Guia de Hipoglucemia

S P E C I A L F E A T U R E
C l i n i c a l P r a c t i c e G u i d e l i n e
Evaluation and Management of Adult Hypoglycemic

Disorders: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice
Guideline
Philip E. Cryer, Lloyd Axelrod, Ashley B. Grossman, Simon R. Heller, Victor M. Montori,
Elizabeth R. Seaquist, and F. John Service
Washington University School of Medicine (P.E.C.), St. Louis, Missouri 63110; Massachusetts General Hospital and
Harvard Medical School (L.A.), Boston, Massachusetts 02114; Barts and the London School of Medicine, Queen Mary
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/94/3/709/2596247 by guest on 27 May 2022

University of London (A.B.G.), London E1 2AD, United Kingdom; University of Sheffield (S.R.H.), Sheffield S10 2TN,
United Kingdom; University of Minnesota (E.R.S.), Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455; and Mayo Clinic (V.M.M., F.J.S.),
Rochester, Minnesota 55905
Objective: The aim is to provide guidelines for the evaluation and management of adults with
hypoglycemic disorders, including those with diabetes mellitus.
Evidence: Using the recommendations of the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Devel-

opment and Evaluation (GRADE) system, the quality of evidence is graded very low (QEEE), low
(QQEE), moderate (QQQE), or high (QQQQ).
Conclusions: We recommend evaluation and management of hypoglycemia only in patients in

whom Whipple’s triad—symptoms, signs, or both consistent with hypoglycemia, a low plasma
glucose concentration, and resolution of those symptoms or signs after the plasma glucose
concentration is raised—is documented. In patients with hypoglycemia without diabetes mel-
litus, we recommend the following strategy. First, pursue clinical clues to potential hypogly-
cemic etiologies— drugs, critical illnesses, hormone deficiencies, nonislet cell tumors. In the
absence of these causes, the differential diagnosis narrows to accidental, surreptitious, or even
malicious hypoglycemia or endogenous hyperinsulinism. In patients suspected of having en-
dogenous hyperinsulinism, measure plasma glucose, insulin, C-peptide, proinsulin, ␤-hydroxy-
butyrate, and circulating oral hypoglycemic agents during an episode of hypoglycemia and
measure insulin antibodies. Insulin or insulin secretagogue treatment of diabetes mellitus is
the most common cause of hypoglycemia. We recommend the practice of hypoglycemia risk
factor reduction—addressing the issue of hypoglycemia, applying the principles of intensive
glycemic therapy, and considering both the conventional risk factors and those indicative of
compromised defenses against falling plasma glucose concentrations—in persons with
diabetes. (J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94: 709 –728, 2009)
Summary of Recommendations 2.0 Evaluation and management of hypoglycemia in

persons without diabetes mellitus
1.0 Workup for a hypoglycemic disorder 2.1 Compared with a much less thorough workup, we rec-
1.1 We recommend evaluation and management of hypoglyce- ommend the following strategy in patients with hypoglycemia
mia only in patients in whom Whipple’s triad—symptoms, signs, or without diabetes mellitus (1QQQE):
both consistent with hypoglycemia, a low plasma glucose concen-
tration, and resolution of those symptoms or signs after the plasma • Review the history, physical findings, and all available
glucose concentration is raised—is documented (1QQQQ). laboratory data seeking clues to specific disorders— drugs,
ISSN Print 0021-972X ISSN Online 1945-7197 Abbreviations: CSII, Continuous sc insulin infusion; HAAF, hypoglycemia-associated au-
Printed in U.S.A. tonomic failure; HbA1C, hemoglobin A1C; MDI, multiple daily insulin injection; MEN-1,
Copyright © 2009 by The Endocrine Society multiple endocrine neoplasia, type 1; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; NIPHS, nonin-
doi: 10.1210/jc.2008-1410 Received July 2, 2008. Accepted December 8, 2008. sulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycemia syndrome; T1DM, type 1 diabetes mellitus;
First Published Online December 16, 2008 T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab, March 2009, 94(3):709 –728 jcem.endojournals.org 709

710 Cryer et al. Evaluation and Management of Adult Hypoglycemia J Clin Endocrinol Metab, March 2009, 94(3):709 –728
critical illnesses, hormone deficiencies, nonislet cell 3.4 We recommend that both the conventional risk factors
tumors. and those indicative of compromised defenses against hypogly-
• When the cause of the hypoglycemic disorder is not evident, cemia be considered in a patient with recurrent treatment-in-
i.e. in a seemingly well individual, measure plasma glucose, duced hypoglycemia (1QQQQ). The conventional risk factors
insulin, C-peptide, proinsulin, and ␤-hydroxybutyrate con- are excessive or ill-timed dosing of, or wrong type of, insulin or
centrations and screen for oral hypoglycemic agents, during insulin secretagogue and conditions under which exogenous glu-
an episode of spontaneous hypoglycemia, and observe the cose delivery or endogenous glucose production is decreased,
plasma glucose response to iv injection of 1.0 mg glucagon. glucose utilization is increased, sensitivity to insulin is increased,
These steps will distinguish hypoglycemia caused by endog- or insulin clearance is decreased. Compromised defenses against
enous (or exogenous) insulin from that caused by other mech- hypoglycemia are indicated by the degree of endogenous insulin
anisms. Also, measure insulin antibodies. deficiency, a history of severe hypoglycemia, hypoglycemia un-
• When a spontaneous hypoglycemic episode cannot be ob- awareness, or both as well as recent antecedent hypoglycemia,
served, formally recreate the circumstances in which symp- prior exercise or sleep, and lower glycemic goals per se.

tomatic hypoglycemia is likely to occur, i.e. during a fast of up 3.5 With a history of hypoglycemia unawareness (i.e. recur-
to 72 h or after a mixed meal. The findings of symptoms, signs,
rent hypoglycemia without symptoms), we recommend a 2- to
or both with plasma concentrations of glucose less than 55
3-wk period of scrupulous avoidance of hypoglycemia, with the
mg/dl (3.0 mmol/liter), insulin of at least 3.0 ␮U/ml (18 pmol/
anticipation that awareness of hypoglycemia will return in many
liter), C-peptide of at least 0.6 ng/ml (0.2 nmol/liter), and
patients (1QQEE).
proinsulin of at least 5.0 pmol/liter document endogenous
3.6 Unless the cause is easily remediable, we recommend that an
hyperinsulinism; ␤-hydroxybutyrate levels of 2.7 mmol/liter
episode of severe hypoglycemia should lead to a fundamental re-
or less and an increase in plasma glucose of at least 25 mg/dl
view of the treatment regimen and the glycemic goals (1QQQQ).
(1.4 mmol/liter) after iv glucagon indicate mediation of the
3.7 We recommend that urgent treatment of hypoglycemia
hypoglycemia by insulin (or by an IGF).
should be accomplished by ingestion of carbohydrates if that is
• In a patient with documented fasting or postprandial endog-
enous hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, negative screening for feasible, or by parenteral glucagon or glucose if it is not feasible
oral hypoglycemic agents, and no circulating insulin antibod- (1QQQQ).
ies, conduct procedures for localizing an insulinoma. These
may include computed tomography or magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), transabdominal and endoscopic ultrasonog-
raphy, and, if necessary, selective pancreatic arterial calcium
Method of Development of Evidence-Based
injections with measurements of hepatic venous insulin levels. Recommendations
• Tailor treatment to the specific hypoglycemic disorder, taking The Task Force followed the approach recommended by the
into account the burden of hypoglycemia on patient well- Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and
being and patient preferences.
Evaluation system (1) with guidance from the methodologist
(V.M.M.). A detailed description of this grading scheme has been
3.0 Evaluation and management of hypoglycemia in
published (2). In brief, strong recommendations use the phrase
persons with diabetes mellitus
“we recommend” and the number 1, and weak recommenda-
3.1 We suggest that persons with diabetes become concerned
tions use the phrase “we suggest” and the number 2. The Task
about the possibility of developing hypoglycemia when the self-
Force has confidence that patients who receive care according to
monitored blood glucose concentration is falling rapidly or is no
the recommendations will derive, on average, more good than
greater than 70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/liter) (2QEEE).
harm. Suggestions require more careful consideration of the pa-
3.2 Given the established long-term microvascular benefits
tient’s circumstances, values, and preferences. Cross-filled circles
of glycemic control, we recommend that the therapeutic gly-
cemic goal be the lowest mean glycemia [e.g. hemoglobin A1c (Q) indicate the quality of the evidence: QEEE denotes very low
(HbA1C)] that can be accomplished safely in a given patient at quality evidence; QQEE, low quality; QQQE, moderate quality;
a given point in the progression of that individual patient’s and QQQQ, high quality. The quality of the evidence indicates
diabetes (1QQQQ). the panel’s confidence that the estimates of risks and benefits
3.3 We recommend that the prevention of hypoglycemia in associated with the recommended course of action compared
diabetes involve addressing the issue in each patient contact and, with an alternative course of action are correct and unlikely to
if hypoglycemia is a problem, making adjustments in the regimen change importantly with new research.
based on review and application of the principles of intensive Linked to each recommendation is a description of the Evi-
glycemic therapy— diabetes self-management (supported by ed- dence, the Values that panelists considered in making the rec-
ucation and empowerment), frequent self-monitoring of blood ommendation (when making these explicit was necessary), and
glucose, flexible and appropriate insulin or insulin secretagogue Remarks, a section in which panelists offer technical suggestions
regimens, individualized glycemic goals, and ongoing profes- for testing conditions. The latter come from the unsystematic
sional guidance and support—and consideration of each of the observations of the panelists and should, therefore, be consid-
known risk factors for hypoglycemia (1QQQE). ered suggestions.
1.0 Workup for a Hypoglycemic Disorder e.g. after a glucose load, causing glucose extraction across the
forearm (11). Finally, because of the provision of alternative
Recommendation circulating fuels to the brain (specifically ketones), lower plasma
1.1 We recommend evaluation and management of hypogly- glucose concentrations occur in healthy individuals, particularly
cemia only in patients in whom Whipple’s triad—symptoms, in women and children, without symptoms or signs during ex-
signs, or both consistent with hypoglycemia, a low plasma glu- tended fasting (7). For all of these reasons, it is not possible to
cose concentration, and resolution of those symptoms or signs state a single plasma glucose concentration that categorically
after the plasma glucose concentration is raised—is documented defines hypoglycemia.
(1QQQQ). Plasma glucose concentrations used to document Whipple’s
triad, in the absence of insulin or insulin secretagogue treatment
1.1 Evidence of diabetes, must be measured with a reliable laboratory method,
Clinical hypoglycemia is a plasma (or serum) glucose con- not with self-monitoring of blood glucose. Although a distinctly
centration low enough to cause symptoms and/or signs, includ- low, reliably measured plasma glucose concentration obtained in

