Artificial Kidneys of Soil

1. INTRODUCTION

The world’s water consumption rate is doubling every 20 years, outpacing by two times the rate
of population growth. The availability of good quality water is on the decline and water
demand is on the rise. Worldwide availability of fresh water for industrial needs and human
consumption is limited. Various industrial and developmental activities in recent times have
resulted in increasing the pollution level and deteriorating the water quality. Water shortages
and unreliable water quality are considered major obstacles to achieve sustainable development
and improvement in the quality of life. The water demand in the country is increasing fast due
to progressive increase in the demand of water for irrigation, rapid industrialization, and
population growth and improving life standards. The existing water resources are diminishing.
(i) Due to unequal distribution of rain water and occasional drought, (ii) Excessive exploitation
of ground water sources and its insufficient recharge, (iii) Deterioration of water quality due to
the discharge of domestic and industrial effluents without adequate treatment. This is resulting
into water stress/ scarcity. Country is currently passing through social and economic transition.
The proportion of the population which is urban has doubled over the last thirty years (and is
now about 30%), agriculture now accounts for about 25% of GDP and the economy has been
growing at around 7-9% a year. Country has a highly seasonal pattern of rainfall, with 50% of
precipitation falling in just 15 days and over 90% of river flows in just four months. In
addition, a large number of villages in different parts of the country are known to be suffering
from excess salinity, fluoride, iron, arsenic and microbial contaminations of ground water.

The phenomenon of salinization of the soil due to intensive agriculture was already well known
in ancient times. Civilizations that broke the delicate balance of the water cycle by using
intensive agriculture and excessive irrigation found themselves forced to abandon their fields.
Archeologists in Central America have discovered vast formerly inhabited territories that were
abandoned by the Maya due to salinization of the grounds. The population, unable to deal with
the disaster, was forced to find new, fertile territories. Intensive irrigation of agricultural soil
for decades and centuries using either underground water or salty surface water causes a slow
process of salinization of the soil followed by the salinization of the aquifers underneath. The
water, unlike rainwater, contains dissolved solids which stay on the soil, permeating slowly the
aquifer level thus raising the underground water salinity. Desalination is recognized as a
possible means to augment the water supply using natural resources for meeting the growing
demand of water. It has become an important source of drinking water production.

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, FIST, Poomala
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Seawater, brackish water and fresh water have different levels of salinity, which is often
expressed by the total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration. Water is considered potable when
its TDS is below 500 mg/L. Seawater has a TDS of about 35,000 mg/L and brackish water has
a TDS between that of potable water and seawater. Waste water is another category containing
dissolved salts mostly in the low brackish level. The reclaimed water from waste water can be
used for irrigation, cooling water and other industrial applications. Since the projected
industrial and irrigation requirements would be far exceeding that of domestic requirements,
recycle and reuse of waste effluents apart from desalination make enormous sense for future
water management. Desalination, water purification & water recovery/ reuse schemes are
destined to play a major role and commercially viable indigenous technologies are thus
required for deployment to suit local conditions

2. SALINIZATION OF SOIL

Saline soils are “SALT AFFECTED SOILS” generally found in arid and semi arid regions.
These soils are generally found in “low precipitation area” were precipitation and evaporation
ratio is less than 10.75. Weathering of parent rock also contributes the soluble salts to soil. Area
of low precipitation (the average annual precipitation is approximately 480mm) is used for
intensive agriculture for over sixty years. Irrigation needs are fulfilled by local wells water as
well as water from the national water conduit containing approximately 200 ppm chloride and
treated wastewater containing up to 300 ppm chloride. Although the amount of salt added to the
soil over the years is unknown, it may be assessed using statistic data of the annual water
consumption by agriculture over the past several years. Some 25 million m3 of water with
salinity of approximately 200 ppm chloride and about 125 million m3 of water with salinity of
approximately 300 ppm chloride were utilized annually for agriculture in the aforementioned
area. This concludes that some 42,500 tons of chloride were added to the soil each year. Over a
period of 60 years the amount adds up to 2 million tons of chloride, taking into consideration
that for the first 20 years treated waste-water were not used.

