandava brothers. On his

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 return to Dvaraka, a brawl broke out one day among the Yadava chiefs in which Krishna’s
brother and son were slain. As the god sat in the forest lamenting, a huntsman, mistaking him
for a deer, shot him in his one vulnerable spot, the heel, killing him.

Krishna’s personality is clearly a composite one, though the different elements are not easily
separated. Vasudeva-Krishna was deified by the 5th century BCE. The cowherd Krishna was
probably the god of a pastoral community. The Krishna who emerged from the blending of
these figures was ultimately identified with the supreme god Vishnu-Narayana and, hence,
considered his avatar. His worship preserved distinctive traits, chief among them an
exploration of the analogies between divine love and human love. Thus, Krishna’s youthful
dalliances with the gopis are interpreted as symbolic of the loving interplay between God and
the human soul.

The rich variety of legends associated with Krishna’s life led to an abundance of
representation in painting and sculpture. The child Krishna (Balakrishna) is depicted crawling
on his hands and knees or dancing with joy, a ball of butter held in his hands. The divine
lover—the most common representation—is shown playing the flute, surrounded by
adoring gopis. In 17th- and 18th-century Rajasthani and Pahari painting, Krishna is
characteristically depicted with blue-black skin, wearing a yellow dhoti (loincloth) and a
crown of peacock feathers.

PANDURANG or PANGURANGA is a very Typical name of Lord Vishnu that caught my

attention years ago when studying the history of the Cham Brahmins of Vietnam.
This is lts story:
Champa, ancient Vietnam as it was called, was preceded in the region by a kingdom
called Lâm Ấp, that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship
between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th
centuries AD. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt, the
Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi. In 1832, the Vietnamese
emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories.
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 Campa (Tsiompa) and Panduranga/Panrang (Padarang) RIGHT PIC Thai Dwaravati

Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the
4th century AD, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by
the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham
lands. Mỹ Sơn, a former religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are
now World Heritage Sites. Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which
began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th
century; they are called the Bani (Ni tục, from Arabic: Bani). There are, however, the Bacam
(Bacham, Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals.
The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world,
with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hinduism of
Balinese of Indonesia.
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 Indian Dwarka

Historical Champa consisted of up to five principalities:Interesting to note the names –all

after Hindu Gods:

 Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành) was the capital of
Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern
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village of Đồng Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da
Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which
has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the
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valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The

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 associated port was at modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by this principality
included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.

Indrapura ruins in Champa

Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. Amaravati,
meaning “Abode of the Gods,” was said to be the site where the mythical beings devas,
yakshas, and kinnaras performed penance to the Hindu god Shiva to vanquish the demon
Tarakasura.

Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes
feats by King Jaya Indravarman I (r. 960-972).Amravati Stupa,India

 Vijaya meaning Victory and could be the victory of Ram over Ravana or Pandavas over
Kauravas in Mahabharata.was located in present-day Bình Định
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Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po

Nagar. The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The
associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important excavations have also been
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conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious and cultural centre.
Vijaya became the political and cultural centre of Champa around 1150s. It remained the

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 center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa
was again displaced toward the south. In its time, the principality of Vijaya controlled
much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru)
Provinces.
 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural centre was the temple of Po Nagar,
several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784
AD inscription at Po Nagar. The word Kauthar is derived from the root Kathu , which has
meanings of "to increase in number, to outnumber, to happen frequently; to show
pride in wealth and/or children; to be rich, plentiful, abundance." The form Kawthar
itself is an intensive deverbal noun, meaning "abundance, multitude"
 Panduranga named after Vishnu, was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–
Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with
capital Parik, was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was
the most autonomous, sometimes independent, princedom/principality of
Champa. Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.

Panduranga or Prangdarang or Pandharpur ( the city “pur” of Pandhari)

Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump state successor of
the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471.
It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam. It stood until late 17th century as the
Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham
polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng
was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th century onward, it had been
ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the court of the king of kings
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at Vijaya, central Champa.

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 In the map, Panduranga is at lower right

In the Bhakti tradition, there is a highly revered Saint known as Pundalik. Pundalik has come
to be known as a symbol for Supreme, Unconditional Love. His heart was so open and his
Love forgot no one. Pundalik’s devotion caused God to go looking for him.
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Champa, Chinese Lin-yi, ancient Indochinese kingdom lasting from the 2nd to the 17th
century AD and extending over the central and southern coastal region of Vietnam from
roughly the 18th parallel in the north to Point Ke Ga (Cape Varella) in the south. Established
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by the Cham, a people of Malayo-Polynesian stock and Indianized culture, Champa was
finally absorbed by the Vietnamese, who in turn were strongly influenced by Cham culture.

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 Champa was formed in AD 192, during the breakup of the Han dynasty of China, when the
Han official in charge of the region established his own kingdom around the area of the
present city of Hue. Although the territory was at first inhabited mainly by wild tribes
involved in incessant struggles with the Chinese colonies in Tonkin, it gradually came under
Indian cultural influence, evolving into a decentralized country composed of four small
states, named after regions of India—Amaravati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Binh Dinh); Kauthara
(Nha Trang); and Panduranga (Phan Rang)—whose populations remained concentrated in
small coastal enclaves. It had a powerful fleet that was used for commerce and for piracy.

In about AD 400 Champa was united under the rule of King Bhadravarman. In retaliation for
Cham raids on their coast, the Chinese invaded Champa in 446, bringing the region under
their suzerainty once again. Finally, under a new dynasty in the 6th century, Champa threw
off its allegiance to China and entered into an era of great independent prosperity and artistic
achievements. The centre of the nation began to shift from north to south; around the middle
of the 8th century Chinese sources cease to mention Lin-yi and begin to refer to the kingdom
as Huan-wang, a Sinicization of the name of the northernmost province, Panduranga (Phan
Rang). In the late 8th century the Chams were distracted by attacks from Java, but in the 9th
century they renewed their pressure on the Chinese provinces to the north and the growing
Khmer (Cambodian) Empire to the west. Under Indravarman II, who established the
Indrapura dynasty (the sixth in Champan history) in 875, the capital of the country was
moved back to the northern province of Amaravati (Quang Nam), near present Hue, and
elaborate palaces and temples were constructed.

In the 10th century the Vietnamese kingdom of Dai Viet began to exert pressure on Champa,
forcing it to relinquish Amaravati in 1000 and Vijaya in 1069. Harivarman IV, who in 1074
founded the ninth Cham dynasty, was able to stave off further Vietnamese and Cambodian
attacks, but in 1145 the Khmers, under the aggressive leadership of Suryavarman II, invaded
and conquered Champa. Two years later a new Cham king, Jaya Harivarman I, arose and
threw off Khmer rule, and his successor, in 1177, sacked the Cambodian capital at Angkor.
Between 1190 and 1220 the Chams again came under Cambodian suzerainty, and later in the
13th century they were attacked by the Tran kings of Vietnam, as well as by the Mongols in
1284. By the late 15th century, incessant wars of aggression and defense had for all practical
purposes wiped out the Champa kingdom; one by one their provinces were annexed until
Champa was entirely absorbed in the 17th century.

Its end marked the demise of the only culture of mainland Asia with Oceanian features. Cham
painting is known only from the inscriptions on the temples. Cham sculptors, under the
influence of Indian Gupta art, evolved a very personal style, characterized by forms springing
with wild energy. Architecture generally was confined to tiered brick towers.

Early period
From 1060 to 1074, Panduranga was the capital of king Rudravarman III (r. 1061–1074).
During the 12th century when Khmer Empire invaded Champa and occupied most of the
kingdom in 1145–1150, prince Sivänandana or Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1147–1162), son of
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refugee king Rudravarman IV, fled to Panduranga, then led a rebellion that resisted the
Khmer and inflicted defeats on the invaders, forcing them to make a withdrawal in 1149. In
1151, province of Amaravarti (Quảng Ngãi province) revolted against Harivarman, followed
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by Panduranga in 1155. In 1190, Cham Prince Vidyanandana (r. 1192–1203) who had
defected to the Khmer was nominated as puppet king of Pänduranga. Revolts ousted Khmer

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 Prince In of Vijaya in 1191, which prompted Vidyanandana to rebel against the Khmer in
1192 and then reunified Champa. He faced massive retribution from Jayavarman VII of
Angkor in the next year, but Vidyanandana's struggle for Champa lasted until 1203 when the
capital of Vijaya fell to the Khmer and Vidyanandana himself fled and died in Dai Viet.
According to the Sakarai dak rai patao (Panduranga annals), the first king of Panduranga
Principality was Sri Aragang. His rule lasted between 1195/1205 to 1235/1247. The king of
kings at Vijaya still wrested certain suzerainty over Panduranga. Sri Aragang was succeeded
by Cei Anâk, who reigned between 1235/1247 - 1269/1281. After the Aragang dynasty,
Panduranga continued maintaining its sovereignty under the Dobatasuar dynasty (1269-
1373).
By the late 14th century, the whole of Champa had been unified again under the rule of a
single strong dynasty, founded by Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). Panduranga
remained autonomous but asymmetrical and maintained a tributary relationship with the
Simhavarmanids in Vijaya.

Collapse of Vijaya and the beginning of Panduranga period

When the Vietnamese under Le Thanh Tong attacked Champa in early 1471, the whole
northern part of the kingdom was razed, cities ransacked, and tens of thousand people were
killed, either massacred or enslaved by the invaders. The Vietnamese king also captured the
Cham king Tra Toan and Vijaya clansmen, deporting them to the north, ending the dynasty's
reign. This event is widely recognized as the end of the Champa Kingdom, according
to Georges Maspero's logics.[13] However, it is noteworthy to know that the fall of Vijaya was
not a "shift" of Champa power to the south or the end of the kingdom, but rather, reflects the
multicentric nature of Champa, a confederation of semiindependent kingdoms which now
were no longer under the prestige of the Vijaya king of kings.
Unsurprisingly, a massive wave of Cham emigration radiated across Southeast Asia: In
Cambodia, Cham refugees were welcomed, but the sources do not provide how they arrived
in Cambodia and where they settled. In Thailand, there were records of Cham presence since
Ayudhaya period. In the Malay archipelago, the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) states that
after the collapse of Vijaya in 1471, two Cham princes named Indera Berma Shah and Shah
Palembang sought asylum in Melaka and Aceh. Shortly after his conversion to Islam, Indera
Berma Shah was appointed minister at the court of Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sejarah
Melayu also mentions Cham presences in Pahang, Kelantan, where the Kampung Laut
Mosque is said to be built by Champa sailors, on their way to Java and Aceh.
According to Vietnamese sources, on 22 March 1471, after the loss of the capital Vijaya to
the Vietnamese force under Le Thanh Tong, a Cham general named Bố Trì Trì (T'chai Ya Ma
Fou Ngan in Chinese annals) fled to Panduranga's capital Pa Rang and set up his own rule
and submitted to Le Thanh Tong seven days later. Thanh Tong agreed, but he divided the
Cham remnants into three smaller polities: Kauthara, Panduranga, and the northern part
of Central Highlands.[19] Champa was reduced in six regions: Aia Ru (Phú Yên), Aia Trang
(Khánh Hòa), Panrang (Phan Rang), Kraong (Long Hương), Parik (Phan Rí Cửa) and Pajai
(Phú Hài [vi]). The Chinese Ming Shilu provides another deviation of the timeline: Although
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the Vietnamese sacking of Vijaya in March 1471, T'chai Ya Ma Fou Ngan still facilitated
token diplomacy with Ming Empire in unoccassional years, in 1478, 1505, and 1515, the son
of Fou Ngan received succession prescription from the Ming; their last contact occurred in
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1543.

211
 According to the Cham annal, from 1421/1448 to 1567/1579, the capital of Panduranga was
Biuh Bal Batsinâng. From 1567/1579 to 1653, it had been relocated to Bal Pangdarang
(present day Phan Rang).[23] From the late 17th century until 1832, the capital of Panduranga
was once again moved south to Phan Rí Cửa.
The Cham stopped paying tribute to the Viet court when the Le was usurped by the Mac
dynasty in 1526.

Revival

Temple of King Po Rome (r. 1627-1651)///The Boxer Codex depiction of Chamcia

(Cham) couple, c. 1595
During the sixteenth century, as Dai Viet fragmented in the north, Panduranga Champa again
gained prosper from the rise of the international trade. Throughout the seventeenth century,
Cham merchants traded actively in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani,
and Makassar. A Spanish record reported that "many Muslims live in Champa, whose Hindu
king wanted Islam to be spoken and taught, resulted in many mosques existed along with
Hindu temples.
212

In 1578, Panduranga assaulted Nguyen lord's domain near Đà Rằng River. In 1594,
Panduranga king sent a fleet of 400 warships to aid the Johor Sultanate in its struggles against
the Portuguese in Melaka
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Panduranga also helped its neighbor Cambodia during the Cambodian–Spanish War, which
resulted in delivering a fiasco to the Spanish conquistadors. Governor of Malina, Luis Pérez

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 Dasmariñas (fl. 1593–96) sent a letter to the court of king Philip II in late 1595, antagonizing
the Cham king as "a vicious dangerous tyrant who was treacherous and full of evil deeds,"
while his second letter suggested that just around 200–300 Spanish soldiers and 500 local
mercenaries would be needed to conquer Champa. During that time, the Cham were
remembered by Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch merchants and seamen as ferocious pirates of
the South China Sea who numerously boarded merchant ships, plundering cargos, kidnapping
crew members, and routinely took European hostages to slavery. Cham kings were described
to be at least involved or actively encouraging raids against foreign ships.
In 1611, in an attempt to retake land from the Nguyen lord, Champa mounted an attack in
Phu Yen, but gained no success, and the Kauthara principality was lost to the Nguyen after a
counterattack.
Later period under Po Rome dynasty
With the rise of nearby Hội An, most foreign traders now were leaving Champa. Japanese
seal trade ships ceased to trade with Champa in 1623. [30] In 1611, lord Nguyen Phuc
Nguyen sent an army led by Văn Phong, a Cham defector, attacking Panduranga, annexing
the entire Kauthara Principality. Nguyen lord then resettled 30,000 Trinh POWs in Phu Yen.
Notable Cham king of this period, Po Rome (r. 1627-1651), was known for his great
erudition of Islam after having a sojourn study in Kelantan, Malay Peninsula, and the mass
conversion to Islam by his people. He encouraged trade, granting the Dutch permission to
arrange free trade in his country unless they do not attack Portuguese merchants at his ports.
[32]
To resolve discontents between Muslims and Balamon, Po Rome ordered the Cham Bani
to have their religion more integrated with Cham customs and beliefs, while pressing the
Ahier to accept Allah as the most supreme God but allowed them to retain their worships of
traditional Cham divinities, excellently reforging peace and cohesion in his kingdom. King
Po Rome is an important deity that is being venerated by the Cham people today.
Connections between Pandaranga and the extra Malay/Islamic world blossomed. Syncretism
was widely practiced at all levels, best known for incorporating cosmopolitan Islamic
doctrines into existing indigenous Cham beliefs and Hindu pantheons. The multipurpose
lunisolar sakawi calendar, was likely Po Rome's best combination of previous Cham Śaka
era with the Islamic lunar calendar.
European missionaries described Champa in the 1670s as having the majority of its
population being Muslims, a Muslim sultan, and a Muslim court. In 1680 Panduranga
king Po Saut (r. 1659–1692) styled himself with Malay horrific Paduka Seri Sultan in his
hand letter to the Dutch in Java. In 1686, the Cham and Malay Muslim communities in Siam
reportedly joined the Makassars rebellion against king Narai of Ayudhya.
WARS
Under Po Rome's dynasty, Panduranga suffered several incursions from the Southern
Vietnamese Nguyen kingdom which centered around trading centers Hue-Hoi An, the old
center region of Champa which had been recently Vietnamized. Lords Nguyễn Phúc
Nguyên, Nguyễn Phúc Tần, and Nguyễn Phúc Chu repeatedly invaded Panduranga in 1611,
1629, 1653, 1692.[35] During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Nguyen of
Cochinchina were too preoccupied dealing with their northern enemies, the Trịnh, rather than
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with the Cham. Though was not recorded in official chronicles, but in dynastic genealogy and
pseudonymous Cham sources, in 1631 Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên arranged the marriage of his
princess Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Khoa to king Po Rome. Alexander de Rhodes describes
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sometime in 1639, the Nguyen still placed several galleys in the port of Ran Ran (Phú Yên)
to prevent seaborne incursion from Champa.

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 Having successfully fended off the Trinh, the Nguyen thalassocracy turned its attention to the
south, dispatching their first interference in Cambodia, overthrowing its first and only
Muslim king Ramathipadi I in 1658. The Nguyen had periodically invaded Cambodia several
times from 1658 to 1692 on par with Siam. In 1682, Panduranga reportedly sent envoys led
by the king's brothers who had fled after the king's coronation to Ayudhya in a possible
search for Siamese protection.
In 1692, lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu invaded Panduranga, arresting King Po Saut and renaming
Panduranga to Trấn Thuận Thành (Principality of Thuận Thành). The lord established Bình
Thuận District inside the Principality as free lands for ethnic Viet settler colonialism,[40] but
Cham revolts in 1693–96 forced the Nguyen lord to mitigate the resentment by abolishing the
Binh Thuan county, restoring the Cham monarchy with full rights, however, becoming a
vassal of the Nguyen, according to a following treaty signed in 1712. In 1694 Panduranga
king Po Saktiraydapatih (r. 1695–1727) received the title King of Thuan Thanh From 1695
onward, Panduranga had been reduced to a client state of the Nguyen domain, known as
the Principality of Thuận Thành (Trấn Thuận Thành – Principality of 'Submissive Citadel').
Mercantile Role
During the 16th century, Cham merchants renewed their commercial links and actively traded
in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani, and Makassar. Among their
exports, Cham textile was famously consumed.
The 17th-century Chinese compendium Xiyang Chao Gong Dian Lu (Tributes from the
countries of the Western Sea, c. 1650) describes a type of Cham brewed liquor that is made
from cooked rice, mixed with wine and medicines, contained in pottery, and is drunk by long
bamboo straws. People would sit around the container and take sips.
Proselytization of Islam increased sharply after the fall of Vijaya, as missionary Gabriel de
San Antonio wrote a description in 1585: "The locals (Chams) hated the Castilians and
believed prophecies made by the Moro, that there would be a king Mahoma, and many would
embrace the new faith."
Currently, there are two theories among academic consensus regard the apostle of Islam to
Champa, proposed by scholars Antoine Cabaton and Pierre-Yves Manguin. The first theory
states that Islam could have been introduced by Arab, Persian, Indian merchants, scholars,
religious leaders, during from the 10th to 14th century. The second theory argues that Islam
arrived in Champa through a later, shorter, indirectly way from the Malays (jawa, melayu,
chvea), according to Manguin, is more convincing and valid. Most historians agree that the
Cham only began converting to Islam en masse after the destruction of Vijaya. [44] In his
conclusion, Manguin attributes the Islamization of the Cham people to their active
participation in the regional maritime networks, and the Malay states and Malay traders
which also contributed great impacts to the process. Panduranga had its own revolt against
the court of king Jaya Paramesvaravarman I (r. 1044–1060) in 1050.[ In contrast with
scholars who view Champa as the kingdom exclusively of the Cham, recent scholars such
as Po Dharma and Richard O’Connor, rebrand Champa as a multiethnic kingdom. They note
that Champa was highly likely a coalition of the Cham lowlanders and the indigenous
inhabitants of the Central Highlands, although Cham culture is usually associated with the
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broader culture of Champa

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214
 Panduranga is named after Panduiranga another toponym of Lord Vishnu
Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly
worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a
manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar, Krishna. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark
young boy, standing arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his
consort Rakhumai.
Vithoba is the focus of an essentially monotheistic, non-ritualistic bhakti-driven. Varkari faith
of Maharashtra and the Haridasa faith of Karnataka. Vithoba Temple, Pandharpur is his main
temple. Vithoba legends revolve around his devotee Pundalik who is credited for bringing the
deity to Pandharpur, and around Vithoba's role as a saviour to the poet-saints of the Varkari
faith. The Varkari poet-saints are known for their unique genre of devotional lyric,
the abhang, dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature
dedicated to Vithoba includes the Kannada hymns of the Haridasa and the Marathi versions
of the generic aarti songs associated with rituals of offering light to the deity. The most
important festivals of Vithoba are held on Devshayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha,
and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the month of Kartik.
The historiography of Vithoba and his sect is an area of continuing debate, even regarding his
name. Though the origins of both his sect and his main temple are likewise debated, there is
clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century.
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215
 Most significant temples around Panduranga
The culturally most important temples of historical Champa were the temple of Bhadresvara
located at Mỹ Sơn near modern Da Nang, and the temple of the goddess known
as Bhagavati (her Hindu name) or Yan Po Nagar (her Cham name) located just outside
modern Nha Trang.
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The temple of Po Nagar in Nha Trang.

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216
  The temple of Bhadresvara was the principle religious foundations of northern Champa
(known as Campadesa, Campapura or nagara Campa in the inscriptions). Scholars have
identified the temple of Bhadresvara, a local incarnation of the universal deity Shiva,
with the edifice "A1" at Mỹ Sơn. Though today A1 is in the process of devolving into a
pile of rubble, it still existed as a magnificent tower when French scholars described it at
the beginning of the 20th century
 The temple of Yan Po Nagar was the principal religious foundation of southern Champa
(or Panduranga, a word that is the basis for the modern name "Phan Rang.") Its buildings
date from between the 8th and 13th centuries. The temple remains standing to this day
across the Cai River from Nha Trang, and is in relatively good condition.

Its present name is Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm.

Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, commonly known as Phan Rang, is a city in Vietnam and the
capital of Ninh Thuận Province. The community has a population of 161,000 (2004), of
which 91,000 (2004) live in the main city.
The name Phan Rang' is the Vietnamese pronunciation of Panduranga (a Sanskrit word
of Hindu origin) or Parang. The name Tháp Chàm means "Cham Temple/Tower" and is
named after the Po Klong Garai Temple in the northern part of the city.
What is now Phan Rang was formerly known as Panduranga, the capital of the kingdom
of Champa.
The town of Phan Rang was established in 1917 during the Nguyễn dynasty, by edict of
Emperor Khải Định, and remained the provincial capital of Ninh Thuận Province until 1976,
when the province merged with Bình Thuận Province to form Thuận Hải Province.
When the Japanese occupied the country in World War II, they established an airfield and it
was later used by the French. During the Republic of Vietnam, Phan Rang was the site of
the United States Air Force's Phan Rang Air Base in the Vietnam War.
The town was divided into Phan Rang in the east, which became part of Ninh Hải District and
Tháp Chàm in the west, which became part of An Son district. The two were again combined
in 1992 to become Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, the capital of Ninh Thuận Province, achieving
city status in 2007
Cham Culture
Tháp Chàm and Phan Rang district has become a center for the maintenance of Cham culture.
Much of the district is occupied by Cham people where they have rice paddies, orchards of
grapes and peaches, flocks of goats and Brahman cattle. Their towers (the 'Thap') are
beautiful memorials to their kings and queens. There are several Cham sites with dilapidated
towers along the central coast of Vietnam and major sites in Mỹ Sơn and Nha Trang.
However, there are two sites in the Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm being maintained and culturally
active. Two kilometers west of the Tháp Chàm Railway Station, there is excellent hilltop
Cham tower complex dedicated to the king Po Klong Garai, the last reigning king; his
likeness is depicted on a lingam in the sanctuary of the central tower. A second tower for the
217

king Po Re Do is located about 20 km south west of Tháp Chàm, via Phu Quy to Phouc Hou
and the village Hau Sanh; this tower is undergoing extensive renovation (July 2012).
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The towers are currently used for the very colorful Cham festivals, particularly "Kate" in
October (Oct 15 in 2012) when they still sacrifice a bullock and other food offerings. Other

217
 ceremonies for Ramadan, a Rain Festival (as required), weddings and other celebrations are
also held. Apart from the incorporation of Islam into their cultural and religious practice,
another point of cultural difference is that their heredity line is maternal. The animist
foundation of Cham culture, with fire motif on the towers, rustic traditions and very colorful
ceremonial dress makes the Cham culture an ideal tourist resource for Vietnam, as yet poorly
developed.
Architecturally, the towers are intricately built in small red bricks, almost dry stone
construction with very fine mortar lines. The towers are topped by calyx like minarets, arches
are rimmed by special bricks fired with tongue like extensions on the extremities to represent
flames; it is very intricate brick work requiring sophisticated engineering to deal with the
overhang.
Associated with the Po Klong Garai complex there is a cultural center, more functionally
built with concrete, bricks, mortar and render, but at least with some of the line of the Cham
architecture and housing a display of cultural and handi-works, and excellent photographs
and paintings by Cham artists.

Phan Rang Look Out

God Panduranga Vishnu Avatar

Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu god predominantly

worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a
manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar Krishna.Panduranga is known by many names,
including: Vithoba, Vitthala, Pandharinath, Hari and Narayan.
There are several theories about the origins and meanings of these names. Varkari tradition
suggests that the name Vitthala (also spelled as Vitthal, Viththal, Vittala and
Vithal; Marathi: विठ्ठल, composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words: viṭ, which means
218

'brick'; and thal, which may have originated from the Sanskrit sthala, meaning 'standing'.
Thus, Vitthala would mean 'one standing on a brick'. The prescribed iconography of Vithoba
stipulates that he be shown standing arms-akimbo upon a brick, which is associated with the
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legend of the devotee Pundalik.

218
 Definition of Vittala: "Vidaa Jnanena Taan Shoonyan Laati Gruhnaati Yaha Swayam
AjnaanugrahaKruddevo Vittalah Kathyate Budhaiah" - Prikryaya Kaumudi Vyakhyana
However, the Varkari poet-saint Tukaram proposed a different etymology—that Vitthala is
composed of the words vittha (ignorance) and la (one who accepts), thus meaning 'one who
accepts innocent people who are devoid of knowledge'. [5] Historian Ramakrishna Gopal
Bhandarkar offers yet another possibility—that Vitthu (Viṭhu) is a Kannada corruption of the
name Vishnu adopted in Marathi. The suffixes -la and -ba (meaning 'father' in Marathi) were
appended for reverence, producing the names Vitthala and Vithoba. This corruption of
Vishnu to Vitthu could have been due to tendency of Marathi and Kannada people to
pronounce.
According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the Deccan College, Pundalik—who is assumed
to be a historical figure—was instrumental in persuading
the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana alias Bittidev to build the Pandharpur temple dedicated to
Vishnu. The deity was subsequently named as Vitthala, a derivative of Bittidev, by the
builder-king. Other variants of the name include Viṭhurāyā (King Vitthala),
and Viṭhāī (Mother Vitthala). The people of Gujarat add the suffix -nath (Lord) to Vitthala,
which yields the name Vitthal-nath. The additional honorific suffix -ji may be added, giving
the name Vitthalnathji. This name is generally used in the Pushtimarg sect.
Panduranga also spelt as Pandurang and Pandaranga, is another popular epithet for Vithoba,
which means 'the white god' in Sanskrit. The Jain author-saint Hemachandra (1089–1172
AD) notes it is also used as an epithet for the god Rudra-Shiva. Even though Vithoba is
depicted with dark complexion, he is called a "white god". Bhandarkar explains this paradox,
proposing that Panduranga may be an epithet for the form of Shiva worshipped in
Pandharpur, and whose temple still stands. Later, with the increasing popularity of Vithoba's
cult, this was also transferred to Vithoba. [10] Another theory suggests that Vithoba may
initially have been a Shaiva god (related to Shiva), only later identified with Vishnu, thus
explaining the usage of Panduranga for Vithoba. Crooke, however, proposed that
Panduranga is a Sanskritised form of Pandaraga (belonging to Pandarga), referring to the old
name of Pandharpur.[4] Another name, Pandharinath, also refers to Vithoba as the lord of
Pandhari (yet another variant for Pandharpur).
Finally, Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Vishnu like Hari and Narayana, in
the Vaishnava sect

DVARAVATI in INDIA
Dvārakā, in India is also known as Dvāravatī (Sanskrit द्वारका "the gated [city]",
possibly meaning having many gates, or alternatively having one or several very grand
gates), is a sacred historic city in the sacred literature of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. It
is also alternatively spelled as Dvarika. The name Dvaraka is said to have been given to the
place by Krishna, a major deity in Hinduism. Dvaraka is one of the Sapta Puri (seven sacred
cities) of Hinduism.
In the Mahabharata, it was a city located in what is now Dwarka, formerly called
219

Kushasthali, the fort of which had to be repaired by the Yadavas. In this epic, the city is
described as a capital of the Anarta Kingdom. According to the Harivamsa the city was
located in the region of the Sindhu Kingdom.
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219
 In the Hindu epics and the Puranas, Dvaraka is called Dvaravati and is one of
seven Tirtha (pilgrimage) sites for spiritual liberation. The other six
are Mathura, Ayodhya, Kashi, Kanchipuram, Avantika (Ujjain) and Puri

 In Harivamsa, Dvaraka is described as largely built on "submerged land", "released by

the ocean" (2.55.118 and 2.58.34).
 The city was the former "sporting ground of the King Raivataka" called "Dvāravāti",
which "was squared like a chess board" (2.56.29).
 Nearby was the mountain range Raivataka (2.56.27), "the living place of the gods"
(2.55.111).
 The city was measured by Brahmins; the foundations of the houses were laid and at least
some of the houses were built by the Yadavas (2.58.9 - 15).
 It was built by Vishwakarman in one day (2.58.40) "mentally" (2.58.41 and 44).
 It had surrounding walls (2.58.48 and 53) with four main gates (2.58.16).
 Its houses were arranged in lines (2.58.41) and the city had "high buildings" (2.58.50 and
54) (2.58.53), which "almost touched the sky" (2.58.50), and had "doors that had the
colour of white clouds" (2.58.48).
 The fort walls of the city were "shining with the colour of the Sun and pots of gold" and
"sounds emanating from grand houses sparkling with golden colour" (2.58.53)
 It had a temple area with a palace for Krishna himself, which had a separate bathroom
(2.58.43).
 "The city is beautified on Earth by the ocean" like Indra's heavenly city is "beautified by
an assembly of important jewels" (2.58.47 - 66, (2.58.49).

Description

View of Dwaraka
220

The following description of Dvaraka during Krishna's presence there appears in

the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam; 10.69.1-12) in connection with the sage
Narada's visit.
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220
 The City was filled with the sounds of birds and bees flying about the parks and pleasure
gardens, while its lakes, crowded with blooming indivara, ambhoja, kahlara, kumuda, and
utpala lotuses, resounded with the calls of swans and cranes.
Dvaraka boasted 900,000 royal palaces, all constructed with crystal and silver and
splendorously decorated with huge emeralds. Inside these palaces, the furnishings were
bedecked with gold and jewels.
Traffic moved along a well laid-out system of boulevards, roads, intersections, and
marketplaces, and many assembly houses and temples of demigods graced the charming city.
The roads, courtyards, commercial streets, and residential patios were all sprinkled with
water and shaded from the sun's heat by banners waving from flagpoles.
In the city of Dvaraka was a beautiful private quarter worshiped by the planetary rulers. This
district, where the demigod Vishvakarma had shown all his divine skill, was the residential
area of Lord Hari Krishna, and thus it was gorgeously decorated by the sixteen thousand
palaces of Lord Krishna's queens. Narada Muni entered one of these immense palaces.
Supporting the palace were coral pillars decoratively inlaid with vaidurya gems. Sapphires
bedecked the walls, and the floors glowed with perpetual brilliance. In that palace Tvashta
had arranged canopies with hanging strands of pearls; there were also seats and beds
fashioned of ivory and precious jewels. In attendance were many well-dressed maidservants
bearing lockets on their necks, and also armor-clad guards with turbans, fine uniforms, and
jeweled earrings.
The glow of numerous jewel-studded lamps dispelled all darkness in the palace. My dear
king, on the ornate ridges of the roof danced loudly crying peacocks, who saw the fragrant
aguru incense escaping through the holes of the latticed windows and mistook it for a cloud.
Events

 Pandu's sons lived in Dwaraka during their exile to woods. Their servants headed by
Indrasena lived there for one year (the 13th year) (4,72).
 Bala Rama mentioned about a sacrificial fire of Dwaraka, before he set for his pilgrimage
over Sarasvati River (9,35).
 One should proceed with subdued senses and regulated diet to Dwaravati, where by
bathing in "the holy place called Pindaraka",one obtaineth the fruit of the gift of gold in
abundance (3,82).
 King Nriga, in consequence of a single fault of his, had to dwell for a long time at
Dwaravati, and Krishna became the cause of his rescue from that miserable plight.
(13,72).
 Sage Durvasa resided at Dwaravati for a long time (13,160).
 Arjuna visited Dwaravati during his military campaign after the Kurukshetra
War (14,83).
 When the Pandavas retire from the world they visit the place where Dvaraka once used to
be and see the city submerged under water.
During 1983-1990, the Marine Archaeology Unit of India's National Institute of
Oceanography (NIO) carried out underwater excavations at Dwarka and Bet Dwarka.
221

[14]
According to S. R. Rao "The available archaeological evidence from onshore and offshore
excavations confirms the existence of a city-state with a couple of satellite towns in 1500
B.C." He considered it reasonable to conclude that this submerged city is the Dvaraka as
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described in the Mahabharata.

221
 In the Mausala Parva of the Mahabharata, Arjuna witnesses the submergence of Dvaraka
and describes it as follows:
The sea, which had been beating against the shores, suddenly broke the boundary that was
imposed on it by nature. The sea rushed into the city. It coursed through the streets of the
beautiful city. The sea covered up everything in the city. I saw the beautiful buildings
becoming submerged one by one. In a matter of a few moments it was all over. The sea had
now become as placid as a lake. There was no trace of the city. Dvaraka was just a name; just
a memory.

— Mausala Parva of Mahabharata

II
Toponym of Lord Vishnu-
Panduranga and its impact on Indrapura (CHAMPA)
by Dr Uday Dokras
222
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222
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223
 Concept of Panduranga

Panduranga or Prangdarang or Pandharpur ( the city “pur” of Pandhari)

Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump state successor of
the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471.
It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam. It stood until late 17th century as the
Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham
polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng
was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th century onward, it had been
ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the court of the king of kings
at Vijaya, central Champa.

In the map, Panduranga is at lower right

In the Bhakti tradition, there is a highly revered Saint known as Pundalik. Pundalik has come
to be known as a symbol for Supreme, Unconditional Love. His heart was so open and his
Love forgot no one. Pundalik’s devotion caused God to go looking for him.
224

Panduranga is known by many names, including: Vithoba, Vitthala, Pandharinath, Hari and
Narayan.
Page

There are several theories about the origins and meanings of these names. Varkari tradition
suggests that the name Vitthala (also spelled as Vitthal, Viththal, Vittala and

224
 Vithal; Marathi: विठ्ठल, composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words: viṭ, which means
'brick'; and thal, which may have originated from the Sanskrit sthala, meaning 'standing'.
Thus, Vitthala would mean 'one standing on a brick'. The prescribed iconography of Vithoba
stipulates that he be shown standing arms-akimbo upon a brick, which is associated with the
legend of the devotee Pundalik.
Definition of Vittala: "Vidaa Jnanena Taan Shoonyan Laati Gruhnaati Yaha Swayam
AjnaanugrahaKruddevo Vittalah Kathyate Budhaiah" - Prikryaya Kaumudi Vyakhyana
However, the Varkari poet-saint Tukaram proposed a different etymology—that Vitthala is
composed of the words vittha (ignorance) and la (one who accepts), thus meaning 'one who
accepts innocent people who are devoid of knowledge'. [5] Historian Ramakrishna Gopal
Bhandarkar offers yet another possibility—that Vitthu (Viṭhu) is a Kannada corruption of the
name Vishnu adopted in Marathi. The suffixes -la and -ba (meaning 'father' in Marathi) were
appended for reverence, producing the names Vitthala and Vithoba. This corruption of
Vishnu to Vitthu could have been due to tendency of Marathi and Kannada people to
pronounce.
According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the Deccan College, Pundalik—who is assumed
to be a historical figure—was instrumental in persuading
the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana alias Bittidev to build the Pandharpur temple dedicated to
Vishnu. The deity was subsequently named as Vitthala, a derivative of Bittidev, by the
builder-king. Other variants of the name include Viṭhurāyā (King Vitthala),
and Viṭhāī (Mother Vitthala). The people of Gujarat add the suffix -nath (Lord) to Vitthala,
which yields the name Vitthal-nath. The additional honorific suffix -ji may be added, giving
the name Vitthalnathji. This name is generally used in the Pushtimarg sect.
Panduranga also spelt as Pandurang and Pandaranga, is another popular epithet for Vithoba,
which means 'the white god' in Sanskrit. The Jain author-saint Hemachandra (1089–1172
AD) notes it is also used as an epithet for the god Rudra-Shiva. Even though Vithoba is
depicted with dark complexion, he is called a "white god". Bhandarkar explains this paradox,
proposing that Panduranga may be an epithet for the form of Shiva worshipped in
Pandharpur, and whose temple still stands. Later, with the increasing popularity of Vithoba's
cult, this was also transferred to Vithoba. Another theory suggests that Vithoba may initially
have been a Shaiva god (related to Shiva), only later identified with Vishnu, thus explaining
the usage of Panduranga for Vithoba. Crooke, however, proposed that Panduranga is a
Sanskritised form of Pandaraga (belonging to Pandarga), referring to the old name of
Pandharpur.[4] Another name, Pandharinath, also refers to Vithoba as the lord of Pandhari (yet
another variant for Pandharpur).
Finally, Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Vishnu like Hari and Narayana, in
the Vaishnava sect
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 Vithoba-Devanagari = विठोबा-
Sanskrit_Transliteration = Viṭhobā
Affiliation = Form of Vishnu or Krishna
Abode = Pandharpur
Consort = Rakhumai (Rukmini)
Mount = Garuda, when associated with Vishnu

Vithoba ( Marathi: Viṭhobā, विठोबा ),

Vitthala ( Sanskrit: Viṭṭhala, विठ्ठल,
Kannada: Viṭṭala, and Panduranga

Vithoba ( Marathi: Viṭhobā, विठोबा ), also known as Vitthala ( Sanskrit: Viṭṭhala, विठ्ठ
ल, Kannada: Viṭṭala, and Panduranga, is the Hindu god Vishnu
worshiped predominately in the Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka . Generally consi
dered a manifestation of the Hindu deities Vishnu or Krishna, he is sometimes associated wit
h the god Shiva . He is often depicted as a dark young boy, standing arms-
akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his main consort Rakhumai.

Vithoba is
sect of Maharashtra and the Haridasa sect of Karnataka. Vithoba's main temple stands at Pand
harpur in Maharashtra, close to the Karnataka border. The legends of Vithoba revolve around
the devotee Pundalik &ndash; who is credited with bringing the deity to Pandharpur &ndash;
and around Vithoba's role as a savior to the saint- of the Varkari faith. Poets have written vari
ous Marathi devotional compositions called abhangas dedicated to Vithoba. Other devotional
literature includes Kannada hymns by the Haridasas and Marathi aratis. The most important f
estivals of Vithoba are Ashadhi Ekadashi (Shayani Ekadashi) and Kartik Ekadashi (Prabodini
Ekadashi).
Like the origins of his names, the historicity of Vithoba and his cult is contested. In the proce
ss of his final identification with Vishnu, Vithoba &ndash; at different stages &ndash; was lin
ked with a cattle-god, a hero stone, a Jain saint, Shiva and even Buddha. Though the origins o
f his cult and his main temple are unclear, there is clear evidence that they existed in the 13th
century.
Etymology and other names
There are many conflicting theories about the origins of the names of the deity. Varkari etym
ology suggests that the word "Vitthala", also spelled as "Vitthal", "Viththal",
"Vittala" and "Vithal", is composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words,
"Viṭ" meaning "brick" and "thal", which may have originated from the Sanskrit "sthala", mea
ning "standing". Thus "Vitthala" means "one standing on a brick". It could be
Kannada corruption of the word "Vishnu", which was adopted in Marathi, and the suffixes 'la'
and 'ba' -meaning "father" in Marathi
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Pundalik is an historical figure rather than a mythical one, the devotee Pundalik was instrume
ntal in coaxing the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana to build the Pandharpur temple to Vishnu.
The deity Vitthala was named by the builder king "Bittidev", the alias of Vishnuvardhana.
Page

Other variants of the name include "Viṭhurāyā" ("King Vitthala"), and "Viṭhāī"
("Mother Vitthala"). The people of Gujarat add the suffix "Nath"

226
 ("Lord") to Vitthala, which yields the name "Vitthal-nath), the other popular epithet for Vitho
ba,
"Panduranga" or "Pandaranga", meaning "the white god" in Sanskrit, is an epithet for the god
Rudra-Shiva. It is an
epithet for the form of Shiva, worshipped in Pandharpur and whose temple still stands.

Another theory suggests that Vithoba may initially be a Shaiva (related to the cult of the god
Shiva) god and later identified with Vishnu, thus the name Panduranga of Vithoba.
Crooke suggests that Panduranga is a Sanskritised term of "Pandaraga" &ndash;
"belonging to Pandarga &ndash; the old name of Pandharpur." Another name "Pandharinath"
relates to Vithoba being "the lord of Pandhari (a name of Pandharpur)". Vithoba is also addre
ssed by universal Vaishnava names like "Hari" and "Narayana", which are related to the cult
of the god Vishnu

The Lord Vithal, or Panduranga Vittala, is an incarnation of Lord Vishnu and is worshipped in the world famous Pandarpur
Rukmini Vi- thal Temple at Pandarpur in Maharashtra. There is an interesting story that explains about the incarnation of Lord
Vithal at Pandarpur.

Origins and development

The hymn "Panduranga Stotra" by Adi Shankaracharya, if genuine, establishes that Vithoba worship e
xisted as early as the ninth century AD, the period of its author.The image of Vithoba was first worshi
pped as a pastoral god as early as the sixth century and is similar to Bir Kuar, the cattle-god of the Ahi
rs of Bihar, who is now also associated with Krishna.
Vithoba was later assimilated in the Shaiva pantheon and identified with the god Shiva like most other
pastoral gods. The temple at Pandharpur is surrounded by Shaiva temples, most notably of the devote
e Pundalik himself, and that the headgear of Vithoba is a Linga, the symbol of Shiva. However in the
13th century, the saints Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram recognized Vithoba as a form of Vishnu. It is
suggested that the worship is from1000 CE.
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Under the possible influence of a Krishna- Mahanubhava sect, the town was transformed into a Vaish
nava center of pilgrimage, though there are still remnants of Shaiva worship in the town.
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227
 Otherd suggest Vithoba worship is more ancient than the worship of Krishna, "Vedic or pre-
edic", about 6th century BCE. According to Dhere, Vithoba is an amalgam of various local h
eroes, who gave their lives to save their cattle, and was worshiped first as a Dhangar (a sheph
erd, cowherd community) deity. Dhere thinks the rise of the Yadava dynasty, which had cow
herd ancestry, led to the glorification of Vithoba as Krishna, who is often depicted as a cowhe
rd. This also led to conversion of the Shaiva Pundarika shrine to the shrine of the devotee Pun
dalik, who brought Vithoba to Pandharpur. Vithoba is also assimilated in Buddhism as a form
of Buddha, who in turn in Hinduism is viewed as a form of Vishnu.cite encyclopedia.( "Sri-
Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvay (Marathi)" by R.C. Dhere
volume = 5) Despite assimilation in Vaishnavism as Krishna-
Vishnu, Vithoba does not inherit the erotic overtones of Krishna such as his dalliance with th
e milkmaids. Vithoba is associated more with "compassion, an infinite love and tenderness fo
r his "bhaktas"
(devotees) that can be compared to the love of the mother for her children...pining for the pre
sence of his devotees the way a cow pines for her far-away calf.
G. A. Deleury proposes that the image of Vithoba is a "Viragal"
(hero stone), which was later identified with Vishnu in his form as Krishna, and that Pundalik
transformed the Puranic, ritualistic puja worship into the bhakti-focused "interiorized adoratio
n prescinding caste distinction and institutional priesthood... [Deleury in Sand p. 38]

Tilak suggests that Vithoba emerged as "an alternative to existing panthenon" of Brahminica
l (related to classical, ritualistic Hinduism) deities. The emergence of Vithoba was concurrent
with rise of a "new type of lay devotee", the Varkari. While Vishnu and Shiva were bound in
rigid ritualistic worship and Brahmin (priest class) control, Vithoba,
"the God of the subaltern, became increasingly human". Vithoba is often praised as the protec
tor of the poor and needy.

