Chapter1 6 - Pulse Circuits

APPLIED ELECTRONICS
(EE3129)
Chapter 1-6: Pulse Circuits using BJT and MOSFET
HIEU NGUYEN
Department of Electronics
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 1 / 63

Table of Contents
1 Switching Characteristics of Devices

The diode as a switch
The BJT as a switch
Over-driven BJT Switches
The speed-up or commutating capacitor
2 BJT switches with complex loads

Switches with Inductive Loads
Switches with Capacitive Loads

Table of Contents

The BJT as a switch


Diode Characteristics
The diode current is given by the relation:

VAK
IAK = IS (e ηVT − 1)
When the diode is forward-biased, VAK is positive
and IAK is a positive current (from A to K)
VAK VAK
If e ηVT >> 1, we can approximate: IAK ≈ IS e ηVT
When the diode is reverse-biased, VAK is a negative
voltage and the current IAK now flows in the
opposite direction (from K to A) and IAK ≈ −IS
IS almost remains constant and it is called the
reverse saturation current. It gets doubled for
every 10o C rise in temperature
T2 − T1
I (T2 ) = I (T1 ).2 10
Piecewise linear characteristic of a diode

When the diode is forward-biased, the switch is said

to be in the ON state and when it is reverse-biased,
the switch is in the OFF state
The practical diode characteristics in is a non-linear
characteristic. In the simplified analysis of a diode
circuit, it is advisable that the diode be represented
by its electrical equivalent. Hence, the non-linear
characteristic of a diode is piecewise linearized so
that the diode can be represented by an electrical
equivalent

Switching characteristics of diode
Turning ON diode:
Let the diode be in the OFF state for some time. When
it is switched into the ON state, there occurs a transient
response before the diode recovers to the steady state.

For a current step of small value, the response looks

like the response of a low-pass filter
At large currents, the diode voltage will have an
overshoot and the response will reach the
steady-state value after a finite time interval
Forward recovery time: (tfr ) the time difference
between the 10% value of the diode voltage and the
time when this voltage reaches and remains within
10 percent of its final value (110% or 90% of the
steady-state value)


Explanation

Explanation
In the forward-biased mode, electrons that are in the
n-type region will start drifting towards the p-type
region where they will recombine with the holes.
Similarly, holes in the p-type region will start drifting
towards the n-type region
The density of the charge carriers is high near the
junction and decays as the distance increases
In this case, charges are stored on both side of the
junction and varies with the applied potential. It
acts like a capacitor - (diffusion capacitor)
→ The diode voltage can not increase immediately

Explanation
To speed up the diode voltage, the supply higher

current is used. Increasing the current leads to a
decrease in the total charges of the carriers on both
sides of the PN junction
→ The capacitance decreases and the speed of
diode voltage increases
Increasing the current too much may lead to a
reverse in charges of the carriers on both sides of
the PN junction
→ it causes the overshoot in the diode voltage

Turning OFF diode:
Initially, if the diode is in the OFF state due to
reverse-bias voltage, then the resultant current is a
reverse saturation current. When the diode is ON with a
forward voltage for some time and turned OFF by
reverse-biasing, then the current cannot reach the initial
reverse saturation current instantaneously


Reverse recovery time: (trr ) the time taken for

the diode current to reach its initial reverse
saturation current, when the diode is turned OFF
from the ON state
The reverse recovery time includes two phases:
- The storage time (ts ): during which period the
stored minority charge becomes zero
- The transition time (tt ): the time interval for the
diode voltage recover −VR
Then: trr = ts + tt

Explanation
When the diode is ON, the number of minority carriers is
large. When the polarity of the external voltage is
suddenly reversed, it takes a finite time delay for the
minority carrier to reduce and create the depletion layer
To understand the situation of the diode:
As long as the voltage vi = VF (till t1 ), the diode is
ON. The forward resistance of the diode is negligible
VF
when compared to RL . Thus: IF =
R
At t = t1 , the polarity of vi is abruptly reversed:
VR
vi = −VR and −IR = − , until t = t2
R
Explanation
This is the time at which the minority carrier density pn
at x = 0 has reached the equilibrium value pn0
→ The diffusion capacitance decreases
→ The diode voltage falls slightly but, the voltage still
remains positive
At t = t2 the charge carriers have been cleaned up,
the polarity of the diode voltage reverses, and the
diode current starts to decrease
The transition time tt depends on the width of the
depletion layer and the charges inside this layer.
This layer now acts like a capacitor - (transition
capacitor)
The BJT as a switch
Consider the output characteristics of a transistor in the
CE configuration as shown in the figure below
Condition A corresponds to the switch in the ON state

and in saturation. Condition B corresponds to the switch
in the OFF state.
The BJT as a switch