ing impairment of brain function. The clinical manifestations of the absence of recognized symptoms or signs should not be ignored,
hypoglycemia are nonspecific, it is not possible to state a single that finding raises the possibility of “pseudohypoglycemia”—an
plasma glucose concentration that categorically defines hypo- artifact of continued glucose metabolism by the formed elements of
glycemia, and a low measured plasma glucose concentration can the blood after the sample is drawn. That may occur when the blood
be artifactual. Therefore, hypoglycemia is confirmed by docu- sample is collected in a tube that does not contain an inhibitor of
mentation of Whipple’s triad (3): symptoms, signs, or both con- glycolysis and separation of the plasma (or serum) from the formed
sistent with hypoglycemia, a low plasma glucose concentration, elements is delayed, particularly in the setting of erythrocytosis,
and resolution of those symptoms or signs after the plasma glucose leukocytosis, or thrombocytosis (12).
concentration is raised. In the absence of Whipple’s triad, the patient Documentation of Whipple’s triad establishes that a hypo-
may be exposed to unnecessary evaluation, costs, and potential glycemic disorder exists. Its etiology may be apparent (e.g. in a
harms, without expectation of benefit. This very large potentially patient with insulin-treated diabetes) or a diagnostic challenge
beneficial effect of documenting Whipple’s triad upgrades the evi- (e.g. in a seemingly well individual with an insulinoma). On
dence (based on consistent clinical observations), thus supporting a the other hand, in a person who does not have diabetes mel-
rating of high quality. (A rare exception would be a patient who is litus an unequivocally normal plasma glucose concentration
physically unable to communicate symptoms.) [e.g. ⬎70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/liter) (7)] during a symptomatic
Symptoms of hypoglycemia are categorized as neuroglyco- episode indicates that those symptoms are not the result of
penic (the result of brain glucose deprivation per se) and neuro- hypoglycemia.
genic or autonomic (largely the result of the perception of phys-
iological changes caused by the sympathoadrenal discharge 1.1 Values
triggered by hypoglycemia) (4). Awareness of hypoglycemia is Hypoglycemia is rare in persons who do not have drug-
mainly the result of the perception of neurogenic symptoms (4), treated diabetes mellitus (12–15). Furthermore, not requiring
which are largely sympathetic neural, rather than adrenomed- Whipple’s triad to initiate a workup will very likely expose pa-
ullary, in origin (5). Some neurogenic symptoms, such as palpi- tients who do not have a specific pathology causing hypoglyce-
tations, tremor, and arousal/anxiety, are adrenergic whereas mia to unnecessary evaluations, costs, and potential harms with-
others, such as sweating, hunger, and paresthesias, are cholin- out expectation of benefit. Therefore, we believe it is important
ergic (4). Neuroglycopenic symptoms (4) range from behavioral to document Whipple’s triad before concluding that a hypogly-
changes, fatigue, and confusion to seizure and loss of conscious- cemic disorder exists. On the other hand, hypoglycemia is com-
ness, i.e. functional brain failure (6). Seemingly complete recov- mon in persons with insulin- or insulin secretagogue-treated di-
ery after the glucose level is raised is the rule, although on rare abetes mellitus (12, 16). Confirmation of Whipple’s triad, e.g.
occasions neurological recovery is delayed. Profound, prolonged with self-monitoring of blood glucose, during an episode of sus-
hypoglycemia can cause brain death (6). Signs of hypoglycemia, pected hypoglycemia is advisable in such a patient. However, if
such as diaphoresis and pallor, are often subtle, although neu- that is not practical, it is reasonable to assume the episode is
roglycopenic manifestations are often observable. caused by hypoglycemia for therapeutic purposes because the
In healthy individuals, symptoms of hypoglycemia develop at probability of that assumption is high and the potential negative
a mean plasma glucose concentration of approximately 55 mg/dl impact of an untreated episode is considerable.
(3.0 mmol/liter) (7). However, the glycemic thresholds for this
and other responses to hypoglycemia shift to lower plasma glu-
cose concentrations in patients with recurrent hypoglycemia (7– 2.0 Evaluation and Management of
10). Furthermore, whereas arteriovenous plasma glucose con- Hypoglycemia in Persons without Diabetes
centration differences are clinically negligible in the Mellitus
postabsorptive state, antecubital venous plasma glucose concen-
trations are as much as one third lower than arterial glucose Background
concentrations (which are relevant to maintaining brain glucose Because of the effectiveness of the normal defenses against
metabolism) when insulin secretion is increased substantially, falling plasma glucose concentrations (7), hypoglycemia is an
uncommon clinical event (12–15) except in persons who use • Review the history, physical findings, and all available labo-
drugs that lower plasma glucose levels, particularly insulin or an ratory data seeking clues to specific disorders— drugs, critical
insulin secretagogue, to treat diabetes mellitus (12, 16). Hypo- illnesses, hormone deficiencies, nonislet cell tumors.
glycemia is a fact of life for most persons with type 1 diabetes and • When the cause of the hypoglycemic disorder is not evident,
many with type 2 diabetes. Although persons with diabetes are i.e. in a seemingly well individual, measure plasma glucose,
not spared the risk for the same hypoglycemic disorders as those insulin, C-peptide, proinsulin, and ␤-hydroxybutyrate con-
without diabetes, the vast majority of their hypoglycemic epi- centrations and screen for oral hypoglycemic agents, during
sodes are the result of treatment of their diabetes. Furthermore, an episode of spontaneous hypoglycemia, and observe the
the pathophysiology of hypoglycemia in diabetes is distinct, plasma glucose response to iv injection of 1.0 mg glucagon.
and the diagnostic and management approaches are different These steps will distinguish hypoglycemia caused by endog-
from those in individuals without diabetes (12, 16). Therefore, enous (or exogenous) insulin from that caused by other mech-
we address hypoglycemia in persons without diabetes and in anisms. Also, measure insulin antibodies.
those with diabetes separately. • When a spontaneous hypoglycemic episode cannot be ob-

served, formally recreate the circumstances in which symp-
Physiology and pathophysiology tomatic hypoglycemia is likely to occur, i.e. during a fast of up
Glucose is an obligate metabolic fuel for the brain under phys- to 72 h or after a mixed meal. The findings of symptoms, signs,
iological conditions (6, 7). Because the brain cannot synthesize or both with plasma concentrations of glucose less than
glucose, use physiological circulating concentrations of alterna- 55 mg/dl (3.0 mmol/liter), insulin of at least 3.0 ␮U/ml (18
tive fuels effectively, or store more than a few minutes’ supply as pmol/liter), C-peptide of at least 0.6 ng/ml (0.2 nmol/liter),
glycogen, maintenance of brain function, and ultimately sur- and proinsulin of at least 5.0 pmol/liter document endogenous
vival, requires a virtually continuous supply of glucose from the hyperinsulinism; ␤-hydroxybutyrate levels of 2.7 mmol/liter
circulation. That, in turn, requires maintenance of the plasma or less and an increase in plasma glucose of at least 25 mg/dl
glucose level within the physiological range because blood-to- (1.4 mmol/liter) after iv glucagon indicate mediation of the
brain glucose transport is a direct function of the arterial plasma hypoglycemia by insulin (or by an IGF).
glucose concentration. Redundant glucose counterregulatory • In a patient with documented fasting or postprandial endog-
mechanisms normally effectively prevent or rapidly correct hy- enous hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, negative screening for
poglycemia (7). The critical physiological defenses include: 1) a oral hypoglycemic agents, and no circulating insulin antibod-
decrease in insulin secretion as glucose levels decline within the ies, conduct procedures for localizing an insulinoma. These
physiological range; 2) an increase in glucagon secretion; or, in may include computed tomography or MRI, transabdominal
its absence, 3) an increase in epinephrine secretion, both occur- and endoscopic ultrasonography, and, if necessary, selective
ring as glucose levels decline just below the physiological range. pancreatic arterial calcium injections with measurements of
Increased cortisol and GH secretion are involved in defense hepatic venous insulin levels.
against prolonged hypoglycemia. If these defenses fail to abort • Tailor treatment to the specific hypoglycemic disorder, taking
the episode, plasma glucose levels will continue to fall. Symp- into account the burden of hypoglycemia on patient well-
toms, which prompt the behavioral defense of food ingestion, being and patient preferences.
normally develop at a mean plasma glucose concentration of
approximately 55 mg/dl (3.0 mmol/liter). At that and lower glu- 2.1 Evidence
cose levels, insulin secretion is suppressed virtually completely Because hypoglycemic disorders are rare in persons without
(7, 17); plasma insulin levels are below 3 ␮U/ml (18 pmol/liter), diabetes, recommendations for their evaluation and manage-
C-peptide levels are below 0.6 ng/ml (0.2 nmol/liter), and pro- ment must rely largely on clinical experience. However, the im-
insulin levels are below 5.0 pmol/liter (14). plicit alternative approach to the recommendations we propose
Because external losses are normally negligible, hypoglyce- is a much less thorough clinical evaluation. Compared with this
mia develops when the sum of glucose utilization from the cir- alternative, the large potential benefit of a thorough workup
culation (largely by the brain but also by obligatory glycolytic upgrades the quality of the evidence to moderate. Of note, how-
tissues, such as the renal medullae and erythrocytes, and insulin- ever, much lower quality evidence supports the recommended
sensitive tissues, such as muscle) exceeds the sum of glucose de- strategy when compared with strategies with minor modifica-
livery into the circulation (from ingested carbohydrates and he- tions or omissions.
patic and renal glucose production) (12–15). Because of the
capacity to increase endogenous glucose production substan- General differential diagnosis
tially, hypoglycemia is typically the result of absolutely low rates Causes of hypoglycemia are outlined in Table 1. Drugs are the
of glucose production or rates of glucose production that are low most common cause of hypoglycemia (12, 18 –21). In addition to
relative to high rates of glucose utilization. insulin and insulin secretagogues, offending drugs include alco-
hol (12, 19, 20) among others, as detailed below. Hypoglycemia
Recommendation sometimes occurs during sepsis and in other critical illnesses in-
2.1 Compared with a much less thorough workup, we rec- cluding renal or hepatic failure, and rarely in cortisol deficiency
ommend the following strategy in patients with hypoglycemia (12). Hypoglycemia caused by nonislet cell tumors or endoge-
without diabetes mellitus (1QQQE): nous hyperinsulinism is rare (12–15). It can also be accidental,
TABLE 1. Causes of hypoglycemia in adults TABLE 2. Drugs other than antihyperglycemic agents and
alcohol reported to cause hypoglycemia (24)
Ill or medicated individual
1. Drugs Moderate quality of evidence (QQQ䡬)
Insulin or insulin secretagogue Cibenzoline
Alcohol Gatifloxacin
Others (Table 2) Pentamidine
2. Critical illnesses Quinine
Hepatic, renal, or cardiac failure Indomethacin
Sepsis (including malaria) Glucagon (during endoscopy)
Inanition
Low quality of evidence (QQ䡬䡬)
3. Hormone deficiency
Chloroquineoxaline sulfonamide
Cortisol
Artesunate/artemisin/artemether
Glucagon and epinephrine (in insulin-deficient diabetes mellitus)
IGF-I
4. Nonislet cell tumor
Lithium
Seemingly well individual Propoxyphene/dextropropoxyphene