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 III

The Ancient CHAM City of PANDURANGA

PANDURANG or PANGURANGA is a very Typical name of Lord Vishnu that caught my
attention years ago when studying the history of the Cham Brahmins of Vietnam.
This is lts story:
Champa, ancient Vietnam as it was called, was preceded in the region by a kingdom
called Lâm Ấp, that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship
between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in the 9th and 10th
centuries AD. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt, the
Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi. In 1832, the Vietnamese
emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories.
Hinduism, adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the
4th century AD, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by
the many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham
lands. Mỹ Sơn, a former religious center, and Hội An, one of Champa's main port cities, are
now World Heritage Sites. Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam, a conversion which
began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th
century; they are called the Bani (Ni tục, from Arabic: Bani). There are, however, the Bacam
(Bacham, Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals.
The Bacam is one of only two surviving non-Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world,
with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hinduism of
Balinese of Indonesia.
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 Historical Champa consisted of up to five principalities:Interesting to note the names –all
after Hindu Gods:

 Indrapura ("City of Indra", Foshi, Phật thành/Phật thệ thành) was the capital of
Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It was located at the site of the modern
village of Đồng Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang. Also found in the region of Da
Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which
has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the
valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a number of ruined temples and towers can still be seen. The
associated port was at modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by this principality
included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.

Indrapura ruins in Champa

 Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. Amaravati,
meaning “Abode of the Gods,” was said to be the site where the mythical beings devas,
yakshas, and kinnaras performed penance to the Hindu god Shiva to vanquish the demon
Tarakasura.
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230
 Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes
feats by King Jaya Indravarman I (r. 960-972).Amravati Stupa,India

 Vijaya meaning Victory and could be the victory of Ram over Ravana or Pandavas over
Kauravas in Mahabharata.was located in present-day Bình Định
Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po
Nagar. The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The
associated port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important excavations have also been
conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious and cultural centre.
Vijaya became the political and cultural centre of Champa around 1150s. It remained the
center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa
was again displaced toward the south. In its time, the principality of Vijaya controlled
much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru)
Provinces.
 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural centre was the temple of Po Nagar,
several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784
AD inscription at Po Nagar. The word Kauthar is derived from the root Kathu , which has
meanings of "to increase in number, to outnumber, to happen frequently; to show
pride in wealth and/or children; to be rich, plentiful, abundance." The form Kawthar
itself is an intensive deverbal noun, meaning "abundance, multitude"
 Panduranga named after Vishnu, was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–
Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with
capital Parik, was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was
the most autonomous, sometimes independent, princedom/principality of
Champa. Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.
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Plo kong Garai

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231
 Within the four principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in
Vietnamese) and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in
Amravati and Vijaya, while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans
differed in their customs and habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even
war. But they usually managed to settle disagreements through intermarriage.
Indrapura and Vijaya, Two notable examples of this multi-centric nature of Champa were the
principalities of Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga. When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to the
Vietnamese in 1471, Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched. Kauthara fell to
the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653, while Panduranga was annexed in 1832. Pāṇḍurṅga
had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832, which both Vietnamese and
European sources had verified. So Pāṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its
foreign affairs without permission from the court of the king of kings
Panduranga or Prangdarang or Pandharpur ( the city “pur” of Pandhari)

Panduranga or Prangdarang was a Cham Principality and later, the rump state successor of
the Champa kingdom, which was destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471.
It was located in present-day Southcentral Vietnam. It stood until late 17th century as the
Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan, vassalized it and put the Cham
polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng
was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th century onward, it had been
ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the court of the king of kings
at Vijaya, central Champa.
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232
 In the map, Panduranga is at
lower right

In the Bhakti tradition, there is a highly revered Saint known as Pundalik. Pundalik has come
to be known as a symbol for Supreme, Unconditional Love. His heart was so open and his
Love forgot no one. Pundalik’s devotion caused God to go looking for him.

Champa, Chinese Lin-yi, ancient Indochinese kingdom lasting from the 2nd to the 17th
century AD and extending over the central and southern coastal region of Vietnam from
roughly the 18th parallel in the north to Point Ke Ga (Cape Varella) in the south. Established
by the Cham, a people of Malayo-Polynesian stock and Indianized culture, Champa was
finally absorbed by the Vietnamese, who in turn were strongly influenced by Cham culture.

Champa was formed in AD 192, during the breakup of the Han dynasty of China, when the
Han official in charge of the region established his own kingdom around the area of the
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present city of Hue. Although the territory was at first inhabited mainly by wild tribes
involved in incessant struggles with the Chinese colonies in Tonkin, it gradually came under
Indian cultural influence, evolving into a decentralized country composed of four small
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states, named after regions of India—Amaravati (Quang Nam); Vijaya (Binh Dinh); Kauthara

233
 (Nha Trang); and Panduranga (Phan Rang)—whose populations remained concentrated in
small coastal enclaves. It had a powerful fleet that was used for commerce and for piracy.

In about AD 400 Champa was united under the rule of King Bhadravarman. In retaliation for
Cham raids on their coast, the Chinese invaded Champa in 446, bringing the region under
their suzerainty once again. Finally, under a new dynasty in the 6th century, Champa threw
off its allegiance to China and entered into an era of great independent prosperity and artistic
achievements. The centre of the nation began to shift from north to south; around the middle
of the 8th century Chinese sources cease to mention Lin-yi and begin to refer to the kingdom
as Huan-wang, a Sinicization of the name of the northernmost province, Panduranga (Phan
Rang). In the late 8th century the Chams were distracted by attacks from Java, but in the 9th
century they renewed their pressure on the Chinese provinces to the north and the growing
Khmer (Cambodian) Empire to the west. Under Indravarman II, who established the
Indrapura dynasty (the sixth in Champan history) in 875, the capital of the country was
moved back to the northern province of Amaravati (Quang Nam), near present Hue, and
elaborate palaces and temples were constructed.

In the 10th century the Vietnamese kingdom of Dai Viet began to exert pressure on Champa,
forcing it to relinquish Amaravati in 1000 and Vijaya in 1069. Harivarman IV, who in 1074
founded the ninth Cham dynasty, was able to stave off further Vietnamese and Cambodian
attacks, but in 1145 the Khmers, under the aggressive leadership of Suryavarman II, invaded
and conquered Champa. Two years later a new Cham king, Jaya Harivarman I, arose and
threw off Khmer rule, and his successor, in 1177, sacked the Cambodian capital at Angkor.
Between 1190 and 1220 the Chams again came under Cambodian suzerainty, and later in the
13th century they were attacked by the Tran kings of Vietnam, as well as by the Mongols in
1284. By the late 15th century, incessant wars of aggression and defense had for all practical
purposes wiped out the Champa kingdom; one by one their provinces were annexed until
Champa was entirely absorbed in the 17th century.

Its end marked the demise of the only culture of mainland Asia with Oceanian features. Cham
painting is known only from the inscriptions on the temples. Cham sculptors, under the
influence of Indian Gupta art, evolved a very personal style, characterized by forms springing
with wild energy. Architecture generally was confined to tiered brick towers.

Early period
From 1060 to 1074, Panduranga was the capital of king Rudravarman III (r. 1061–1074).
During the 12th century when Khmer Empire invaded Champa and occupied most of the
kingdom in 1145–1150, prince Sivänandana or Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1147–1162), son of
refugee king Rudravarman IV, fled to Panduranga, then led a rebellion that resisted the
Khmer and inflicted defeats on the invaders, forcing them to make a withdrawal in 1149. In
1151, province of Amaravarti (Quảng Ngãi province) revolted against Harivarman, followed
by Panduranga in 1155. In 1190, Cham Prince Vidyanandana (r. 1192–1203) who had
defected to the Khmer was nominated as puppet king of Pänduranga. Revolts ousted Khmer
Prince In of Vijaya in 1191, which prompted Vidyanandana to rebel against the Khmer in 1192 and
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then reunified Champa. He faced massive retribution from Jayavarman VII of Angkor in the next
year, but Vidyanandana's struggle for Champa lasted until 1203 when the capital of Vijaya fell to the
Khmer and Vidyanandana himself fled and died in Dai Viet.
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According to the Sakarai dak rai patao (Panduranga annals), the first king of Panduranga Principality
was Sri Aragang. His rule lasted between 1195/1205 to 1235/1247. The king of kings at Vijaya still

234
 wrested certain suzerainty over Panduranga. Sri Aragang was succeeded by Cei Anâk, who reigned
between 1235/1247 - 1269/1281. After the Aragang dynasty, Panduranga continued maintaining its
sovereignty under the Dobatasuar dynasty (1269-1373).
By the late 14th century, the whole of Champa had been unified again under the rule of a single strong
dynasty, founded by Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). Panduranga remained autonomous but
asymmetrical and maintained a tributary relationship with the Simhavarmanids in Vijaya.

Collapse of Vijaya and the beginning of Panduranga period

When the Vietnamese under Le Thanh Tong attacked Champa in early 1471, the whole northern part
of the kingdom was razed, cities ransacked, and tens of thousand people were killed, either massacred
or enslaved by the invaders. The Vietnamese king also captured the Cham king Tra Toan and Vijaya
clansmen, deporting them to the north, ending the dynasty's reign. This event is widely recognized as
the end of the Champa Kingdom, according to Georges Maspero's logics.[13] However, it is noteworthy
to know that the fall of Vijaya was not a "shift" of Champa power to the south or the end of the
kingdom, but rather, reflects the multicentric nature of Champa, a confederation of semiindependent
kingdoms which now were no longer under the prestige of the Vijaya king of kings.
Unsurprisingly, a massive wave of Cham emigration radiated across Southeast Asia: In Cambodia,
Cham refugees were welcomed, but the sources do not provide how they arrived in Cambodia and
where they settled. In Thailand, there were records of Cham presence since Ayudhaya period. In
the Malay archipelago, the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) states that after the collapse of Vijaya in
1471, two Cham princes named Indera Berma Shah and Shah Palembang sought asylum
in Melaka and Aceh. Shortly after his conversion to Islam, Indera Berma Shah was appointed minister
at the court of Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sejarah Melayu also mentions Cham presences
in Pahang, Kelantan, where the Kampung Laut Mosque is said to be built by Champa sailors, on their
way to Java and Aceh.
According to Vietnamese sources, on 22 March 1471, after the loss of the capital Vijaya to the
Vietnamese force under Le Thanh Tong, a Cham general named Bố Trì Trì (T'chai Ya Ma Fou Ngan
in Chinese annals) fled to Panduranga's capital Pa Rang and set up his own rule and submitted to Le
Thanh Tong seven days later. Thanh Tong agreed, but he divided the Cham remnants into three
smaller polities: Kauthara, Panduranga, and the northern part of Central HighlandsChampa was
reduced in six regions: Aia Ru (Phú Yên), Aia Trang (Khánh Hòa), Panrang (Phan Rang), Kraong
(Long Hương), Parik (Phan Rí Cửa) and Pajai (Phú Hài [vi]). The Chinese Ming Shilu provides
another deviation of the timeline: Although the Vietnamese sacking of Vijaya in March 1471, T'chai
Ya Ma Fou Ngan still facilitated token diplomacy with Ming Empire in unoccassional years, in 1478,
1505, and 1515, the son of Fou Ngan received succession prescription from the Ming; their last
contact occurred in 1543. According to the Cham annal, from 1421/1448 to 1567/1579, the capital of
Panduranga was Biuh Bal Batsinâng. From 1567/1579 to 1653, it had been relocated to Bal
Pangdarang (present day Phan Rang). From the late 17th century until 1832, the capital of Panduranga
was once again moved south to Phan Rí Cửa.The Cham stopped paying tribute to the Viet court when
the Le was usurped by the Mac dynasty in 1526.
Revival
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 Temple of King Po Rome (r. 1627-1651)///The Boxer Codex depiction of Chamcia
(Cham) couple, c. 1595
During the sixteenth century, as Dai Viet fragmented in the north, Panduranga Champa again
gained prosper from the rise of the international trade. Throughout the seventeenth century,
Cham merchants traded actively in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani,
and Makassar. A Spanish record reported that "many Muslims live in Champa, whose Hindu
king wanted Islam to be spoken and taught, resulted in many mosques existed along with
Hindu temples.
In 1578, Panduranga assaulted Nguyen lord's domain near Đà Rằng River. In 1594,
Panduranga king sent a fleet of 400 warships to aid the Johor Sultanate in its struggles against
the Portuguese in Melaka
Panduranga also helped its neighbor Cambodia during the Cambodian–Spanish War, which
resulted in delivering a fiasco to the Spanish conquistadors. Governor of Malina, Luis Pérez
Dasmariñas (fl. 1593–96) sent a letter to the court of king Philip II in late 1595, antagonizing
the Cham king as "a vicious dangerous tyrant who was treacherous and full of evil deeds,"
while his second letter suggested that just around 200–300 Spanish soldiers and 500 local
mercenaries would be needed to conquer Champa. During that time, the Cham were
remembered by Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch merchants and seamen as ferocious pirates of
the South China Sea who numerously boarded merchant ships, plundering cargos, kidnapping
crew members, and routinely took European hostages to slavery. Cham kings were described
to be at least involved or actively encouraging raids against foreign ships.
In 1611, in an attempt to retake land from the Nguyen lord, Champa mounted an attack in
Phu Yen, but gained no success, and the Kauthara principality was lost to the Nguyen after a
counterattack.
Later period under Po Rome dynasty
With the rise of nearby Hội An, most foreign traders now were leaving Champa. Japanese
seal trade ships ceased to trade with Champa in 1623. [30] In 1611, lord Nguyen Phuc
Nguyen sent an army led by Văn Phong, a Cham defector, attacking Panduranga, annexing
the entire Kauthara Principality. Nguyen lord then resettled 30,000 Trinh POWs in Phu Yen.
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Notable Cham king of this period, Po Rome (r. 1627-1651), was known for his great
erudition of Islam after having a sojourn study in Kelantan, Malay Peninsula, and the mass
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conversion to Islam by his people. He encouraged trade, granting the Dutch permission to
arrange free trade in his country unless they do not attack Portuguese merchants at his ports.

236
 [32]
To resolve discontents between Muslims and Balamon, Po Rome ordered the Cham Bani
to have their religion more integrated with Cham customs and beliefs, while pressing the
Ahier to accept Allah as the most supreme God but allowed them to retain their worships of
traditional Cham divinities, excellently reforging peace and cohesion in his kingdom. King
Po Rome is an important deity that is being venerated by the Cham people today.
Connections between Pandaranga and the extra Malay/Islamic world blossomed. Syncretism
was widely practiced at all levels, best known for incorporating cosmopolitan Islamic
doctrines into existing indigenous Cham beliefs and Hindu pantheons. The multipurpose
lunisolar sakawi calendar, was likely Po Rome's best combination of previous Cham Śaka
era with the Islamic lunar calendar.
European missionaries described Champa in the 1670s as having the majority of its
population being Muslims, a Muslim sultan, and a Muslim court. In 1680 Panduranga
king Po Saut (r. 1659–1692) styled himself with Malay horrific Paduka Seri Sultan in his
hand letter to the Dutch in Java. In 1686, the Cham and Malay Muslim communities in Siam
reportedly joined the Makassars rebellion against king Narai of Ayudhya.
WARS
Under Po Rome's dynasty, Panduranga suffered several incursions from the Southern
Vietnamese Nguyen kingdom which centered around trading centers Hue-Hoi An, the old
center region of Champa which had been recently Vietnamized. Lords Nguyễn Phúc
Nguyên, Nguyễn Phúc Tần, and Nguyễn Phúc Chu repeatedly invaded Panduranga in 1611,
1629, 1653, 1692.[35] During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Nguyen of
Cochinchina were too preoccupied dealing with their northern enemies, the Trịnh, rather than
with the Cham. Though was not recorded in official chronicles, but in dynastic genealogy and
pseudonymous Cham sources, in 1631 Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên arranged the marriage of his
princess Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Khoa to king Po Rome.[36][37] Alexander de Rhodes describes
sometime in 1639, the Nguyen still placed several galleys in the port of Ran Ran (Phú Yên)
to prevent seaborne incursion from Champa.
Having successfully fended off the Trinh, the Nguyen thalassocracy turned its attention to the
south, dispatching their first interference in Cambodia, overthrowing its first and only
Muslim king Ramathipadi I in 1658. The Nguyen had periodically invaded Cambodia several
times from 1658 to 1692 on par with Siam. In 1682, Panduranga reportedly sent envoys led
by the king's brothers who had fled after the king's coronation to Ayudhya in a possible
search for Siamese protection.[39]
In 1692, lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu invaded Panduranga, arresting King Po Saut and renaming
Panduranga to Trấn Thuận Thành (Principality of Thuận Thành). The lord established Bình
Thuận District inside the Principality as free lands for ethnic Viet settler colonialism,[40] but
Cham revolts in 1693–96 forced the Nguyen lord to mitigate the resentment by abolishing the
Binh Thuan county, restoring the Cham monarchy with full rights, however, becoming a
vassal of the Nguyen, according to a following treaty signed in 1712. In 1694 Panduranga
king Po Saktiraydapatih (r. 1695–1727) received the title King of Thuan Thanh From 1695
onward, Panduranga had been reduced to a client state of the Nguyen domain, known as
the Principality of Thuận Thành (Trấn Thuận Thành – Principality of 'Submissive Citadel').
237

Mercantile Role
During the 16th century, Cham merchants renewed their commercial links and actively traded
in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani, and Makassar. Among their
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exports, Cham textile was famously consumed.

237
 The 17th-century Chinese compendium Xiyang Chao Gong Dian Lu (Tributes from the
countries of the Western Sea, c. 1650) describes a type of Cham brewed liquor that is made
from cooked rice, mixed with wine and medicines, contained in pottery, and is drunk by long
bamboo straws. People would sit around the container and take sips.
Proselytization of Islam increased sharply after the fall of Vijaya, as missionary Gabriel de
San Antonio wrote a description in 1585: "The locals (Chams) hated the Castilians and
believed prophecies made by the Moro, that there would be a king Mahoma, and many would
embrace the new faith."
Currently, there are two theories among academic consensus regard the apostle of Islam to
Champa, proposed by scholars Antoine Cabaton and Pierre-Yves Manguin. The first theory
states that Islam could have been introduced by Arab, Persian, Indian merchants, scholars,
religious leaders, during from the 10th to 14th century. The second theory argues that Islam
arrived in Champa through a later, shorter, indirectly way from the Malays (jawa, melayu,
chvea), according to Manguin, is more convincing and valid. Most historians agree that the
Cham only began converting to Islam en masse after the destruction of Vijaya.In his
conclusion, Manguin attributes the Islamization of the Cham people to their active
participation in the regional maritime networks, and the Malay states and Malay traders
which also contributed great impacts to the process. Panduranga had its own revolt against
the court of king Jaya Paramesvaravarman I (r. 1044–1060) in 1050.[ In contrast with
scholars who view Champa as the kingdom exclusively of the Cham, recent scholars such
as Po Dharma and Richard O’Connor, rebrand Champa as a multiethnic kingdom. They note
that Champa was highly likely a coalition of the Cham lowlanders and the indigenous
inhabitants of the Central Highlands, although Cham culture is usually associated with the
broader culture of Champa

Panduranga is named after Panduiranga another toponym of Lord Vishnu

Vithoba, also known as Vi(t)thal(a) and Panduranga, is a Hindu deity predominantly
238

worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is generally considered as a

manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar, Krishna. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark
young boy, standing arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his
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consort Rakhumai.

238
 Vithoba is the focus of an essentially monotheistic, non-ritualistic bhakti-driven. Varkari faith
of Maharashtra and the Haridasa faith of Karnataka. Vithoba Temple, Pandharpur is his main
temple. Vithoba legends revolve around his devotee Pundalik who is credited for bringing the
deity to Pandharpur, and around Vithoba's role as a saviour to the poet-saints of the Varkari
faith. The Varkari poet-saints are known for their unique genre of devotional lyric,
the abhang, dedicated to Vithoba and composed in Marathi. Other devotional literature
dedicated to Vithoba includes the Kannada hymns of the Haridasa and the Marathi versions
of the generic aarti songs associated with rituals of offering light to the deity. The most
important festivals of Vithoba are held on Devshayani Ekadashi in the month of Ashadha,
and Prabodhini Ekadashi in the month of Kartik.
The historiography of Vithoba and his sect is an area of continuing debate, even regarding his
name. Though the origins of both his sect and his main temple are likewise debated, there is
clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century.

Most significant temples around Panduranga

The culturally most important temples of historical Champa were the temple of Bhadresvara
located at Mỹ Sơn near modern Da Nang, and the temple of the goddess known
as Bhagavati (her Hindu name) or Yan Po Nagar (her Cham name) located just outside
modern Nha Trang.
239
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239
 The temple of Po Nagar in Nha Trang.

 The temple of Bhadresvara was the principle religious foundations of northern Champa
(known as Campadesa, Campapura or nagara Campa in the inscriptions). Scholars have
identified the temple of Bhadresvara, a local incarnation of the universal deity Shiva,
with the edifice "A1" at Mỹ Sơn. Though today A1 is in the process of devolving into a
pile of rubble, it still existed as a magnificent tower when French scholars described it at
the beginning of the 20th century
 The temple of Yan Po Nagar was the principal religious foundation of southern Champa
(or Panduranga, a word that is the basis for the modern name "Phan Rang.") Its buildings
date from between the 8th and 13th centuries. The temple remains standing to this day
across the Cai River from Nha Trang, and is in relatively good condition.

Its present name is Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm.

Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, commonly known as Phan Rang, is a city in Vietnam and the
capital of Ninh Thuận Province. The community has a population of 161,000 (2004), of
which 91,000 (2004) live in the main city.
The name Phan Rang' is the Vietnamese pronunciation of Panduranga (a Sanskrit word
of Hindu origin) or Parang. The name Tháp Chàm means "Cham Temple/Tower" and is
named after the Po Klong Garai Temple in the northern part of the city.
What is now Phan Rang was formerly known as Panduranga, the capital of the kingdom
of Champa.
240

The town of Phan Rang was established in 1917 during the Nguyễn dynasty, by edict of
Emperor Khải Định, and remained the provincial capital of Ninh Thuận Province until 1976,
when the province merged with Bình Thuận Province to form Thuận Hải Province.
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240
 When the Japanese occupied the country in World War II, they established an airfield and it
was later used by the French. During the Republic of Vietnam, Phan Rang was the site of
the United States Air Force's Phan Rang Air Base in the Vietnam War.
The town was divided into Phan Rang in the east, which became part of Ninh Hải District and
Tháp Chàm in the west, which became part of An Son district. The two were again combined
in 1992 to become Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, the capital of Ninh Thuận Province, achieving
city status in 2007
Cham Culture
Tháp Chàm and Phan Rang district has become a center for the maintenance of Cham culture.
Much of the district is occupied by Cham people where they have rice paddies, orchards of
grapes and peaches, flocks of goats and Brahman cattle. Their towers (the 'Thap') are
beautiful memorials to their kings and queens. There are several Cham sites with dilapidated
towers along the central coast of Vietnam and major sites in Mỹ Sơn and Nha Trang.
However, there are two sites in the Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm being maintained and culturally
active. Two kilometers west of the Tháp Chàm Railway Station, there is excellent hilltop
Cham tower complex dedicated to the king Po Klong Garai, the last reigning king; his
likeness is depicted on a lingam in the sanctuary of the central tower. A second tower for the
king Po Re Do is located about 20 km south west of Tháp Chàm, via Phu Quy to Phouc Hou
and the village Hau Sanh; this tower is undergoing extensive renovation (July 2012).
The towers are currently used for the very colorful Cham festivals, particularly "Kate" in
October (Oct 15 in 2012) when they still sacrifice a bullock and other food offerings. Other
ceremonies for Ramadan, a Rain Festival (as required), weddings and other celebrations are
also held. Apart from the incorporation of Islam into their cultural and religious practice,
another point of cultural difference is that their heredity line is maternal. The animist
foundation of Cham culture, with fire motif on the towers, rustic traditions and very colorful
ceremonial dress makes the Cham culture an ideal tourist resource for Vietnam, as yet poorly
developed.
Architecturally, the towers are intricately built in small red bricks, almost dry stone
construction with very fine mortar lines. The towers are topped by calyx like minarets, arches
are rimmed by special bricks fired with tongue like extensions on the extremities to represent
flames; it is very intricate brick work requiring sophisticated engineering to deal with the
overhang.
Associated with the Po Klong Garai complex there is a cultural center, more functionally
built with concrete, bricks, mortar and render, but at least with some of the line of the Cham
architecture and housing a display of cultural and handi-works, and excellent photographs
and paintings by Cham artists.
241
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241
 Phan Rang Look Out

16 April Park Monument, Phan Rang

The Concept of Panduranga

Panduranga is known by many names, including: Vithoba, Vitthala, Pandharinath, Hari and
Narayan.
There are several theories about the origins and meanings of these names. Varkari tradition
suggests that the name Vitthala (also spelled as Vitthal, Viththal, Vittala and
Vithal; Marathi: विठ्ठल, composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words: viṭ, which means
242

'brick'; and thal, which may have originated from the Sanskrit sthala, meaning 'standing'.
Thus, Vitthala would mean 'one standing on a brick'.The prescribed iconography of Vithoba
stipulates that he be shown standing arms-akimbo upon a brick, which is associated with the
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legend of the devotee Pundalik.

242
 Definition of Vittala: "Vidaa Jnanena Taan Shoonyan Laati Gruhnaati Yaha Swayam
AjnaanugrahaKruddevo Vittalah Kathyate Budhaiah" - Prikryaya Kaumudi Vyakhyana
However, the Varkari poet-saint Tukaram proposed a different etymology—that Vitthala is
composed of the words vittha (ignorance) and la (one who accepts), thus meaning 'one who
accepts innocent people who are devoid of knowledge'. [5] Historian Ramakrishna Gopal
Bhandarkar offers yet another possibility—that Vitthu (Viṭhu) is a Kannada corruption of the
name Vishnu adopted in Marathi. The suffixes -la and -ba (meaning 'father' in Marathi) were
appended for reverence, producing the names Vitthala and Vithoba. This corruption of
Vishnu to Vitthu could have been due to tendency of Marathi and Kannada people to
pronounce.
According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the Deccan College, Pundalik—who is assumed
to be a historical figure—was instrumental in persuading
the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana alias Bittidev to build the Pandharpur temple dedicated to
Vishnu. The deity was subsequently named as Vitthala, a derivative of Bittidev, by the
builder-king. Other variants of the name include Viṭhurāyā (King Vitthala),
and Viṭhāī (Mother Vitthala). The people of Gujarat add the suffix -nath (Lord) to Vitthala,
which yields the name Vitthal-nath. The additional honorific suffix -ji may be added, giving
the name Vitthalnathji. This name is generally used in the Pushtimarg sect.
Panduranga also spelt as Pandurang and Pandaranga, is another popular epithet for Vithoba,
which means 'the white god' in Sanskrit. The Jain author-saint Hemachandra (1089–1172
AD) notes it is also used as an epithet for the god Rudra-Shiva. Even though Vithoba is
depicted with dark complexion, he is called a "white god". Bhandarkar explains this paradox,
proposing that Panduranga may be an epithet for the form of Shiva worshipped in
Pandharpur, and whose temple still stands. Later, with the increasing popularity of Vithoba's
cult, this was also transferred to Vithoba. [10] Another theory suggests that Vithoba may
initially have been a Shaiva god (related to Shiva), only later identified with Vishnu, thus
explaining the usage of Panduranga for Vithoba. Crooke, however, proposed that
Panduranga is a Sanskritised form of Pandaraga (belonging to Pandarga), referring to the old
name of Pandharpur. Another name, Pandharinath, also refers to Vithoba as the lord of
Pandhari (yet another variant for Pandharpur).
Finally, Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Vishnu like Hari and Narayana, in
the Vaishnava sect
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

3. The Amazing Hindu Toponyms of Ancient Cham Principalities,

https://www.academia.edu/82516346/The_Amazing_Hindu_Toponyms_of_Ancient_
Cham_Principalities
4. The Many Pur(as )of the Khmer Empire Dr |Uday Dokras,
https://www.academia.edu/83916391/The_Many_Pur_as_of_the_Khmer_Empire_Dr_
Uday_Dokras
243

In my above mentioned papers I have already dealt in detail with

ancient cities of Cham and Cambodia
Page

243
 V
Why Lord Vishnu is not Lord Vitthal or
Panduranga in Angkor Wat?
Vithoba-Devanagari = विठोबा-
Sanskrit_Transliteration = Viṭhobā
Affiliation = Form of Vishnu or Krishna
Abode = Pandharpur
Consort = Rakhumai (Rukmini)
Mount = Garuda, when associated with Vishnu

Vithoba ( Marathi: Viṭhobā, विठोबा ),

Vitthala ( Sanskrit: Viṭṭhala, विठ्ठल,
Kannada: Viṭṭala, and Panduranga

Names as per the Vishnu Sahasranama

1. Anish 500. Deveshah

2. Tharun 501. Devabhrit-Guruh
3. Vishant 502. Uttarah
4. Vishvam 503. Gopatih
5. Vishnuh 504. Goptaa
6. Vashatkaarah 505. Jnaanagamyah
7. Narayan 506. Puraatanah
8. Narada 507. Shareera-Bhootabhrit
9. Bhoota-Bhavya-Bhavat-Prabhu 508. Bhoktaa
10. Bhoota-Krit 509. Kapeendrah
11. Bhoota-Bhrit 510. Bhooridakshinah
12. Bhaavo 511. Somapah
13. Rangrajan 512. Amritapah
14. Bhootaatmaa 513. Somah
15. Bhoota-Bhaavanah 514. Purujit
16. Pootaatmaa 515. Purusattamah
17. Paramaatmaa 516. Vinayah
18. Muktaanaam Paramaa Gatih 517. Jayah
244

19. Avyayah 518. Satyasandhah

20. Aymaan 519. Daashaarhah
21. Avyaan 520. Saatvataam-patih
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22. Purushah 521. Jeevah

23. Saakshee 522. Vinayitaa-saakshee

244
 24. Kshetrajnah 523. Mukundah
25. Akshara 524. Amitavikramah
26. Yogah 525. Ambho-nidhir
27. Yoga-Vidaam 526. Anantaatmaa
28. Pradhaana-Purusheshvarah 527. Mahodadhishayah
29. Naarasimha-Vapuh 528. Antakah
30. Shreemaan 529. Ajah
31. Keshavah 530. Mahaarhah
32. Purushottamah 531. Svaabhaavyah
33. Sarvah 532. Jitaamitrah
34. Sharvas 533. Pramodanah
35. Shivah 534. Aanandah
36. Sthaanuh 535. Nandanah
37. Bhootaadih 536. Nandah
38. Nidhir-Avyayah 537. Satyadharmaa
39. Sambhavah 538. Trivikramah
40. Bhaavanah 539. Maharshih
41. Bhartaa 540. Kritajnah
42. Prabhavah 541. Medineepatih
43. Prabhuh 542. Tripadah
44. Ieshvara 543. Tridashaadhyaksho
45. Svayambhooh 544. Mahaashringah
46. Shambhuh 545. Kritaantakrit
47. Aadityah 546. Mahaavaraaho
48. Pushkaraakshah 547. Govindah
49. Mahaasvanah 548. Sushenah
50. Anaadi-Nidhanah 549. Kanakaangadee
51. Dhaataa 550. Guhyo
52. Vidhaataa 551. Gabheerah
53. Dhaaturuttamah 552. Gahano
54. Aprameyah 553. Guptah
55. Hrisheekeshah 554. Chakra-Gadaadharah
56. Padmanaabhah 555. Vedhaah
57. Amaraprabhuh 556. Svaangah
58. Vishvakarmaa 557. Ajitah
59. Manuh 558. Krishnah
60. Tvashtaa 559. Dridhah
61. Sthavishtah 560. Sankarshanochyutah
62. Sthaviro 561. Varunah
63. Agraahyah 562. Vaarunah
64. Shaashvatah 563. Vrikshah
65. Krishno 564. Pushkaraakshah
66. Lohitaksh 565. Mahaamanaah
67. Pratardanah 566. Bhagavaan
68. Prabhootas 567. Bhagahaa
245

69. Trikakub-Dhaama 568. Aanandee

70. Pavitram 569. Vanamaalee
71. Mangalam Param 570. Halaayudhah
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72. Eeshanah 571. Aadityah

73. Praanadah 572. Jyotiraadityah

245
 74. Praano 573. Sahishnuh
75. Jyeshthah 574. Gatisattamah
76. Shreshthah 575. Sudhanvaa
77. Prajaapatih 576. Khanda-Parashur
78. Hiranyagarbhah 577. Daarunah
79. Bhoogarbhah 578. Dravinapradah
80. Maadhavah 579. Divah-Sprik
81. Madhusoodanah 580. Sarvadrik-Vyaaso
82. Eeshvarah 581. Vaachaspatir-Ayonijah
83. Vikramee 582. Trisaamaa
84. Dhanvee 583. Saamagah
85. Medhaavee 584. Saama
86. Vikramah 585. Nirvaanam
87. Kramah 586. Bheshajam
88. Anuttamah 587. Bhishak
89. Duraadharshah 588. Samnyaasa-Krit
90. Kritajnah 589. Samah
91. Kritih 590. Shaantah
92. Aatmavaan 591. Nishthaa
93. Sureshah 592. Shaantih
94. Sharanam 593. Paraayanam
95. Jagatheeshwara 594. Shubhaangah
96. Visva-Retaah 595. Shaantidah
97. Prajaa-bhavah 596. Shrashtaa
98. Ahah 597. Kumudah
99. Samvatsarah 598. Kuvaleshayah
100. Vyaalah 599. Gohitah
101. Pratyayah 600. Gopatih
102. Sarvadarshanah 601. Goptaa
103. Ajah 602. Vrishabhaaksho
104. Sarveshvarah 603. Vrishapriyah
105. Siddhah 604. Anivartee
106. Siddhih 605. Nivrittaatmaa
107. Sarvaadih 606. Samksheptaa
108. Hadibandhu 607. Kshemakrit
109. Achyutah 608. Deva Deva
110. Vrishaakapih 609. Shreevatsa-Vakshaah
111. Ameyaatmaa 610. Shrevaasah
112. Sarva-Yoga-Vinissritah 611. Shreepatih
113. Vasuh 612. Shreemataam
114. Vasumanaah 613. Shreedah
115. Satyah 614. Shreeshah
116. Samaatmaa 615. Shreenivaasah
117. Sammitah 616. Shreenidhih
118. Samah 617. Shreevibhaavanah
246

119. Amoghah 618. Shreedharah

120. Pundareekaakshah 619. Shreekarah
121. Vrishakarmaa 620. Shreyah
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122. Vrishaakritih 621. Shreemaan

123. Jaggathprani 622. Loka-Trayaashrayah

246
 124. Bahushira 623. Svakshah
125. Babhrur 624. Svangah
126. Vishvayonih 625. Shataanandah
127. Shuchi-Shravaah 626. Nandih
128. Amritah 627. Jyotir-Ganeshvarah
129. Shaashvatah-Sthaanur 628. Vijitaatmaa
130. Varaaroho 629. Vidheyaatmaa
131. Mahaatapaah 630. Sat-Keertih
132. Sarvagah 631. Chinnasamshayah
133. Sarvavid-Bhaanuh 632. Udeernah
134. Vishvaksenah 633. Sarvatah-Chakshuh
135. Janaardanah 634. Aneeshah
136. Vedah 635. Shaashvata-Sthirah
137. Vedavid 636. Bhooshayah
138. Avyangah 637. Bhooshanah
139. Vedaangah 638. Bhootih
140. Vedavit 639. Vishokah
141. Kavih 640. Shoka-Naashanah
142. Lokaadhyakshah 641. Archishmaan
143. Suraadhyaksho 642. Architah
144. Dharmaadhyakshah 643. Kumbhah
145. Krita-Akritah 644. Vishuddhaatmaa
146. Chaturaatmaa 645. Vishodhanah
147. Chaturvyoohah 646. Anniruddhah
148. Chaturdamstrah 647. Apratirathah
149. Chaturbhujah 648. Pradyumnah
150. Bhraajishnur 649. Amitavikramah
151. Bhojanam 650. Kaalanemi-Nihaa
152. Bhoktaa 651. Veerah
153. Sahishnuh 652. Shauri
154. Jagadaadijah 653. Shoora-Janeshvarah
155. Anaghah 654. Trilokaatmaa
156. Vijayah 655. Trilokeshah
157. Jetaa 656. Keshavah
158. Vishvayonih 657. Keshihaa
159. Punarvasuh 658. Harih
160. Upendra 659. Kaamadevah
161. Vaamanah 660. Kaamapaalah
162. Praamshuh 661. Kaamee
163. Amoghah 662. Kaantah
164. Shuchih 663. Kritaagamah
165. Oorjitah 664. Anirdeshya-Vapuh
166. Ateendrah 665. Vishnuh
167. Samgrahah 666. Veerah
168. Sargah 667. Anantah
247

169. Dhritaatmaa 668. Dhananjayah

170. Niyamo 669. Brahmanyah
171. Yamah 670. Brahmakrit
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172. Vedyah 671. Brahmaa

173. Vaidyah 672. Brahma

247
 174. Sadaa-Yogee 673. Brahma-Vivardhanah
175. Veerahaa 674. Brahmavid
176. Maadhavo 675. Braahmanah
177. Madhuh 676. Brahmee
178. Ateendriyo 677. Brahmajno
179. Mahaamayo 678. Braahmana-Priyah
180. Mahotsaaho 679. Mahaakramo
181. Mahaabalah 680. Mahaakarmaa
182. Mahaabuddhir 681. Mahaatejaah
183. Mahaa-Veeryah 682. Mahoragah
184. Mahaa-Shaktih 683. Mahaakratuh
185. Mahaa-Dyutih 684. Mahaayajvaa
186. Anirdeshya-Vapuh 685. Mahaayajnah
187. Shreemaan 686. Mahaahavih
188. Ameyaatmaa 687. Stavyah
189. Mahaadri-Dhrik 688. Stavapriyah
190. Maheshvaasah 689. Stotram
191. Maheebhartaa 690. Stutih
192. Shrinivasa 691. Stotaa
193. Sataam 692. Ranapriyah
194. Aniruddhah 693. Poornah
195. Suraanando 694. Poorayitaa
196. Govindah 695. Punyah
197. Govidaam-patih 696. Punya-Keertir
198. Mareechih 697. Anaamayah
199. Damanah 698. Manojavah
200. Hamsah 699. Teerthakaro
201. Suparnah 700. Vasuretaah
202. Bhujagottamah 701. Vasupradah
203. Hiranyanaabhah 702. Vasupradah
204. Sutapaah 703. Vaasudevo
205. Padmanaabhah 704. Vasuh
206. Prajaapatih 705. Vasumanaah
207. Amrityuh 706. Havih
208. Sarva-drik 707. Sadgatih
209. Simhah 708. Satkritih
210. Sandhaataa 709. Satta
211. Sandhimaan 710. Sadbhootih
212. Sthirah 711. Satparaayanah
213. Ajah 712. Shoorasenah
214. Durmarshanah 713. Yadu-shresthah
215. Shaastaa 714. Sannivaasah
216. Visrutaatmaa 715. Suyaamunah
217. Suraarihaa 716. Bhootaavaaso
218. Guruh 717. Vaasudevah
248

219. Gurutamah 718. Sarvaasunilayah

220. Dhaama 719. Analah
221. Satyah 720. Darpahaa
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222. Satya-Paraakramah 721. Darpadah

223. Nimishah 722. Driptah

248
 224. Animishah 723. Durdharah
225. Sragvee 724. Athaaparaajitah
226. Vaachaspatir-Udaara-Dheeh 725. Vishvamoortih
227. Agraneeh 726. Mahaamortir
228. Graamaneeh 727. Deeptamoortir
229. Shreemaan 728. A-moortirmaan
230. Nyaayah 729. Anekamoortih
231. Netaa 730. Avyaktah
232. Sameeranah 731. Shatamoortih
233. Sahasra-Moordhaa 732. Shataananah
234. Vishvaatmaa 733. Ekah
235. Sahasraakshah 734. Naikah
236. Sahasrapaat 735. Savah
237. Aavartanah 736. Kah
238. Nivritaatmaa 737. Kim
239. Samvritah 738. Yat
240. Sam-Pramardanah 739. Tat
241. Ahassamvartakah 740. Padam-anuttamam
242. Vahnih 741. Lokabandhur
243. Anilah 742. Lokanaathah
244. Dharaneedharah 743. Maadhavah
245. Suprasaadah 744. Bhaktavatsalah
246. Prasanaatmaa 745. Suvarna-varnah
247. Vishva-dhrik 746. Hemaangah
248. Vishvabhuk 747. Varaangah
249. Vibhuh 748. Chandanaangadee
250. Satkartaa 749. Veerahaa
251. Satkritah 750. Vishama
252. Saadhur 751. Shoonyah
253. Jahnuh 752. Ghritaaseeh
254. Naaraayanah 753. Acalah
255. Narah 754. Chalah
256. Asankhyeyah 755. Amaanee
257. Aprameyaatmaa 756. Maanadah
258. Vishishtah 757. Maanyah
259. Shishta-Krit 758. Lokasvaamee
260. Shuchih 759. Trilokadhrik
261. Siddhaarthah 760. Sumedhaa
262. Siddhasankalpah 761. Medhajah
263. Siddhidah 762. Dhanyah
264. Siddhisaadhanah 763. Satyamedhah
265. Vrishaahee 764. Dharaadharah
266. Vrishabhah 765. Tejovrisho
267. Vishnuh 766. Dyutidharah
268. Vrishaparvaa 767. Sarva-Shastra-Bhritaam-Varah
249

269. Vrishodarah 768. Pragrahah

270. Vardhanah 769. Nigrahah
271. Vardhamaanah 770. Vyagrah
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272. Viviktah 771. Naikashringah

273. Shruti-Saagarah 772. Gadaagrajah

249
 274. Subhujah 773. Chaturmoortih
275. Durdurdharah 774. Chaturbaahuh
276. Vaagmee 775. Chaturvyoohah
277. Mahendrah 776. Chaturgatih
278. Vasudah 777. Chaturaatmaa
279. Vasuh 778. Chaturbhaavas
280. Naika-Roopo 779. Chatur-Vedavid
281. Brihad-Roopah 780. Ekapaat
282. Shipivishtah 781. Samaavartah
283. Prakaashanah 782. Nivrittaatmaa
284. Ojas-Tejo-Dyutidharah 783. Durjayah
285. Prakaashaatmaa 784. Duratikramah
286. Prataapanah 785. Durlabhah
287. Riddhah 786. Durgamah
288. Spashtaaksharo 787. Durgah
289. Mantrah 788. Duraavaasah
290. Chandraamshuh 789. Duraarihaa
291. Bhaaskara-Dyutih 790. Shubhaangah
292. Amritaamsoodbhavo 791. Lokasaarangah
293. Bhaanuh 792. Sutantuh
294. Shashabindhuh 793. Tantu-Vardhanah
295. Sureshvarah 794. Indrakarmaa
296. Aushadham 795. Mahaakarmaa
297. Jagatas-Setuh 796. Kritakarmaa
298. Satya-Dharma-Paraakramah 797. Kritaagamah
299. Bhoota-Bhavya-Bhavan- 798. Udbhavah
Naathah 799. Sundarah
300. Pavanah 800. Sundah
301. Paavanah 801. Ratna-Naabhah
302. Analah 802. Sulochanah
303. Kaamahaa 803. Arkah
304. Kaamakrit 804. Vaajasanah
305. Kaantah 805. Shringee
306. Kaamah 806. Jayantah
307. Kaamapradah 807. Sarvavij-Jayee
308. Prabhuh 808. Suvarna-Binduh
309. Yugaadi-krit 809. Akshobhyah
310. Yugaavartah 810. Sarva-Vaageeshvareshvarah
311. Naikamaayah 811. Mahaahradah
312. Mahaashanah 812. Mahaagartah
313. Adrishyah 813. Mahaabhootah
314. Vyaktaroopah 814. Mahaanidhih
315. Sahasrajit 815. Kumudah
316. Anantajit 816. Kundarah
317. Ishtah 817. Kundah
250