The BJT as an Open Switch
As long as the driving signal amplitude VBE = 0 is zero,
the IB is zero; and hence, the IC = 0 (ideally)
→ VRC = 0 and VCE = VCC
→ The resistance between the collector and the emitter
terminals is the OFF resistance of this static switch.
Ideally:
VCC VCC
ROFF = = =∞
IC 0
If there is a leakage current ICEO . Assume that
ICEO = 0.1mA:
VCC VCC 10V
ROFF = = = = 100kΩ
IC ICEO 0.1mA
The leakage current
ICBO : the normal leakage current in the reverse-biased
BC pn junction
ICEO : the BE current which is is induced by the
forward-biased BE pn junction
ICBO
ICEO = (1 + β)ICBO = = αICEO + ICBO
1−α
The BJT as an Open Switch
To reduce the leakage current, the base–emitter diode is
reverse-biased. Assume that ICBO = 0.1µA:
VCC VCC 10V
ROFF = = = = 100MΩ
IC ICBO 0.1µA

The BJT as a Closed Switch
Let the amplitude of the input V be sufficiently large so
as to drive the transistor into saturation. Assume that
IC (sat) = 10mA:
VCE (sat) 0.2V
ROFF = = = 20Ω
IC (sat) 10mA

Switching time of a BJT
Let the input to the transistor switch be a pulse of
duration T. When a pulse is applied, because of stray
capacitances, collector current will not reach the
steady-state value instantaneously. To know exactly
when the device switches into the ON state and also into
the OFF state, we consider the following circuit:

Due to the capacitor between the Base and the Emitter
(Cbe ), the voltage at the Base does not reach the
steady-state value instantaneously

If vBE is a square pulse:

If vBE is not a square pulse - in case of T >> RS Cbe

If vBE is not a square pulse - in case of T << RS Cbe

Explanation
In the ideal case, operation point moves directly
from A to B. The BJT changes from cutoff to
saturation
In case of T >> RS Cbe , operation point move s
from A to B through VTC. The BJT changes from
cutoff to active mode and then, saturation
In case of T << RS Cbe , operation point move s
from A to C through VTC. The BJT changes from
cutoff to active mode
If the BJT operates in active mode, it may consume
more power and release heat
Switching times of a BJT

The turn-on times
Delay Time (td ): The time taken for the collector

current to reach from its initial value to 10% of its final
value
Rise Time (tr ): The time taken for the collector current
to reach from 10% of its final value to 90% of its final
value
Similar to the diode, the turn-on time can be reduced by
applying a source with a higher current

The turn-off times
Storage Time (td ): The time taken for the collector

current to fall from its initial value to 90% of its initial
value
Transition Time (tt ): The time taken for the collector
current to reduce from 90% of its initial value to 10% of
its initial value
At t = T (at the end of the pulse), the device is now
driven hard into saturation. Because of large number of
stored charges on either side of the junction, the
collector current is not going to fall to a smaller value
instantaneously

When the transistor is in saturation, VCE = VCE (sat) :
VCC − VCE (sat)

IC =
RC
Boundary condition:
IC
IB(min) =
β
If IB > IB(min) , the BJT is said to be over-driven

The advantage of an over-driven transistor switch is
that the delay time and the rise time can be
reduced, because with large IB , the junction
capacitances are charged faster
The disadvantage is that the storage time becomes
longer (due to the higher concentration of carriers)
→ The turn-on time can be reduced with a
consequently longer turn-off time
→ For fast switching, VBE should be zero and IB
should be large at switch-on to reduce the turn-on
time and this value should quickly settle down to
IB(min) required for saturation
To reduce the turn-off time, it is required to provide

a negative input voltage at switch-off
This leads to the idea of creating a reverse base
current which ensures that the junction capacitance
discharges rapidly
This may again lengthen the turn-on time
→ To reduce the turn-off time, switch-off has to be
accomplished by a large reverse current which
quickly returns to zero

The moment vi abruptly rises from 0 to V at t=0, the
capacitor behaves as a short-circuit, the charging current
becomes large, IB(max) and decays to IB(min)

When vi of opposite polarity is applied at switch off, the
capacitor discharge current assists in faster turn-off of
the switch. At t = tp , C1 behaves as a short circuit and
there is a large negative current at the Base

Choosing C1 : Basing on the charging current: This
implies that C1 can only charge by 10% during the
turn-on time
tturn_on = 0, 1Rs C1
where, Rs is the internal resistance of the source Basing
on the discharging current: This implies that C1 can
only discharge by 10% during the turn-off time
tturn_on = 2, 3RB C1
In the absence of specification of the turn-on time, a rule
of thumb to calculate C1 is:
RB C1 = 1µs
After choosing the appropriate value of C1 , we can
approximate the output waveform:

Table of Contents

The BJT as a switch


Consider a transistor switch, shown in the figure below
for which the load is an inductor L and R is the parallel
equivalent resistance of L (or load). A resistance RC is
added in series with the combination to limit the current.


At t = 0+ : vi = V1 → BJT is sat:
iL (0+ ) = 0 and vo (0+ ) = VCE (sat)
When 0 < t < T1 : the current through the inductor iL (t)
is supplied by VCC . The equation:
−t
L
iL (t) = IL(max) (1 − e τ1 ) (1) where τ1 =
R||RC
−t
diL (t) I L(max) τ
The voltage across L: uL (t) = L =L e 1
dt τ1
−t
uL (t) IL(max) τ
The current through R: iR (t) = =L e 1 (2)
R Rτ1
The output voltage:
−t
IL(max) τ
vo (t) = VCC − uL (t) = VCC − L e 1 (3)
τ1

IL(max) is calculated by assuming that when t → ∞, iL (t)
does not increase
diL (t)
uL (∞) = L = 0 and iL (∞) = IL(max) (from (1))
dt
and iR (∞) = 0
Hence, from (3): vo (∞) = VCC
From circuit: vo (∞) = VCE (sat) + RC (iL (∞) + iR (∞))
→ VCC = VCE (sat) + RC IL(max)
VCC − VCE (sat)
→ IL(max) =
RC
IL(max)
At t = 0, from (2): iR (0) = L = IO
Rτ1
−t
Then, we rewrite (3): vo (t) = VCC − RIO e τ1
At t = 0: vo (0) = VCC − RIO
Which means: at t = 0, there is a current IO through R
and RC
→ There is a negative spike with the magnitude of RIO
appearing at the collector
Otherwise, we assume that at t = T1− , the inductor
finishes charging and the current does not increase,
which means iL (T1− ) = IL(max)

At T1+ : vi = V2 → BJT is off: iL (T1− ) = iL (T1+ ) = IL(max)

When T1 < t < T2 : the current on the inductor iL (t)
discharges to R. The equation:
−(t − T1 )
τ2 L
iL (t) = IL(max) e where τ2 =
R
The voltage across R:
−(t − T1 )
uR (t) = iL (t)R = RIL(max) e τ2
The output voltage: vo (t) = VCC + uR (t)
−(t − T1 )
→ vo (t) = VCC + RIL(max) e τ2

Otherwise, we assume that at t = T2− , the inductor

finishes discharging, which means iL (T2− ) = 0 At t = T1 :
vo (T1 ) = VCC + RIL(max)
→ there is a positive spike with the magnitude of
RIL(max) appearing at the collector
Comparing the magnitude of two spikes:
RIL(max) IL(max) Rτ1 R + RC R
= = = =1+ >1→
RIO IO L RC RC
The magnitude of the positive spike is always
higher the magnitude of the negative spike

→It must be ensured that the overvoltage (caused by

the positive spike) is not more than the breakdown
potential of the collector of BJT
→ For this, R must be small. If R is small, the spike
takes a longer time to decay. Alternately, if R is large,
time constant becomes small, which allows the spike to
decay faster. However, at the same time the magnitude
of the spike RIL(max) becomes larger

Now if a damper diode D (in place of R) is connected
across L, only positive spikes over and above VCC are
available at the output

If the polarity of the diode is reversed, only negative
spikes are available at the output