5. Endogenous hyperinsulinism
Very low quality of evidence (Q䡬䡬䡬)
Insulinoma
Drugs with ⬎25 cases of hypoglycemia identified
Functional ␤-cell disorders (nesidioblastosis)
Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors
Noninsulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycemia
Angiotensin receptor antagonists
Post gastric bypass hypoglycemia
Insulin autoimmune hypoglycemia ␤-Adrenergic receptor antagonists
Levofloxacin
Antibody to insulin
Mifepristone
Antibody to insulin receptor
Disopyramide
Insulin secretagogue
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
Other
Heparin
6. Accidental, surreptitious, or malicious hypoglycemia
6-Mercaptopurine
Drugs with ⬍25 cases of hypoglycemia identified (see Ref. 24)
surreptitious, or even malicious (22). Hypoglycemia can occur as

a result of hyperinsulinism in the absence of previous gastric therapy). Hypoglycemia is a sentinel event for many of the sys-
surgery or after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass for obesity. It can also tems errors that compromise the safety of hospitalized patients
be caused by an antibody to insulin (12, 13, 15). (26). These include failure to reconcile admission orders with
preadmission medications and diet, frequent transfers between
Classification of hypoglycemia hospital units, frequent travel of patients for radiological and
The traditional classification of hypoglycemia in persons surgical procedures and other diagnostic and therapeutic inter-
without diabetes—postabsorptive (fasting) vs. postprandial (re- ventions, and inappropriate use of an insulin sliding scale.
active) hypoglycemia— has been challenged (14). Persons with
an insulinoma, who typically have postabsorptive hypoglyce- Clinical evaluation
mia, may experience postprandial hypoglycemia, and post-gas- Persons with a hypoglycemic disorder present clinically with
tric-bypass patients, who typically have postprandial hypogly- a history either of discrete spells compatible with hypoglycemia
cemia, may have symptoms when fasting. Indeed, some or of a serendipitously measured low plasma glucose concentra-
disorders, e.g. factitious hypoglycemia, are not readily classified tion. Careful elicitation of the history of the spells, noting the
as either postabsorptive or postprandial. Postprandial symptoms specific symptoms, their timing and duration, and any aggra-
without Whipple’s triad, previously called “reactive hypoglyce- vating and relieving factors, is essential for the formulation of a
mia,” indicate a functional disorder in which symptoms are not due diagnostic course of action. Persons with only neurogenic symp-
to hypoglycemia and for which an oral glucose tolerance test is not toms (with no documented low glucose levels) are unlikely to
indicated (23). A more useful categorization for the clinician is to have a hypoglycemic disorder. However, even one episode of
establish whether the patient is seemingly well or has the burden of neuroglycopenia warrants a diagnostic evaluation.
a potentially relevant treatment or disease. With respect to the latter, Initially, the history (including exposure to any medications),
it cannot be overemphasized that in any patient with hypoglycemia, the physical examination, and a careful review of available lab-
mediation by a medication must be considered. oratory data guide the evaluation. These will usually either pro-
vide clues to a cause of hypoglycemia or exclude hypoglycemia
Drugs that can cause hypoglycemia caused by acknowledged medications, critical illnesses, hormone
Many drugs in addition to insulin, insulin secretagogues, and deficiencies, or a nonislet cell tumor (Table 1). A test of adreno-
alcohol have been reported to cause hypoglycemia (12–15, 18 – cortical function is reasonable, although adrenocortical failure is
21, 24). Many of these are listed in Table 2 (24). not commonly found as a cause of hypoglycemia in adults in the
Drugs, often in the setting of critical illnesses including renal absence of other clinical clues. A seemingly low plasma cortisol
failure, are the most common cause of hypoglycemia in hospitals concentration measured during spontaneous hypoglycemia is
(18). Again, insulin or insulin secretagogues are common of- not sufficient evidence of adrenocortical insufficiency because of
fending drugs (18, 25), particularly when administered when the effect of recurrent hypoglycemia to shift glycemic thresholds
enteral or parenteral nutrition is interrupted or when sensitivity for cortisol secretion to lower plasma glucose concentrations
to insulin is increased (e.g. after withdrawal of glucocorticoid (10). Although hypoglycemia in patients with nonislet cell tu-
mors is often the result of tumor overproduction of incompletely most often due to pancreatic islet nesidioblastosis, but occasion-
processed IGF-II (27), hypoglycemia attributed to overproduc- ally due to an insulinoma (48 –50). With nesidioblastosis, spells
tion of IGF-I has also been reported (28). Nonislet cell tumor of neuroglycopenia usually occur in the postprandial period and
hypoglycemia is usually, but not invariably, associated with develop many months after bariatric surgery. Spells of neuroglyco-
large, clinically apparent mesenchymal tumors. The tumors typ- penia that occur in the fasting state soon after bariatric surgery are
ically secrete excessive amounts of pro-IGF-II. This form of more likely due to a preexisting insulinoma (51). The predominance
IGF-II binds poorly to its binding proteins and therefore more of women with post-gastric-bypass hypoglycemia may reflect the
freely penetrates tissue spaces. The total level of IGF-II may be gender imbalance of bariatric surgery. The precise mechanisms of
normal, but the ratio of pro-IGF-II to IGF-II may be elevated; this hypoglycemia remain to be determined (52–54). The incidence
can be demonstrated by chromatographic techniques, most eas- of this disorder is unknown, but at the Mayo Clinic the number of
ily and rapidly using thin layer chromatography (29). Because of cases exceeds, by a considerable degree, that of insulinoma. Partial
suppressed GH secretion and the resulting low IGF-I levels, pancreatectomy is recommended for nesidioblastosis in patients
IGF-II to IGF-I ratios are elevated (27). Free IGF-II (or IGF-I) who do not respond to dietary or medical (e.g. an ␣-glucosidase

levels are increased (30), but these measurements are not yet inhibitor, diazoxide, octreotide) treatments.
generally available. Endogenous insulin secretion is suppressed Hypoglycemia due to the development of antibodies to native
appropriately in nonislet cell tumor hypoglycemia. insulin is a rare disorder reported to occur primarily among per-
In a seemingly well individual, the differential diagnosis nar- sons of Japanese or Korean ethnicity (55) and significantly less
rows to two general categories: accidental, surreptitious, or even frequently in Caucasians (56). Persons with this disorder often
malicious hypoglycemia and endogenous hyperinsulinism (12– have a history of autoimmune disease or exposure to sulfhydryl-
15). Careful consideration of the former possibility (22) should containing drugs. Symptoms occur in the late postprandial pe-
precede a systematic assessment of the latter possibility. Phar- riod as insulin secreted in response to the meal and then bound
macy errors (e.g. substitution of a sulfonylurea for another med- to the circulating antibody dissociates from the antibody in an
ication) and medical treatment errors occur (31). Surreptitious unregulated fashion. Clues to the diagnosis include very high
hypoglycemia (22, 32–35) is more common in people with measured insulin levels during hypoglycemia. That can be the
knowledge of, and access to, glucose-lowering medications. Ma- result of an assay artifact caused by the antibody. The severity of
licious hypoglycemia (22, 36, 37) can be accomplished by ad- hypoglycemia varies from mild, and treatable with lifestyle
ministration of insulin or an insulin secretagogue. changes, to severe, for which no modality aside from intragastric
Clinically, insulinoma is characterized by spells of neurogly- glucose infusion has been effective. The diagnosis is readily made
copenia due to endogenous hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia oc- by the finding of high titer serum insulin antibodies. A similar
curring primarily in the fasting state but occasionally only in the hypoglycemic disorder has been described in patients who have
postprandial period (23, 38, 39). The incidence is approximately a high capacity insulin binding monoclonal paraprotein (57).
1 in 250,000 patient-years (40). It may occur in all ethnic groups
and at any age and has a slight predominance in women. Less Evaluation of hypoglycemia in seemingly well individuals
than 10% of patients have malignant insulinomas, have multiple If a seemingly well patient is symptomatic when seen by the
tumors, or have the multiple endocrine neoplasia, type 1 caregiver, the most expeditious diagnostic maneuver (14, 15) is
(MEN-1) syndrome. The recurrence rate after surgical resec- to obtain plasma for the measurement of glucose, insulin, C-
tion is 7% for patients without MEN-1 and 21% for those peptide, proinsulin, ␤-hydroxybutyrate, and circulating oral hy-
with MEN-1 (40). Recurrences before 4 yr have elapsed from poglycemic agents (ideally all available sulfonylureas and glin-
the initial removal of the tumor suggest fracture of the insu- ides), and then to correct the hypoglycemia with the injection of
linoma at the time of the original enucleation (41). Long-term 1.0 mg glucagon iv with measurement of the plasma glucose
survival is the rule for patients who have undergone successful response. These data will distinguish endogenous (and exoge-
insulinoma removal (40). nous) hyperinsulinism from other causes of hypoglycemia. In-
The noninsulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycemia syn- sulin antibodies, which need not be measured at the time of
drome (NIPHS) is characterized by spells of neuroglycopenia due hypoglycemia, will identify insulin autoimmune hypoglycemia.
to endogenous hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia typically, but not The key pathophysiological feature of endogenous hyperin-
invariably, after a meal (42– 45). There is a predominance in sulinism is the failure of insulin secretion to fall to very low rates
men. The pancreatic abnormality is diffuse islet involvement as plasma glucose concentrations fall to hypoglycemic levels;
with nesidioblastosis [islet hypertrophy, sometimes with hyper- hypoglycemia is the result of low rates of glucose production
plasia, with enlarged and hyperchromatic ␤-cell nuclei (46, 47)]. rather than high rates of glucose utilization (58). Thus, plasma
Radiological localization procedures are invariably negative. insulin, C-peptide, and proinsulin concentrations need not be
Confirmation of islet hyperfunction depends on a positive selec- high relative to normal euglycemic values but only inappropri-
tive arterial calcium stimulation test. Amelioration of symptoms ately high in the setting of low fasting plasma glucose concen-
can be expected with partial pancreatectomy guided by the re- trations (12–15). Critical diagnostic findings are plasma insulin
sults of the calcium stimulation test. The frequency of NIPHS is concentrations of at least 3 ␮U/ml (18 pmol/liter), plasma C-
much less than that of insulinoma. peptide concentrations of at least 0.6 ng/ml (0.2 nmol/liter), and
Some persons who have undergone Roux-en-Y gastric bypass plasma proinsulin concentrations of at least 5.0 pmol/liter when
for obesity have endogenous hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia the fasting plasma glucose concentrations are below 55 mg/dl
(3.0 mmol/liter) (14, 15). Ratios employing insulin and glucose
Not insulin (or IGF)-mediated

have no diagnostic utility (59). These criteria assume the absence
TABLE 3. Patterns of findings during fasting or after a mixed meal in normal individuals with no symptoms or signs despite relatively low plasma glucose concentrations (i.e.
Insulinoma, NIPHS, PGBH

Oral hypoglycemic agent
of intercurrent illnesses including renal insufficiency.
interpretation
Diagnostic
An occasional patient with an insulinoma may not fulfill these
Insulin autoimmune
Exogenous insulin
criteria even during a 72-h fast (15, 60), and a few have plasma
insulin levels below 3 ␮U/ml (18 pmol/liter) during fasting hy-
poglycemia, but plasma C-peptide levels are usually 0.6 ng/ml
Normal
(0.2 mmol/liter) or greater and plasma proinsulin levels are usu-
IGFb
Whipple’s triad not documented) and in individuals with hyperinsulinemic (or IGF-mediated) hypoglycemia or hypoglycemia caused by other mechanisms
ally 5.0 pmol/liter or greater in the latter patients. For example,
in one series the plasma insulin criterion was met in 29 of 32
patients with an insulinoma, whereas the C-peptide and proin-
Antibody to
Neg (Pos)
sulin criteria were met in all 32 patients (61). Plasma ␤-hydroxy-
insulin
butyrate levels of 2.7 mmol/liter or less and an increase in the
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Pos
No

plasma glucose concentration of at least 25 mg/dl (1.4 mmol/
liter) after iv glucagon, the latter indicating preserved hepatic
glycogen stores, provide biological evidence of insulin (or IGF)
Circulating oral
hypoglycemic
excess (62). The findings that distinguish among the causes of
agent
hyperinsulinemic (or IGF-mediated) hypoglycemia are summa-
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
rized in Table 3.
When Whipple’s triad has not been documented in a patient
with a history of suggestive spells and when the appropriate tests
have not been obtained during an episode of spontaneous hy-
Glucose increase
after glucagon
poglycemia, recreation of the circumstances likely to lead to hy-
(mg/dl)
poglycemia should be pursued (12, 14, 15). For the patient with
⬍25
⬎25
⬎25
⬎25
⬎25
⬎25
⬍25
a history suggesting fasting hypoglycemia, this may be accom-
plished by withholding food, and for the patient with a history
suggestive of postprandial hypoglycemia, this may be accom-
plished by providing the type of meal likely to cause a spell. When
␤-Hydroxybutyrate
these maneuvers fail, the patient with suspected fasting hypo-

glycemia should undergo a prolonged supervised fast. This fast
(mmol/liter)
can be initiated as an outpatient and completed (if necessary) in

⬎2.7
ⱕ2.7
ⱕ2.7
ⱕ2.7
ⱕ2.7
ⱕ2.7
⬎2.7
hospital. The fast should be continued to the point at which
Whipple’s triad is documented or to a plasma glucose of less than
55 mg/dl (3.0 mmol/liter) if Whipple’s triad had been docu-
mented unequivocally previously (15, 60), unless a progressive
rise in ␤-hydroxybutyrate levels signals a negative fast (62).
(pmol/liter)
Proinsulin
Plasma glucose concentrations should be measured with a pre-

⬎⬎5a
⬍5
⬍5
ⱖ5
ⱖ5
⬍5
⬍5
cise method, not with self-monitoring of blood glucose. Most,

but not all (60), patients with an insulinoma fulfill these diag-
nostic criteria in less than 72 h. Indeed, that occurs in less than
Neg, Negative; Pos, positive; PGBH, post gastric bypass hypoglycemia.
24 h in about two thirds, and in less than 48 h in the vast majority,

(nmol/liter)
C-peptide
⬎⬎0.2a
of affected patients (60). The patient with a history suggestive of

⬍0.2
⬍0.2
ⱖ0.2
ⱖ0.2
⬍0.2
⬍0.2
postprandial hypoglycemia should undergo a mixed-meal test.

Free C-peptide and proinsulin concentrations are low.
That meal should include the components recognized by the pa-

tient as likely to cause hypoglycemia (although a nutritional sup-
Increased pro-IGF-II, free IGF-II, IGF-II/IGF-I ratio.
plement formula mixed meal is sometimes used) and should be

(␮U/ml)
Insulin
⬍3
ⱖ3
ⱖ3
⬍3
⬍3
⬎⬎3
⬎⬎3
conducted over 5 h. An oral glucose tolerance test should never

be used for the evaluation of suspected postprandial hypoglyce-
mia (63). However, standards for the interpretation of the
Glucose
(mg/dl)
mixed-meal test have not been established. Current clinical usage

⬍55
⬍55
⬍55
⬍55
⬍55
⬍55
⬍55
is to apply the above criteria developed under fasting conditions

(14) to the results from a mixed-meal challenge. Finally, for the
patient requiring iv glucose to prevent hypoglycemia, diagnostic
Symptoms,
data can be obtained by serial sampling, under close supervision,

signs, or
both
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
after temporary discontinuation of glucose infusion.

No
A patient with documented Whipple’s triad, inappropriately

high plasma insulin, C-peptide, and proinsulin levels; and no
b
a
detectable oral hypoglycemic agent levels during fasting hypo- nomas remains to be determined, although that with [18F]dihy-
glycemia; and no circulating antibodies to insulin probably has droxyphenylalanine is promising (83). Intraoperative pancreatic
an insulinoma (12–15). Nonetheless, accidental, surreptitious, ultrasonography almost invariably localizes tumors that are not
or malicious hypoglycemias are difficult entities to diagnose. apparent to the experienced pancreatic surgeon.
These diagnoses depend on a high degree of clinical suspicion and Prevention of recurrent hypoglycemia requires treatment that
pursuit of potential sources of offending agents (including in- corrects or circumvents the hypoglycemic mechanism (12–15)
spection of the patient’s medications). There are, however, (Table 1). Offending drugs can be discontinued or their dosage
causes of fasting endogenous hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia reduced. Underlying critical illnesses can often be treated. Cor-
other than an insulinoma. Some patients do not have an insuli- tisol can be replaced. Surgical, radiotherapeutic, or chemother-
noma but have a diffusely expanded islet cell mass (46, 47, 64, apeutic reduction of the mass of a nonislet cell tumor can alle-
65). That is often termed nesidioblastosis, although the histo- viate hypoglycemia even if the tumor cannot be cured;
logical finding of islets budding from pancreatic ducts is not glucocorticoid, GH, or occasionally octreotide administration
invariably present (46, 47). Nesidioblastosis due to prolonged may alleviate hypoglycemia in such patients. Surgical resection

factitious use of a sulfonylurea has been reported (66). Although of a benign insulinoma is curative. Medical treatment with dia-
seemingly convincing cases have been reported (see Ref. 67), zoxide, octreotide, or both can be used if resection of an insuli-
ectopic insulin secretion must be very rare. Similarly, hyperin- noma is not possible and in patients with a nontumor ␤-cell
sulinemic hypoglycemia linked to a mutation of the insulin re- disorder, although partial pancreatectomy may be required.
ceptor (68) and exercise-induced hyperinsulinemia (69) are rare Treatment of autoimmune hypoglycemias (e.g. with a glucocor-
syndromes. Finally, rare patients with fasting hypoglycemia and ticoid or another immunosuppressant medication) is problem-
appropriately suppressed C-peptide levels but inappropriately atic, but these disorders may be self-limited, at least in Asians. In
elevated insulin levels have an agonist antibody to the insulin patients with NIPHS or post gastric bypass hypoglycemia med-
receptor (70). In that instance hypoglycemia is the result of the ical therapy with frequent feedings, an ␣-glucosidase inhibitor,
action of the antibody to stimulate insulin receptors; somewhat diazoxide, and octreotide are occasionally effective. Partial pan-
elevated insulin levels are thought to be the result of decreased createctomy often provides amelioration. Failing these treat-
clearance of insulin. Typically, the affected patient is African- ments, provision of exogenous glucose with large doses of un-
American, usually female, often with an associated autoimmune cooked cornstarch or even intragastric glucose infusion may be
disease. necessary.
The diagnosis of an insulinoma requires convincing clinical
and biochemical evidence before any attempt to regionalize or 2.1 Values
localize the tumor (12–15). Although the results with a given The decision to undergo invasive localization procedures
method reflect the experience and expertise with that method at and partial pancreatectomy places a higher value on achieving
a given center, computed tomography, MRI, and transabdom- long-term remission of hypoglycemia and a lower value on
inal ultrasonography detect most insulinomas (71–73). They avoiding invasive diagnostic procedures and avoiding the po-
also often detect metastases in the less than 10% of insulinomas tential downsides of pancreatectomy (including diabetes,
that are malignant. However, because insulinomas are often less bleeding, infection, and death). Some patients with mild hy-
than 1.0 cm in diameter (73), negative imaging does not exclude poglycemia who are able to cope with minimal interventions
an insulinoma. Computed tomography detects 70 to 80% and may prefer to avoid invasive evaluations and surgery. Severely
MRI about 85% (73). Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy is re- affected patients may prefer a treatment approach that in-
ported to detect insulinomas in approximately half of affected cludes precise localization of the insulin-producing lesion and
patients (74), although a sensitivity of 80% has been reported partial pancreatectomy.
(75). Endoscopic pancreatic ultrasonography, with the option of
fine-needle aspiration of a detected tumor, is invasive but in some 2.1 Remarks
centers has a sensitivity greater than 90% (76, 77). With the Suggested protocols for a prolonged diagnostic fast and for a
combination of noninvasive and selected invasive modalities mixed-meal diagnostic test are shown in Tables 4 and 5,
(particularly endoscopic ultrasound), most insulinomas are lo- respectively.
calized preoperatively (72, 78). Selective pancreatic arterial cal-
cium injections, with an endpoint of a greater than 2-fold in-
crease in hepatic venous insulin levels over baseline (79, 80) [or 3.0 Evaluation and Management of
perhaps a greater than 5-fold increase with contemporary spe- Hypoglycemia in Persons with Diabetes
cific insulin assays (81)] regionalizes insulinomas with high sen- Mellitus
sitivity (81, 82). That invasive procedure can help to regionalize
an insulinoma when imaging is equivocal or negative. However, Background
it is the procedure of choice for confirming noninsulinoma pan- Treatment-induced hypoglycemia is the limiting factor in the
creatogenous hypoglycemia (15, 43– 45) and post Roux-en-Y glycemic management of diabetes (12, 16, 84). It causes recur-
gastric bypass hypoglycemia (48 –50) because standard imaging rent morbidity in most persons with type 1 diabetes mellitus
is negative in those disorders. The relative utility of positron (T1DM) and in many with advanced (i.e. absolute endogenous
emission tomography in the noninvasive localization of insuli- insulin-deficient) type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and it is
TABLE 4. Suggested protocol for a prolonged diagnostic fast TABLE 5. Suggested protocol for a mixed-meal diagnostic test
Date the onset of the fast as the time of the last food intake. Perform the test after an overnight fast. Hold all nonessential
Discontinue all nonessential medications. medications.
Allow the patient to drink calorie-free beverages. Ensure that the Use a mixed meal similar to that which the patient reports has caused
patient is active during waking hours. symptoms (or use a commercial formula mixed meal).
Collect samples for plasma glucose, insulin, C-peptide, proinsulin, and Collect samples for plasma glucose, insulin, C-peptide, and proinsulin
␤-hydroxybutyrate every 6 h until the plasma glucose concentration before ingestion and every 30 min through 300 min after ingestion
is less than 60 mg/dl (3.3 mmol/liter); at that point the frequency of of the meal.
sampling should be increased to every 1 to 2 h. Observe the patient for symptoms and/or signs of hypoglycemia and
Samples for plasma insulin, C-peptide, and proinsulin should be sent ask the patient to keep a written log of all symptoms, timed from
for analysis only in those samples in which the plasma glucose the start of meal ingestion. If possible, avoid treatment until the test
concentration is less than 60 mg/dl (3.3 mmol/liter). is completed.
End the fast when the plasma glucose concentration is less than 45 A low plasma glucose concentration is a necessary, albeit not in itself
mg/dl (2.5 mmol/liter) and the patient has symptoms and/or signs of sufficient, finding for a diagnosis of hypoglycemia. Therefore, the
hypoglycemia (or if 72 h have elapsed without symptoms). The mixed-meal test should be interpreted on the basis of laboratory-