318. Visishtah 818. Parjanyah

319. Sishteshtah 819. Paavanah
320. Chaitanya 820. Anilah
Page

321. Nahushah 821. Amritaashah

322. Vrishah 822. Amritavapuh

250
 323. Krodhahaa 823. Sarvajna
324. Krodhakrit-Kartaa 824. Sarvato-mukhah
325. Visvabaahuh 825. Sulabhah
326. Maheedharah 826. Suvratah
327. Achyutah 827. Siddhah
328. Prathitah 828. Shatrujit
329. Praanah 829. Shatrutaapanah
330. Praanadah 830. Nyagrodhah
331. Vaasavaanujah 831. Udumbarah
332. Apaam-Nidhih 832. Ashvattas
333. Adhishthaanam 833. Chaanooraandhra-Nishoodanah
334. Apramattah 834. Sahasraarchih
335. Pratishthitah 835. Saptajihvah
336. Skandah 836. Saptaidhaah
337. Skanda-Dharah 837. Saptavaahanah
338. Dhuryah 838. Amoortih
339. Varadah 839. Anaghah
340. Vaayuvaahanah 840. Acintyo
341. Vaasudevah 841. Bhayakrit
342. Brihat-Bhaanuh 842. Bhayanaashanah
343. Aadidevah 843. Anuh
344. Purandarah 844. Brihat
345. Ashokah 845. Krishah
346. Taaranah 846. Sthoolah
347. Taarah 847. Gunabhrit
348. Shoorah 848. Nirgunah
349. Shaurih 849. Mahaan
350. Janeshvarah 850. Adhritah
351. Anukoolah 851. Svadhritah
352. Sataavarttah 852. Svaasyah
353. Padmee 853. Praagvamshah
354. Padmanibhekshanah 854. Vamshavardhanah
355. Padmanaabhah 855. Bhaarabhrit
356. Aravindaakshah 856. Kathitah
357. Padmagarbhah 857. Yogee
358. Shareerabhrit 858. Yogeeshah
359. Maharddhi 859. Sarvakaamadah
360. Riddhah 860. Aashramah
361. Vriddhaatmaa 861. Shramanah
362. Mahaakshah 862. Kshaamah
363. Garudadhvajah 863. Suparnah
364. Atulah 864. Vaayuvaahanah
365. Sharabhah 865. Dhanurdharah
366. Bheemah 866. Dhanurvedah
367. Samayajnah 867. Dandah
251

368. Havirharih 868. Damayitaa

369. Sarva-Lakshana-Lakshanyah 869. Damah
370. Lakshmeevaan 870. Aparaajitah
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371. Samitinjayah 871. Sarvasahah

372. Viksharah 872. Aniyantaa

251
 373. Rohitah 873. Niyamah
374. Maargah 874. Ayamah
375. Hetuh 875. Sattvavaan
376. Daamodarah 876. Saattvikah
377. Sahah 877. Satyah
378. Maheedharah 878. Satya-Dharma-Paraayanah
379. Mahaabhaago 879. Abhipraayah
380. Vegavaan 880. Priyaarhah
381. Amitaashanah 881. Arhah
382. Udbhavah 882. Priyakrit
383. Kshobhanah 883. Preetivardhanah
384. Devah 884. Vihaayasa-gatih
385. Shreegarbhah 885. Jyotih
386. Parameshvarah 886. Suruchih
387. Karanam 887. Hutabhuk
388. Kaaranam 888. Vibhuh
389. Kartaa 889. Ravih
390. Vikartaa 890. Virochanah
391. Gahanah 891. Sooryah
392. Guhah 892. Savitaa
393. Vyavasaayah 893. Ravilochanah
394. Vyavasthaanah 894. Anantah
395. Samsthaanah 895. Hutabhuk
396. Sthaanadah 896. Bhoktaaa
397. Dhruvah 897. Sukhadah
398. Pararddhih 898. Naikajah
399. Paramaspashtah 899. Agrajah
400. Tushtah 900. Anirvinnah
401. Pushtah 901. Sadaamarshee
402. Shubhekshanah 902. Lokaadhishthaanam
403. Raamah 903. Adbhutah
404. Viraamah 904. Sanaat
405. Virajo 905. Sanaatanatamah
406. Maargah 906. Kapilah
407. Neyah 907. Kapih
408. Nayah 908. Apyayah
409. Veerah 909. Svastidah
410. Shaktimataam-Shresthah 910. Svastikrit
411. Dharmah 911. Svasti
412. Dharmaviduttamah 912. Svastibhuk
413. Vaikunthah 913. Svastidakshinah
414. Purushah 914. Araudrah
415. Praanah 915. Kundalee
416. Praanadah 916. Chakree
417. Pranavah 917. Vikramee
252

418. Prituh 918. Oorjita-Shaasanah

419. Hiranyagarbhah 919. Shabdaatigah
420. Shatrughnah 920. Shabdasahah
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421. Vyaaptah 921. Shishirah

422. Vaayuh 922. Sharvaree-Karah

252
 423. Adhokshajah 923. Akroorah
424. Rituh 924. Peshalah
425. Sudarshanah 925. Dakshah
426. Kaalah 926. Dakshinah
427. Parameshthee 927. Kshaminaam-Varah
428. Parigrahah 928. Vidvattamah
429. Ugrah 929. Veetabhayah
430. Samvatsarah 930. Punya-Shravana-Keertanah
431. Dakshah 931. Uttaaranah
432. Vishraamah 932. Dushkritihaa
433. Vishva-Dakshinah 933. Punyah
434. Vistaarah 934. Duh-Svapna-Naashanah
435. Sthaavarah-Sthaanuh 935. Veerahaa
436. Pramaanam 936. Rakshanah
437. Beejamavyayam 937. Santah
438. Arthah 938. Jeevanah
439. Anarthah 939. Paryavasthitah
440. Mahaakoshah 940. Anantaroopah
441. Mahaabhogah 941. Anantashreeh
442. Mahaadhanah 942. Jitamanyuh
443. Anirvinnah 943. Bhayapahah
444. Sthavishthah 944. Chaturashrah
445. A-bhooh 945. Gabheeraatmaa
446. Dharma-Yoopah 946. Vidishah
447. Mahaa-Makhah 947. Vyaadishah
448. Nakshatranemir 948. Dishah
449. Nakshatree 949. Anaadih
450. Kshamah 950. Bhoor-Bhuvo
451. Kshaamah 951. Lakshmeeh
452. Sameehanah 952. Suveerah
453. Yajnah 953. Ruchiraangadah
454. Ijyah 954. Jananah
455. Mahejyah 955. Jana-Janmaadir
456. Kratuh 956. Bheemah
457. Satram 957. Bheema-Paraakramah
458. Sataam-Gatih 958. Aadhaaranilayah
459. Sarvadarshee 959. Adhaataa
460. Vimuktaatmaa 960. Pushpahaasah
461. Sarvajno 961. Prajaagarah
462. Jnaanamuttamam 962. Oordhvagah
463. Suvratah 963. Satpathaachaarah
464. Sumukhah 964. Praanadah
465. Sookshmah 965. Pranavah
466. Sughoshah 966. Panah
467. Sukhadah 967. Pramaanam
253

468. Suhrit 968. Praananilayah

469. Manoharah 969. Praanibhrit
470. Jita-krodhah 970. Praanajeevanah
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471. Veerabaahur 971. Tattvam

472. Vidaaranah 972. Tattvavit

253
 473. Svaapanah 973. Ekaatmaa
474. Svavashah 974. Janma-Mrityu-Jaraatigah
475. Vyaapee 975. Bhoor-bhuvah
476. Naikaatmaa 976. Taarah
477. Naikakarmakrit 977. Savitaa
478. Vatsarah 978. Prapitaamahah
479. Vatsalah 979. Yajnah
480. Vatsee 980. Yajnapatih
481. Ratnagarbhah 981. Yajvaa
482. Dhaneshvarah 982. Yajnaangah
483. Dharmagub 983. Yajnavaahanah
484. Dharmakrit 984. Yajnabhrid
485. Dharmee 985. Yajnakrit
486. Sat 986. Yajnee
487. Asat 987. Yajnabhuk
488. Ksharam 988. Yajnasaadhanah
489. Aksharam 989. Yajnaantakrit
490. Avijnaataa 990. Yajnaguhyam
491. Sahasraamshur 991. Annam
492. Vidhaataa 992. Annaadah
493. Kritalakshanah 993. Aatmayonih
494. Gabhastinemih 994. Svayamjaatah
495. Sattvasthah 995. Vaikhaanah
496. Simhah 996. Saamagaayanah
497. Bhoota-Maheshvarah 997. Devakee-Nandanah
498. Aadidevah 998. Srashtaa
499. Mahaadevah 999. Kshiteeshah
1000. Paapa-Naashanah
1001. Samkha-Bhrit
1002. Nandakee
1003. Chakree
1004. Shaarnga-Dhanvaa
1005. Gadaadharah
1006. Rathaanga-Paanih
1007. Akshobhyah
1008. Sarva-Praharanaayudhah
1009. Avyukt
1010. Roma

Vithoba ( Marathi: Viṭhobā, विठोबा ), also known as Vitthala ( Sanskrit: Viṭṭhala,

विठ्ठल, Kannada: Viṭṭala, and Panduranga, is the Hindu god Vishnu
worshiped predominately in the Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka . Generall
y considered a manifestation of the Hindu deities Vishnu or Krishna, he is sometimes
254

associated with the god Shiva .

Vithoba is often depicted as a dark young boy, standing arms-akimbo on a brick, som
etimes accompanied by his main consort Rakhumai.
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254
 Vithoba is the focus of the monotheistic non-Brahminical Varkari sect of Maharashtra
and the Haridasa sect of Karnataka. Vithoba's main temple stands at Pandharpur in M
aharashtra, close to the Karnataka border. The legends of Vithoba revolve around the
devotee Pundalik &ndash; who is credited with bringing the deity to Pandharpur &nd
ash; and around Vithoba's role as a savior to the saint-poets of the Varkari faith. The
Varkari saint-poets have written various Marathi devotional compositions called abha
ngas dedicated to Vithoba. Other devotional literature includes Kannada hymns by the
Haridasas and Marathi aratis. The most important festivals of Vithoba are Ashadhi Ek
adashi (Shayani Ekadashi) and Kartik Ekadashi (Prabodini Ekadashi).
Like the origins of his names, the historicity of Vithoba and his cult is contested. In th
e process of his final identification with Vishnu, Vithoba &ndash; at different stages
&ndash; was linked with a cattle-god, a hero stone, a Jain saint, Shiva and even Budd
ha. Though the origins of his cult and his main temple are unclear, there is clear evide
nce that they existed in the 13th century.
Etymology and other names
There are many conflicting theories about the origins of the names of the deity. Varka
ri etymology suggests that the word "Vitthala", also spelled as "Vitthal", "Viththal",
"Vittala" and "Vithal", is composed of two Sanskrit-Marathi words,
"Viṭ" meaning "brick" and "thal", which may have originated from the Sanskrit "sthal
a", meaning "standing". Thus "Vitthala" means "one standing on a brick". It could be
Kannada corruption of the word "Vishnu", which was adopted in Marathi, and the suf
fixes 'la' and 'ba' -meaning "father" in Marathi

Pundalik is an historical figure rather than a mythical one, the devotee Pundalik was i
nstrumental in coaxing the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana to build the Pandharpur tem
ple to Vishnu. The deity Vitthala was named by the builder king "Bittidev", the alias o
f Vishnuvardhana. Other variants of the name include "Viṭhurāyā"
("King Vitthala"), and "Viṭhāī"
("Mother Vitthala"). The people of Gujarat add the suffix "Nath"
("Lord") to Vitthala, which yields the name "Vitthal-nath), the other popular epithet fo
r Vithoba,
"Panduranga" or "Pandaranga", meaning "the white god" in Sanskrit, is an epithet for
the god Rudra-Shiva. It is an
epithet for the form of Shiva, worshipped in Pandharpur and whose temple still stands
.

Another theory suggests that Vithoba may initially be a Shaiva (related to the cult of t
he god Shiva) god and later identified with Vishnu, thus the name Panduranga of Vith
oba. Crooke suggests that Panduranga is a Sanskritised term of "Pandaraga" &ndash;
"belonging to Pandarga &ndash; the old name of Pandharpur." Another name "Pandh
arinath" relates to Vithoba being "the lord of Pandhari (a name of Pandharpur)". Vitho
ba is also addressed by universal Vaishnava names like "Hari" and "Narayana", which
255

are related to the cult of the god Vishnu

Page

255
 The Lord Vithal, or Panduranga Vittala, is an incarnation of Lord Vishnu and is worshipped
in the world famous Pandarpur Rukmini Vi- thal Temple at Pandarpur in Maharashtra. There
is an interesting story that explains about the incarnation of Lord Vithal at Pandarpur.

Origins and development

The hymn "Panduranga Stotra" by Adi Shankaracharya, if genuine, establishes that Vi
thoba worship existed as early as the ninth century AD, the period of its author.The i
mage of Vithoba was first worshipped as a pastoral god as early as the sixth century a
nd is similar to Bir Kuar, the cattle-god of the Ahirs of Bihar, who is now also associa
ted with Krishna.
Vithoba was later assimilated in the Shaiva pantheon and identified with the god Shiv
a like most other pastoral gods. The temple at Pandharpur is also
surrounded by Shaiva temples, most notably of the devotee Pundalik himself, and that
the headgear of Vithoba is a Linga, the symbol of Shiva. However in the 13th century,
the saints Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram recognized Vithoba as a form of Vishnu. It is
suggested that the worship originated at
Pandharpur before 1000 CE. Under the possible influence of a Krishna-worshiping M
ahanubhava sect, the town was transformed into a Vaishnava center of pilgrimage, tho
ugh there are still remnants of Shaiva worship in the town. Otherd suggest
that Vithoba worship is more ancient than the worship of Krishna, "Vedic or pre-
Vedic", about 6th century BCE. According to Dhere, Vithoba is an amalgam of variou
256

s local heroes, who gave their lives to save their cattle, and was worshiped first as a D
hangar (a shepherd, cowherd community) deity. Dhere thinks the rise of the Yadava d
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ynasty, which had cowherd ancestry, led to the glorification of Vithoba as Krishna, w
ho is often depicted as a cowherd. This also led to conversion of the Shaiva Pundarika

256
 shrine to the shrine of the devotee Pundalik, who brought Vithoba to Pandharpur. Vith
oba is also assimilated in Buddhism as a form of Buddha, who in turn in Hinduism is
viewed as a form of Vishnu.cite encyclopedia.( "Sri-
Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvay (Marathi)" by R.C. Dhere
volume = 5) Despite assimilation in Vaishnavism as Krishna-
Vishnu, Vithoba does not inherit the erotic overtones of Krishna such as his dalliance
with the milkmaids. Vithoba is associated more with "compassion, an infinite love an
d tenderness for his "bhaktas"
(devotees) that can be compared to the love of the mother for her children...pining for
the presence of his devotees the way a cow pines for her far-away calf.
G. A. Deleury proposes that the image of Vithoba is a "Viragal"
(hero stone), which was later identified with Vishnu in his form as Krishna, and that P
undalik transformed the Puranic, ritualistic puja worship into the bhakti-focused "inter
iorized adoration prescinding caste distinction and institutional priesthood...
[Deleury in Sand p. 38]

Tilak suggests that Vithoba emerged as "an alternative to existing panthenon" of Bra
hminical (related to classical, ritualistic Hinduism) deities. The emergence of Vithoba
was concurrent with rise of a "new type of lay devotee", the Varkari. While Vishnu an
d Shiva were bound in rigid ritualistic worship and Brahmin (priest class) control, Vit
hoba,
"the God of the subaltern, became increasingly human". Vithoba is often praised as th
e protector of the poor and needy.

Pandharpur temple
Scholars examine the history of Vithoba beginning with the dating of the chief temple
at Pandharpur, which is believed to be the earliest Vithoba temple. The oldest part of t
he temple dates to the Yadava period of the 12th and 13th centuries, but most of the te
mple is believed to have been built in the 17th century, and additions continue. The da
te of establishment of the temple is unclear there is clear evidence to suggest it existe
d in the 13th century.
A monument dated 1189 records establishment of a small Vithoba shrine at the presen
t location of the temple.
Another stone inscription in Pandharpur narrates a sacrifice at Pandurangapura due to
which "people and Vitthal (Vithoba) along with the gods were gratified".
Thus from the thirteenth century, the city is known as the city of Panduranga. Inside t
he temple, a stone inscription records gifts to the temple between 1272&ndash;77 AD
from various donors, notably minister Hemadri of Yadava king Ramachandra.

The two "murtis"

(images) of Vithoba must have existed at Pandharpur. The early one was a "tirtha-
murti", the image near a holy water body or tirtha, that faced west near the Pundalik s
257

hrine on the bed of the river Bhima. The other was a "kshetra-murti", the image at the
"kshetra" or holy place, where a temple faced east on the hill where the current temple
, built around 1189, stands. Thus, he proposes that the worship of Vithoba may predat
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e the temple itself. Deleury suggests that although the temple may have been built in t

257
 he 13th-century Hemadpanthi style of temple architecture, the statue of Vithoba is of
an earlier style and may have been carved when a smaller shrine existed in Pandharpu
r. The workmanship of the image is earlier than the style of the Anhivad Chalukyas.
Although no other existing Vishnu temple has iconography like Pandharpur's Vithoba,
Deleury finds similarities between the Pandharpur image and the third-century arms-
akimbo Vishnu images at Udaygiri Caves, but declares that they are from different sc
hools of sculpture.

Pundalik
The legendary figure of Pundalik is commonly perceived as an historical figure conne
cted with the establishment and propagation of the Vithoba-centric Varkari cult.
Pundalik to be the founder of the Varkari cult.
According to Bhandarkar, he was the one who promulgated the cult in Maratha countr
y.
Pundalik was an historical person, possibly a Jain or a Buddhist since Varkari traditio
n is a combination of Buddhist and Jain morals, and Vithoba is viewed as Vishnu in hi
s form as Buddha. Others think of
Pundalik, a Kannada saint, was not only the founder of the Varkari cult but also the fir
st great devotee or first high priest of the Pandharpur temple. Pundalik was instrument
al in coaxing the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana to build the Pandharpur temple to Vis
hnu, placing him in the early 12th century.
Otherd have questioned the historicity of Pundalik and dismissed him as a mythical fi
gure.

Identifications
Varkaris consider Vithoba to be the "swarup" or original Vishnu himself, not an avata
r of Vishnu like Krishna, Others think
Vithoba is not Krishna as there is a Krishna temple in Pandharpur that the Mahanubha
vas, who are worshippers of Krishna, visit while they do not visit the Vithoba temple.
In some traditions though, Vithoba is also worshipped as a form of Shiva. Dhangars st
ill consider Vithoba to be a brother of the god Viroba and view Vithoba as a Shaiva g
od rather than a Vaishnava one.

Vithoba's consort is worshipped by the community as "Padubai", a protector of the co

mmunity and cattle in particular. Underhill proposes that the shrine of Pandharpur is a
combined form of Vishnu-Shiva established by the "Bhagavata" sect that worships Vi
shnu-Shiva.Underhill p. 171] For the Badva brahmins, the chief priests of the Pandhar
pur temple,
"Viṭhobā is neither Viṣṇu (Vishnu) nor Śiva (Shiva). Viṭhobā is Viṭhobā".
B. R. Ambedkar, an Indian political leader and Buddhist convert, suggested that Vitho
ba was Buddha.
Vithoba's image replaces the traditional representation of Buddha, when depicted as t
258

he ninth avatar of Vishnu, in some temple sculptures and Hindu astrological almanacs
in Maharashtra. Lokhnade suggested that the saint-poets praised Vithoba as a form of
Buddha.
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258
 Iconography
All Vithoba images are generally modeled on his central image in Pandharpur. The Pa
ndharpur image is a black basalt sculpture that is convert|3|ft|9|in|m| tall. He is depicte
d as a dark, often black young boy with a high, conical headgear or crown interpreted
as Shiva's symbol &ndash; a Linga. Thus, according to Zelliot, Vithoba represents Vis
hnu as well as Shiva.
[ Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi, p. 35&ndash;36] The first Varkari saint-poet, Dnyane
shwar, states that Vithoba (Vishnu) has lifted Shiva, who according to Vaishnavism is
Vishnu's first and foremost devotee, on his own head. [Ranade p.41]
Vithoba is shown standing arms-akimbo on the brick thrown by the devotee Pundalik.
He wears a tulsi-bead necklace with Kaustubha gem embedded in it and "Makara-
kundala" (fish-shaped earrings) that saint-
poet Tukaram relates to the iconography of Vishnu. Vithoba holds a conch in his left
hand and a discus or a lotus in his right, all of which are traditional attributes of Vishn
u. Other images depict the right hand making a gesture that has been traditionally mis
understood as a blessing; no blessing-gesture is present in the central image. The Pand
harpur image is either "digambhar"
(naked), or its loin cloth is present around the waist with a fold of the robe extending t
o the feet, through which the shape of genitals is visible. Other images and pictures de
pict him clothed usually with "Pitambhara", a yellow ") and "Yama" on the feet.
Consorts
Vithoba is usually depicted with his main consort, Rukmini, on his left side. Rukmini
is generally referred as "Rakhumai" or "Rakhamai"(literally "mother Rukmini"). Ruk
mini is traditionally viewed as the wife of Krishna and a form of the goddess Lakshmi
. Hindus generally consider Krishna as a form of Vishnu and his consort as a form of
Lakshmi. Rakhumai is depicted in the arms-akimbo posture, standing on a brick. She
has an independent cella in the Pandharpur temple complex. According to Ghurye, Ru
kmini &ndash; a princess of the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra kingdom &ndash; w
as elevated to main consort instead of Radha because of her affiliation with the region
. Apart from Rakhumai, two other consorts Satyabhama and Rahi, derived from Radh
a, are worshiped too. All three consorts are regarded as Krishna's in Hindu mythology
. [citebook|url=http://books.google.com/books?
id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA367&dq=vithoba&as_brr=3&sig=qIV4f_iUr8b6zG3ny
G8oXqTYrOQ#PPA367,M1 |title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary|
author= Pillai, S. Devadas|pages=pp. 366&ndash;67|year = 1997|isbn = 8171548
075|publisher = Popular Prakashan|accessdate=2008-09-20]
Worship
The main temple of Vithoba and his consort Rakhumai (Rukmini) is located at Pandh
arpur (coord|17.67|N|75.33|E|) in Maharashtra, on the border of that state with Karnat
aka. Pandharpur is affectionately called "Bhu-Vaikuntha"
(the place of residence of Vishnu on earth) by devotees.
[Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole p.xxxv] Vithoba is a popular deity in Maharas
259

htra and Karnataka; devotees exist in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu to a lesser exte
nt. Vithoba "is worshipped and revered by most Marathi people but he is not the famil
y deity of many people". [Karve in Singh: p. LIX]
Page

259
 Two distinct traditions revolve around the worship of Vithoba in Maharashtra: the ritu
al worship of the god by Badva brahmin priests in his temple and the spiritual worship
by the Varkaris. [ Engblom, Philip C. in Mokashi, pp. 7–
10, 15] The ritual worship of Vithoba by the Badva brahmins in the main temple of P
andharpur includes five daily rites. The rituals start with the "kākaḍāratī", an "arati" to
awaken the god at about 3 am. Next comes the "pañcāmṛtapūjā", a "puja" that include
s a bath with five sweet substances called Panchamrita. After dressing the image come
s "madhyāhṇapūjā", a "puja" for re-dressing and lunch at noon. Fourth is "aparāhṇapū
jā", a "puja" for dinner at sunset, and last comes "śerāratī", an "arati" for putting the g
od to sleep.
[Shima p.188] Apart from these traditions, the Haridasa tradition dedicated to Vitthala
flourished in Karnataka.
Varkari sect
"Varkari Panth" ("The Pilgrims' Path") or "Varkari sampradaya"
("The Pilgrims' tradition") is one of the most important Vaishnava sects in India.
[Flood (1996) p. 135] It is a monotheistic bhakti sect, focused on the worship of Vith
oba and based on traditional "Bhagavata dharma". The sect, according to Vaudeville, i
s "Shaiva-Vaishnava synthesis" and "nominal Vaishnavism, containing a free mix of o
ther religions".
[Novetzke p. 116] The sect is believed to have originated in Karnataka and migrated t
o Maharashtra. This theory is based on Vitthala (Vithoba) being called "Kannada"
&ndash; belonging to Karnataka &ndash; by saint-poet Dnyaneshwar, citeencycloped
ia| url=http://books.google.com/books?
id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA966&dq=Vitthala&as_brr=3&sig=hivGSC1cTGWYEdIp
J-YadsBbbb4#PPA966,M1| title=Encyclopaedia of Indian literature|volume=1|
pages=pp. 966–8|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|year = 1987|isbn = 8126018038|
accessdate=2008-09-20] although the word is also interpreted as "difficult to understa
nd". [citebook| url=http://books.google.com/books?
id=jt4fJpkFEBsC&pg=PA17&dq=Vitthala&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=n8dymAaqo_1C0Z
hICK07o6kghao#PPA17,M1|title=Songs on Yoga: Texts and Teachings of the Mah
ārāṣṭrian Nāths|author= Kiehnle, Catharina|pages=p. 17| isbn = 3515069224| pub
lisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|year=1997| accessdate=2008-09-20] Varkaris and scho
lars who believe Pundalik to be an historical figure consider Pundalik the founder of t
he cult of Vithoba. This is evidenced by the glory cry "Pundalikavarada Hari Vitthala"
, which means "O Hari (Vishnu) Vitthala (Vithoba), who has given a boon to Pundali
k". According to Zelliot, the sect was founded by Dnyaneshwar, spelled also as "Jnan
eshwar", a Brahmin poet and philosopher of about 1275&ndash;1296.
[Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi, p. 38] Varkaris also give him credit with the saying "D
nyanadev rachila paya", which means "Dnyaneshwar laid the foundation".
Namdev, (c. 1270&ndash;1350) a shudra tailor, also wrote "abhangas"
(literally "unbroken", short Marathi devotional poems) in praise of Vithoba and used
Kirtana to sing the glory of his Lord. This led to the spread of the Vithoba faith, whic
260

h accepted women, shudras and outcaste "untouchables", something forbidden in class

ical Brahminical Hinduism. In the times of Muslim rulers, the faith faced stagnation.
After the decline of the Vijayanagara empire, when wars erupted in the Deccan region
Page

, the Muslim rulers had to accept the faiths of Maharashtra in order to gather the supp

260
 ort of its people. In this period, Eknath (c. 1533&ndash;99) revived the Varkari traditi
on. With the foundation of Maratha empire under Shivaji, the Vithoba-centric traditio
n was further propagated by Tukaram (c. 1568&ndash;1650, a shudra grocer) through
out the Maharashtra region. [Shima pp. 184&ndash;86]
All these saint-poets and others like Janabai, the maidservant of Namdev, wrote Marat
hi devotional poetry ("abhangas") dedicated to Vithoba. This poetry advocates pure de
votion to Vithoba and refers mostly to Vithoba as a father or in the case of female-
saint Janabai's poetry as a woman or mother ("Vithabai").
[Flood (1996) pp. 142&ndash;44] A wide variety of people from different castes and
backgrounds wrote "abhangas" in praise of Vithoba: Visoba Khechara, who was an or
thodox Shaiva (worshipper of Shiva) and teacher of Namdev; Sena the barber; Narhar
i the goldsmith; Savata the gardener; Gora the potter; Kanhopatra the dancing girl; Ch
okhamela the "untouchable" Mahar, and even the Muslim Sheikh Muhammad (1560&
ndash;1650).
[Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi, p. 40] Anyone born Shaiva or Vaishnava who consider
s Vithoba his "maya-baap" (mother-father) and Pandharpur his "maher"
(maternal house of a bride) is accepted as a Varkari by the sect irrespective of the barr
iers of caste. Varkaris often practice the japa (meditative repetition of a deity's name)
of Vithoba's name and observe a fast on all Ekadashis (11th lunar days).
[Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole p. xxxvii]
Haridasa sect
According to Haridasa tradition, the Vaishnava "Haridasa"
("servants of Vishnu") or "Haridasa-kuta" movement centered on Vitthala (Vithoba)
was founded by "Achalananda Vitthala" (c. 888).citebook|accessdate=2008-09-20|
url=http://books.google.co.in/books?
id=qSfneQ0YYY8C&pg=PA257&dq=Haridasa+Pandharpur&as_brr=3&client=firefo
x-a&sig=ACfU3U3MnskV7uPEmLDDo3vrpdKy7-abaA#PPA252,M1 |title=The Bla
ckwell Companion to Hinduism|author= Flood, Gavin D.|pages= pp. 252&ndash;53|
publisher = Blackwell Publishing|isbn = 0631215352, 9780631215356|year = 2003|
accessdate=2008-09-20] According to Sharma, the Vithoba-centric devotion moveme
nt first emerged with the Haridasa tradition in Karnataka and later moved to Maharash
tra. He relates this to Vitthala being called "Kannada" by Dnyaneshwar. [citebook|
url=http://books.google.co.in/books?
id=FVtpFMPMulcC&pg=PA514&dq=Haridasa+Vithala&as_brr=3&client=firefox-
a&sig=ACfU3U0pRTV10TZUe5oP-rIGYu0vfAMhkA#PPA514,M1|title=History of th
e Dvaita School of Vedanta and Its Literature|author= Sharma, B.N.K.|pages= pp.
514&ndash;16|publisher = Blackwell Publishing|isbn = 8120815750, 97881208157
59|year = 2000|accessdate=2008-09-20] Lutgendorf credits the movement to Vyasat
irtha (1478&ndash;1539), the royal preceptor of Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya.
Vitthala enjoyed royal patronage in his era. Krishnadevaraya is credited with building
Vitthala's temple at Hampi (Vijayanagara).
[citebook|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?
261

id=Ue7eHAUOgrIC&pg=PA72&dq=Haridasa+Vithala&as_brr=3&client=firefox-
a&sig=ACfU3U1grXDFquVGWDwyGlOqjHYUVweHLQ#PPA72,M1|
title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey|author= Lutgendorf, Phil
Page

261
 ip|pages= pp. 69, 70, 72|publisher = Oxford University Press US|isbn = 01953092
19, 9780195309218|year = 2007|accessdate=2008-09-20]
Haridasas consider the temple of Pandharpur sacred as well that of Hampi and worshi
p Vitthala along with forms of Krishna. [cite web |
url= http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/overview/hist.html|title= History of the Harida
sas|accessdate=2008-09-15|date= October 30, 1997, last updated on December 12,
2000|work= website http://www.dvaita.org/|publisher = Madhusudana Rao CR] Har
idasa literature generally dealt with praise dedicated to Vitthala and Krishna.
[cite web |url= http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/overview/hdlit.html|title= Haridasa
Literature|accessdate=2008-09-15|date= October 30, 1997, last updated on Decem
ber 12, 2000|work= website http://www.dvaita.org/|publisher = Madhusudana Rao
CR] Haridasa poets like Vijaya Vitthala, Gopala Vitthala, Jagannatha Vitthala, Venug
opala Vitthala and Mohana Vitthala assumed pen-names ending with "Vitthala" as an
act of devotion. [cite web |url= http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/overview/ankit.html|
title= Ankitha|accessdate=2008-09-15|date= October 30, 1997, last updated on De
cember 12, 2000|work= website http://www.dvaita.org/|publisher = Madhusudana
Rao CR] [cite web |url= http://www.dvaita.org/haridasa/general/das_map.html|
title= Haridasa Lineage|accessdate=2008-09-15|date= October 30, 1997, last upda
ted on December 12, 2000|work= website http://www.dvaita.org/|publisher = Madh
usudana Rao CR] The Haridasa poet Purandara Dasa or Purandara Vitthala (1484&n
dash;1564), "Father of Carnatic Music",cite book |last= Iyer|first= Panchapakesa A.S.|
title= Karnataka Sangeeta Sastra|origyear=2006|year=2006|publisher= Zion Printers|
location= Chennai|isbn= p. 93] often ended his Kannada compositions with a salutatio
n to Vitthala. [ citebook|url=http://books.google.com/books?
id=jt4fJpkFEBsC&pg=PA39&dq=Vitthala&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=n8dymAaqo_1C0Z
hICK07o6kghao#PPA17,M1|title=Songs on Yoga: Texts and Teachings of the Mah
ārāṣṭrian Nāths|author= Kiehnle, Catharina|pages=p. 39|isbn = 3515069224|
publisher = Franz Steiner Verlag| year=1997|accessdate=2008-09-20]
Festivals
The festivals associated with Vithoba correspond primarily to the bi-annual pilgrimag
es of the Varkaris to Pandharpur. The Varkari pilgrims travel from Alandi and Dehu, t
owns closely associated with saint-poets Dnayaneshwar and Tukaram respectively, to
Pandharpur. Along the way, they sing "abhanga"s (devotional songs) dedicated to Vit
hoba and repeat his name, carrying the palkhis (palanquin) of the saint-poets. Varkaris
do not engage in ritual worship but only take darshan of the deity. The ritual worship
by the priests is curtailed five days each around Ashadha (June &ndash; July) and Kar
tik (October &ndash; November) Ekadashis, the 11th day of the Hindu month, when t
he large number of Varkaris perform their yatra (annual pilgrimage) to Pandharpur. T
he Varkaris visit the temple on two more Ekadashis in the Hindu months of Magha an
d Chaitra too, but in smaller numbers.
[ Engblom, Philip C. in Mokashi, pp. 7&ndash;10, 15] Up to six hundred thousand
Varkaris travel to Pandharpur for an annual pilgrimage on Shayani Ekadashi, the 11th
262

of bright fortnight [Each of the 12 Hindu months such as Ashadha, Chaitra, Magha
, and Kartik etc. is divided into two fortnights of 15 days each. During the bright f
ortnight ("Shukla-paksha"), from day 1 to day 15 or full moon day, the moon waxe
Page

s, and during the dark fortnight ("Krishna-paksha") it wanes til new moon day.] in

262
 the Hindu month of Ashadha.
[Engblom, Philip C. in Mokashi, p. 2] Both Shayani Ekadashi and Prabodini Ekadas
hi, the 11th of bright fortnight in Kartik, are associated with the mythology of Vishnu.
Hindus believe that Vishnu falls asleep in Ksheersagar &ndash; a cosmic ocean of mil
k &ndash; on Shesha-nāga, the cosmic serpent, on Shayani Ekadashi (literally "sleepi
ng eleventh") and finally awakens from his slumber four months later on Prabodhini E
kadashi. The celebrations in Ashadha and Kartik continue until the full-moon in those
months, concluding with torchlight processions. [Shima p. 188] Inscriptions dating to
the 11th century mention the Ekadashi pilgrimages to Pandharpur. On Shayani Ekadas
hi and Prabodini Ekadashi, the chief minister or a minister of Maharashtra state perfor
ms the worship on behalf of the Government of Maharashtra ("sakari-mahapuja").
Apart from the four Ekadashis, a fair is held on Dussera night at Pandharpur, when de
votees dance on a large slab ("Ranga-shila") before Vithoba, accompanied with torchl
ight processions. Other observances at the Pandharpur temple include Ranga-
panchami, when gulal (red powder) is sprinkled on the god's feet and Krishna Janmas
htami, Krishna's birthday, when devotees dance and sing in front of Vithoba for nine
days.
[Shima p. 189] Other sacred days include Wednesdays, Saturdays and all other Ekada
shis, all of which are considered holy in Vaishnavism.
Devotional works
The texts of the Varkari sect are "Bhaktalilamrita" and "Bhaktavijaya" of Mahipati,
"Pundalika-mahatmya" by Bahinabai and a long abhanga by Namdev, all of which de
scribe the legend of Pudalik. Sanskrit texts from the Brahmin tradition include two ver
sions of "Panduranga-Mahatmya" from Skanda Purana, consisting of 900 verses;
"Panduranga-mahatmya" from Padma Purana, consisting of 1,200 verses, and a chapt
er, "Bhima-mahatmya", from Padma Purana. [Sand p. 33]
[For the complete English translation of "Bhaktavijaya", which narrates the legend
of Pundalik and also tells stories of reported interactions between the saints and V
ithoba, see "Stories of Indian Saints" by Mahīpati, Justin Edwards Abbott, and Nar
har R. Godbole.] According to Dhere, a third "Panduranga-mahatmya" is found in Vi
shnu Purana. [Sand p. 56] The Marathi "Panduranga-
mahatmya" by the Brahmin Sridhara and another work by the same name written by P
rahlada Maharaj in Marathi and consisting of 181 ovis (verses) originate from what R
aeside calls a "third tradition" between Varkari and Brahmin traditions. [Sand p. 34]
Apart from these and "abhangas", short Marathi devotional poems of the Varkaris, ma
ny "stutis" (praises) and "stotras"
(hymns) are dedicated to Vithoba, some of them from the Haridasa tradition. The best
known of these is "Pandurangastaka" or "Pandurangastrotra", attributed to Adi Shanka
racharya, although this attribution is questioned. [Sand p. 56] The text "Tirthavali-
gatha", attributed to Namdev or Dnyaneshwar but possibly a collection of writings of
saint-poets, is a text centered on the propagation of Varkari faith and worship of Vitho
ba. [Novetzke p. 120] Other devotional works include aratis like "Yuge atthavisa vitev
263

ari ubha" by Namdev and "Yei O Vitthala maje mauli re". These aratis sing of Vithob
a, who wears yellow garments and is served by Garuda (mount of Vishnu) and Hanu
man (the monkey god, devotee of Rama &ndash; an avatar of Vishnu).
Page

Temples

263
 Many temples of Vithoba are in Maharashtra;
[Singh p. 13] and some are in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. The Vitho
ba temple, Pandharpur in Maharashtra is the main centre of worship of Vithoba. The t
emple's date of establishment is disputed, though it is clear that the temple was standi
ng at the time of Dnyaneshwar in the 13th century. Along with Vithoba and his conso
rts, Rukmini, Satyabhama and Radha, other Vaishnava deities are worshipped. These i
nclude Venkateshwara, a form of Vishnu; Mahalakshmi, a form of Vishnu's consort L
akshmi; Garuda, mount of Vishnu, and Hanuman, the monkey god, as well as Shaiva
deities such as Ganesha, the elephant-headed god of wisdom and beginnings; Khando
ba, a form of Shiva, and Annapurna, a form of Shiva's consort Parvati. The samadhis (
memorials) of saints like Namdev, Chokhamela, and Janabai and of devotees such as
Pundalik and Kanhopatra are in and around the temple.
[Shima pp. 189&ndash;96.] Other significant temples in Maharashtra are at Dehu, the
birthplace of Tukaram, which attracts visitors at all ekadashis of the year; Kole (Satar
a district), in memory of Ghadge Bova, which has a fair on the fifth day of the bright f
ortnight in Magha month; Kolhapur and Rajapur, which host fairs on Shayani Ekadas
hi and Prabodini Ekadashi,Underhill pp. 165&ndash;66, p. 172]
Legend
There are several versions of the Vithoba legend in
Skanda Purana. First version (verses 1.34&ndash;67), ascetic Pundarika (Pundalik), is descr
ibed as a devotee of Vishnu as well of his parents. Grazing his cows, the god Gopala-
Krishna comes from Govardhana to meet Pundarika. Krishna is described as in "digambara"
(naked) form, wearing "Makara-kundala" (fish-
shaped earrings), a Srivasta mark, and a head-dress of peacock feathers, resting his hands on
his hips and keeping his cow-stick between his thighs. Pundarika asks Krishna for a boon to
stay in that form at the place where the river Bhima flows, making it both a tirtha (holy plac
e near a water body) and a kshetra (holy place where a temple is situated).
This place is identified with modern-day Pandharpur, where the river Bhima flows, and the
description of Krishna resembles the characteristics of the Pandharpur.The second version
of the legend is-

 Once upon a time there was a devotee named Pundalik, who was travelling to
Kashi and on the way he reached the ashram of a Saint named Kukkut.
 Pundalik asked the saint the way to Kashi, to which he replied that he wasn't aware
of the way as he had never been there.
 Hearing this Pundalik made fun of the Kukkut Rishi for not knowing the way, and
further said “ a holy man like you should have already visited Kashi”. The Rishi
kept quiet and din't react to Pundalik’s comments.
o That Night Pundalik stayed at the ashram. And suddenly he woke from his
deep sleep hearing to women’s voice. He saw that 3 women were sprinkling
water in the ashram and cleaning.
264

o On enquiry, Pundalik found that the 3 women were Ganga, Yamuna and
Saraswati, the three Holy rivers came down to clean the ashram of Rishi
Kukkut.
Page

o Pundalik was bit surprised how a saint like Kukkut who had not visited Kashi,
was such holy and powerful that the 3 holy Rivers have come to His ashram !

264
 o The three women told to Pundalik that piousness, spirituality and devotion
doesn't depend on visiting holy places or doing costly rituals. But depends on
performing one's Karma correctly (fulfilling all the duties and
responsibilities).
o They further added that Sage Kukkut, had served and nursed his parents most
faithfully and devoted all his life to them. Thus he had accumulated virtue
enough to earn Moksha, and thereby the 3 holy women came down to Earth to
serve the Rishi.
 On the contrast, Pundalik has left his old parents at home and was visiting Kashi to
gain Moksha and blessing.
o Pundalik didn't bother to entertain the request of his parents to take them along
with him to Kashi.
 Pundalik after hearing all this understood his mistake and rushed back home, and
took his parents to Kashi and after return from the holy Kashi, started to take
utmost care of his old parents.
o Lord Krishna was moved by the sincere devotion of Pundalik towards his
parents and decided to test Pundalik.
o Lord Krishna came to Pundalik’s home, but Krishna saw that Pundalik was
busy attending his parents.
o Pundalik saw Lord Krishna at the door, but his devotion towards his parents
was so intense, that he wanted to finish his duties first and later attend to his
guest.
 Pundalik has reached such a stage that it didn't matter to him, whether the guest
was a mere mortal or God. All that mattered was service to His parents.
 Pundalik gave Lord Krishna a brick to stand on , and asked Him to wait until his
duty was completed. And Lord Krishna moved by the devotion of Pundalik to his
parents, waited for him patiently.

Later, Pundalik came out and asked Krishna for forgiveness for making Him wait.
Krishna asked for any desired boon, for which Pundalik said “ My lord , what can I ask for ?
My lord himself waits for me”? Krishna insisted that Pundalik ask for a boon, then he asked
Krishna to remain on Earth to bless and take care of His devotees.Lord Krishna agreed to stay
there and is known as Vithoba or the Lord who stands on a brick. This form of the Lord
Vithoba is Swayambhu (which came into existence on its own.

In Maharashtra Karnataka , Vishnu is called vitthal the one who is standing on vith(red
rectangle stone ) , he is also called panduranga because when he came from dwaraka to
pandharpur though he was black the White sands were all over his face , so he was called
pandra-ranga (panduranga). He is narayana himself came to pandharpur in search of rukmini
Devi as rukmini Devi got angry on Krishna and left dwaraka .
She had a motive in leaving dwaraka because everything is Vishnu and lakshmi Devi's
Leela , they wanted to see his one of his beloved bhakta Pundalik and their parents , when
Krishna reached pundaliks house , Pundalik was busy serving his parents , he knew that
265

sarveshwara jagatpita was standing outside but he thought serving his parents was greater
than attending God , this nature of Pundalik gave paramanandam to Krishna so he stood there
waiting with his two hands on his hips .
Page

The two hands on his hips denotes two things.

265
 1. Once panduranga was thinking what I should give to my devotees , something
valuable , after searching throughout the universe , he thought is there anything
greater than me , so he is lifting himself with his two hands and giving himself to
his devotees.
2. He is always waiting for devotees like Pundalik to come to him because he wants
us to be with him always and he is asking with two hands on his hips “ how much
time should I wait for you my dear pundalik “
Then it follows with many devotees , sant namdev , sant eknath , sant nyaneshwar , sant
tukaram , sant purandara dasa vitthal , sant sakhubai , sant muktabai and many more.

The “Vi” in Lord Vithoba’s name denotes knowledge and “Thoba” denotes shape. He is the
shape of knowledge or the idol of knowledge. Another interpretation is that the word
“Vitthala” is said to be derived from the Marathi word “Vit”, meaning brick. The reason
behind the brick will be explained later in this article. “Ba” is used to denote “father” in
Marathi.
Lord Vithal/ Vitthal/ Vithoba is none other than Lord Vishnu, Lord Narayana or Lord
Krishna. It is believed that Lord Krishna had incarnated at the end of Dwarpa Yuga on the
eighth day of the dark fortnight in the holy month of Shravan (As per the Hindu calendar). He
is lovingly called names like Pandrinath, Panduranga, Pandhairiraya, Vithai, Vithoba, Vithu-
mauli, Vitthalgururao by his devotees. But the well-known and commonly used names are
Pandurang / Panduranga and Shri Vitthal / Vithal. The word Vitthala is said to be derived
from the Kannada (a language spoken in the southern parts of India ) word for Lord Vishnu.
The worship of Lord Vitthala has been derived mainly from the Puranas. His worship has
been made well-known by the teachings, poems, kirtans, and pads of great Vaishnava saints
of Maharashtra from the 13th through the 17th centuries. They were saints like Sant
Namdeo /Namdev, Sant Jnaneshwar, Sant Eknath and Sant Tukaram. Pundalik, a saint was
closely associated with this shrine, and hence this shrine is also known as Pundarika Pura.

