July 2010

A publication from the DESIRE project - funded by the European Unions 6th Framework Program Global Change and Ecosystems

Info-brief 1
Based on reports from DESIRE sites in Greece and Russia

Tackling salinization of soils in arid and semi-arid regions

A. Zeiliguer

Why is it a problem?
Salinity of soils can occur naturally due to properties of the bedrock or natural environment. Soluble salts, - originating from weathering of the bedrock, capillary rise of salty groundwater, or in dust, rain or snow, - may accumulate within or on the surface of the soil. This reduces plant growth and crop yield, - in extreme circumstances to the point of plant death. The soil structure deteriorates,

limiting passage of water. The salts include sodium chloride, and magnesium and calcium sulphates and bicarbonates. These affect plants directly through toxicity, and indirectly, by lowering root water uptake due to increasing osmotic pressure potential. In dry climates continuous salt accumulation can lead to a desertified landscape where nothing will grow, while in humid or subhumid climates salinization may occur seasonally. A warm, sunny climate is perfect for

growing and ripening many food crops, as long as there is sufficient water. Where there is not enough natural water harvested from rainfall, irrigation using water from rivers and groundwater may be used. If the irrigation water is poor quality, e.g. salty, the irrigated soil can also soon become salinized (salty) or alkaline, and consequently infertile. This is secondary salinization.

How salinization of soils develops in a warm dry climate (Source: Agromisa Agrobrief 6)

occur where salts textured, and the irrigation accumulate by water water itself may contain too evaporation in the soil many dissolved salts. surface layers. The warmth Cultivation increases Why does salinization of sunshine causes evaporation and salt happen? evaporation at the surface concentration. and water rises up through 3. The intrusion of saltwater Salt accumulation in soil has the soil from the occurs in coastal areas, various causes. In general groundwater by capillarity especially where seawater primary salinization is due to through the soil pores. Salt seeps into the aquifer and natural soil characteristics, or crusts can build up on the replaces groundwater that salts blown in on winds from the soil surface, and within the has been over-exploited. sea. Secondary salinization soil as a pan. The This is particularly evident happens where human activities groundwater may be along Mediterranean coastal play a part. There are three main naturally salty if the bedrock areas as water is pumped up processes that can cause has marine origins. and extracted for irrigation salinization: 2. The excessive use of water and the tourist industry. 1. Salinization happens where for irrigation in dry climates the water table is close to causes salinization, especially the ground surface. This may where soils are heavy

More about the salinization process

SALINITY refers to the concentration of dissolved salts in water, but is usually measured in terms of electrical conductivity (EC). There is no linear relationship, because different salts have different effects, but in general the higher the salt concentration, the better a solution can conduct electricity. The international unit of measurement is deci Siemens per meter (dS/m), or micro Siemens per centimeter (S/cm). Soils with an EC > 4dS/m are considered saline, but plants vary considerably in their tolerance of salinity, and alfafa is affected by only 2dS/m. Saline soils are sometimes described as sodic, or alkaline, if there is a high proportion of sodium, that causes dispersion of soil particles and loss of soil structure. Countries of the world tackling major salinity problems over 77 million hectares of salinized land are caused by human activities http://tinyurl.com/cx47u

Regional distribution of salt-affected soils, in million hectares

Regions Total area Mha Africa Asia, the Pacific and Australia Europe Latin America Near East North America Total 1,899 3,107 2,011 2,039 1,802 1,924 12,781 Mha 39 195 7 61 92 5 397 Saline soils % 2.0 6.3 0.3 3.0 5.1 0.2 3.1% Mha 34 249 73 51 14 15 434 Sodic soils % 1.8 8.0 3.6 2.5 0.8 0.8 3.4%

Source: FAO Land and Plant Nutrition Management Service

Combating desertification in DESIRE study sites

The DESIRE study sites have different desertification problems but they are all addressing them in the same way. Scientists and stakeholders together have used the WOCAT-DESIRE decision support tool to choose appropriate technologies to combat desertification and promote sustainable land use, http://tinyurl.com/y69d5sh The measures have been trialled over 2 or more years, and successful outcomes can be recommended to other similar areas.

A. Zeiliguer

The Novy Study Site and Dzhanibek Research Station, Russia

At the Novy site in the Saratov region of Russia cultivation of annual and perennial crops is impossible without providing water by irrigation. However, the irrigated fields are prone to salinization and loss of fertility, as the groundwater used is saline. When there were huge collective farms, in Soviet times, water for irrigation was pumped from the Volga
Map of Russia

river and distributed from stationery sprinkler systems. Now there are smaller collective farms and independently owned farms, using an old traditional method of irrigation by furrow. A slope of 2-3% is needed to direct the water along the furrow. However this is not an optimum use of the water either, as there are losses by seepage and runoff, and soil salinity is increased.