A transistor switch with capacitive load CS is shown in
figure below


When t < 0: assume that BJT is sat and the capacitor

finishes discharging: vo (0− ) = vCs (0− ) = VCE (sat)
VCC − VCE (sat)
iCs (0− ) = 0; iRc (0− ) = iC (0− ) = = IC 1
RC
At t = 0+ : vi = V2 → BJT is OFF:
vCs (0+ ) = vCs (0− ) = VCE (sat)
When 0 < t < T1 : iC (t) = 0
The capacitor is charged from the power supply VCC . The
equation of voltage vC (t) or the output voltage vo (t):
−t
vo (t) = vC (t) = A(1 − e τ ) + B where: τ = RC C
Condition 1: vCs (0+ ) = B = VCE (sat)
Condition 2: at t = ∞, the capacitor finishes charging,
which means vC (∞) = VCC → A + B = VCC
→ A = VCC − B = VCC − VCE (sat)
−t
⇒ vo (t) = (VCC − VCE (sat) )(1 − e τ ) + VCE (sat)
Otherwise, we assume that at t = T1− , the capacitor
finishes charging, which means vCs (T1− ) = vC (∞) = VCC
At t = T1+ : vi = V1 and vCs (T1+ ) = vCs (T1− ) = VCC

→ vCE = VCC > VCE (sat) → Q is in active region
When T1 < t < T2 : The capacitor is discharged through
the BJT and the voltage across C decreases. The
equation of voltage vC (t) or the output voltage vo (t):
−(t − T1 )
vo (t) = vC (t) = Ae τ + B where: τ = RC C
+
Condition 1: vCs (T1 ) = A + B = VCC (1)
The current iCs (t) discharges from the capacitor: iCs (t) =
−(t − T1 ) −(t − T1 )
dvCs (t) A A
C = −C e τ =− e τ
dt τ RC
The negative sign (-) means the current direct out of the
capacitor
Vcc − vo (t)
The current through RC : iRc (t) =
RC
−(t − T1 )
Vcc A B
→ iRc (t) = − e τ −
RC RC RC
The current at the collector: iC (t) = iRc (t) − iCs (t)
−(t − T1 ) −(t − T1 )
Vcc A B A
→ iC (t) = − e τ − + e τ
RC RC RC RC
Vcc B
→ iC (t) = −
RC RC
Vcc B
Condition 2: IC (T1+ ) = βIB = −
RC RC
→ B = VCC − βIB RC
From (1): A = VCC − B = βIB RC
−(t − T1 )
⇒ vo (t) = vC (t) = βIB RC e τ + VCC − βIB RC
and iC (t) = βIB RC = IC 2
In this period of time, there are two currents at the
collector including iCs (t) and iRc (t). The sum of
them is a constant value βIB RC
When the BJT is biased under the saturation region,
IB is chosen to be high to reach the over-driven
condition. When operating with capacitive loads,
BJT operates in the active region. It creates a high
current at the collector and causes broken the BJT
When the voltage across C decreases to VCE (sat) then the
BJT operates in saturation region:
vo (t) = vC (t) = VCE (sat) and iC (t) = IC 1

Textbooks
1 Pulse and Digital Circuits (2012) - Venkata Rao K.

2 Microelectronic Circuit (6th edition) - Sedra Smith
3 Giáo trình Điện tử tương tự - Lưu Phú
4 Giáo trình Kỹ thuật xung - Lưu Phú
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APPLIED ELECTRONICS

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 1 / 63

1 Switching Characteristics of Devices

2 BJT switches with complex loads

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 2 / 63

1 Switching Characteristics of Devices

2 BJT switches with complex loads

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 3 / 63

The diode current is given by the relation:

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 6 / 63

When the diode is forward-biased, the switch is said

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 7 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 8 / 63

For a current step of small value, the response looks

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 9 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 10 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 11 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 12 / 63

To speed up the diode voltage, the supply higher

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 13 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 14 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 15 / 63

Reverse recovery time: (trr ) the time taken for

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 16 / 63

Condition A corresponds to the switch in the ON state

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 20 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 23 / 63

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HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 29 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 31 / 63

Delay Time (td ): The time taken for the collector

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 32 / 63

Storage Time (td ): The time taken for the collector

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 33 / 63

When the transistor is in saturation, VCE = VCE (sat) :

VCC − VCE (sat)

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 34 / 63

To reduce the turn-off time, it is required to provide

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 36 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 37 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 38 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 40 / 63

1 Switching Characteristics of Devices

2 BJT switches with complex loads

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 41 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 42 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 43 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 45 / 63

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 47 / 63

At T1+ : vi = V2 → BJT is off: iL (T1− ) = iL (T1+ ) = IL(max)

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 49 / 63

Otherwise, we assume that at t = T2− , the inductor

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 50 / 63

→It must be ensured that the overvoltage (caused by

HIEU NGUYEN (HCMUT) APLLIED ELECTRONICS Chapter 1-6 51 / 63