SECOND VERSION OF THE 2 nd VERSION

STORY OF PANDURANGA VITTALA ::--
***************************************************
It is said that the devotee Pundalik founded Pandharpur. His father Janudeva and mother
Satyavati lived in a thick forest called Dandirvan.

Pundalik was a devoted son but soon after his marriage he began to ill-treat his parents. To
escape from this misery, the parents decided to go on a pilgrimage to Kashi. When Pundalik's
wife learnt about this, she also decided to go. She and her husband joined the same group of
pilgrims on horseback. While the son and his wife rode on horseback, the old couple walked.
Every evening when the party camped for the night, the son forced his parents to groom the
horses and do other jobs. The poor parents cursed the day they decided to go on a
pilgrimage.Soon the party reached the ashrama of the great sage Kukkutswami. There they
decided to spend a couple of nights. They were all tired and soon fell asleep-except Pundalik
who could not sleep. Just before daybreak he saw a group of beautiful, young women,
dressed in dirty clothes, enter the ashrama, clean the floor, fetch water and wash the swami's
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clothes. Then they entered the inner room of the ashrama, and came out in beautifully clean
clothes and passing near Pundalik, they vanished.
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Next night he saw the same sight again. Pundalik threw himself at their feet and begged them
to tell who they were. They said they were Ganga, Yamuna and other holy rivers of India in

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 which the Pilgrims bathed and washed off sins. Their clothes became dirty by the sins of the
bathing pilgrims."And because of your ill-treatment of your parents," they said, "You are the
greatest sinner."This brought about a complete change in him and he became the most
devoted son. Now the parents' rode the horses while the son and his wife walked by their
side. By their love and affection, the son and his wife urged the parents to give up the
pilgrimage and return to Dandirvan.

One day it so happened that Lord Krishna, the King of Dwarka, while feeling lonely, was
reminded of his early days in Mathura. He particularly remembered his sports with the
milkmaids, the cowherd boys, and his love, Radha. Though she was dead, he longed to see
her again. By his divine powers he brought her back to life and seated her by his side. Just
then his queen, Rukmini, entered the room. When Radha did not rise to pay her respect,
Rukmini left Dwarka in anger and hid herself in Dandirvan forest. After some days, Lord
Krishna set off in search of Rukmini. He first went to Mathura, then to Gokul. He met the
milkmaids and cowherd boys. They too joined in the search. They went to Mount Govardhan
in her search.At last they reached the banks of the river Bhima in the Deccan. Krishna left his
companions at Goplapura, and he himself entered Dandirvan forest alone in search of her. At
last he found her and managed to calm her. Krishna and Rukmini came to Pundalik's
ashrama.

But at that time Pundalik was busy attending to his parents. Though he knew Lord Krishna
had come to see him, he refused to pay his respect to the god before his duty towards his
parents was done. He, however, threw a brick outside for lord Krishna to stand upon.
Impressed by Pundalik's devotion to his parents, Lord Krishna did not mind the delay.
Standing on the brick he waited for Pundalik. When Pundalik came out and begged God's
pardon, Lord Krishna replied that far from being displeased, he was pleased with his love for
his parents. Lord Krishna then ordered him to worship Vithoba, or God who stood upon a
brick.

An imposing temple was built at the place where Krishna and Pundalik had met. Inside the
temple stands Krishna's image on a brick. By his side stands the image of Rukmini.This
temple covering a vast area has a total of six gates.

The eastern entrance to this temple is known as the Namdev gate (after the great 13th century
Vaishnava saint). The sanctum enshrines the standing image of Vithoba also known as
Panduranga, Pandhari or Vitthala. Stylistically the image dates back to the 5th century. There
are inscriptions in this temple dating back to the 13th century which place origin of this
shrine to the 6th century.
************************************************************************

PANDHARPUR Pandharpur is a holy place of Shri.Vitthal and Shri.Rukmini. It is also

known as the Southern Kashi of India and Kuldaivat of Maharashtra State. It is located at a
distance of 72 kms by road. from Solapur District headquarters. The Pandharpur Railway
Station falls on the Miraj-Kurduwadi-Latur railway track
.
Shri. Lord Vitthal is the Supreme God of the Universe with incarnation of Lord Shiva and
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Lord Vishnu. Lord Vitthal is also known by the names Shri.Panduranga and Vithoba, Great
Saints like Shri. Sant Dnyaneshwar, Shri. Sant Tukaram, Shri Sant Namdev, Shri. Sant
Purandardas and others sung Abhangas in praise of Lord Vitthala.
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'Padsparsha Darshan' is the unique feature of Vithoba Temple. Irrespective of the caste and
creed every devotee can enter the Sanctum Sanctorium and can place his/her head on the feet

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 of Lord Vitthala. This tradition is followed nowhere in India. The Bhagawat Dharma is being
followed with full spirit in Pandharpur.

Honestly speaking , we all heard many Mysterious mythological stories , and we believed
them in childhood because it was told by our parents with faith behind it..same is happening
from ages and getting passed to next generation with alteration in narrative…I personally feel
its all mythological Stories… it might be real that person named Pundalik existed he had
extreme level of devotion that might lead him to see God (this could be mental
perception ) ..and people around him created it as gossip.. gossip become story…story beame
legend…legend got written form…this created strong belief…belief

Why is Lord Vitthala addressed as Mauli?

Mauli is a marathi word which means “Mother “

Vithoba was first worshiped as a pastoral god as early as the 6th century and is associated
mainly with Vishnu, Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu), Shiva, and sometimes Buddha who is the
ninth incarnation of Vishnu. Vithoba wears a cone shaped crown, which is widely interpreted
is the Shiva Linga symbol. Vitthala is depicted as a young black/dark boy standing on a brick
with arms in the “akimbo” position adorned with: a necklace made of tulsi beads(The tulsi
plant is dear to Krishna), fish shaped earrings, holding a conch (shankha) with his left hand,
and a lotus flower (chakra) with his right hand.

Vithoba is also known as Vitthala, Panduranga, Pandharinath, Hari and Narayan. The
derivation of the name “Vitthala” is a composite of “vittha” which means ignorance and
“la” which means accepts and together means a person who accepts innocent people who
are not very knowledgeable. The other theory is that that “Vitthu” is a derivation of Vishnu
and “la” meaning father. The alternative theory is that the name is composed of two Sanskrit
words for brick “vit” and standing “thal” and hence “one standing on brick. The brick
iconography represents the simple village life and Vithoba is often praised as the protector of
the poor.

Varkaris, devotees of Vitthala trek to see their very own vithai mauli (Mother Vithoba),
putting up cheerfully with all the difficulties and inconveniences of a long journey. The
Varkaris fondly address Vitthala as Vithoba Mauli (Mother Vithoba).

Kanhopatra was a 15th-century Marathi saint-poet, venerated by the Varkari sect of

Hinduism. She was a daughter of a rich prostitute and courtesan named Shama or Shyama,
who lived in the town of Mangalvedhe, near Pandharpur, the site of Vithoba's chief temple.
Most accounts declare that Kanhopatra was forced into the courtesan's life, though she
detested it, while some say that Kanhopatra firmly declined to become a courtesan. Some
authors believe that she may have also worked as a prostitute.

In some legends, Hausa—described as a Varkari—is credited for Kanhopatra's journey to

devotion. Other accounts credit the Varkari pilgrims who passed Kanhopatra's house on their
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way to the temple of Vithoba in Pandharpur. According to one story, for example, she asked
a passing Varkari about Vithoba. The Varkari said that Vithoba is "generous, wise, beautiful
and perfect", his glory is beyond description and his beauty surpasses that of Lakshmi, the
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goddess of beauty. Kanhopatra further asked if Vithoba would accept her as a devotee. The
Varkari assured her that Vithoba would accept her as he accepted the maid Kubja, the sinful

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 king Ajamila and the so-called "untouchable" saint Chokhamela. This assurance strengthened
her resolve to go to Pandharpur. In versions of the legend where Sadashiva does not appear,
Kanhopatra immediately leaves for Pandharpur—singing the praises of Vithoba—with the
Varkari pilgrims or coaxes her mother to accompany her to Pandharpur. When Kanhopatra
first saw the Vithoba image of Pandharpur, she sang in an abhanga that her spiritual merit
was fulfilled and she was blessed to have seen Vithoba's feet. She had found the unparalleled
beauty she sought in her groom in Vithoba. She "wedded" herself to the god and settled in
Pandharpur. She withdrew from society. Kanhopatra moved into a hut in Pandharpur with
Hausa and lived an ascetic's life. She sang and danced at the Vithoba temple, and cleaned it
twice a day. She gained the respect of the people, who believed her to be a poor farmer's
daughter maddened by the love of Vithoba. In this period, Kanhopatra composed ovi poems
dedicated to Vithoba.

One of the meanings of the word “Mauli" is Wearer or Adorned.

Lord Shiva is called as “Chandra Mauli" as he wears the crescent moon (Chandra) over his
head.

Similarly Lord Krishna is called as “Sikhi Pincha Mauli" as he wears peacock feathers on his
head (Sikhi means the knot of hair on top of head and Pincha means peacock feathers)

Why are Lord Vitthal and Goddess Rukmini separated from each other in the temple of
Pandharpur?

We should understand the complete Story of Lord Vithal at Pandarpur or Story of

Panduranga Vittala .
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 The Lord Vithal, or Panduranga Vittala, is an incarnation of Lord Vishnu and is worshipped
in the world famous Pandarpur Rukmini Vi- thal Temple at Pandarpur in Maharashtra. There
is an interesting story that explains about the incarnation of Lord Vithal at Pandarpur.

Once a devotee named Pundalik was traveling to Kashi and reached the Ashram of Saint
Kukkut. He asked the sage the way to Kashi. ...

It is a regular feature in most South Indian temples to have separate enclosures for the divine
couples. You will find it in almost all temples, be it Shiva or Vishnu, to be enshrined in
different enclosures in the South. Pandharapur used to be a part of the “South” untill the great
Marathi devotees of Lord Vitthala and Goddess Rukmini were born.

Why didn't Lord Krishna marry Sri Radha?

There has been a lot of confusion and misinterpretation regarding this topic .I have been
seeing this question almost everywhere on the internet and most of the articles don't show the
truth. At the same time, there are a few articles that reveals the truth. Before even people start
asking this kind of irreverent question, they need to understand the fact that-Radha and
Krishna are divine beings, they are not just humans like us, hence their story won't be
similar to human’s interpretation of love and marriage. But having said that, Radhe has
always been married to Krishna and only to Krishna-whether, it's in the spiritual realm
or in the material world. Radhe and Krishna are one. If Krishna is the body, then
Radhe is the soul. Yes, Radhe and Krishna might not have married in front of the society,
which is again due to the curse (in fact their marriage was conducted by Lord Brahma, which
is more significant and auspicious. According to Hindu mythology, Radha and Krishna live
in Goloka and it’s only due to a curse that she is separated from Krishna for a period of 100
years. But, as these are divine entities, no curse can separate them! There is no existence for
Krishna without Radha. And most importantly-Lord will never let anything separate them nor
Radha Devi (Laksmi devi) can marry anybody else.(Gods won't marry humans)-just like
Shiva and Shakti ! Read the article below:-

The Marital Status of Sri Radhaji – Whose Spouse Was RadhaRani ?

The question whether Sri Radha was unmarried or married, if so with whom? Has been
baffling many scholars, devotees for many centuries. Ashutosh Gowariker, famous film
director has inserted a dialogue in his film “Lagaan” where hero Aamir Khan says “Radha
was married to Anay (Ayan, Rayan)”. To set this controversy at rest, I would suggest
devotees and virtuous readers of ‘Speaking Tree’ to get a discerning picture by reading two
books, one Brahmavaivarta Puran, one of the 18 puranas composed by Vedvyasa
(reincarnation of Lord Krishna/Vishnu) and other famous treatise “Shri Garg Samhita”
written by Sage Gargacharya, royal priest of Mathura who conducted naming ceremony of
Krishna and Balrama although official Kulguru of Nand Baba was Shandilya Muni.
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Incidentally , according to Swami Vivekananda (Volume 1, complete works of Vivekananda)

Sadhakas must study , read and rely upon scriptural texts written by realised souls/
enlightened masters as these only are reliable, authentic and grant incredible evidence on
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spiritual matters.

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 Scriptural text, realised souls or enlightened masters alone can be authority and arbiter on
Thelogical/Spiritual matters and put a stop on wrong notions/misconceptions and bring out
the subtle truth. The relationship between Lord Krishna and Radha, his divine potency,
ecstatic power (Alahadini Shakti), primordial power (matter), manifested form
“ShagunMaya” of Brahmtatwa is of divine nature and not physical or materialistic.

Krishna himself says that Radha is Krishna and Krishna is Radha. Although, their
relationship is neither amorous nor clandestine but astral and pure divine love which does not
require any legal stamp to tie them in matrimonial rites/knots, yet Parampita Lord Brahmaji
to grant social mores/status, moral and social sanctity solemnised and organised the divine
marriage between Radha and Krishna in childhood (Krishna Janam Khand, Ch 1, 3 & 15) at a
divine palace in Bhandir Van in Mant taluka of Mathura distt. UP directing both Radha and
Krishna to play their pastimes here in this astral palace (not visible to human eye) till
MahaRaasLila begins in Vrindavan.

Said Brahma - “Radha will leave her home keeping her shadow “Chhaya Radha/Maya
Radha” (her duplicate manifestation) with mother Keerti. Chhaya Radha will be married to
Rayan Gopa, younger brother of Yashoda (not Anay or Ayan) but fools will mistake her for
real Radha” ( who was truthfully married to Lord Krishna). I would suggest that devotees
must visit Bhandir Van / Vanshi Vat in Maat Taluka of Mathura district to have a
confirmation from the priest in the temple erected to commemorate the divine marriage/leela.

However, the formal engagement took place later in Saket village between Nandgaon and
Barsana blessed by parents of both.

The same astral supreme subtle story, an idyll, is narrated in Goloka Khand Ch 16 in
GargSamhita in a lucid dialogue between Devrishi Narada and Mithila King
Janak/Bahulashv. It was due to exchange of curses between Radhaji and Sridama (in charge
of sub Realm) in celestial goloka that Radha & Krishna suffered pangs of separation for 100
years and they later had a rendezvous at Siddhashram, in Kurukshetra during solar eclipse,
yagna ceremony. After prolonged meeting , Yogeshwar Bhagwan took Radha accompanied
by his queens and Gopis back to Dwarka where they all took part in Rajsuya Yagna
ceremony organised by King Ugrasen in Pindarak area, 50 kms away from dwarka (Chapter
49, Vishwajit Khand, Shri Garg Samhita).

Thus this settles once and for all the marital status that Radha was married to Lord Krishna
alone and none else. It is Chhaya Radha (shadow manifestation) who was married to Rayan
Gopa. A total faith and surrender towards God, enlightened masters, holy books and
scriptures is required to understand Param truth as the texts written by academicians cannot
be taken as authentic or reliable. The ignorance could be bliss in worldly matters but not in
spiritual field which needs rigorous study of scriptures and self-knowledge.

What is the history of Lord Vitthal (Pandurang)?

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In Maharashtra Karnataka , Vishnu is called vitthal the one who is standing on vith(red
rectangle stone ) , he is also called panduranga because when he came from dwaraka to
pandharpur though he was black the White sands were all over his face , so he was called
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pandra-ranga (panduranga).

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 He is narayana himself came to pandharpur in search of rukmini Devi as rukmini Devi got
angry on Krishna and left dwaraka .

She had a motive in leaving dwaraka because everything is Vishnu and lakshmi Devi's
Leela , they wanted to see his one of his beloved bhakta Pundalik and their parents , when
Krishna reached pundaliks house , Pundalik was busy serving his parents , he knew that
sarveshwara jagatpita was standing outside but he thought serving his parents was greater
than attending God , this nature of Pundalik gave paramanandam to Krishna so he stood there
waiting with his two hands on his hips .

The two hands on his hips denotes two things.

1. Once panduranga was thinking what I should give to my devotees , something

valuable , after searching throughout the universe , he thought is there anything
greater than me , so he is lifting himself with his two hands and giving himself to
his devotees.
2. He is always waiting for devotees like Pundalik to come to him because he wants
us to be with him always and he is asking with two hands on his hips “ how much
time should I wait for you my dear pundalik “
Then it follows with many devotees , sant namdev , sant eknath , sant nyaneshwar , sant
tukaram , sant purandara dasa vitthal , sant sakhubai , sant muktabai and many more.

Vitthal Temple, Pandharpur is believed to have been built during the Hoysala era.
According to one theory, the temple was built by the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana, who was
also known as Bitti Deva. Apparently, Pundalika is assumed to be a historic figure and is said
to have convinced Vishnuvardhana or Bitti Deva to build the temple in Pandharpur. Another
theory is based on an inscription dating back to 1237, found on an overhead beam of the
present Vithoba temple, mentions that the Hoysala king Someshvara donated a village for the
expense of the bhoga (food offering) for "Vitthala".

However, some historians suggest that the Vitthala temple was built much before the 13th
century as the general opinion is. The name Pandaranga is found on a Rashtrakuta copper
plate inscription, dated 516. Citing this, some historians infer that Vithoba's temple was well
established in the 6th century itself. No one can definitely say as to who actually built the
temple in the first place but most people say that it was built by Vishnuvardhana.

After Malik Kafur’s raid in the 14th century and the destruction of the Hoysala and Yadava
empires, the temple and the Pandharpur town came first under the control of the Delhi and
later the Bahamani Sultanate. It is said that idol of Vitthala was taken to the Vijayanagara
Empire and placed in the capital of the empire for two reasons, one to protect it from the
Bahamanis and the Deccan Sultanates and to enhance the glory of the empire. This temple is
now famous as the Vijaya Vitthala temple in Hampi and was destroyed during the sack of
Hampi after the Battle of Talikota. But even in the ruined state, it is a magnificent piece of
architecture.

However, the idol of Vitthala had already moved back to Pandharpur after the emperor
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Krishnadevaraya returned it back to Swami Bhanudas after realising that the temple now was
safe since the Bahamanis had been neutralised.
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 Vitthala temple attracts thousands of visitors everyday and in the month of Ashada, lakhs of
people visit it and the ekadashi day is the most significant one in the month since it signifies
the shift from Uttarayana to Dakshinayana and also the commencement of Chaturmasya.

2 major sects of the Bhakti movement have always been associated with the worship of
Vitthala. These are the Varkari sect of Maharashtra and the Haridasa sampradaya of
Karnataka. Saints like Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, Eknath, Namdev, Purandara Dasa, Vijaya
Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa all have been known devotees of Vitthala and have popularised the
worship of Vitthala in Maharashtra and Karnataka. All the songs created by the Haridasas
usually end with the suffix Vitthala and the Purandara Vitthala title in Purandara dasa is
widely believed to refer to the Vitthala idol in Pandharpur.

Worship of Vitthala is most common in Maharashtra and Karnataka. But it is present in the
states of Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh also, although not
as widely practiced as it is done in Maharashtra and Karnataka.

What is the difference between Vitthal and Krishna?

No difference.

When Krishna arrived at Pundaliks house. Pundalik was busy taking care of his parents.

Krishna announced his arrival to Pundalik.

Pundalik knew it was Krishna but being devoted to his parents, he could not leave them that
instant. So Pundalik threw a brick outside and told Krishna to stand on it.Krishna was pleased
at Pundaliks ‘s devotion towards his parents . So he stood on the brick.

I repeat Krishna stood on the brick.

Brick in Marathi is known as Vhit.

Thal is Ground.

Hence he is also known as God standing on Brick . Vitthal.According to mythology, Vithoba

is believed to be the incarnation of Lord Krishna.
Moved by the sincere devotion of Rishi Pundalik towards his parents Lord Krishna decided to
visit Pundalik’s home.

He assumed the form of a small boy that of Gokula Krishna and visited Pundalik’s home.

Pundalik saw the Lord at his door but his devotion to his parents was so intense that he
wanted to finish his duties first and then attend to his guest. He had reached such a stage that
it didn’t matter to him whether the guest was a mere mortal or God. All that mattered was
service to his parents.
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He gave the Lord a brick to stand on and asked him to wait until his duty was completed.
Moved by this devotion of Pundalik to his parents Lord Krishna blessed him and asked him
to ask a boon.
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 Pundalik asked that the Lord should remain on earth and bless and take care of his
devotees. Lord Krishna agreed to stay there and is known as Vithoba or the Lord who
stands on a brick.

The present deity of Panduranga is in this posture, that of a small boy waiting patiently
on a piece of brick. The hands on the hip actually reflects the boyish nature of Lord
Krishna.

This form of the Lord Vithoba is Swayambhu which means that his deity has not been carved
or etched but it came into existence on its own.

, upvote phobiac, music lover and theological

Answered 4 years ago · Author has 115 answers and 94.7K answer views

Is the god Vitthal (depicted as male) in Maharashtra also called Mauli i.e. mother?
Why? What is the background for this?

Vitthal the supreme lord for warkari/Vaishnava in Maharashtra. Lord vitthal also called as
pandurang, is incarnation of lord Krishna/Vishnu.

Vitthal has many names which are given to him by his devoties like saint dhnyaneshwar,
saint tukaram, saint namdev, saint janabai and all those great souls who are the idols
of warkari. These saints have established such great culture of devotion from 1400 it was so
pure that Maratha king chatrapati shivaji Maharaja used to visit these great saints.

The term mauli means one who loves like mother, selfless and pure. Though vitthal is male
but his love is so much like a mother.

Q: What is the meaning of *Panduranga Vitthala*?

To know about Panduranga, you have to read the life and biography of Bhakta Thukaram.
His family was from the vaishya community — he attained the heights of bhakti and
eventually attained jeevanmukthi. Towards the end of his life on earth, he received a vision
that Panduranga (Sri Maha Vishnu) would send a vimana for him. In broad daylight, in a
crowd of several hundreds of people who had known him during his lifetime, he ascended
into a vimana and was taken to vaikuntha (the eternal abode of Vishnu). He was one of the
most famous recent Hindu sages, that lived during the present kali yuga. His hundreds of
musical compositions are renowned in our culture.