The DESIRE project is investigating more sustainable alternatives, with precision irrigation over large areas of forage crops and drip irrigation on vegetables. The Soviet-style sprinkler system, constructed in the 1960s, used huge volumes of water and caused waterlogging and rising groundwater tables, sufficient to change conditions from semiarid to semi-humid.

Volga River

Google Earth map of Novy site Map of Saratov region

Location of the Novy study site (Source: J. Croes)

The Novy and Dzhanibek Sites, Russia (continued)

Measurements showed that salts in the soil at depth were dissolved and moved into the rooting zone. The salts are toxic to plants in high concentrations and the change in the soil water osmotic pressure even reduces the availability of water to plants. Organic matter is washed out of the soil and structural changes result in soil compaction and reduced hydraulic conductivity and water retention. The dry steppe climate has a long summer. From May to September temperatures reach 45 C. The winter lasts from December to March, when up to 28 cm of snow can fall. Total annual precipitation averages 400 mm/year, and a major part of this is snow. For the land user, salts may accumulate in depressions causing patchy crop growth but encouraging weeds that thrive in those conditions. Cultivation cannot be achieved without irrigation, but sprinkler irrigation with large volumes of water has resulted in salinization and decreasing fertility and yields. The irrigated crops include cereals, and vegetables such as potatoes.

Furrow irrigation of vegetables has disadvantages: 1) unproductive use of irrigating water 2) sharp increase in sub-surface and ground water levels 3) over watering of plant roots 4) pollution of the sub-soil/ground waters by chemicals 5) soil erosion by flowing water, and leaching of plant nutrients in the soil Drip irrigation of vegetables is better because it provides: 1) significant minimisation of irrigation water doses 2) easy adaptation of the irrigation regime to water demand 3) prevention of water leaching to the underlying ground water 4) decrease in ecological risks for the surrounding area

Precision irrigation
Precision irrigation makes good use of scarce water resources, by targeting only areas where water is needed. It works by having a mechanised system that responds to automatic monitoring of plants, soil, ground water and landscape properties. One way of improving the supply of freshwater is to harvest snow-melt water that may accumulate under small depressions in the landscape and above salty ground water. Small wells access these lenses of freshwater within the saline groundwater.

A. Zeiliguer A. Zeiliguer

The Novy and Dzhanibek Sites, Russia (continued)

Since 2007, drip irrigation has been used successfully in the garden plots of families in Romashky and Elton villages, Pallasovsky District, Volgograd Region, Russia.
Drip irrigation, June 2009

Elton Misurina Family

A. Zeiliguer

Innovations in easy and inexpensive monitoring

Researchers have used ordinary digital cameras to measure variations in visible light reflectance of plants and soils. They found that plants stressed by salinity may wilt and not reflect light so well. Also, with reduced growth there will be more bare soil visible between plants than with a healthy crop. They hope they can develop this research into a low-cost literature. It is peculiar that a method to monitor crop rise in electrical conductivity water stress on a large scale. (higher salts) does not automatically imply a They have also found that the decrease in root biomass. As high soil alkalinity (pH) and expected, increased electrical relatively low electrical conductivity is negatively conductivity are positively correlated with plant water correlated with increased content at this site. root biomass. This is very unusual compared to findings reported in scientific

The alfalfa plants show poor and patchy growth where they are stressed by salinity

A. Zeiliguer Beets W. A. Zeiliguer A. Zeiliguer

Large cracks on the soil surface indicate alkaline conditions

A. Zeiliguer

J. Croes

The Nestos river basin site, Maggana, Greece

I. Gkiougkis

In the 1950s and 1960s, a drainage, flood protection, and wetland management scheme was set up on the Nestos delta. Unfortunately these interventions changed the way in which groundwater was recharged, and a restriction in available sources of surface water. The aim had been to increase the area of cultivatable land, but the huge increase in demand for water for the crops resulted in widespread problems with soil salinization, decrease in groundwater storage, degradation of aquifers and gradual extinction of coastal wetlands. The most affected region is that of Maggana in the eastern part of the Nestos river delta. Soil salinity has become a problem for farmers after 20-30 years of pumping up water for irrigation. Over-pumping of the aquifer has resulted in seawater intrusion, and the level of saline groundwater is now only 1m below the surface. Evaporation

at the soil surface in the hot dry summer months brings salts to the surface. The application of gypsum (calcium sulphate) may reduce alkalinity and salinity, but may not necessarily be economical, as the soil must remain moist for the chemical reaction to happen. Some farmers use deep tillage of the subsoil, to mix the surface and deeper soil layers. However, this often results in an impermeable hardpan, that limits drainage and causes further problems.