decision to end the fast before 72 h should not be based on a low measured plasma glucose concentrations, not those estimated with
plasma glucose concentration alone, in the absence of symptoms or a point-of-care glucose monitor. If it is judged necessary to treat
signs, because some healthy individuals, especially women and before 300 min because of severe symptoms, obtain samples for all
children, have low glucose levels during prolonged fasting. of the following before administering carbohydrates.
Alternatively, the fast can be ended when the plasma glucose Samples for plasma insulin, C-peptide, and proinsulin should be sent
concentration is less than 55 mg/dl (3.0 mmol/liter) without for analysis only in those samples in which plasma glucose is less
symptoms or signs if Whipple’s triad was documented unequivocally than 60 mg/dl (3.3 mmol/liter), and a sample for measurement of
on a prior occasion. oral hypoglycemic agents should be obtained, if Whipple’s triad is
A low plasma glucose concentration is a necessary, albeit not in itself demonstrated. In that case, antibodies to insulin should also be
sufficient, finding for the diagnosis of hypoglycemia. Therefore, the measured.
decision to end the fast should be based on laboratory-measured
plasma glucose concentrations, not those estimated with a point-of-
care glucose monitor. If it is judged necessary to treat urgently dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitors (sitagliptin, vildagliptin).
because of severe symptoms, obtain samples for all of the following However, these drugs can increase the risk of hypoglycemia
before administering carbohydrates. when used with an insulin secretagogue (see Ref. 88) or insulin.
At the end of the fast, collect samples for plasma glucose, insulin, C-
peptide, proinsulin, ␤-hydroxybutyrate, and oral hypoglycemia
Physiology and pathophysiology
agents, and then inject 1.0 mg of glucagon iv and measure plasma
glucose 10, 20, and 30 min later. (Insulin antibodies should be Hypoglycemia is typically the result of the interplay of relative or
measured, but not necessarily during hypoglycemia.) absolute therapeutic insulin excess and compromised physiological
and behavioral defenses against falling plasma glucose concentra-
tions in T1DM and long-standing T2DM (12, 16, 84, 85).
sometimes fatal. It precludes maintenance of euglycemia over a Relative, or even absolute, insulin excess must occur from
lifetime of diabetes and thus full realization of the established time to time during treatment with an insulin secretagogue or
microvascular and potential macrovascular and other benefits of insulin because of the pharmacokinetic imperfections of these
long-term glycemic control. It compromises physiological and therapies. Insulin excess of sufficient magnitude can, of course,
behavioral defenses against subsequent falling plasma glucose cause hypoglycemia. Nonetheless, as discussed below, the inci-
concentrations and thus causes a vicious cycle of recurrent hy- dence of hypoglycemia is relatively low (at least with current
poglycemia. Because of steady improvements in the glycemic glycemic goals), even during treatment with insulin, early in the
management of diabetes, it is possible both to improve glycemic course of T2DM when glycemic defenses are intact. However,
control and to minimize the risk of hypoglycemia in many pa- the risk increases progressively over time and approaches that in
tients (12, 16, 84 – 86). Nonetheless, the problem of hypoglyce- T1DM as glycemic defenses become compromised.
mia has not been solved. Solution of that problem will require As discussed earlier, the critical physiological defenses against
glucose-regulated insulin replacement or secretion until the pre- falling plasma glucose concentrations include: 1) decrements in
vention and cure of diabetes is achieved (16). insulin secretion; 2) increments in glucagon secretion; and, in the
Hypoglycemia in diabetes is fundamentally the result of treat- absence of the latter, 3) increments in epinephrine secretion (6,
ments that raise insulin levels and thus lower plasma glucose 7, 12). The behavioral defense is the ingestion of carbohydrates
concentrations (12, 16, 84, 85). Those treatments include insulin (6, 7, 12). That behavior is prompted by the perception of symp-
or insulin secretagogues such as a sulfonylurea or a nonsulfony- toms, largely the neurogenic symptoms (4) mediated by sympa-
lurea insulin secretagogue (e.g. nateglinide or repaglinide). Early thetic neural activation (5).
in its course, T2DM may respond to drugs that do not raise All of these defenses, not just insulin secretion, are compro-
insulin levels at normal or low plasma glucose concentrations mised in T1DM and in long-standing T2DM (12, 16, 89, 90). In
and, therefore, should not cause hypoglycemia. Those include a fully developed T1DM, circulating insulin levels do not decrease
biguanide (metformin), which nonetheless has been reported to as plasma glucose levels decline. Furthermore, in the absence of
cause hypoglycemia (87); thiazolidinediones (pioglitazone, ros- a ␤-cell signal, including a decrease in intraislet insulin (91), the
iglitazone); ␣-glucosidase inhibitors (acarbose, miglitol); gluca- ␣-cell glucagon response to hypoglycemia is also lost (92). In the
gon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (exenatide, liraglutide); and absence of the first (insulin) and second (glucagon) defenses,
persons with T1DM are critically dependent on the third defense, the reduced sympathoadrenal response to hypoglycemia is not
epinephrine secretion. However, the epinephrine response to hy- fully normalized after scrupulous avoidance of hypoglycemia
poglycemia is often attenuated (8, 12, 16, 89, 93, 94). Through (103–105) or during insulin independence after successful pan-
mechanisms yet to be clearly defined but generally thought to creatic islet transplantation (106). Furthermore, the sympathoa-
reside in the brain (12, 16, 85, 95), the glycemic threshold for drenal response to hypoglycemia is reduced to a greater extent in
sympathoadrenal activation is shifted to lower plasma glucose patients with classical diabetic autonomic neuropathy (107,
concentrations by recent antecedent hypoglycemia, as well as by 108). Finally, a reduced plasma metanephrine response to hy-
prior exercise and by sleep (12, 16, 89, 90, 95–97). In the setting poglycemia in patients with HAAF suggests a reduced adreno-
of absent decrements in insulin and absent increments in gluca- medullary epinephrine secretory capacity (109). Such a struc-
gon as plasma glucose levels fall in response to therapeutic hy- tural component would be consistent with the evidence of a
perinsulinemia, the attenuated epinephrine response causes the relationship between severe hypoglycemia and a long duration of
clinical syndrome of defective glucose counterregulation that has T1DM (see Ref. 110).
been shown to increase the risk of severe hypoglycemia by 25- In summary, although the pathophysiology of glucose coun-

fold (98) or even more (99). In addition, the attenuated sympa- terregulation is the same in T1DM and T2DM, it develops rap-
thetic neural response causes the clinical syndrome of hypogly- idly in T1DM (as absolute insulin deficiency develops rapidly)
cemia unawareness—impairment or even loss of the warning but slowly in T2DM (as absolute insulin deficiency develops
symptoms that previously prompted the behavioral defense, slowly). This difference in the time course of the evolution of
i.e. the ingestion of carbohydrates. Hypoglycemia unaware- HAAF plausibly explains, at least in part, the relatively low fre-
ness is associated with a 6-fold increased risk for severe hy- quency of treatment-induced hypoglycemia early in the course of
poglycemia (100). T2DM and the higher frequency of treatment-induced hypogly-
The concept of hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure cemia, approaching that in T1DM, later in T2DM (discussed
(HAAF) in diabetes is based on pivotal findings in nondiabetic below). That pathophysiology also provides insight into the risk
individuals (97) and patients with T1DM (101) and was first factors for, and the prevention of, hypoglycemia in T2DM as
documented in T1DM (89). It posits that recent antecedent hy- well as in T1DM.
poglycemia [or prior exercise or sleep (16)] causes both defective
glucose counterregulation (by reducing the epinephrine response Incidence and impact
in the setting of absent insulin and glucagon responses) and hy- Hypoglycemia is a fact of life for most persons with T1DM
poglycemia unawareness (largely by reducing the sympathetic (12, 16). The average patient with T1DM suffers two episodes of
neural response and the resulting neurogenic symptoms) and, symptomatic hypoglycemia per week—thousands of such epi-
thus, a vicious cycle of recurrent hypoglycemia (12, 16). Perhaps sodes over a lifetime of diabetes—and one episode of temporarily
the most compelling support for the clinical impact of HAAF in disabling hypoglycemia, often with seizure or coma, per year. An
T1DM is the finding that as little as 2–3 wk of scrupulous avoid- estimated 2– 4% of people with T1DM die from hypoglycemia
ance of treatment-induced hypoglycemia reverses hypoglycemia (12, 111).
unawareness, and improves the reduced epinephrine component Reported severe hypoglycemia event rates in patients with
of defective glucose counterregulation in most affected patients T1DM (119 –123) and those with T2DM (119 –121, 124 –131)
(102–105). are summarized in Table 6.
More recently, the concept of HAAF (12, 16, 89) has been Although prolonged, profound hypoglycemia can cause neu-
extended to patients with long-standing T2DM and absolute rological damage and thus brain death, the mechanism(s) of sud-
insulin deficiency (90). As just discussed, HAAF stems funda- den death during less marked hypoglycemia is unknown but may
mentally from ␤-cell failure. Initially, T2DM is characterized by involve a cardiac arrhythmia (6). Hypoglycemia causes a tran-
insulin resistance and only relative hypoinsulinemia, conditions siently prolonged corrected QT interval, as well as increased QT
that allow decrements in insulin and increments in glucagon dispersion, an effect thought to be mediated by the sympathoa-
while plasma glucose concentrations fall. Over time, however, drenal response to hypoglycemia (112, 113). Furthermore, a pro-
absolute endogenous insulin deficiency develops (87). Thus, as longed corrected QT interval has been found to be associated
patients approach the insulin-deficient end of the spectrum of with episodes of nocturnal hypoglycemia in patients with T1DM
T2DM (118), typically over many years, their insulin and glu- (114, 115). Thus, it is reasonable to suggest (112–115) that a
cagon responses to falling glucose levels are lost (90), as in fatal arrhythmia triggered by hypoglycemia might explain the
T1DM. Furthermore, their glycemic thresholds for sympathoa- “dead in bed syndrome,” an unexpected death of a person with
drenal responses are shifted to lower plasma glucose concentra- T1DM occurring during the night (116).
tions by recent antecedent hypoglycemia (90), as in T1DM. In the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes
Thus, patients with long-standing T2DM are also at risk for (ACCORD) study, 10,251 patients with T2DM at high cardio-
HAAF. vascular risk (but with no history of frequent or recent serious
There may well be as yet unrecognized functional, and thus hypoglycemic events) were randomized to either intensive gly-
potentially reversible, causes of a reduced sympathoadrenal re- cemic therapy with an HbA1C goal of less than 6.0% or to stan-
sponse to hypoglycemia, the key feature of HAAF, in addition to dard glycemic therapy (117). After a median follow-up of 3.4 yr,
recent antecedent hypoglycemia, prior exercise, and sleep. There with stable median HbA1C levels of 6.4 and 7.5%, respectively,
may also be a structural, irreversible component. For example, intensive glycemic therapy was discontinued because 5.0% of the
patients in the intensive therapy group, compared with 4.0% of incidence was 10 and 70 episodes per 100 patient-years, respec-
those in the standard therapy group, had died (hazard ratio, 1.22; tively (119). The pattern for self-treated hypoglycemia was sim-
95% confidence interval, 1.01–1.46; P ⫽ 0.04). The cause of ilar (119). Thus, whereas the risk of hypoglycemia is relatively
excess mortality during intensive glycemic therapy in ACCORD low in the first few years of insulin treatment, that risk increases
is not known (117). It could have been chance. It could have been substantially later in the course of T2DM.
the result of a nonglycemic effect of the intensive therapy regimen Reported hypoglycemia event rates in diabetes are generally
(e.g. an adverse effect of one or more of the drugs, weight gain, underestimates because of the difficulty of ascertainment.
or something else) although none was apparent. Nonetheless, the Asymptomatic episodes of hypoglycemia will be missed unless
most plausible cause of excess mortality during intensive therapy incidentally detected by routine self-monitoring of blood glucose
in ACCORD is iatrogenic hypoglycemia: 1) median glycemia or by continuous glucose sensing. Furthermore, symptomatic
(HbA1C) was intentionally and demonstrably lower in the in- episodes may not be recognized as such because the symptoms of
tensive glycemic therapy group; 2) lower HbA1C levels are hypoglycemia are nonspecific. Even if they are recognized, they
known to be associated with a higher frequency of hypoglycemia are often not long remembered and therefore may not be re-