The salinization problem is reflected in wells in the area, for example, the well ‘‘Shafir 1’’
drilled in 1950. During the drill’s pumping test the chloride level was 213 ppm while nowadays
it peaked to 624 ppm. Fig. 2.1 presents the chloride rising rate over the years. The diagram
shows that from the drill’s pumping test until 1966 there was no change in the chloride level.
Since the well water is from a depth of 65 m we can conclude that for the first 15 years the
chloride accumulation on the soil had no effect over the underground water at this depth.
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Starting in 1966 we see a slow increase of chloride level in underground water. In 1993 the
diagram shows a sharp decrease in the chloride level due to high amounts of precipitation in the
years 91/92. Over 1,100 mm of rain, more than twice the annual average, diluted the aquifer’s
water and lowered its salinity level.

Fig.2.1. Annual change of chloride concentration at ‘‘Shafir 1’’ well, 1950–2004

(Source: E. Kotzer, Et al., Desalination 185 (2005) 71–77).

Fig. 2.2 compares two adjacent wells, both drilled in 2002 for the purpose of supplying a
nearby desalination plant with raw water. The diagram shows that the salinization of
underground water progresses from the upper water layer downwards, i.e. the salinization is a
result of surface irrigation with water containing high levels of chloride. The chloride level in
the ‘‘Masuot Yitzhak 2A’’ well (drilled to 65 m, same as the ‘‘Shafir 1’’ well shown in Fig. 1)
is over 600 ppm while in the deeper, adjacent, well, ‘‘Masuot Yitzhak 1A’’ (85 m deep) the
chloride level is 400 ppm. The later’s chloride level has been stable for the past two years while
for the former we see a slight increase of the chloride level. Certain actions are required in
order to prevent further increase of the chloride level and salinization of the aquifer’s deeper
layers.

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Fig.2.2. A comparison of chloride concentration for 2 adjacent wells, 2002–2004.

(Source: E. Kotzer, Et al., Desalination 185 (2005) 71–77).

3. OPTIONAL SOLUTION TO THE SALINIZATION PROBLEM

One solution, that was used thousands of years ago, was to abandon the problematic area and
migrate to new, fresh areas. Some evidence was found by Archeologists in Central America
studying the 6000 years old Maya culture. The Archeologists found complete Mayan villages
that were abruptly abandoned with all the buildings left intact. They concluded that the Mayans
were forced to leave their territories due to salinization of the grounds caused by excessive use
of artificial irrigation with surface water. This sort of solution is impractical these days,
especially for small courtiers. The problem must be solved without introducing a change to the
local population’s way of life.

The proposed solution is based on disposal of brine using osmosis similar to the way a human
kidney functions (shown in Fig 3.1). Raw water gathered from a system of brackish water wells
reach the desalination plants (the artificial kidneys). Desalinated water with low levels of
chloride is produced for local population consumption, thus reducing the soil salinization rate.
The brine which contains the salts retrieved from the soil is rejected to the sea using a single
common pipeline which serves all the plants.

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, FIST, Poomala
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Fig.3.1. A human body’s brine disposal system based on an “osmosis unit” and a
brine rejection unit. (Source: Science direct, 2005)

3.1. Desalination – Overview And Background

Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) desalination has emerged as one of the technologies of
choice to alleviate the problems of freshwater shortages. Since the 1990s, reverse osmosis (RO)
has been adopted in most arid and semi-arid regions around the world. Frequent droughts,
climate changes and seasonal shifts worldwide, in addition to population growth and depleted
traditional water resources, are among a myriad of factors that have forced many coastal
communities to seek reliable alternative sources of potable water. Desalination by reverse
osmosis (RO) has become the most cost-effective process to convert seawater into freshwater
for potable use at large scale. Nevertheless, research and development efforts are still needed

a. To reliably provide a feed water with a fouling potential as low as possible to the RO
membranes and
b. To lower the energy requirements of desalination plants by seawater RO as well as their
environmental impacts. For this reason, the chapter does not provide a complete overview
of a desalination plant but focuses on the current and emerging developments
in desalination with RO membrane systems.

Desalination of seawater and brackish groundwater is universally recognized as an attractive

option to produce fresh water for drinking purposes, especially where there is no alternative
water supply or where other alternatives to augment conventional water supplies have grown
more expensive than the cost of desalination.

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At present, thousands of desalination plants have been installed to supply drinking water for the
rapidly growing population in water-scarce countries including the MENA (Middle East and
North Africa) region, which produces 15 million m3/day of desalinated water out of the global
capacity of 24 million m3/day, a capacity that is, projected to double by 2020. Boosted by the
persistent drought of recent years, seawater desalination has evolved into a long-term solution
and is expected to play a significant role in the growing water demand in the MENA region. As
shown in Table 3.1, the abundance of seawater (about 97% of the volume of water on earth)
makes it an attractive supply source, at least for communities living in the vicinity of coastlines.

Table 3.1 Data on approximate volumes of global water resources (Source:

E.Kotzer, Et al., Desalination 185 (2005) 71–77).

The ubiquity of oceans and seas around the globe, and the industrial scale production of potable
water via desalination, seawater has transformed into a reliable “source.” Desalinated seawater
seems to provide a draught-resistant and constant supply of high quality potable water (UNEP,
2008). It has proven to satisfy the shortages of water demands in some of these regions. Aside
from its rich content of nutrients, bacteria and viruses, seawater contains high concentration
levels of total dissolved solids (TDS). A typical composition of seawater is shown in Table 3.2.
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Table 3.2 Typical seawater constituents and their concentrations (Source:

E.Kotzer, Et al., Desalination 185 (2005) 71–77)

The most common desalination technologies in the region are the distillation and the reverse
osmosis (RO) based plants. The distillation technology such as multistage flash (MSF), multi-
effect distillation (MED), and vapour compression (VC) include a change of phase to separate
the distilled water from the feed water, requiring substantial energy and discharge of a heavily
concentrated brine back into the sea. The RO desalination consists of feeding seawater through
a semipermeable membrane under a pressure level higher than the solution osmotic pressure,
typically 50–80 bar for seawater.

4. PROCESS DESIGN

Several desalination plants are implemented in an effort to solve the salinization problem. The
plants use raw brackish water from their nearby environment. The rejection of the brine to the
sea is attained through a single common pipeline which serves all the plants.

4.1. Design Parameters

Two test facilities were built in order to define the criteria for the design of the desalination
plants and the brine pipeline. The first facility, built by Mekorot Water Co. Ltd, is a reverse
osmosis desalination test facility destined to find the maximum attainable recovery ratio for the
brackish water. One of the most important targets of any desalination plant is a high as possible
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recovery ratio, both for economic reasons (to achieve more desalinated water production) and
for environmental reasons (the higher the recovery ratio the less brine is rejected). The results
at the test facility showed that a recovery ratio up to 93% can be achieved, at which point
CaCO3 scaling on the membrane surface was experienced. The high recovery ratio is achieved
by using membranes with a low salt rejection coefficient of 98.5 to 99%. The commercial
desalination plants are operating at 88% recovery ratio in order to keep a security margin to
prevent membrane blocking due to CaCO3 scaling.

The carrier for the disposal of the brine to the sea is a 27 km long pipeline, from the first
desalination plant, to the sea. This implies residence time of 100 hr. The chemistry of the brine,
and the residence time implies potential scale deposition upon the internal pipeline surface and
especially at points of reduced flow such as after elbows. The flow of the brine in the pipeline
is simulated in the Chemical Engineering Department. The recommendations resulting from the
simulation listed here in were implemented in reality with excellent results. After six month of
operation the brine carrier is clean from any signs of scaling.

 LSI index must be kept under 2 along the line. Since this index cannot be measured in a
continuous manner the parameters that affect it should be meticulously watched.
 CO2 decrease should be prevented since this causes the LSI index to increase and to raise
the scaling tendency over the pipeline.
 A fixed pH level should be maintained in the line with a maximum level of 7.2.
 A concentration level of 50 ppm antiscalant should be maintained throughout the entire
line
4.2. Reverse Osmosis (RO)

RO is used for both brackish water and seawater desalination as well as for waste water
treatment and water recovery/reuse. A typical RO desalting plant consists of three sections,
namely pretreatment section, membrane section and post treatment section. Conventional
pretreatment section typically consists of particulate filtration, micron filtration and chemicals
additions. Membrane section consists of membrane elements housed in pressure vessels
through which pretreated saline water is passed under pressure in excess of its osmotic pressure
with the help of a high pressure pump coupled with energy recovery device. The post treatment
section consists of lime treatment for pH correction and chlorination for disinfection as
required to meet public health standards and to make the water non-corrosive to the water
distribution systems. Energy consumption depends on the salt content of the feed water.
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Development of RO membranes of very high rejection, while maintaining high permeability,

has potential to reduce the energy consumption. Development of better energy recovery devices
can further reduce the energy consumption. As the success of RO desalination hinges on the
proper pre-treatment of the feed water, various membranes could precede RO in order to
selectively remove suspended solids (microfiltration), colloids/turbidity & organics
(ultrafiltration) and hardness and sulphates (nanofiltration).

The three desalination plants share the same design concepts:

a) The reverse osmosis units are composed of two desalination stages with a booster pump
between them, in order to balance the flux.
b) The units can operate in a recovery ratio varying between 80 and 88%.
c) High permeability, low energy membranes are used.

4.3. Brine Disposal Line

Reject brine, also referred in the literature as concentrate or wastewater, is a byproduct of the
desalination processes. Brine discharged is more concentrated than brackish water or seawater
and contains chemicals like antiscalant, used in the pretreatment of the feed water, washing
solutions, rejected backwash slurries from the feed water, and other substances. Special
attention has to be given in the design of the line to scaling problems that were anticipated due
to the length of the line and the strong precipitation potential of the supersaturated solution. The
brine carrier begins at the desalination plant and ends up on the seashore, where the brine is
rejected to the sea in a larger diameter pipe. The brine is rejected into the sea near the cooling
water outlet of the Electric Power Station in order to dilute the brine with a large quantity of
cooling water and minimize the effect over the marine ecological system. A pressure control
valve is installed in the brine outlet to insure a full flow profile, thus preventing the CO2 release
from the brine water which causes an increase of the Langelier index. The pressure control
valve regulates a constant back pressure. It is so designed that, in the future, as the flow of the
brine will increase, a hydraulic turbine will replace the pressure control valve.

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Fig. 4.1 Brine pipeline and the desalination plants location (Source: Science direct, 2005)

Fig.4.2 a topographic section of the brine line and the desalination plants (Source: Science
direct, 2005)

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, FIST, Poomala
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Fig.4.3. A manhole, with an inspection hole, in the pipeline for scaling checks
(Source: Science direct, 2005).

See Fig. 4. 1. for brine pipeline route and the desalination plants location and Fig.4.2 for
a topographic section of the brine pipeline. There are several check points along the line for the
purpose of periodical scaling checks (see Fig. 4.3). The brine pipeline is made of reinforced
fiberglass to prevent corrosion in case metal pipe was used due to the flow of acidic solution
with high concentration of chloride. An additional benefit of the fiberglass is its very smooth
internal surface, which is advantageous to prevent scale depositions. Three stations are used for
the injection of HC1 acid and antiscalant into the pipeline in order to maintain the pH and
antiscalant at the required levels. A leak control system is deployed along the line to prevent
soil pollution. Flow meters are installed at the entry point, on intersection points and at the exit
point. The capacity is measured continuously and a balance check is performed to assure that
the brine that enters the pipeline is rejected fully to the sea.

5. DESALINATION PLANTS: PERFORMANCE, AND THE BRINE DISPOSAL

LINE

In the beginning phase, the three plants are expected to reject approximately 8000 ton of
chloride per year and produce approximately 10 million m3 of desalinated water per year. In the
next phase the plants will be expanded to a 50 m3 meters desalinated water capacity and about
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90,000 ton of rejected solids, which will constitute about 40,000 ton of chloride per year. The
entire system, starting from the raw water supply and ending with the brine rejection is fully
automatic. Continuous monitoring of the pipeline ensures the proper routine operation of the
system. In the event of a several days maintenance shutdown of the desalination plants the
pipeline is washed with raw water in order to prevent trapped brine water in the pipeline. Once
a month the check points along the line are observed for scaling. The flow in the line continues
during this monthly check due to a detour system that allows the brine to bypass the check
points. Turbidity, pH, nitrates (N) and capacity parameters are monitored continuously at the
line end point in order to comply with the regulations of the Ministry of the Environment for
brine rejection.

6. PAST, CURRENT AND FUTURE SEA WATER DESALINATION

In 1999, the Israeli government initiated a long-term, large scale SWRO (Sea Water Reverse
Osmosis) desalination program. The program is designed to provide for the growing demands
on Israel’s scarce water resources, and to mitigate the drought conditions that have
characterized most years since the mid-1990. Since the initiation of the desalination program,
there have been several changes in government decisions regarding the targeted annual quantity
of desalinated water to be produced (Figure 6.1). These changes in target-production volumes
were influenced by short-term changes in the history of inter-annual rainfall, and by changes in
national consumption rates. The initial target capacity of 50 million cubic meters (MCM) per
year was re-set in 2002, to 400 MCM/year. This target was reduced in 2003 to 230 MCM/year
in response to an unprecedented large amount of rainfall in 2002. In July 2007, subsequent to
several drought years, the targeted production-capacity was re-set to 505 MCM/year, to be
reached by the year 2013. Additional drought conditions led to a further increase in target
capacity in 2008, to 750 MCM/year to be reached by the year 2020. From the 750 MCM, 600
MCM will be provided as quickly as possible.

Construction of the first large-scale (116 MCM/year) desalination facility was initiated in 2002
by private companies that won the government’s public tenders for construction, maintenance,
and operation of the facility. Subsequent desalination facilities all follow the same fundamental
procedures of public tendering and bids by the private sector for the construction and operation
of each facility. Israel’s long-term large-scale reverse-osmosis sea water desalination program
began contributing potable water to the national water grid in 2005. Three large-scale seawater
desalination facilities and some smaller brackish water desalination facilities currently (2010)
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provide 320 mcm of Israel’s potable water requirements (to all sectors). This volume is
equivalent to approximately 42% of the current domestic water requirements. Desalinated
production capacity is expected to increase to 577 MCM/year; and 750 MCM/year by the
respective years 2014; and 2020 (Figure 6.2).

Fig.6.1: Government Targets for Annual Desalination Production Capacity (Source: Sea
Water Desalination in Israel, October 2010)

Fig.6.2: Sea Water Desalination a) in each desalination facility in 2010 and 2014, and

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b) Nationally, from 2004-2020 (Etal; Sea Water Desalination in Israel, October 2010)

Israel’s desalination facilities are essential to sustainable potable water supplies in the State,
since they supplement the severely limited natural resources to a level that meets existing
national potable water demands. Desalinated supplies will allow Israel to close the gap between
national water supply and, and to realize plans to maintain this sustainable consumption-state in
the upcoming decades. According to targets outlined in the Water Authority’s Master Plan for
Water Sector Development for the period from 2010 to 2050, by the years 2015, 2025, and
2050 respectively, the construction of additional desalination facilities are expected to increase
desalinated supplies to approximately 22.5%, 28.5%, and 41% of all national potable water
demands (62.5%, 70% and 100% of the domestic water demands). Any supplementary
desalinated water that becomes available during these years will be used to aid in replenishing
Israel’s natural water systems.

7. DESALINATION OF BRACKISH WATER

In Israel several smaller desalination facilities desalinate brackish water from groundwater
wells, rather than sea water (Figure 7.1). Such facilities exist in Eilat, the Arava, and the
southern coastal plain of the Carmel. Total production of desalinated water from brackish
sources is currently 30 MCM/year, and planned production is expected to reach 60 MCM/year
and 80-90 MCM/year by the years 2013 and 2020, respectively.

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Figure 7.1: Brackish water Desalination program (Etal; Sea Water Desalination in Israel,
October 2010)

8. ENERGY AND COST-EFFICIENCY OF SEA WATER DESALINATION

Numerous policy-based, technological, mechanical, architectural, and managerial factors

contribute to making Israel’s large-scale desalination facilities among the most energy-efficient
and cost-efficient in the world (fig 8.1). The Israeli government tailors its tenders and the
associated bidding system in a way that maximizes energy and cost efficiency in the
construction and operation of these large-scale desalination plants. Energy-conservation is
promoted in the following ways:

 The cost of production per cubic meter is of key importance in winning a tender bid. Thus,
the reverse osmosis method of desalination wins tender bids, rather than alternative
technologies, since this reduces production-costs. The reverse osmosis method of
desalination involves separation of the salt molecules from the water by use of special-
purpose membranes. These membranes were developed in Israel in the 1960’s by
Professor Sidney Loub. Reverse osmosis is now a well-known technology for desalination,
with a notable advantage of low operating expenses relative to the alternative thermal
desalination systems. Relatively low energy-requirements in reverse osmosis systems are
responsible for low operating expenses.
 Scores on the bidding system favor natural gas power generation rather than coal
generators. Natural gas power generation produces only 20% of the CO 2 emissions
generated by coal power-plants. Natural gas power generation is also approximately 7 to
8% cheaper than the energy provided by the national (coal-driven) power system. This
savings reduces the cost of producing the desalinated water, thereby raising the bid-score
further (since cheaper water scores higher).
 Builders of the desalination facility are permitted to build a power plant that not only
provides power to the desalination facility, but also provides additional energy that can be
sold to the national power grid, at a profit to the builders. This allows further reductions in
the costs of the desalinated water-product (thereby increasing the bid-score further).

Two examples of the many other important factors responsible for the energy and cost-
efficiency of Israel’s large-scale desalination facilities are:

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a) Efficient technological energy-recovery systems that re-use energy in the midst of the
desalination process.
b) A government policy for dividing all risks between the private companies that receive the
tender, and the government. For example, the take-or-pay policy ensures that the
government will pay for the agreed-upon volume of water that is supplied by the
desalination facility each year, even if less than that volume is actually required or used.
The figure.8.1 illustrates a cost-comparison among international large-scale seawater
reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plants that have been built between 1997 and 2010
(ordered from left to right by price-quote date). Israeli desalination facilities are shown in
open bars, and facilities from other countries are shown by closed bars. Annual production
volumes are indicated within square-brackets on the x-axis, in millions of cubic meters.

Fig 8.1 Exceptional Cost Efficiency of Israel’s Desalination Facilities (Etal; Sea Water
Desalination in Israel, October 2010)

8.1. Coping With Difficulties And Economic Aspects Of Long-Term Risks

Numerous challenges are associated with the construction and operation of desalination
facilities and the nature of these challenges have changed over time. Initially, budgetary
constraints and opposition from the agricultural lobby were the biggest challenges. Current
challenges are as follows:
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8.1.1. Necessity And Pricing Of Desalination

The challenge of convincing consumers that:

a) Investing in sustainable water consumption is necessary

b) Desalination is an appropriate and efficient tool for achieving sustainable water
consumption
c) The costs of desalination are necessary

These themes are very significant for future development of the water sector. They ultimately
provide a budgetary source for short and long-term (several decades) planning and
implementation of the future water sector.

8.1.2. Land-Use For Desalination

There is a belief among some "Green" organizations and NGO's of all kinds that the national
water shortage is temporary and that in the future, Israel will receive all of the required water
quantities without the need for water desalination. These organizations therefore argue that
protection of nature and the coastal land is a higher priority than providing desalinated water.
The need for desalinated water provisions is certainly a necessity currently, and in the future.
Nevertheless, the protection of nature is also a very important consideration. Achieving a
balance between the nation’s water requirements and the desire to protect open coastal spaces is
a very difficult challenge. It significantly delays the time required to secure statutory permits
for the future construction of desalination facilities.

8.1.3. Meeting Requirements Of The Ministry Of Environmental Protection

Communications cover several issues such as:

 Determining the location for outflows of effluent (high-salinity water) to the sea
 Setting parameters for effluent water quality
 Setting quality parameters for outflows from brackish-water desalination facilities
 Setting quality parameters for desalination systems that are used for well-water
purification from the aquifers (this includes nitrate elimination).
 Setting the research requirements for each of the desalination facilities

The time required to address all of these issues is lengthy, and leads to delays in obtaining
statutory permissions for the construction of each facility.
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8.1.4. Shortages Of Coastal Properties

A shortage of coastal properties exists, due to coastal real estate development plans, and to
land-occupation by the Ministry of Defense. Formulation of agreements with the Ministry of
Defense for the construction of desalination facilities are feasible, but add long delays in
obtaining statutory permits.

8.1.5. Meeting Requirements Of The Ministry Of Health

The requirements of the Ministry of Health are extensive and time intensive, and include
updates to drinking water quality regulations. These updates require concomitant adjustments
to the desalinated water supplies. The Ministry of Health also requires "protection radiuses"
around desalination facilities, which can be impediments, particularly to the development of
inland brackish water desalination facilities.

8.1.6. Obtaining Agreements For Pipe-Transport

Pipelines are required, to connect the desalination facilities to the national pipe-conveyance
grid. These connecting pipelines typically pass over privately owned land. Agreements to allow
the pipe system to cross private land must be made with each of the respective land-owners.
This is the most difficult and time-consuming procedure involved in the construction of the
connecting pipeline.

8.1.7. Lengthy Construction Time

Planning and construction of the desalination facility itself is an enormous, time-consuming

endeavor. The key elements from start to finish are: completion of the tender process, obtaining
all of the statutory permits, and construction of the desalination facility and the water transport
infrastructure. Approximately five to seven years are required to complete this entire process,
from the time that a governmental decision is made to construct a new desalination facility, to
initiating supply of desalinated water to the national grid.

9. CASE STUDY: SPECIFICATIONS OF EXISTING AND PLANNED

DESALINATION FACILITIES

9.1. Ashkelon Desalination Plant

a) At the time of construction, this plant was the biggest RO plant in the world.

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b) Among the most economical operating expenses for any desalination facility in
the world.
c) Constructed and in operation by VID Desalination Company Ltd group.
d) Located south of the city of Ashkelon, in southern Israel.
e) A BOT project (Build Operate & Transfer) for approximately 25 years.

Fig. 9.1 Ashkelon desalination plant (Sea Water Desalination in Israel, October 2010)

f) Construction initiated in 2003; water supply initiated on August 2005; fully

operational in December 2005.
g) Production capacity was 100 MCM/year.in 2005; 105 MCM/year in 2007; 111
MCM/year in 2008; 114 MCM/year in 2009; and approximately 120 MCM/year
in 2010.
h) In May 2010 the plant reached a total supply to date (across all operational years)
of 500,000 MCM

9.2.Palmachim Desalination Plant

a) Located north of Kibbutz Palmachim, in the central part of Israel.
b) A BOO project (Build, Owned & Operate) for 25 years.
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c) The owner is Via Maris Desalination Ltd.

d) Construction started in May 2005. Water supply started in May 2007.
e) Production capacity was initially 30 MCM/year
f) Subsequent to an expansion in April 2010 production capacity of the plant is
currently approximately 45 MCM/year.

Fig. 9.2: Palmachim desalination plant (Journal: Sea Water Desalination in Israel,
October 2010)

9.3. Hadera Desalination Plant

a) Located west of the city of Hadera, north of the Hadera stream, in north-central Israel.
b) A BOT project (Build, Operate & Transfer) for 25 years.
c) Construction began in June 2007.Water supply began in December 2009.
d) Production capacity was initially 100 MCM/year.
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e) Subsequent to the expansion of the facility by the end of this year (2010) (Figure 6), the
plant will provide approximately 127 MCM/year.
f) To date, the Hadera Plant is the largest SWRO in the world in operation.

Fig. 9.3: Hadera desalination plant (Journal: Sea Water Desalination in Israel, October
2010)

9.4. Soreq Desalination Plant

a) The plant will be located south-west of the city of Rishon Letzion, north of the Soreq
stream, in north-central Israel.
b) A BOT project (Build, Operate & Transfer) for 25 years.
c) The agreement with SDL group for the BOT project was signed in mid-January 2010.
d) The production capacity will be 150 MCM/year.
e) Water production at full capacity is forecasted to the end of 2013.
9.5. Concluding Statements

The planning, construction, and long-term operation of desalination facilities involve daily
challenges, decision-making processes, and creative innovations that maximize the efficiency
of each new (and always unique) facility. Israel’s continuing success in overcoming each new
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challenge is the key to achieving sustainable national water use with independent national
water resources. This has been the goal of the water sector since the founding of the State of
Israel. Success in implementing Israel’s long-term desalination construction plan is important
for enhancing the growth and prosperity of the State of Israel.

10. CONCLUSIONS
According to the introduction of desalination technologies in different parts of the world, a
clear trend of suitable and sustainable development is shown. As there is a small amount of
brine deposit in comparison with the massive quantities of chloride that were accumulated on
the soil over the years, it presents a step in the right direction and a proof to the efficiency of
the scheme for large scale removal of chloride from the soil. The process of purging the soil is
very slow and might take decades to complete, but at the end the following targets will be
attained:
a) Removing the salty layers of underground brackish water.
b) Preventing the salinization of the entire aquifer.
c) Providing fresh water that would serve to wash the salt off the ground.

Reuse of wastewater for irrigation purposes has proved to be one of the best ways to recycle
nutrients and water and thus protect the environment and the public health. It contributes
directly to the environmental sustainability by increasing crop production and decreasing
amounts of pollutants discharged into the environment. The prime goal of these plans is to
utilize 100% of the reclaimed wastewater mainly in restricted agricultural irrigation.

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REFERENCE

1. Kotzer, E., 2005. Artificial kidneys for the soil—solving the problem of salinization of the
soil and underground water. Desalination, 185(1-3), pp.71-77.
2. Morillo, J., Usero, J., Rosado, D., El Bakouri, H., Riaza, A. and Bernaola, F.J., 2014.
Comparative study of brine management technologies for desalination
plants. Desalination, 336, pp.32-49.
3. Shulman, A., David, I., Gelman, E. and Priel, M., 2011. Control and management of brine
disposal for inland desalination plants. Desalination and Water Treatment, 31(1-3), pp.71-
81.
4. Lakretz, A., Adler, M., Orly, E. and Priel, M., 2015. Lahat BWRO plant: technical and
economic evaluation of energy recovery alternatives. Desalination and Water
Treatment, 55(11), pp.3040-3047.
5. Alameddine, I. and El-Fadel, M., 2007. Brine discharge from desalination plants: a
modeling approach to an optimized outfall design. Desalination, 214(1-3), pp.241-260.
6. Mohamed, A.M.O., Maraqa, M. and Al Handhaly, J., 2005. Impact of land disposal of
reject brine from desalination plants on soil and groundwater. Desalination, 182(1-3),
pp.411-433.

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