He was marathi, but a telugu movie was produced about Thukaram that chronicles his life
and the miracles his bhakti resulted in.
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Those who are interested in the rule of Chatrapathy Shivaji Maharaj, should pay attention to
the life story of Thukaram. Many miracles surrounding Shivaji’s own life, are intricately
linked with Thukkaram’s bhakti. If you don’t know the backstory of these two, you don’t
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know how Hinduism survived the invasions for 1000s of years.

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 In this scene, Shivaji maharaj is forced to punish Tukkaram if the vigraha (main deity statue)
of Vitala is not returned to the temple in 24 hrs. For reasons I won’t elaborate, people thought
the statue was stolen. In response, Thukkaram ex tempore composes a song, in front of
hundreds of temple goers, the vigraha suddenly re-appears in its original place. Sivaji
Maharaj is stunned and becomes the disciple of Thukkaram thereafter.

In the subsequent scene, Shivaji tells Thukaram that he needs to leave to prepare for battle.
An invading muslim force riding on horseback is coming to slay the king and his army.
Thukkaram stops him and composes another ex tempore song which causes Vittala to appear
in the form of hundreds of clones of Shivaji maharaj on horseback, and each clone fights off a
battalion of muslim forces. Every where the muslim army looked, they saw another Shivaji
maharaj. They become terribly confused and went into disarray. Once the clones conquered
the invading forces, the entire clone army of Shivajis vanishes. Again, the real Shivaji who is
sitting in the temple is completely stunned and almost renounces his kingdom and rule to
become a full time disciple of Thukkaram. It is Thukaram who convinces him that the
country needs him and tells him to defend the country as his spiritual duty.

All these are not just stories. They truly happened. They are recorded history. Not only in our
own local historical narratives, but in the authentic chronicles of the invaders themselves!
Others speculate about God. We have seen that divinity many many times in many many
forms over many many thousands of years and thousands of miracles, by the grace of our
Sages, Rshis, and Bhaktas. Thus, Sanatana Dharma is not just some recorded history or
philosophy, but a real living experienced Truth.

Did Lord Shiva worship Lord Krishna?

Yes !

The Ramayana shows many instances where Sadashiv was eager to meet Rama and this is a
story from that Ramayana :-

Once Shiv and Sati went on a walk and Shiva expressed the will to meet lord Rama. Seeing
Shiva becoming mad behind Rama and chanting Rama Rama she asked that when Rama is a
normal human being then why worship him. Shiva felt hurt but asked Sati to test him.During
that time Rama and Laxman were searching for Sita. Sati went and took the form of Sita and
told Rama that I am here. Rama smiled and bowed - ‘ Devi Sati why are you in Sita’s form’

Sati understood her mistake but Shiva did not accept her as her wife then because she
offended his lord Rama Krishna.
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This shows that Shiva can leave his wife for his lord Krishna

Brahma Murari Sura architha Lingam,

Nirmala bashitha Shobitha Lingam,
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275
 Janmaja dukha vinasaka lingam.
Tat pranamami sada shiva lingam.

This is from Lingashtakam and it states the one worshipped by brahma , vishnu , and
demigods .

Even Rama worships Shiva. Both are the same. There is no difference between them.
This is in the vedas , puranas and everything.

It is also said that in a Shiva temple if you chant Krishna Krishna then he becomes happy and
the vice versa in a Krishna temple.

Why did Radha marry Ayan and not Krishna?

Let's divide your question in two parts :—

• Why did Radharani married Ayan??

• Why didn't she married lord Krishna??

Why did Radharani married Ayan ?

Firstly , You need to know who is ayan !?

He is chaya of lord Krishna (shadow of lord Krishna)

So , The one who can marry Shadow of krishna is Shadow of Radharani ! So here Radharani
didn't married Ayan ! But her shadow married Ayan ( Shadow of lord Krishna )

Why didn't she married lord Krishna ?

So now , I would like to tell you that Radharani married lord Krishna . Radharani is
Mahalakshmi herself and Krishna is Narayana himself . They are eternally married . But But
But ,They did got married and Lord Brahma was the sage who got them married .

Garga Samhita

Canto One : Chapter Sixteen

Shri Radhika-vivaha-varnana
Description of Shri Radhika's Wedding

Text 32

sa vahayam asa harim ca radhikam

pradakshinam sapta-hiranya-retasah
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tatash ca tau tam pranamayya veda-vit

tau paöhayam asa ca sapta-mantrakam[1]
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 Brahma performed the wedding-ceremony of Lord Hari and Shri Radhika. He had Them
circumambulate the sacred fire and bow down before it, and then Brahma, the knower of the
Vedas, recited the seven mantras.

Text 33

tato harer vakshasi radhikayah karam ca samsthapya hareh karam punah shri-
radhikayah kila prishöha-deshake samsthapya mantramsh ca vidhih prapaöhayan[¹]

Placing Shri Radhika's hand on Lord Hari's chest and Lord Hari's hand on Shri Radhika's
back, Brahma recited many mantras.

Text 34

radha karabhyam pradadau ca malikam

kinjalkinim krishna-gale 'linadinim
hareh karabhyam vrishabhanuja gale
tatash ca vahnim pranamayya veda-vit[1]

Then with both hands Shri Radha placed on Lord Krishna's neck a lotus garland filled the the
humming of bees. Then with both hands Lord Hari placed on Shri Radha's neck a similar
garland. Then Brahma had Them bow down before the sacred fire.

Text 35

samvasayam asa su-piöhayosh ca tau

kritanjali mauna-yutau pitamahah
tau paöhayam asa tu panca-mantrakam
samarpya radham ca piteva kanyakam[1]

Placing the silent divine couple on two thrones, with folded hands Brahma recited five
mantras. Then, as a father gives away his daughter, Brahma gave away Shri Radha.

The place they got married is know as Bhandirvan .

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 Why is Lord Krishna also referred to as Vitthala?

BACKSTORY 1 : THE SLAYING OF VRTASURA

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FIGHT! O King of the Gods! O Indra, take up your weapon and strike as the great and
courageous hero you are! Why are you morose? This is no time for lamentation! Your
enemy stands before you! LOOK AT ME!
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 The great and mighty demon Vrtasura chastised Indra. During their fierce battle, Indra had
received a stunning blow from Vrtasura, which caught him off-guard and weakened his
martial spirit.

Vrtasura continued to encourage Indra

I am already defeated by the will of Providence. Vishnu has already sided with, and
empowered you. Therefore, your victory and glory is assured, of this there is no doubt.
It is that special thunderbolt of yours — Śataparvan, fashioned from the bones and
spiritual merit of the selfless sage Dadhici Muni, that will be the cause of my demise. Do
not give up hope, O King of the Heavens! Fight!
Thus encouraged by Vrtasura, Indra fought the great saintly demon, whose ferocious roar was
enough to send a shiver down the spine of the great Gods of the universe. A fierce battle
ensued and Indra entered the mouth of the great Vrtasura, which covered the sky and seemed
like it would devour the entire universe.

With all his strength, dexterity and heroism, Indra then split open Vrtasura from inside out,
and immediately cut off the demon’s head, which collapsed like a mountain top that had lost
its place at the peak.
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 All the denizens of the heavens cheered at the sight, and showered flowers upon Indra,
beating their kettledrums in jubilation.

Indra, however was unhappy, for he’d killed a saintly being. Regardless of Vrtasura’s
external appearance and birth, the demon was a devotee of the Supreme Lord Vishnu, and
this would bring grave repercussions …
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BACKSTORY 2 : THE AWAKENING OF KING MUCUKUNDA

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 Get up O coward! Fight and go with honour to the regions of Your ancestors. I shall
dispatch You to death’s abode. You cannot evade me anymore. Do not give in to infamy
Krsna! Do not spoil the name and tradition of the mighty Yadus. Do not hide like a
rabbit covering its head on seeing a jackal approach. Surely, Your days are numbered,
for You lie down in the dark, cowering like a man who has lost all potency!
Kalayavana kicked the sleeping King, thinking Him to be Krsna. As soon as he was kicked,
the King woke up. He looked all around, and on seeing Kalayavana, his anger surged. He
looked at Kalayavana with great rage, unhappy at being woken up, and a scorching flame
emanated from his eyes that burnt the Greek King to ashes and dust!
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Krsna was standing behind in the shadows of the cave, and had witnessed the entire scene
unfold. In fact, it was Krsna who’d arranged for Kalayavana’s fiery end! The King
immediately calmed down, and became aware of Krsna’s presence. The effulgence
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emanating from the Lord, lit up the dark cave. The beauty of the Lord struck his heart, and an
overwhelming sense of awe and reverence permeated his being.

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 Krsna, aware of the King’s thoughts and plight, addressed him

O King Mucukunda, descendent of King Iksvaku’s glorious lineage, in whose line Lord
Ramacandra appeared, rise from your slumber! O mighty hero, recall that your great
effort in tirelessly helping the Gods overcome their enemies, earned you the boon to
sleep for a long time, across ages. Everybody you’ve known or loved — your family,
wife, children, parents, friends and subjects, have long passed away, due to the
influence of time.

King Mucukunda, recognising Krsna as the Supreme Lord prayed

It is certainly my great fortune to have You bestow Your mercy on me, and grace me
with Your presence, dear Mukunda, O bestower of liberation. You have been kind to
have taken away from Me, everything! It is certainly Your supreme mercy, that one
finds himself without possession, shunned and no longer relevant to the world. When
the doors of this world close shut on an individual, You open the doors to bliss for him.
You have certainly blessed me with this supreme benediction.
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 Krsna, pleased with King Mucukunda’s prayers, replied

O illustrious King, it is true what you say! However, because you have indulged in the
hunting and killing of animals as a Kshatriya, you’ll have to atone for this deed. Listen
carefully to Me O King — always absorb your mind in Me, think of Me, and worship
Me. Gradually, you will be purified of all sin. In this way, you shall give up this current
body, and take birth as a first-class brahmana in your next life, ever engaged in My
transcendental service.
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DO NOT FEAR FOR THE LORD IS HERE !

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 Once upon a time, Mother Rukmini became upset with Lord Krsna. To express Her distress
She left for the Dindirvana forest, near Pandharpur, in present day Maharashtra. On hearing
of this, Krsna followed Rukmini in order to pacify and bring Her back to Dwaraka.

While traveling as such, the Lord decided to stop by Pandharpur, where His devotee Pundalik
resided. On reaching Pundalik’s home, the Lord entered the doorway to see Pundalik busy
serving his aged parents with love and dedication.
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 He was pleased with Pundalik. Pundalik meanwhile, unable to immediately leave the care of
his aged parents, handed the Lord a brick on which to stand and wait for him. The Lord did as
was told by His pure devotee Pundalik.
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 The Lord placed His beautiful lotus feet, that serve as the boat with which one can
crossover this endless ocean of material existence, on the brick that Pundalik handed
over to Him. He raised His broad forearms and soft lotus hands that resemble the thick
body and raised hood of a king cobra, and placed them on His raised hips that are big
and broad like those of a woman, and resemble a soft cushion covered with cloth.
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 And so, the Lord stood, waiting for Pundalik to return and attend to Him. In this duration,
Mother Rukmini, forgetting Her distress and unable to keep Herself away from Her Lord,
came to Pandharpur and took Her place beside Krsna. And to this day, both Lord and Lady,
are ever-present in Pandharpur in Their deity form, waiting for Their devotees to come and
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take darsana, and be blessed!

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 Do not worry, my dear devotees — for one who has surrendered unto Me, this vast
endless expanse that is the ocean of material existence, is reduced to mere shallow
waters that can be idly strolled along. Behold — it is only this deep!
VITTHALA! VITTHALA! VITTHALA!

It should be noted that Pundalik in his previous life was none other than King Mucukunda,
who had burnt the Greek King Kalyavana to ash! He was blessed by Krsna to become a
brahmana in His next life, and finally attain liberation, going back home, back to Krsna!

Also, the brick that Pundalik handed to Krsna to stand on and wait for him, is none other than
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Indra himself, King of the Heavens. When Indra killed the saintly demon Vrtasura, he was
cursed to become a brick. However, because Vrtasura was a Vaisnava or a devotee of Vishnu,
and since devotees never think ill of other living beings — friends and enemies alike, this
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curse proved to be a boon for Indra, who received the supreme benediction of having the
Lord place His soft lotus feet on him, in the backyard of Pundalik’s home.

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 This form of the Lord, waiting for His devotees in Pandharpur is called Vitthala.

Vit = Brick, and Thala = Standing.

This is a very sacred place, and the form of the Lord as Vitthala is most beautiful and
sublime. Everyone who can, must visit and drench their eyes on the transcendental form of
Vitthala-Rukumai ki Jaya!

The beautiful Lord in Pandharpur is forever standing on a brick, eagerly waiting to

reciprocate loving exchanges with His devotees …
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Why did Lord Krishna marry Rukmini, when he was in love with Radha?
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Rukmini Maa - Laxmi Maa

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 Dwarikadhish Shree Krishna- Shree Narayan🙏🙏🙏

Here if I say it in a simple way about Radha Krishna Prem and why they didn't need to get
married…….., then many people will say…………..

“You are fool to think Radha Superior to Rukmini/Laxmi goddess of fortune”.🙄🙄😏😏😒😒

Where I never even want to compare my mother's……….🙏

Let me tell the answer in theirs point-of-view.

People says,why will Krishna Marry RADHA? She is just a Gopi who use to be the
childhood friend of Krishna. There is no such girlfriend-boyfriend relationship of them! But
Swayam Rukmini is after of Laxmi, And Krishna is Narayan……….. so obviously Narayan
will marry his Laxmi only not any cowherd girl!🙄😏

I am tired of pointing out the mistakes of their thoughts……….. but now time to point out the
correct thing they told:-

“RADHA” was not married to Krishna because they don't need to. Obviously Narayan will
marry his Laxmi NOT HIMSELF………!

Narayan and Laxmi was inseparable and so was Rukmini Madhav 🙏🙏😍😍

But why do you people think that a Krishna should marry Radha……… If he don't then he
don't love her!!!!? Actually the main and ultimate thing u people can't understand is…..
RUKMINI-MADHAV are made for each other…………the perfect,pure, beyond
imagination is this Jodi of Rakhumai and Shree Krishna.

But RADHA-KRISHNA………… They are made “OF” each other! 😍. I don't think that
Milk has to marry the whiteness of it; sun has to marry the sunshine; energy is bound to
marry the energetic!!!!!!! Have you ever married your sole? NEVER right?

So why is RADHA need to be married to Krishna then? Some people argue Radha to be
Laxmi some argue Rukmini to be Laxmi. Actually I think Rukhumai is Maa Laxmi Avtar and
me my full family believe in this only. Radha is not any Avtar of maa Laxmi!! Some people
says her Nila Devi!! No!!!! She is not an Avtar of any Laxmi incarnation………………

She is Krishna swayam. She is the one and only Avtar of Krishna and did't need to marry her
male Swaroop obviously! So stop arguing on RADHA KRISHNA relationship and stop
asking Radha Rani's birth certificate cause the proof of her existence is Krishna only. If Your
sole is not with u then u will be no more alive so stop claiming Krishna's sole as a fictional
character……!!!!!!

Now also some will come and argue that I disrespected Rukmini maa! But I didn't…….
Whatever they think of her and I think of her I just told that openly!!!!! But still they will find
mistakes because here I have glorified Radha Rani's actual truth which can't be accepted by
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them. Those people are- Less Rukmini Bhakts more Radha Haters.!!!!

And yes my thinking Radha fictional wala people- Let me tell you that till now supreme
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Yogi's couldn't understood Radha Krishna Prem. Then it's least expected from you people
even think of it or can tolerate it! But honestly speaking no true Rukmini devotes ever judge

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 Radha Rani………. Because for them their bhagwannn is sarwopari dosent mean to
disrespect the other one!!!! For them a big 🙏 from me. Because I worship laxmi-Narayma,
respect them, love them keep fast for pujas and hence I am a Devotee of them but in case of
Radha Rani I feel like I love her soooo much like a mother, sister and even like a best friend.
So I always have one thing in my mind that:-

HAME AURAN KI PARVAH NAHI, APNI THAKURANI SHREE RADHIKA RANI 🙏💖

“Atma tu Radhika Tasya"

“Rukmini dwaravatyam ca Radha vrindavana vane” 🙏🙏

Vitthal Temple, Pandharpur is believed to have been built during the Hoysala era. According
to one theory, the temple was built by the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana, who was also
known as Bitti Deva. Apparently, Pundalika is assumed to be a historic figure and is said to
have convinced Vishnuvardhana or Bitti Deva to build the temple in Pandharpur. Another
theory is based on an inscription dating back to 1237, found on an overhead beam of the
present Vithoba temple, mentions that the Hoysala king Someshvara donated a village for the
expense of the bhoga (food offering) for "Vitthala".

However, some historians suggest that the Vitthala temple was built much before the 13th
century as the general opinion is. The name Pandaranga is found on a Rashtrakuta copper
plate inscription, dated 516. Citing this, some historians infer that Vithoba's temple was well
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established in the 6th century itself. No one can definitely say as to who actually built the
temple in the first place but most people say that it was built by Vishnuvardhana.
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After Malik Kafur’s raid in the 14th century and the destruction of the Hoysala and Yadava
empires, the temple and the Pandharpur town came first under the control of the Delhi and

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 later the Bahamani Sultanate. It is said that idol of Vitthala was taken to the Vijayanagara
Empire and placed in the capital of the empire for two reasons, one to protect it from the
Bahamanis and the Deccan Sultanates and to enhance the glory of the empire. This temple is
now famous as the Vijaya Vitthala temple in Hampi and was destroyed during the sack of
Hampi after the Battle of Talikota. But even in the ruined state, it is a magnificent piece of
architecture.

However, the idol of Vitthala had already moved back to Pandharpur after the emperor
Krishnadevaraya returned it back to Swami Bhanudas after realising that the temple now was
safe since the Bahamanis had been neutralised.

Vitthala temple attracts thousands of visitors everyday and in the month of Ashada, lakhs of
people visit it and the ekadashi day is the most significant one in the month since it signifies
the shift from Uttarayana to Dakshinayana and also the commencement of Chaturmasya.

2 major sects of the Bhakti movement have always been associated with the worship of
Vitthala. These are the Varkari sect of Maharashtra and the Haridasa sampradaya of
Karnataka. Saints like Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, Eknath, Namdev, Purandara Dasa, Vijaya
Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa all have been known devotees of Vitthala and have popularised the
worship of Vitthala in Maharashtra and Karnataka. All the songs created by the Haridasas
usually end with the suffix Vitthala and the Purandara Vitthala title in Purandara dasa is
widely believed to refer to the Vitthala idol in Pandharpur.

Worship of Vitthala is most common in Maharashtra and Karnataka. But it is present in the
states of Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh also, although not
as widely practiced as it is done in Maharashtra and Karnataka.

What is the story of Lord VITHOBA?

The “Vi” in Lord Vithoba’s name denotes knowledge and “Thoba” denotes shape. He is the
shape of knowledge or the idol of knowledge. Another interpretation is that the word
“Vitthala” is said to be derived from the Marathi word “Vit”, meaning brick. The reason
behind the brick will be explained later in this article. “Ba” is used to denote “father” in
Marathi.
Lord Vithal/ Vitthal/ Vithoba is none other than Lord Vishnu, Lord Narayana or Lord
Krishna. It is believed that Lord Krishna had incarnated at the end of Dwarpa Yuga on the
eighth day of the dark fortnight in the holy month of Shravan (As per the Hindu calendar). He
is lovingly called names like Pandrinath, Panduranga, Pandhairiraya, Vithai, Vithoba, Vithu-
mauli, Vitthalgururao by his devotees. But the well-known and commonly used names are
Pandurang / Panduranga and Shri Vitthal / Vithal. The word Vitthala is said to be derived
from the Kannada (a language spoken in the southern parts of India ) word for Lord Vishnu.
The worship of Lord Vitthala has been derived mainly from the Puranas. His worship has
been made well-known by the teachings, poems, kirtans, and pads of great Vaishnava saints
of Maharashtra from the 13th through the 17th centuries. They were saints like Sant
Namdeo /Namdev, Sant Jnaneshwar, Sant Eknath and Sant Tukaram. Pundalik, a saint was
closely associated with this shrine, and hence this shrine is also known as Pundarika Pura.
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Because Vithoba, or God who stood upon a brick an imposing temple was built at the place
where Krishna and Pundalik had met. Inside the temple stands Krishna's image on a brick. By
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his side stands the image of Rukmini.This temple covering a vast area has a total of six gates.

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 The eastern entrance to this temple is known as the Namdev gate (after the great 13th century
Vaishnava saint). The sanctum enshrines the standing image of Vithoba also known as
Panduranga, Pandhari or Vitthala. Stylistically the image dates back to the 5th century. There
are inscriptions in this temple dating back to the 13th century which place origin of this
shrine to the 6th century.
************************************************************************
'Padsparsha Darshan' is the unique feature of Vithoba Temple. Irrespective of the caste and
creed every devotee can enter the Sanctum Sanctorium and can place his/her head on the feet
of Lord Vitthala. This tradition is followed nowhere in India. The Bhagawat Dharma is being
followed with full spirit in Pandharpur.

What does the idol of lord Vitthal with his hands on waist signify?

According to mythology, Vithoba is believed to be the incarnation of Lord Krishna.

Moved by the sincere devotion of Rishi Pundalik towards his parents Lord Krishna decided to
visit Pundalik’s home.

He assumed the form of a small boy that of Gokula Krishna and visited Pundalik’s home.

Pundalik saw the Lord at his door but his devotion to his parents was so intense that he
wanted to finish his duties first and then attend to his guest. He had reached such a stage that
it didn’t matter to him whether the guest was a mere mortal or God. All that mattered was
service to his parents.

He gave the Lord a brick to stand on and asked him to wait until his duty was completed.
Moved by this devotion of Pundalik to his parents Lord Krishna blessed him and asked him
to ask a boon.

Pundalik asked that the Lord should remain on earth and bless and take care of his devotees.
Lord Krishna agreed to stay there and is known as Vithoba or the Lord who stands on a brick.

The present deity of Panduranga is in this posture, that of a small boy waiting patiently on a
piece of brick. The hands on the hip actually reflects the boyish nature of Lord Krishna.

This form of the Lord Vithoba is Swayambhu which means that his deity has not been carved
or etched but it came into existence on its own.
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 What is the history of the Pandharpur shrine of Vitthala?
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