in T2DM (117, 132); indeed, the prevalence of severe hypogly- ported at periodic clinic visits. Severe hypoglycemic episodes—
cemia was more than 3-fold higher in the intensive therapy group those sufficiently disabling that they require the assistance of
in ACCORD (117); 3) hypoglycemia can be fatal in T2DM (6); another person—are more dramatic events that are more likely
that includes sudden, presumably cardiac arrhythmic, death; and to be recalled (by the patient or by a close associate). Thus,
4) more patients died in the intensive glycemic therapy group although they represent only a small fraction of the total hypo-
(117). Another randomized controlled trial of aggressive glyce- glycemic experience, estimates of severe hypoglycemia event
mic therapy in T2DM, the VA Diabetes Trial was reported at the rates are the most reliable. In addition, hypoglycemia event rates
2008 American Diabetes Association (ADA) meeting. The inci- determined prospectively, particularly if hypoglycemia is a pri-
dence of severe hypoglycemia was higher in the intensively mary study endpoint, should be more reliable than those deter-
treated group, and a history of severe hypoglycemia was a sig- mined retrospectively. Although the incidence of hypoglycemia
nificant predictor of cardiovascular death. (Table 6) is often determined from clinical treatment trials, there
Overall, hypoglycemia is less frequent in T2DM than in are limitations to that approach. First, hypoglycemia is not a
T1DM (12, 16). However, hypoglycemia becomes progressively primary outcome of such trials, and therefore the extent of data
more limiting to glycemic control over time in T2DM (118). The collection concerning hypoglycemia varies. For example, much
UK Hypoglycemia Study Group reported that in patients with was learned about hypoglycemia in T1DM in the Diabetes Con-
T2DM treated with insulin for less than 2 yr or more than 5 yr, trol and Complications Trial (133), but the hypoglycemia event
the prevalence of severe hypoglycemia was 7 and 25%, and the rates in T2DM in the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes
TABLE 6. Event rates for severe hypoglycemia (requiring the assistance of another person) expressed as episodes per 100 patient-years
First author, year (Ref.) n Event rate Comment

T1DM
UK Hypoglycaemia Study Group, 2007 (119) 57a 320 Prospective multicenter study
50b 110
MacLeod, 1993 (120) 544 170 Retrospective clinic survey, randomly selected sample
Donnelly, 2005 (121) 94 115 Prospective study, population-based random sample
Reichard and Pihl, 1994 (122) 48 110 Clinical trial, intensive insulin group
DCCT Research Group, 1993 (123) 711 62 Clinical trial, intensive insulin group
T2DM
MacLeod, 1993 (120) 56 73 Retrospective clinic survey, randomly selected sample
UK Hypoglycaemia Study Group, 2007 (119) 77c 70 Prospective multicenter study
89d 10
Akram, 2006 (124) 401 44 Retrospective clinic survey
Donnelly, 2005 (121) 173 35 Prospective study, population-based random sample
Henderson, 2003 (125) 215 28 Retrospective clinic survey, randomly selected sample
Murata, 2005 (126) 344 21 Prospective study, random Veterans Affairs sample
Saudek, 1996 (127) 62 18e Clinical trial, multiple insulin injection group
Gürlek, 1999 (128) 114 15 Retrospective clinic survey
Abraira, 1995 (129) 75 3 Clinical trial, intensive insulin group
Yki-Järvinen, 1999 (130) 88 0 Clinical trial, initial insulin therapy
Ohkubo, 1995 (131) 52 0 Clinical trial, initial insulin therapy
Studies covering at least 1 yr, involving at least 48 patients, and reporting severe hypoglycemia event rates are included.
a
Insulin treatment for ⬎15 yr.
b
Insulin treatment for ⬍5 yr.
c
Insulin treatment for ⬎5 yr.
d
Insulin treatment for ⬍2 yr.
e
Definite (8 per 100 patient-years) plus suspected (10 per 100 patient-years).
Study are not known (132). Second, insulin treatment trials in TABLE 7. ADA Workgroup on Hypoglycemia classification of
T2DM are often conducted in patients just failing oral hypogly- hypoglycemia in persons with diabetes (136)
cemic agent therapy and naive to insulin therapy. Such patients
are at relatively low risk for hypoglycemia as discussed earlier. Severe hypoglycemia. An event requiring assistance of another person
Third, the therapeutic goals in clinical trials are often different to actively administer carbohydrate, glucagon, or other resuscitative
actions. Plasma glucose measurements may not be available during
from those agreed upon between patients and health care pro-
such an event, but neurological recovery attributable to the
viders in clinical practice. Thus, it is important to consider evi- restoration of plasma glucose to normal is considered sufficient
dence from prospective, population-based studies focused on evidence that the event was induced by a low plasma glucose
hypoglycemia. concentration.
The population-based, prospective study of Donnelly et al. Documented symptomatic hypoglycemia. An event during which
typical symptoms of hypoglycemia are accompanied by a measured
(121) indicates that the overall hypoglycemia event rates in in-
plasma glucose concentration ⱕ70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/liter).
sulin-treated patients with T2DM are approximately one third of Asymptomatic hypoglycemia. An event not accompanied by typical
those in patients with T1DM. The rates for any hypoglycemia symptoms of hypoglycemia but with a measured plasma glucose

were approximately 4300 per 100 patient-years in T1DM and concentration ⱕ70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/liter).
Probable symptomatic hypoglycemia. An event during which
approximately 1600 per 100 patient-years in T2DM. The rates
symptoms typical of hypoglycemia are not accompanied by a plasma
for severe hypoglycemia were 115 per 100 patient-years in glucose determination (but that was presumably caused by a plasma
T1DM and 35 per 100 patient-years in T2DM. Furthermore, in glucose concentration ⱕ70 mg/dl 关3.9 mmol/liter兴).
population-based studies from hospital regions with known Relative hypoglycemia. An event during which the person with
diabetes reports any of the typical symptoms of hypoglycemia and
T1DM and T2DM incidences, event rates for severe hypoglyce-
interprets those as indicative of hypoglycemia, with a measured
mia requiring emergency medical treatment in insulin-treated plasma glucose concentration ⬎70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/liter) but
T2DM were approximately 40% (134) and approximately approaching that level.
100% (135) of those in T1DM. Because the prevalence of T2DM
is approximately 20-fold greater than that of T1DM and because
many patients with T2DM ultimately require treatment with atic, asymptomatic, probable symptomatic, and relative hypo-
insulin, these data suggest that most episodes of hypoglycemia, glycemia—in diabetes (136) (Table 7).
including severe hypoglycemia, occur in persons with T2DM. Persons with diabetes typically track their glucose levels with
intermittent self-monitoring of blood glucose. However, that
Recommendation provides a glucose estimate at only one point in time and there-
3.1 We suggest that persons with diabetes become concerned fore does not indicate whether glucose levels are rising, stable,
about the possibility of developing hypoglycemia when the self- or falling toward hypoglycemia. That problem is being ad-
monitored blood glucose concentration is falling rapidly or is no dressed by the development of technologies for continuous
greater than 70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/liter) (2QEEE). glucose sensing. Those technologies are as yet only evolving
(139 –142). It is hoped that they will lead to closed-loop in-
3.1 Evidence sulin replacement in the not too distant future (143). None-
The ADA Workgroup on Hypoglycemia recommended that theless, although these devices are promising, compelling
persons with drug-treated diabetes become concerned about de- evidence that they reliably assist patients in preventing hypo-
veloping hypoglycemia at a plasma glucose concentration of 70 glycemia is needed.
mg/dl (3.9 mmol/liter) or less (136). That value approximates the
lower limit of the postabsorptive plasma glucose concentration Recommendation
range and the glycemic threshold for activation of physiological 3.2 Given the established long-term microvascular benefits of
glucose counterregulatory mechanisms (7), and it is low enough glycemic control, we recommend that the therapeutic glycemic
to reduce glycemic defenses against subsequent hypoglycemia goal be the lowest mean glycemia (e.g. HbA1C) that can be ac-
(137) in nondiabetic individuals. It is higher than the glucose complished safely in a given patient at a given point in the pro-
levels required to produce symptoms of hypoglycemia [⬃55 gression of that individual patient’s diabetes (1QQQQ).
mg/dl (3.0 mmol/liter)] or to impair brain function in nondia-
betic individuals (6, 7) and substantially higher than those that 3.2 Evidence
do so in persons with well-controlled diabetes (6 – 8), although Randomized controlled trials have established that intensive
persons with poorly controlled diabetes sometimes become glycemic therapy prevents or delays the microvascular compli-
symptomatic at somewhat higher glucose levels (8, 9). Thus, use cations—retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy— of diabe-
of a 70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/liter) plasma glucose cutoff generally tes (122, 123, 131, 144, 145), albeit at the expense of an in-
gives the patient time to take action to prevent a symptomatic creased frequency of hypoglycemia (117, 118, 122, 123, 132,
hypoglycemic episode. Also, in practice, self-monitoring of 133, 144, 145). It also appears to reduce the frequency of ma-
blood glucose is usually done with devices that are not precise crovascular complications in T1DM (146, 147). Recent rela-
analytical instruments, particularly at low plasma glucose levels tively short-term randomized controlled trials have not demon-
(138), and the recommended cutoff value provides some margin strated a macrovascular benefit of intensive glycemic therapy in
for their inaccuracy. The ADA Workgroup also recommended a T2DM (117, 148). However, they do not exclude that possibility
classification of hypoglycemia—severe, documented symptom- if glycemic control could be accomplished safely over a longer
period of time. In any event, given the established microvascular TABLE 8. Risk factors for hypoglycemia in diabetes
benefit of improved glycemic control (122, 123, 131, 144, 145,
148), the recommendation that plasma glucose levels be held as Conventional risk factors–relative or absolute insulin excess
close to the nondiabetic range as safely possible in persons with 1. Insulin or insulin secretagogue doses are excessive, ill-timed, or of
the wrong type.
diabetes (123) is now generally accepted (149). For example, the
2. Exogenous glucose delivery is decreased (e.g. after missed meals
ADA recommends an HbA1C level as low as can be accomplished and during the overnight fast).
safely in an individual patient and generally below 7.0% (150). 3. Glucose utilization is increased (e.g. during exercise).
Nonetheless, there is substantial long-term benefit from reducing 4. Endogenous glucose production is decreased (e.g. after alcohol
ingestion).
HbA1C from higher to lower levels, although still above recom- 5. Sensitivity to insulin is increased (e.g. after weight loss, an
mended levels (151, 152). However, the caregiver should be con- increase in regular exercise or improved glycemic control, and in
cerned about the possibility of hypoglycemia in a patient with an the middle of the night).
unusually low HbA1C. 6. Insulin clearance is decreased (e.g. with renal failure).
Risk factors for hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure
1. Absolute endogenous insulin deficiency.

3.2 Values 2. A history of severe hypoglycemia, hypoglycemia unawareness, or
Obviously, the practical difficulty here is the qualifier safely. both as well as recent antecedent hypoglycemia, prior exercise,
The recommended glycemic goal of near euglycemia is a com- and sleep.
3. Aggressive glycemic therapy per se (lower HbA1C levels, lower
promise necessitated by the barrier of treatment-induced hypo-
glycemic goals, or both).
glycemia. With currently available treatments, including insulin,
that goal can be accomplished with some degree of safety [i.e. the
absence of severe hypoglycemia (Table 7)] in many patients, al- can be a barrier to glycemic control. It is also helpful to seek input
beit with considerable patient and caregiver effort and expense. from close associates of the patient because they may have ob-
In other patients with T1DM or T2DM, it cannot be accom- served clues to episodes of hypoglycemia not recognized by the
plished safely. Furthermore, some patients place a very high patient. Even if no concerns are expressed, critical examination
value on avoiding hypoglycemia. Thus, glycemic goals need to be of the self-monitoring of blood glucose record (or continuous
individualized (149, 150). Nonetheless, the reality or the possi- glucose sensing data), preferably by downloading the data, may
bility of hypoglycemia should not be used as an excuse for poor disclose that hypoglycemia is a problem.
glycemic control in persons with diabetes. Second, if hypoglycemia is a problem, the principles of in-
tensive glycemic therapy should be considered and applied.
Recommendation These principles include: 1) diabetes self-management (sup-
3.3 We recommend that the prevention of hypoglycemia in ported by education and empowerment); 2) frequent self-mon-
diabetes involve addressing the issue in each patient contact and, itoring of blood glucose (and perhaps in some instances contin-
if hypoglycemia is a problem, making adjustments in the regimen uous glucose sensing); 3) flexible and appropriate insulin (and
based on review and application of the principles of intensive other drug) regimens; 4) individualized glycemic goals; and 5)
glycemic therapy— diabetes self-management (supported by ed- ongoing professional guidance and support.
ucation and empowerment), frequent self-monitoring of blood Diabetes self-management (supported by education and em-
glucose, flexible and appropriate insulin or insulin secretagogue powerment) is fundamentally important (153, 154). As the ther-
regimens, individualized glycemic goals, and ongoing profes- apeutic regimen becomes progressively more complex— early in
sional guidance and support—and consideration of each of the T1DM and later in T2DM—the success of glycemic management
known risk factors for hypoglycemia (1QQQE). becomes progressively more dependent on the management de-
cisions and skills of a well-informed patient. In addition, fre-
3.3 Evidence quent self-monitoring of blood glucose data can reasonably be
It is, of course, preferable to prevent, rather than to treat, expected to provide insight leading to rational modifications of
hypoglycemia in persons with diabetes. Because prevention of the therapeutic regimen (141), although additional critical evi-
hypoglycemia, as compared with a reactive approach, is much dence on that point is needed. The emerging technology of con-
more likely to avoid serious adverse effects of recurrent episodes tinuous glucose sensing is conceptually attractive, but its clinical
of hypoglycemia, we upgraded the quality of the evidence in utility has not been documented (155–158). As in T1DM, in
support of this recommendation, which starts as low, to mod- T2DM the use of long-acting basal (glargine, detemir) and rapid-
erate. The prevention of hypoglycemia requires the practice of acting prandial (lispro, aspart, glulisine) insulin analogs can at
hypoglycemia risk factor reduction (12, 16, 85): 1) acknowledg- least minimize the risk of nocturnal hypoglycemia (159 –162).
ing the problem; 2) applying the principles of aggressive glycemic Indeed, recent systematic reviews have concluded that the use of
therapy of diabetes; 3) considering the conventional risk factors long-acting basal insulin analogs reduces the incidence of overall,
(Table 8); and 4) considering the risk factors indicative of HAAF symptomatic, and nocturnal hypoglycemia in T2DM and T1DM
in diabetes (Table 8). (159 –161), and the use of rapid-acting prandial insulin analogs
First, the issue of hypoglycemia should be addressed in every reduces nocturnal hypoglycemia in T1DM (159).
contact with patients with drug-treated diabetes, particularly Based on their experience and knowledge of the literature,
those treated with an insulin secretagogue or insulin. Patient some authorities have concluded that continuous sc insulin in-
concerns about the reality, or the possibility, of hypoglycemia fusion (CSII) with a rapid-acting insulin analog both improves
glycemic control and reduces the rate of severe hypoglycemia anticipation that awareness of hypoglycemia will return in many
compared with multiple daily injection (MDI) insulin therapy patients (1QQEE).
(see Ref. 163). A recent systematic review of 15 randomized trials 3.6 Unless the cause is easily remediable, we recommend that
(13 in T1DM) comparing CSII with MDI, published since 2002 an episode of severe hypoglycemia should lead to a fundamental
and conducted mostly in patients with elevated end-of-study review of the treatment regimen and the glycemic goals
HbA1C levels, found statistical trends favoring CSII but no clear (1QQQQ).
clinical benefits of using CSII rather than MDI in terms of mild,
nocturnal, or severe hypoglycemia in T1DM and T2DM (164). 3.4 –3.6 Evidence
Among the commonly used sulfonylureas, glyburide (gliben- The conventional risk factors for hypoglycemia in diabetes
clamide) is most often associated with hypoglycemia (165, 166). (12, 16, 84, 85) are based on the premise that relative or absolute
With respect to glycemic goals, the generic goal is an HbA1C hyperinsulinemia is the sole determinant of risk. They include
level as low as can be accomplished safely (150). Nonetheless, as insulin or insulin secretagogue doses that are excessive, ill-timed,
mentioned earlier, there is substantial long-term benefit from or of the wrong type and conditions in which exogenous glucose

reducing HbA1C from higher to lower, although still above rec- delivery or endogenous glucose production is decreased, glucose
ommended, levels (151, 152). Again, glycemic goals should be utilization is increased, sensitivity to insulin is increased, or in-
individualized (149, 150). sulin clearance is decreased (Table 8). However, although each
Ongoing professional guidance and support are best provided of these needs to be considered carefully, they explain only a
in a chronic care model, a system of long-term diabetes care that minority of episodes of hypoglycemia (168).
differs fundamentally from the traditional more or less acute care Risk factors indicative of HAAF (Table 8) follow directly
model of occasional physician outpatient visits (155, 167). Such from the pathophysiology discussed earlier. They include the
a system is organized and conducted by a diabetes care team that following: 1) the degree of absolute endogenous insulin defi-
includes, in addition to a physician, professionals trained in, and ciency (119, 132, 169 –172) that determines the extent to which
dedicated to, translation of the ever-evolving principles of con- insulin levels will not decrease and glucagon levels will not in-
temporary diabetes care into practical diabetes management in crease as plasma glucose levels fall in response to therapeutic
individual patients. It emphasizes improvement of self-manage- hyperinsulinemia; 2) a history of severe hypoglycemia, hypogly-
ment by patients. It involves initial and ongoing teaching and cemia unawareness, or both (132, 169, 171), which indicates or
application of empirical therapeutic strategies tailored to the implies recent antecedent hypoglycemia that causes an attenu-
individual patient at a given stage in his or her diabetes. It also ated sympathoadrenal response to subsequent hypoglycemia,
involves contacts with patients with the use of modern technol- the key feature of HAAF. In addition, prior exercise (12, 16, 173)
ogies at various frequencies relevant to the individual patient. It and sleep (12, 16, 174 –176) cause HAAF. Long duration of
requires application of computer-based methods to analyze key diabetes (110) and classical diabetic autonomic neuropathy
patient data, such as self-monitoring of blood glucose or online (107, 108) are associated with more severe HAAF; 3) aggressive
glucose sensing values, critically and to provide action prompts glycemic therapy per se as evidenced by lower HbA1C levels,
to caregivers. lower glycemic goals, or both (117, 132, 133, 148, 169, 171,
Finally, the prevention of hypoglycemia involves consider- 172). As documented in controlled clinical trials (see Refs. 123
ation of both the conventional risk factors and those indicative and 144), if all other factors are the same, patients treated to lower
of compromised physiological and behavioral defenses against HbA1C levels are at higher risk for hypoglycemia. That does not, of
falling plasma glucose concentrations (Table 8). course, mean that one cannot both improve glycemic control and
minimize the risk of hypoglycemia in individual patients (12, 84 –
86) as discussed earlier. Greater glycemic variation is also associated
Recommendations with an increased risk of hypoglycemia (179).
3.4 We recommend that both the conventional risk factors Parenthetically, whereas there is evidence that glycemic con-
and those indicative of compromised defenses against hypogly- trol improves pregnancy outcomes in women with T1DM, this
cemia be considered in a patient with recurrent treatment-in- approach is associated with a substantially increased risk of hy-
duced hypoglycemia (1QQQQ). The conventional risk factors poglycemia (180 –183). Indeed, the risk factors for HAAF—pre-
are excessive or ill-timed dosing of, or wrong type of, insulin or vious severe hypoglycemia and lower HbA1C levels (180) and
insulin secretagogue, and conditions under which exogenous previous severe hypoglycemia and impaired awareness of hypo-
glucose delivery or endogenous glucose production is decreased, glycemia (182)—are associated with higher rates of severe hy-
glucose utilization is increased, sensitivity to insulin is increased, poglycemia in pregnant women with T1DM. Intensive insulin
or insulin clearance is decreased. Compromised defenses against therapy in critically ill patients with or without diabetes also
hypoglycemia are indicated by the degree of endogenous insulin increases the frequency of hypoglycemia (184 –186).
deficiency, a history of severe hypoglycemia, hypoglycemia un- When treatment-induced hypoglycemia is a problem, each of
awareness, or both as well as recent antecedent hypoglycemia, the conventional risk factors for hypoglycemia (Table 8) should
prior exercise or sleep, and lower glycemic goals per se. be considered carefully, and the therapeutic regimen should be
3.5 With a history of hypoglycemia unawareness (i.e. recur- adjusted appropriately. Among the sulfonylureas, hypoglycemia
rent hypoglycemia without symptoms), we recommend a 2- to is less frequent with glimepiride than with glyburide (gliben-
3-wk period of scrupulous avoidance of hypoglycemia, with the clamide) (165, 166). In patients treated with insulin, changes
could include switching from a twice daily NPH and regular or 3.7 Evidence
premixed insulin regimen to a basal-bolus insulin regimen. With Hypoglycemia causes functional brain failure that is cor-
respect to the latter, use of a long-acting insulin analog as the rected after the plasma glucose concentration is raised in the
basal insulin results in less hypoglycemia than NPH insulin vast majority of instances (6). Profound, prolonged hypogly-
(159 –161). With a basal-bolus insulin regimen, nocturnal or cemia can cause brain death (6). Clearly, the plasma glucose
early morning hypoglycemia implicates the basal insulin whereas concentration should be raised to normal levels promptly.
daytime hypoglycemia also implicates the prandial insulin. Data from a rodent model of extreme hypoglycemia suggest
Among the latter, rapid-acting insulin analogs cause less noc- that post-hypoglycemic glucose reperfusion contributes to
turnal hypoglycemia (159). Although an insulin regimen should neuronal death (188). The clinical extrapolation of that find-
be tailored to the patient’s lifestyle, missed meals do not obviate ing is unclear, but it may be that posttreatment hyperglycemia
the need for self-monitoring of blood glucose; that is particularly should be avoided, at least after an episode of profound, pro-
important at bedtime and, when nocturnal hypoglycemia is a longed hypoglycemia (6).
known or suspected problem, during the night. In that instance, In people with diabetes, most episodes of asymptomatic (de-

continuous glucose monitoring can be helpful. In insulin-treated
tected by self-monitoring of blood glucose or continuous glucose
patients, hypoglycemia often occurs during, or shortly after, ex-
sensing) or mild-to-moderate symptomatic hypoglycemia are
ercise (173). Planned exercise should be preceded by carbohy-
effectively self-treated by ingestion of glucose tablets or car-
drate ingestion, reduced insulin doses, or both. Unplanned ex-
bohydrate-containing juice, soft drinks, milk, candy, other
ercise requires careful self-monitoring of blood glucose at a
snacks, or a meal (12, 189). A commonly recommended dose
minimum; that will often prompt carbohydrate ingestion. Pa-
of glucose in adults is 20 g (177). Clinical improvement should
tients who consume alcohol need to know that alcohol can lower
occur in 15–20 min. However, the glycemic response to oral
their plasma glucose concentrations. The effects of changes in
glucose is often transient, usually less than 2 h in insulin-
sensitivity to insulin and of renal failure also need to be consid-
induced hypoglycemia (177). Therefore, ingestion of a more
ered by the caregiver.
In addition, the risk factors indicative of HAAF in diabetes substantial snack or a meal shortly after the plasma glucose is
(Table 8) should be considered. Unless the cause is easily reme- raised is generally advisable. (Thus, our recommendation is
diable, a history of severe hypoglycemia should prompt consid- based on high-quality evidence because of the large treatment
eration of a fundamental adjustment of the regimen. Without effect, as compared with no treatment, associated with car-
that, the risk of a subsequent episode of severe hypoglycemia is bohydrate intake; compared with alternative doses of carbo-
high (132). That change could involve use of a different secret- hydrate or other foods or treatments, the quality of the evi-
agogue or a different insulin regimen as noted earlier, a reduction dence is very low.) The effects of these commonly used oral
of secretagogue or insulin doses, and acceptance of higher gly- treatments of hypoglycemia have not been investigated sys-
cemic goals at least in the short term. Given a history of hypo- tematically in the context of contemporary diabetes treat-
glycemia unawareness, a 2- to 3-wk period of scrupulous avoid- ment. Thus, the dose-response relationship between the
ance of hypoglycemia is advisable because that can be expected source of ingested carbohydrate and the plasma glucose level
to restore awareness (102–105). Many patients are prepared to and the time course of response cannot be stated with confi-
reframe their glycemic goals, particularly once they understand dence. This would be a useful subject for investigation. Pa-
that: 1) the aim is to avoid episodes of hypoglycemia rather than tients should be advised to monitor their blood glucose levels
worsening glycemic control and 2) the strategy is designed to last serially after self-treating an episode of hypoglycemia to as-
weeks rather than months. However, a minority of those with certain their individual response to the carbohydrate ingested.
unawareness have developed major psychological barriers that Parenteral treatment is necessary when a hypoglycemic pa-
prevent them from cooperating with such an approach. These tient is unwilling (because of neuroglycopenia) or unable to
individuals, who may have a morbid fear of complications, often take carbohydrate orally. Glucagon, injected sc or im in a dose
take frequent additional insulin to try and prevent their glucose of 1.0 mg in adults by an associate of the patient, is often used.
levels from rising above normal. Ultimately, such behavior can That can be lifesaving, but it often causes substantial, albeit
prevent a successful outcome, and unawareness continues ac- transient, hyperglycemia (177), and it can cause nausea and
companied by frequent severe hypoglycemia. Finally, a history of even vomiting. Although glucagon can be administered iv by
late postexercise hypoglycemia, nocturnal hypoglycemia, or medical personnel, in that setting the standard parenteral ther-
both should prompt appropriately timed regimen adjustments apy is iv glucose. A standard initial glucose dose is 25 g. The
(generically less insulin, more carbohydrate ingestion, or both) glycemic response to iv glucose is, of course, transient. A sub-
or, failing these, a pharmacological bedtime treatment (187).
sequent glucose infusion is often needed, and food should be
provided orally as soon as the patient is able to ingest it safely.
Recommendation The duration of a hypoglycemic episode is a function of its
3.7 We recommend that urgent treatment of hypoglycemia cause. A sulfonylurea overdose can result in prolonged hypo-
should be accomplished by ingestion of carbohydrates, if that is glycemia. Hospitalization for prolonged treatment and ob-
feasible, or by parenteral glucagon or glucose if it is not feasible servation may be necessary. Octreotide has been used to treat
(1QQQQ). sulfonylurea-induced hypoglycemia (178).
Acknowledgments Interests: consultant for the following: Novo Nordisk, Aventis,

Eli Lilly, MannKind, Menarini; Significant Financial Interest or
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Ms. Janet Dedeke Leadership Position: none declared. Consultation/Advisement:
and Dr. Patricia Stephens in the preparation of this manuscript. We
KER Unit (Mayo Clinic). *Victor M. Montori, M.D.—Financial
thank Dr. Robert Vigersky and the Clinical Guidelines Subcommittee,
the Clinical Affairs Core Committee, the Council of The Endocrine or Business/Organization Interests: none declared; Consultation/
Society, the American Diabetes Association, European Association Advisement: KER Unit (Mayo Clinic). Elizabeth R. Seaquist,
for the Study of Diabetes, and the European Society of Endocrinology M.D.—Financial or Business/Organizational Interests: Pfizer,
for their review of this guideline. We also thank the support staff of Merck, Co., Caring for Diabetes Educational Forum; Significant
The Endocrine Society.
Financial Interest or Leadership Position: none declared. F. John
Address all correspondence and questions: The Endocrine Society, Service, M.D., Ph.D.—Financial or Business/Organizational Inter-
8401 Connecticut Avenue, Suite 900, Chevy Chase, Maryland 20815. ests: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists; Significant
E-mail: govt-prof@endo.society.org. Financial or Leadership Position: none declared.
Address all reprint requests for orders of 101 and more to: Menna * Evidence based reviews for this guideline were prepared

Burgess, Reprint Sales Specialist, Cadmus Professional Communications,
under contract with The Endocrine Society.
telephone: 410-819-3960; fax: 410-684-2789; or E-mail: reprints2@
cadmus.com. Cosponsoring Associations: American Diabetes Association,
Address all reprint requests for orders of 100 or less to Society Services, European Association for the Study of Diabetes, and European
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S P E C I A L F E A T U R E

Evaluation and Management of Adult Hypoglycemic

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Evidence: Using the recommendations of the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Devel-

Conclusions: We recommend evaluation and management of hypoglycemia only in patients in

Summary of Recommendations 2.0 Evaluation and management of hypoglycemia in

J Clin Endocrinol Metab, March 2009, 94(3):709 –728 jcem.endojournals.org 709

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surreptitious, or even malicious (22). Hypoglycemia can occur as

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(3.0 mmol/liter) (14, 15). Ratios employing insulin and glucose

Not insulin (or IGF)-mediated

Insulinoma, NIPHS, PGBH

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these maneuvers fail, the patient with suspected fasting hypo-

can be initiated as an outpatient and completed (if necessary) in

Plasma glucose concentrations should be measured with a pre-

cise method, not with self-monitoring of blood glucose. Most,

24 h in about two thirds, and in less than 48 h in the vast majority,

of affected patients (60). The patient with a history suggestive of

postprandial hypoglycemia should undergo a mixed-meal test.

That meal should include the components recognized by the pa-

plement formula mixed meal is sometimes used) and should be

conducted over 5 h. An oral glucose tolerance test should never

mixed-meal test have not been established. Current clinical usage

is to apply the above criteria developed under fasting conditions

data can be obtained by serial sampling, under close supervision,

after temporary discontinuation of glucose infusion.

A patient with documented Whipple’s triad, inappropriately

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First author, year (Ref.) n Event rate Comment

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Acknowledgments Interests: consultant for the following: Novo Nordisk, Aventis,

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