New ways to production are being

increase

investigated, especially by improving the supply of freshwater, and monitoring its use for maximum efficiency. Surface freshwater and saline groundwater for irrigation have been investigated with local landusers, on adjacent fields of the same farm. The results from 2009 show a marked increase in yield if surface freshwater is used for irrigation. Experiments will also set out to discover how quickly a benefit is seen if the groundwater irrigation water is replaced by freshwater. It may also be possible to consider planting crops that can develop and be harvested within the cooler wetter seasons.

Irrigation water quality

Surface water EC (S/cm) 581 ( 322) Groundwater EC (S/cm) 2247 ( 103)

pH SAR Ca2+ (mg/L) Na+ (mg/L) Mg2+ (mg/L) K+ (mg/L) Cl- (mg/L) SO42- (mg/L) NO3- (mg/L)

7.39 ( 0.07) 0.49 358 ( 535) 35 ( 8) 20 ( 27) 7 ( 2) 107 ( 83) 26 ( 4) 2 ( 1)

pH SAR Ca2+ (mg/L) Na+ (mg/L) Mg2+ (mg/L) K+ (mg/L) Cl- (mg/L) SO42- (mg/L) NO3- (mg/L)

7.50 ( 0.17) 2.41 263 ( 161) 172 ( 3) 73 ( 11) 5 ( 5) 437 ( 33) 271 ( 21) 8 ( 1)

I. Gkiougkis

The Nestos river basin site, Maggana, Greece (continued) Irrigation from surface water (left) and groundwater (right) in adjacent fields

The yield is 9.3 tn/ha with less salty surface water irrigation (left) but only 3.4 tn/ha with salty groundwater irrigation (right), - note the white salts deposited on the surface of the soil. (All Nestos photos by I. Gkiougkis)

View of area covered by a database for monitoring large scale ground water depths and soil salinity of the Privolgskaya System, Novy , Russia

Conclusions

The successful technologies for preventing salinization of soils in the DESIRE study sites focus on more efficient and more effective use of the scarce, least saline water supplies. Detailed automated Written and compiled by Nichola Geeson For more information see:

monitoring of soil and climatic conditions can be used to programme the precision sprinklers or drip irrigation systems for optimum control. Management of acceptable water, either from outside the area or harvested in some

way (snow melt, or good quality wastewater, for example) is crucial. Choosing winter crops, (rather than summer, or perennial crops), crops may utilise the least saline water more efficiently and sustainably.

research by Dr. I. Diamantis, I. http://geografia.fcsh.unl.pt/lucin Gkougkis, and A. Pechtelidis, da/ Democritus University of Thrace. Munns, R. The Impact of Salinity Stress The Harmonised Information CSIRO Division of Plant Industry References and further System on the DESIRE website, Canberra ACT, Australia reading http://tinyurl.com/y7e25j7 http://www.plantstress.com/Ar Beets, W. (2009) DESIRE MSc Description of the Novy and thesis: Detecting and monitoring ticles/salinity_i/salinity_i.htm Dzhanibek sites (Russia) is based Posthumus, H. Saline Soils. vegetation water stress on research by Prof. A. Zeiliguer, Agrobrief 6. Agromisa Croes, J. (2009) DESIRE MSc and O. Ermolaeva, Moscow State Foundation, Wageningen, The thesis: Detecting the effect of University of Environmental Netherlands. sodic soils on alfafa Engineering; W. Beets and J. http://www.agromisa.org/ Iannetta, M. and Colonna, N. Croes, Wageningen UR (2008). salinization. LUCINDA Description of the Nestos delta booklet B3. site (Greece), is based on
The DESIRE project (2007-2012) is funded by the European Commission, VI Framework Program, Global Change and Ecosystems and brings together the expertise of 26 international research institutes and nongovernmental organisations (NGOs). This project is implemented by ALTERRA - research institute for the green living environment in the Netherlands. Copyright and Disclaimer: www.desire-project.eu/disclaimer Website: http://www.desire-project.eu Contact DESIRE coordinator: Coen.Ritsema@wur.nl Contact DESIRE Communications: ngprojects@googlemail.com The opinions expressed in this newsletter and on the website are those of the DESIRE project consortium and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission.