Properties and Structures of

Matter
Yr 11 Chemistry – Module 1

1
Review of Stage 4, 5 Chemistry
Particle Theory and States

Element, Compounds and Mixtures

Atoms, Molecules, Ions and Lattices

Physical and Chemical Change

Chemical Symbols and Formulas

2
The Atom
An atom is a neutral particle and is composed of three subatomic particles: Protons,
Neutrons and Electrons

Protons and Neutrons are both found in the nucleus of the atom which is in the
centre.
Electrons are located in orbits around the nucleus.

Protons have a positive +1 charge

Neutrons are neutral and have no charge
Electrons have a negative -1 charge

In terms of mass, protons and neutrons both have around the same mass. For
simplicity sake, we give both of these particles a atomic mass unit of ONE (1u)

Electrons are much lighter at around 0.0005u, and because of the tiny mass of the
electrons, for most purposes we actually ignore the mass of the electron and
assume it to be zero. 3
Particles Theory and States of Matter
The particle theory states that all matter are made from very small particles. These particles are
constantly in motion. The movement of these particles have an impact on the states of matter.

In solids, there is less heat and less kinetic energy in the particles. The particles are packed much closer
together, leaving no room for movement. Therefore solids have fixed shapes and volume.

In liquids, there is a little more heat and more kinetic energy in the particles. The particles are still
together but they are loosely packed. Giving some room for movement. Therefore liquids have a fixed
volume but no fixed shape.

In gases, there are even more heat and more kinetic energy. These
particles are shaken apart, gases do not have fixed shapes and volume
The particles in gases are able to move around each other.

4
Pure and Impure Substances
Elements and Compounds are pure substances, they have fixed compositions and properties. For
example, water (a compound) will always be made from 2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen atoms. If this number
changes, it will no longer be water.

Mixtures are impure substances, they do not have fixed compositions and properties.

5
Solutions, Colloids and Suspensions

6
Types of Matter - 1. Elements
Elements are made from only ONE type of atoms and are found on the Periodic Table.

An element has fixed properties.

An element is defined by the number of protons it has in its nucleus. For example, Hydrogen always has
ONE proton and Oxygen always has EIGHT protons. If I somehow added a proton to Hydrogen, it will
become a different element called Helium.

Note that an element can be made from two or more of the same atoms bonded together.

For example, hydrogen gas is made from two hydrogen atoms bonded together (H 2). Ozone is made from
three oxygen atoms bonded together (O 3). Both of these are classified as elements.

7
Types of Matter - 2. Compounds
A compound is two or more different types of atoms bonded together in a fixed number or a fixed ratio.

An example of a compound is water (H2O), which is made from two Hydrogen atoms and one Oxygen
atom. The properties of water is fixed, and so they are not related to the properties of the elements that
make up the compound.

Hydrogen (H2) and Oxygen (O2) are both very reactive gases. Water (H 2O) is a colourless, tasteless liquid
that is not particularly reactive. Their properties are very different.

Also, properties of compounds can change significantly with a slight difference in formula. For example,
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is an ingredient commonly found in bleach and antiseptic. Again, very different
to the properties of water (H2O).

8
Types of Matter - 3. Mixtures
Mixtures do not have fixed compositions. They are made from two or more substances mixed together,
and so the substances are not chemically bonded to each other; they are just mixed together. Mixtures
can be a mix of different elements and compounds, and so this is why the properties of a particular
mixture changes with composition.

For example, if you change the amount of sand in a concrete mixture, the properties of that mixture will
change.

Mixtures are divided into two main categories: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous mixtures.

Homogeneous mixtures have particles that are spread evenly across the whole mixture. Solutions are
homogeneous mixtures (Eg. Salt water)

Heterogenous mixtures have particles that are not spread evenly across the whole mixture. Suspensions
and colloids are heterogeneous mixtures. (Eg. muddy water, blood and milk)
9
Types of Mixtures
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures, the solute particles
will dissolved evenly in the solution. The solute will never
settle to the bottom of the container. Generally, the size of
the particles in a solution is less than 1nm. Examples of
solutions are sea water.

Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures, the particles in a

colloid will never settle out due to gravity, however
techniques such as centrifuging can cause them to settle.
Particles in a colloid are between 1 - 100 nm in size.
Example of colloids are milk and blood.

Suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures, the particles in

a suspension will settle out by gravity. Particles in a
suspension are larger than 100nm in size. An example of
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suspension is sand in water.
Atoms and Molecules
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that is still recognisable as that element. It is possible to
split an atom, but the resultant particle will not longer be that element.

A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that is capable of separate existence. Note that a
molecule can be an element or a compound.

A molecule of an element can be diatomic (consists of 2 atoms of the same element) like hydrogen (H 2).
A molecule of an element can be monatomic (consist of 1 atom) like helium (He), which is a noble gas.
A molecule can also be a compound like water (H 2O)

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Ions
Ions are charged particles.

Atoms with no charge are neutral, due to having the same

number of protons and electrons. However, in some situations,
an atom can gain or lose electrons.

When an atom gains an electron, it will have a negative charge.

This negatively charged ion is called an ANION.

When an atom loses an electron, it will have a positive charge.

This positively charged ion is called a CATION.

E.g. All metal atoms lose electrons and form cations such as
Na+.

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Lattices
In some situations, a substance does not form a molecule, instead a lattice is formed.

Remember, we said that a molecule is a group of particles capable of independent existence. A lattice is
an infinite network of particles joined together in a repeated pattern.

An example of this is sodium chloride (NaCl). The positive sodium ion is bonded to the neighbouring
negative chloride ion which is then bonded to more positive sodium ions etc. This repeats infinitely until
there are no more ions to bond. In this way, a lattice can be huge with billions of ions repeated over and
over.

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Physical and Chemical Change
A physical change occurs when a substance undergoes a change where no chemical bonds are broken
or no new chemical bonds are formed, such as the changing of state of substance or the physical
breaking of a solid. “Generally”, a physical change is easily reversible.

A chemical change occurs when chemical bonds are broken or when new bonds are formed.
“Generally”, it is much more difficult to reverse a chemical reaction

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Physical and Chemical Change
It is hard to describe what exactly you are looking for when a chemical change occur. The best sign to
look for is the formation of a new substance but this can sometimes be hard to spot.

In some resources, it may ask you to look for: colour change, bubbles, temperature change etc. Let’s go
through each of them.

Colour change: The formation of new substances can led to colour change, such as burning toast and the
surface going black. However, dissolving food colouring in water also causes a colour change and it is a
physical change. You must look for the formation of new substance!

Bubbles: The reaction of a metal with acid causes the formation of hydrogen gas. This is a sign of a
chemical change as a new substance (Hydrogen) is formed. However, when you boil water and get
bubble in the form of steam, it is a physical change due to the change of state of water. You must look for
the formation of new substance!

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Physical and Chemical Change
Temperature change: Combustion, the chemical
reaction of burning, releases heat into the
environment. In boiling water, there is also a
change in temperature, however the heat is
provided by an external source. You must make
sure that the heat released or absorbed comes
from the chemical reaction itself.

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Chemical Symbols
It is very common in Chemistry that we use symbols to represent
different elements on the periodic table. Often they are the first or first
two letters of the element. However, sometimes chemistry will use the
first letters of the latin name of the element such as ferrum for Iron
which has the symbol Fe.

The first letter is always a capital, and if there is a second letter then
the second letter is always lower case. For example, silicon has the
symbol Si. If you wrote it has SI then it can confuse other to think it is a
compound of sulfur (S) and iodine (I).

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Syllabus Dot Points
Explore homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures through practical investigations:
– using separation techniques based on physical properties (ACSCH026)
– calculating percentage composition by weight of component elements and/or compounds (ACSCH007)

Investigate the nomenclature of inorganic substances using International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) naming conventions

Classify the elements based on their properties and position in the periodic table through their:
– physical properties
– chemical properties

18
Physical Properties of Substances
The physical properties of substances are properties that one can observe without undergoing any
chemical reactions. Properties such as:

● Homogeneous/Heterogeneous
● Colour
● Magnetism
● Particle size
● Melting and Boiling point
● Density

Physical properties such as melting and boiling point are often used to determine the purity of a
substance

Difference in physical properties in the components of a mixture often determines which separation
techniques we use to separate them.
19
Density Calculations
Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance

Density is generally measured in grams per mL (gmL -1)

Generally solids are more dense than liquids and gases because the particles are packed more closely
together. However, there are some exceptions like water where the liquid is more dense than solid.

Question: Calculate the density of a block of aluminium measuring 0.50 cm X 1.20 cm X 0.80 cm which
has a mass of 1.30g

Answer: 2.7 gmL-1 (Note: 1cm3 = 1mL)

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Chemical Properties of Substances
Chemical properties of a substance can only be determined through chemical reactions. Such as
reactivity, pH, heat released during combustion and toxicity etc. It is a broad list of properties.

We will go more into Chemical properties in next section in the syllabus.

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Separation of Mixtures based on Physical Properties
Difference in physical properties of substances in a mixture are often determines which separation
technique we use.

Filtration: Filtration uses the difference in solubility of substances to separate. Eg. Sand and water
mixture

Distillation: Distillation uses the difference in boiling point in a miscible liquids or a solution. Eg. Water and
ethanol or salt and water

Separating funnel: Uses the difference in density in a immiscible solution. Eg. Oil and water

22
Separation of Mixtures based on Physical Properties
There are a huge amount of different separation techniques, the ones mentioned in the previous slides
are generally the ones we will use in a school lab. A few other examples are:

Magnetic separation: Uses the difference in magnetic properties of the substances in a mixture for
separation. Eg. Iron filling and sand

Evaporation: Similar to distillation except that the liquid evaporated is not kept. Eg. Salt and water

Sieving: Separating two solids with different grain size. Eg. Gravel and sand

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Gravimetric Analysis
Gravimetric analysis is the technique used to analyse the percentage composition of a mixture.

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Gravimetric Analysis - Prac
Measuring the percentage composition of a sand + salt mixture.

Measure the initial mass of the sand and salt mixture.

Dissolve the salt in the mixture by placing it into water.
Separate the sand from the mixture by filtration.
Separate the salt from the water by evaporation.
Measure the mass of the sand and salt separately
Determine the percentage composition of the sand and the salt in
the mixture.

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Results Table
Equipments Mass (g)

Initial Sand

Initial salt

Dry filter paper

Dry evaporating basin

Filter paper + dry sand

Evaporating basin + salt

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Flow Chart for Multi Step
Separations

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Periodic Table
The periodic table is a table with all of the element in the universe that we know of.

The periodic table is arranged into such a way so that elements that have similar properties are close to
each other.

The columns in the periodic table are called groups with number starting from left to right from group 1 to
group 18.

The rows in the periodic table are called periods and goes from top to bottom from period 1 to 7.

Some groups have special names. Group 1 - alkaline metals, Group 2 - alkaline earth metals, Group 3 to
12 - transition metals, Group 17 - Halogens, Group 18 - Noble Gases

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Periodic Table
The table is separated into three main groups:
Metals
Metalloids or Semi-metals
Non-metals

Metals are located on the left side of the table and usually have the following properties:
Solids at room temperature
Shiny
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable and ductile

Non-metals are located on the right side and have the

opposite properties to metals

Metalloids have properties somewhere in between metals

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and non-metals
Syllabus Dot Points
Investigate the basic structure of stable and unstable isotopes by examining:
– their position in the periodic table
– the distribution of electrons, protons and neutrons in the atom
– representation of the symbol, atomic number and mass number (nucleon number)

Model the atom’s discrete energy levels, including electronic configuration and spdf notation (ACSCH017, ACSCH018,
ACSCH020, ACSCH022)

Calculate the relative atomic mass from isotopic composition (ACSCH024)

Investigate energy levels in atoms and ions through:

– collecting primary data from a flame test using different ionic solutions of metals (ACSCH019)
– examining spectral evidence for the Bohr model and introducing the Schrödinger model

Investigate the properties of unstable isotopes using natural and human-made radioisotopes as examples, including but
not limited to:
– types of radiation
– types of balanced nuclear reactions 30
The Atoms on the Periodic Table
The atoms in the periodic table are arranged by their atomic number, which is the number of protons an
atom has. Hydrogen has a atomic number of 1 which means it has 1 proton. Atomic number is sometimes
represented by the letter “Z”

The mass number is the number of proton + neutron, it always a whole number. Mass number can
sometimes be represented by the letter “A”

On the periodic table, instead of giving mass number, they give the atomic weight. Which is not a whole
number. You can simply round the atomic weight to get the mass number.

The difference between atomic

weight and mass number will be
explained when we discuss
isotopes

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The Atoms on the Periodic Table
Atoms of an element can be written in different ways. The
diagram on the right shows another method of
representing an element. For example, an atom of carbon
with atomic number 6 and mass number 12 can be written
as:

Note that due to the nature of atomic number and mass

number. You can determine the number of subatomic
particle by:

Proton = Atomic number

Electron = Atomic number due to atoms being neutral, the
number of protons and electrons must be the same
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Neutral = Mass number - atomic number
Isotopes
An element is simply determined by the number of protons it has. This means that changing the number
of neutrons in the nucleus will not affect what element it is.

Isotopes are atoms of an element with a different number of neutrons.

For example: Hydrogen - 1 and Hydrogen - 2 are both isotopes of Hydrogen. The number behind the
element represents the mass number of that atom.
Hydrogen - 1, therefore has 1 proton and Hydrogen - 2 has 1 proton and 1 neutron.

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Isotopes
Atomic weight is determined by the relative abundance of each isotope.

The relative abundance of an isotope is the percentage of that isotope

in the naturally occurring element.

For example: Hydrogen has an atomic weight of 1.008. The weight is

much closer to one than two. This means that most Hydrogen found in
nature are Hydrogen - 1 instead of Hydrogen - 2.

Isotopes of the same elements have very similar physical and chemical
properties. However, in some cases, isotopes can become radioactive.

NOTE: Relative atomic mass = atomic weight

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Radioisotope
The nucleus of an atom can become unstable when it is too
large or when the ratio of protons to neutrons is too skewed to
one side.

Any nucleus with atomic number greater than 83 (bigger than

bismuth) is unstable.

The ratio of protons and neutron is also important. There is no

exact rule, however, it is about a ratio of 1:1 for protons and
neutron for the first 20 elements and then it is about 1:1.5

The instability is caused by the interactions of the forces in the

nucleus between the longer ranged electrostatic repulsions
and the shorter ranged nuclear force. A balance must be
achieved in order for the atom to be stable.

When an isotope is unstable, it will emit radiation in order to

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decay into a more stable form.
Nuclear Radiation
There are three types of nuclear radiation: alpha, beta and gamma. They occur in different situations.

Alpha radiation is a 2+ positive particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons.

Alpha decay usually occurs when the nucleus of the atom is too large and the atom needs to lose as
much mass as possible.

Note that because the atom has lost two protons due to alpha decay, it will become another element after
decay. This is called transmutation.

Scientist often use equations to represent nuclear decay. The helium in the equation is the alpha particle
as it has the same composition as the nucleus of helium.

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Nuclear Radiation
Beta radiation is -1 negative particle consisting of one electron. **

Note that this is not the same as donating an electron from the outer shell. This electron comes from the
nucleus. The electron comes from the breakdown of a neutron turning into a proton and an electron. The
proton stays in the nucleus and the electron is shot out as a form of radiation.

This means that beta decay will only occur when there are too many neutrons compared to protons. As
the atom actually gains a proton and loses a neutron in the process.

The β symbol is commonly replaced with e to represent the electron.

** This is actually called beta negative decay there is beta positive as well but this is beyond the scope of the HSC Chemistry course 37
Nuclear Radiation
Gamma radiation is not a particle but pure energy in the form of gamma radiation in the electromagnetic
spectrum.

Generally, gamma is released with other radiative decay as it does not cause transmutation. Sometimes
an isotope will have a “m” next to their mass number. This represent that the isotope is metastable and
will release gamma radiation. Eg. Technetium-99m.

Note that in the following example you can see that when uranium - 235 undergoes gamma decay, the
product is still uranium - 235. Transmutation does not occur during gamma decay.

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Nuclear Radiation

39
Example Questions
Write the nuclear equations for the radioactive decay of:
bismuth -213, which emits an alpha particle

213
83 Bi -> 20981Tl + 42He

Carbon-14 which emits a beta particle

14
6 C -> 147N + 0-1e

Technetium-99m which emits gamma radiation

99m
43 Tc -> 9943Tc + γ

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Half Life
Half life is the measure of the time taken for half of the mass of the radioisotope to decay into its product.
It is often used by scientist to determine the rate of nuclear decay.

Example: Iodine - 131 has a half life of 8 days. This means that after 8 days, half the original sample of
iodine would have decayed into another substance. 16 days, only ¼ of the original iodine would still be
present. 24 days, only ⅛ of the original iodine would still be present and so on.

This also means that radioisotopes never completely decay.

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Man-Made Isotopes
The largest naturally found atom on Earth is uranium, any atoms
larger than uranium are man made.

Americium-241 is an example of an element which is man made,

it is commonly used in smoke detectors. It constantly emits alpha
particles towards a detector which, when blocked by smoke, sets
off an alarm.

Americium-241 is used because of its long half life of 432.2 years

and because it emits mostly harmless alpha particles.

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Penetrating Power and Ionising Potential
Radiation is commonly thought of as dangerous to living things due to its ability to ionise things. This
means that the radiation can excite electrons to a higher state or even to break chemical bonds. Alpha
has the greatest ionising potential because it has two protons (2+ charge) in its nucleus.

The penetrating power is a measure of the ability of the radiation to penetrate through materials. Due to
the gamma being energy and the size of the particles, gamma has the greatest penetrating power
followed by beta and then alpha.

In terms of danger to living things gamma is the most dangerous

due to its ability to penetrate the body and damage important organs

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Electron Configuration
Electrons surround the nucleus of atoms in electron shells sometimes called energy levels. These energy
shells are named by numbers, 1st shell being the innermost shell and 2nd being the next and so on.

Each energy shell can only permit a certain number of electrons, once the first shell is full, the next shell
is then filled up. This is due to the fact that lower level generally requires less energy for the electrons to
fill.

The maximum number of electrons in each shell is 2, 8, 18, 32, 50.

The position of electrons in an atom is known as electron configuration. Eg Chlorine 2, 8, 7 meaning

that chlorine has a filled first shell of 2 electron, a filled second shell of 8 electron and a partially filled
third shell of 7 electrons.

The valence shell is the outermost shell of the atom, electrons sitting in this shell are called the valence
electrons. They are very important as they govern the type of chemical reactions that can occur for that
particular atom.
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In the periodic table, all elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons. This is
Stable Electron Configuration
All elements seek stability, in order for an element to become stable it must have a full valence shell. This
is also known as the noble gas configuration. This means that all element seeks to gain a full outer shell
during chemical reactions.

Since some of these outer shells are very large with 18 or 32 electrons. A rule called the octet rule is
introduced to simplify the process. It simplify the process by stating that all atoms wants to have eight
valence electrons to have a full shell. Except for the first shell which has two.

In order for the atom to gain a full outer shell, it can gain, lose or share electrons to get the correct
configuration. To determine what an atom can do, we have to look at the its position in the periodic table.

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Stable Electron Configuration
Octet rule example:

Sodium has the electron configuration of 2, 8, 1. The closest noble gas configuration (8 electron in its
outer shell) is Neon with 2, 8. Sodium will seek to donate its one valence electron in its outer shell to
become 2, 8. It now has a full outer shell of 8 electrons. In this process of donating the electron. Sodium
becomes positively charged since it has lost 1 electron. It becomes a sodium ion, Na +

Technically Sodium can also gain 7 electron to become Argon (2, 8, 8) but it is must easier to lose just
ONE electron than it is to gain SEVEN. So sodium will always lose the one electron.

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Stable Electron Configuration
Octet rule example:

Chlorine has an electron configuration of 2, 8, 7. So it will easier for chlorine to gain one electron than to
lose 7. Therefore forming chloride ion. Cl -

Table salt (Sodium chloride) is a compound formed when sodium donates its electron to chlorine, giving
the formula NaCl

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Balancing Equation of Ionic Compounds
Balancing the following formulas of ionic compounds:

Nickel (III) oxide Ni2O3

Tin (IV) nitride Sn3N4

Potassium phosphide K3 P

Aluminium fluoride AlF3

48
Electron Orbitals
We know that the octet rule is a rule of thumb and that in reality some levels can hold more than 8
electrons.

Each level are made from sublevels called s, p, d and f. Each of these sublevels have different number of
orbitals. Each orbital can have up to two electrons.
Sublevel s can only have 1 orbital, which means it can hold 2 electrons.
Sublevel p can have 3 orbitals for 6 electrons
Sublevel d can have 5 orbitals for 10 electrons
Sublevel f can have 7 orbitals for 14 electrons

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Electron Orbitals
It turns out that each energy levels contains different amount of sublevels.

First energy level will only have one sublevel s which is called 1s
Second energy level will have 2 sublevel, s and p which is called 2s and 2p
Third energy level will have 3 sublevel, s, p and d which is called 3s, 3p and 3d
Fourth energy level will have 4 sublevel, s, p, d and f which is called 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f

This explains why the number of electrons increase in the outer

Shell from 2, 8, 18 and 32.

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Shapes of Sublevels
A sublevel is composed of one or more orbitals.

An orbital is a region of an atom where there is a 90%

chance of finding an electron. These regions are in
fixed 3D geometrical shapes depending on the
sublevel. An orbital can hold two electrons due to two
electrons having different spin.

The “s” sublevel is only made of one orbital. The “s”

orbital is a sphere around the nucleus. The “1s” orbital
is the “s” orbital in the first shell of the atom. The “2s”
orbital is the “s” orbital in the second shell of the atom.

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Shapes of Sublevels
Each sublevel has its only particular shape. The “p” sublevel is made from 3 identical dumbbell shaped
orbital. Each of these shapes are on its own axis (x, y and z) and they are 90 o from one and another

The “d” sublevel has 5 different orbitals and “f” sublevel has 7 different orbitals.

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53
Electron Orbitals
You would assume that electrons will fill up the shell from 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s and so on…

However this is actually not the case. The shells are filled based on the amount of energy required to fill
the shells. We assume that the lower levels requires less energy but actually some sublevels will require
less energy than a sublevel in a higher level. This is the case for 4s.

4s will get filled before 3d because it requires less energy

In order to remember how the sublevels are filled we can

use the following table

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Orbital Notation
Orbital notation is a way how chemists are able to show the electrons in the s, p, d, f orbitals.

For example: Argon has the electron configuration of 2, 8, 8. When written as orbital notation argon is
1s22s22p63s23p6

In this notation, “1s2” the s sublevel in the first shell and the power 2 represent that there are two
electrons in that sublevel. Remember the s shell can only have 2 electrons.

So for “2s2”, it represent the s sublevel in the second shell and the power 2 again represent 2 electrons.

“2p6” represent the p sublevel in the second shell and the power 6 are the 5 electrons. Remember that p
shells can have a total of 6 electrons.

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Orbital Notation
Let’s also look at Potassium, it will have a electron configuration of 2, 8, 8, 1. Since 4s fills before 3d.
Potassium will have a orbital notation of 1s 22s22p63s23p64s1.

So it is just like argon except it has a 4s 1

To simplify the writing of orbital notation, you will sometime see Potassium written as [Ar]4s 1. This means
that it has the same orbital notation as argon but with an extra 4s electron.

For simplified orbital notation, we always use the closest previous noble gas and then just write the extra
electrons behind it.

So example, Calcium will be [Ar]4s 2

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Orbital Notation
Another method of showing orbital notation is to use boxes. Each box represents a particular orbital.
Remember that each orbital can only hold 2 electrons.

So an s sublevel is just 1 box, a p sublevel is 3 boxes and d sublevel is 5 boxes.

To represent the electrons in the orbital, we use arrows, one up and one down. They represent how the
electrons have different spins.

For example - Aluminium which has a orbital notation of 1s 22s22p63s23p1 would look like this:

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Electron Orbitals
Hund’s rule is a rule used to determine how the electrons are filled in a level. It states that every orbital
is singly occupied before any orbital is doubly occupied.

For example:

Nitrogen 1s22s22p3

Oxygen 1s22s22p4

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Exceptions and Rules
Even though we know that 4s shell is filled before 3d. We do place all the 3rd level electrons together.

So for Scandium (Sc) it will have the orbital notation of 1s22s22p63s23p63d14s2 and not
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1

As with other rules in Chemistry, there are some exceptions.

For the elements such as Chromium (Cr) and Copper (Cu). They will only have ONE 4s electron. This is
because a half-filled or fully-filled 3d sublevel is more stable than a fully filled 4s sublevel.

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Orbital Notation Questions
Write the orbital notation of the following elements:

Potassium [Ar]4s1

Gallium [Ar]4s23d104p1

Rhodium [Kr]5s24d7

Strontium [Kr]5s2

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Emission Spectra
We know that electrons are filled in order of how much energy is
required. If we can provide an element with energy, the electrons can
actually get excited to move from a lower level to a higher level.

Eventually, the electron will fall back down from the higher level to the
lower level. When this occurs, the electron will emit the energy back out
in the form of an electromagnetic radiation (EMR).

Every element in the periodic table has a different number of electrons,

the energy required to excite its electrons is therefore unique. The EMR
emitted is specific to that particular element. We can then identify the
element by looking at the spectra.

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Emission Spectra
Each line in the emission spectra of an element represents a certain
electron jumping down from a higher level to a lower level and
emitting energy in the light part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Note that it can emit radiation in other parts of the electromagnetic

spectrum too.

The amount of energy varies because of many factors such as the

position the electron is from to and from.

The fingerprint spectra is actually determined by planck's equation

E=hf (E is energy, f is frequency and h is planck’s constant)
The frequency of the light emitted is directly linked to how much
energy is required to excite the electron

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Flame Test
One of the easier way to identify the metal ions in a solution is
a test called the flame test.

A small amount of solution containing a metal ion is placed in

a flame. The colour of the flame changes due to the emission
spectra of that particular metal.

For example, Lithium has an intense red colour in the flame

test because lithium has a big peak in the red side of its
emission spectra.

The flame test has significant limitations such as not being

able to identify more than one metal at a time.
It is generally used as a quick preliminary test or a test after
metals have been separated.
63
 Bohr Model
In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed his model of the atom. He postulated that:

An electron executes circular motion around the nucleus in fixed circular

orbits(energy levels)

The electron can occupy only certain allowed orbits or stationary states. An
electron in such a stationary state does not radiate electromagnetic energy.

Orbits of larger radii correspond to higher energy

Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom when an electron moves from one

stationary state to another.

The difference in energy (DE) between the initial (E i) and final states (Ef) is equal
to the energy of the emitted or absorbed photon and is quantised according to
the Planck relationship:
h is Planck’s constant, h = 6.63 X 10 -34 Js
f- frequency of the emitted electromagnetic radiation 64
DE = E – E = hf
Example: Absorption Spectrum of Hydrogen (Balmer Series)

If white light is passed through a sample of

hydrogen, hydrogen atoms absorb energy as an
electron is excited to higher energy levels (orbits
with n ≥ 2). 656, 468, 434, and 410 nm wavelengths
correspond to the n = 2 to n = 3, n = 2 to n = 4, n =
2 to n = 5, and n = 2 to n = 6 transitions.

65
Bohr’s Model and Absorption Spectra
Bohr’s model can be used to easily explain the absorption and emission spectra

66
Syllabus Dot Points

demonstrate, explain and predict the relationships in the observable trends in the physical and chemical
properties of elements in periods and groups in the periodic table, including but not limited to:
– state of matter at room temperature
– electronic configurations and atomic radii
– first ionisation energy and electronegativity
– reactivity with water

67
Periodic Table
Periodicity is the regular recurrence of an event or properties. The periodic table is designed so that there
are regular patterns in the table. ‘

We will learn about the trends in the periodic table for the following properties.
Physical state
Atomic radius
Ionisation energy
Electronegativity
Reactivity with water

68
States of Matter at Room Temperature
To look at the states of element at room temperature, we should look at the melting point / boiling point.

As discussed previously, metals are generally solids whereas non-metals can also be liquids and gases.
This means that in terms of melting points. It is generally higher on the left side of the table and lower on
the right side. However, this is not a straightforward trend as element generally in the middle of a period
has the higher melting points

69
Atomic Radius
Atomic radius is the radius of the atom in the periodic table. It is quite obvious that as you go down the
periodic table, the radius of the atom increases. This is because you have now got an extra electron
shell.

Atomic radius decreases across the table from left to right. This is because as you go across the table,
the number of proton increases by one. This increase in positive charge in the nucleus will pull the
electron shells closer causing the radius to decrease.

70
Ionisation Energy
Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove an electron
from an atom. We can explain this trend by remembering the
octet rule.

Metals on the left side of the periodic table have lower number
of valence electrons. These elements actually want to lose
electrons, therefore, their ionisation energy is very low.

Non-metals on the right side of the periodic table have a high

number of valence electrons. These elements do not want to
lose electrons, therefore, their ionisation energy is very high.

From this explanation we can see that ionisation energy

increases from left to right.

71
Ionisation Energy
Ionisation energy decreases as you go down the periodic table due to the “shielding effect”. The
shielding effect is the phenomenon where the valence electrons are shielded from the attraction of the
nucleus due to the negative charges of the electrons in between.

This means that the amount of energy required to remove a valence electron from the atom decreases as
you go down the table.

72
First Ionisation Energy
The energy required to remove the first valence electron from an atom is called the first ionisation energy.

Some elements such as sodium only has one valence electron. This means that the first ionisation
energy is very low. However, the energy required to remove the second electron (second ionisation
energy) for sodium will be very high. This is due to the second electron being in a lower shell and you are
not trying to remove one of the eight electron in the inner shell.

In the table on the right, you can see that as soon

as you try to remove an electron from the inner shell
the amount of energy required increases significantly.

Example: The 3rd electron of Magnesium

The 4th electron of Aluminium

73
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electron.

Non-metal will be more electronegative due to having more

valence electrons and needing only a few more to have a full
valence shell.
Metals are less electronegative due to having lower number
of valence electrons and wants to lose their valence
electron.
Therefore the trend is that electronegativity increases
toward the right side of the table.

The shielding effect also influences electronegativity. Due to

electrons being shielded from the attraction from the nucleus.
Electronegativity decreases as you go down the periodic table.

74
Reaction with Water
Sometimes this is mentioned as metallic character, it refers to the reactivity of metals. Only very reactive
metals will undergo a chemical reaction with water.

The most reactive metals are on the left hand side of the periodic table. Alkaline Metal (Group 1) and
Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2) will react with water. Transition metal will not react or have very minimal
reaction with water. Metallic character is higher on the left side of the table and towards the bottom of the
table. Due to shielding effect, it is easier for the valence electrons to be lost from elements with a larger
atomic radii.

Metal + Water Reaction: (Example using Sodium)

Sodium + Water -> Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

75
Syllabus Dot Points
Investigate the role of electronegativity in determining the ionic or covalent nature of bonds between atoms

Investigate the differences between ionic and covalent compounds through:

– using nomenclature, valency and chemical formulae (including Lewis dot diagrams) (ACSCH029)
– examining the spectrum of bonds between atoms with varying degrees of polarity with respect to their constituent elements’ positions on the
periodic table
– modelling the shapes of molecular substances (ACSCH056, ACSCH057)

Investigate elements that possess the physical property of allotropy

Investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements, including but not limited to:
– ionic networks
– covalent networks (including diamond and silicon dioxide)
– covalent molecular
– metallic structure

Explore the similarities and differences between the nature of intermolecular and intramolecular bonds and the strength of the forces associated with
each, in order to explain the:
– physical properties of elements
– physical properties of compounds (ACSCH020, ACSCH055, ACSCH058)
76
Electron Configuration
As stated in the previous slides, all atoms want to achieve noble gas electron configuration. This means
that the atom should have a full outer shell. This is because atoms with full outer shell are stable.

In order for an atom to gain stable electron configuration, they must form a chemical bond. Reactivity is
therefore directly linked with how many electrons in the outer shell of the atom. A full shell will mean the
atom is not reactive, this is because they don’t need to change their electron configuration, they already
have the most stable configuration. (ie. Noble gases do not normally react)

There are three types of chemical bonds we will discuss in this topic:

Ionic bond
Covalent bond
Metallic bond

77
Octet Rule
For balancing equations and understanding the reactivity of elements. We use a simplified set of rules
called the octet rule in order to assist us.

All elements want to have a full outer shell. These full shell consist of 2 electrons in the first shell and 8
electrons in all subsequence shell. Therefore many methods of gaining noble gas configuration. One
example if by gaining or losing electrons.

So this mean for Hydrogen, it can gain or lose one electron to obey the octet rule due to hydrogen only
having one shell. (normally hydrogen loses electrons)

For element in the lower periods such as sodium which has 1 electron in its valence shell. It can lose 1
electron or gain 7 electrons to obey the octet rule. However it is much easier to lose 1 electron than to
gain 7 electrons. So sodium will always lose that electron.

So the opposite occur for fluorine which has 7 electrons in its valence shell. It will gain 1 electron to obey
the octet rule instead of losing 7 electrons. 78
Valency
The charge of the ion is called the valency. It is determined by the number of electrons the element lost
or gained.

We can see it simply by looking at the group that these elements are in. Group 1, 2, 3 will have a charge
of +1, +2 and +3 due to these elements losing their outer shell electrons. Group 5, 6 and 7 will have a
charge of -3, -2 and -1 due to these element gaining elements in their outer shells. Group 4 can gain or
lose 4 electrons so it has a valency of +/- 4.

Transition metals always have a valency of +2, unless stated by a roman numeral in the name of the
compound eg. Iron(III)oxide. The iron in this case will have a valency of +3. An exception is silver which
always has a valency of +1

Noble gas will have a valency of zero due to not losing

or gaining electrons.

79
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding occur between a metal and a non-metal through the donating and accepting of electrons.

As stated before all atoms try to gain noble gas configuration. When an atom lose an electron, it must
donate it to another atom. For example: A reaction between magnesium and oxygen. The magnesium will
donate electrons to the oxygen.

The metal which has a lower number electrons in the outer shell will always donate its electrons. The
losing of electrons cause the atom to have a positive charge. For example: Magnesium (Mg) which has 2
electrons in its valence shell. It will lose 2 electrons to become Mg 2+. This magnesium ion has stable
electron configuration.

The non metal which has a higher number of electrons in the outer shell will always accept its electrons.
By accepting electrons, it becomes a negative ion. For example: Oxygen (O) which has 6 electrons in its
valence shell. It will gain 2 electrons to become O -2. This oxide ion has a stable configuration.

80
Ionic Bonding
The formation of ionic compound occur due to the attraction
between the positively charged metal ion and the negatively
charged non-metal ion.

The example in the previous slide, the reaction between

magnesium and oxygen. The magnesium will donate both of its
valence electron to the oxygen. Therefore the ratio between
magnesium and oxygen in this compound is one to one.

Ionic bonding forms a lattice structure and there is never an ionic

molecular structure.

81
Balancing Ionic Bonding
An ionic compound is neutral, therefore the ratio of charges of the
cation and anion must add to zero.
Below is an example for the ionic compound
between magnesium and bromine
For example for the ionic compound of calcium and fluorine.

Calcium (Ca) due to the octet rule will lose 2 electrons to have a
charge of 2+

Fluorine (F) due to the octet rule will gain 1 electron to have a
charge of -1

If we just write the formula as CaF. It will have net charge of +1

which is incorrect. In order for us to balance the charge the ratio of
calcium and fluorine must be in the ratio of 1:2

So the formula is CaF2. An easy way to balance ionic compounds

82
is to take the charge and put it to the bottom.
Ionic Compounds Nomenclature
In naming a ionic compound, we always start with the metal (the cation) followed by the non-metal (the
anion). The anion will have the suffix “-ide”.

For example: The ionic compound of magnesium and oxygen is called magnesium oxide. (MgO)

The ionic compound of calcium and chlorine is called calcium chloride (CaCl 2)

The ratio of ions in the ionic compound has no impact on the naming of the compound.

Due to the nature of lattices, the formula for an ionic compound is always the lowest ratio between the
cation and anion. It is not a representation of how many cation and anions there are in the lattice. We call
this formula the empirical formula.

83
Polyatomic Ions
Some ions exists in a group that are joined together these are called polyatomic ions.

“Poly” means many, an ion composed of many atoms.

You will need to memorise the formula and valency of common polyatomic ions such as:

Hydroxide (OH-)
Nitrate (NO3-)
Acetate (CH3COO-)
Hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate (HCO 3-)

Sulfate (SO42-)
Carbonate (CO32-)

Phosphate (PO43-)

Ammonium (NH4+) ----- NOTE This is different to ammonia which is NH 3 84

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is the bonding between two or more non-metals through the sharing of electrons.

Normally non-metals need to gain electrons in order to obey the octet rule. In situations where there are
no metals to donate their electrons. Non-metals will share their valence electrons to gain a full outer shell.

Example: Oxygen exists as a diatomic molecule (O 2). This occur because each oxygen atom share 2
electrons with each other. So Oxygen A will get the 2 electrons shared by Oxygen B and have a full shell
of 8 electrons. Whereas Oxygen B will also get the 2 electrons shared by Oxygen A and have a full shell
as well. Both of these atoms now have full outer shells and are now stable.
Often, only 1 pair of electrons are shared. This is called a single bond.
In this example, because 2 pairs of electrons are shared, we call this a double bond. Triple bond can
also occur in other molecules. (eg. N2) Oxygen A Oxygen B

85
Covalent Bonds
You can also have compounds made from covalent bonds, such as water (H 2O) and carbon dioxide
(CO2). Key thing to notice here are that these are all non-metals because covalent bonds can only occur
between non-metals.

In water, the oxygen atom need to share 2 electrons and the hydrogen need to share 1 each. So
therefore the number of hydrogen to oxygen in a water molecule is 2:1

In carbon dioxide, the carbon needs to share 4 electrons and the oxygen need to share 2 electrons each.
So therefore the number of carbon to oxygen in a carbon dioxide molecule is 2:1

86
Covalent Molecular Nomenclature
For HSC we are mainly looking at covalently bonded substances with two
elements. We always start with the element towards the left hand side of
the periodic table. So for water (H 2O), we will start with hydrogen followed
by oxygen.

The second element is given the suffix of -ide, so in this case, instead of
oxygen, we have oxide.

In covalent compounds we also introduce a prefix that represent the

number each element. So for water, we will have di- for the hydrogen and
mono- for the oxygen.

So the proper chemical name for water is dihydrogen monoxide.

NOTE: It is accepted that if there is only one of the first element, we don’t
have to use the prefix mono. For example: Carbon dioxide. Monocarbon
dioxide is still technically correct but no one uses that... 87
Lewis Dot Diagram
Lewis dot diagram is often used by chemistry to show the number of electrons in the outer shell of an
atom.

For example for hydrogen you use the symbol “H” which represent hydrogen and 1 dot which represent
the 1 valence electron in the outer shell.

For oxygen, we use the symbol “O” and 6 dots to represent the 6 valence electrons in the
outer shell.

Lewis dot diagram is most often used for showing covalent molecules, it can be used for
ionic bonds as well but it is not as useful.

88
Lewis Dot Diagram for Covalent Molecules & Ions
For a covalent molecule, the share electrons are placed between the atoms. Sometimes these electrons
can be replaced by a line or that the dots representing the electrons have a circle around them.

On the right is a diagram for a water molecule using Lewis dot diagram
You can see that the outer shell electrons of the oxygen is shown. There are
no electrons on the hydrogen atom as hydrogen only has 1 electron. The line
between the oxygen and the hydrogen represent the shared electron pair.

Lewis dot diagrams can also be used for ions, for example sodium chloride is represented by a large
square bracket around the symbol Na for sodium and Cl for chlorine. The diagram also has the electrons
on the outer shell.

NOTE: In the diagram to the right, there should be a square

bracket around the Calcium ion [Ca] 2+

89
Covalent Molecular
Covalent bonds form two different types of structures. Covalent molecular substances and covalent
lattice substances (sometimes called covalent network).

Covalent molecular substances are molecules that are formed when two or more non-metals make
covalent bonds, (the ones we discussed in the previous slides). For example, molecules such as carbon
dioxide and water are covalent molecular substances.

These molecules exist independently and the formula for them are fixed. This means that carbon dioxide
will always have the formula CO2 and water is always H2O. To change them will mean that you have
something completely different. For example, H 2O2 is hydrogen peroxide which is found in bleach and
antiseptics, very different to the properties of water. These formula are called molecular formula as they
describe the composition of each molecule.

90
Covalent Lattice
Covalently bonded substances can also make a lattice structure. Lattice structures are different to
molecules in that the substance can make infinite number of bonds similar to ionic substances.

In covalent lattice structures, covalent bonds are made infinitely over the whole structure, examples
include diamond and silica (quartz).

Diamond is made from elemental carbon each of which is bonded to 4 neighbouring carbons which are
then each bonded to 4 neighbouring carbons. This happens over and over again into a lattice structure.

For naming covalent lattice structure, they generally have

their own names such as diamond for this carbon based
structure on the right and silica (SiO 2 )for the silicon and oxygen
based structure on the left.

91
Allotropes
Due to the different number of ways that substances can be bonded, they can have different properties
even though they are made from the same element.

An example of this is diamond and graphite, both of these structures are covalent lattice structure made
from the element carbon. However, they have very different properties. These are called allotropes, they
are the same element but bonded differently.

Diamond is a very hard substance with high melting and boiling point used in cutting tools and jewelry.
Graphite is a brittle, black substance that can conduct electricity used commonly in pencils and
lubricants. Both of these are made from the same element carbon.

In diamond, the carbons are bonded in a strong tetrahedral structure. In graphite the carbons are bonded
in layered hexagonal ring structures. The difference in
structure gives each of these elements allotropes different
properties.

92
Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding occurs between metals, the mechanism of metallic bonding is that the valence electrons
of the metals leave the outer shell. This sea of delocalised electrons are free to move around the
positive metal ion lattice structure and it holds the whole lattice together.

This type of bonding gives metal its good electrical conductivity due to the movement of free electrons.
The electron movement always gives metals good ductility and malleability.

93
Polarity
Covalent bond is a type of intramolecular force that occur due to
the sharing of electrons between two atoms. However, there are
some cases where the electrons are not distributed evenly and
that one atom pulls the electron closer to itself than their partner.

The distribution of electrons are due to electronegativity, the atom

with higher electronegativity will pull the electron closer, where as
an atom with low electronegativity will let the electrons be pulled
away. An example of this is water. Oxygen is very electronegative
and hydrogen is not, so the electrons are pulled towards oxygen in
the covalent bond.

If the electron is closer to one atom than the other, the side with
the closer electron will have a small negative charge and the side
with the electrons being pulled away will have a small positive
charge. We use the lowercase greek letter delta δ to represent this
charge. This charge is also sometimes called the dipole moment. 94
Geometry of Molecules
The geometry of molecules also has an impact on the polarity of
the molecules.

Remember that a molecule is polar because electrons are being

pulled to one side of the molecule. So if the electrons are pulled
in the same strength in opposite direction, the molecule is still
non-polar.

An example of this is a linear molecule such as carbon dioxide

where the oxygen on both sides of the carbon are pulling the
electrons with equal strength. It is like a tug-o-war where the
strength of both sides are equal so the rope stays in the middle.

A similar case also applies to methane (CH 4), a tetrahedral

structure where the electrons are shared evenly between the
hydrogen and the carbon due to the geometry.
95
Geometry of Molecules

X and A are elements

in the molecule.

E represent lone pair

of electrons

96
Intermolecular and Intramolecular Forces
Covalent, ionic and metallic bonding are all types of intramolecular force. They are the forces within the
molecule or the lattice. However there are also forces outside, between the molecules, that has an
impact on the properties of substances. These forces between molecules are called intermolecular force.

These intermolecular forces are made from two components:

● Dispersion force
● Dipole dipole force

Dispersion forces are weak forces of attraction between molecules that occur due to the constant motion
of electron leading to the electron cloud being unsymmetrically distribute between to two bonded nuclei.
This causes a temporary dipole which can also cause a similar dipole in a neighbouring molecule.
Hence, it is the weak intermolecular forces that arise from electrostatic attractions between
instantaneous dipoles in neighbouring molecules. This force is between any and all molecules. The
strength of the dispersion force is dependent on the mass of the molecule. Bigger mass = bigger
dispersion force

Dipole dipole force is generally a stronger force of attraction between molecules. Not all molecules have 97
Dipole Dipole forces
Because polar molecules have positive and negative ends, they are able to line up
so that the positive end of one molecule attracts the negative end of another
molecule.

It is this electrostatic attraction that holds polar molecules to each other more
strongly than those for non-polar molecules.

98
Dipole dipole force
In the case of water, the oxygen side will have a slight negative charge
and the hydrogen will have a slight positive charge. When two or more
water molecules interact with each other, these charges will cause a
dipole dipole force to pull the molecules together.

The strength of the dipole dipole force is directly proportional to the

difference in electronegativity of the two atoms. The larger the difference
the stronger the dipole dipole force.

The strongest dipole dipole force results from the covalent bond between
hydrogen and either fluorine, nitrogen and oxygen. This is because
hydrogen is the lowest electronegative non-metal and fluorine, nitrogen
and oxygen are all highly electronegative.

This very strong dipole dipole force is called hydrogen bonding. Note that
hydrogen bonding is a intermolecular force not intramolecular. For water,
the hydrogen bonds between molecules are about ⅓ the strength of the 99
H-O covalent bond.
Hydrogen Bonding
The intermolecular force between polar molecules are composed of two forces:

● Dispersion force
● Dipole dipole Force

When a polar molecule has atoms with a very large difference in electronegativity such as between
hydrogen-oxygen, hydrogen-fluorine and hydrogen-nitrogen, the dipole dipole force becomes so strong
that we give it a different name.

This very strong dipole dipole force is called “Hydrogen Bonding”.

It is the type of intermolecular force that involves a hydrogen atom bonded to an F, O or N atom in
molecule becoming attached to an F, O, N atom in a different molecule. F, O and N has very strong
electron-attracting powers as they are the three most electronegative elements. It is a very strong bond
because the hydrogen nucleus is extremely small allowing the two adjacent molecules to get close
together and the F, O and N atoms are strongly electron-attracting. 100
Polar Molecule
So when do we say that a molecule is polar? This is where the syllabus isn’t very specific...

When two different elements are bonded to each other, the difference in electronegativity is what causes
the dipole moment. The larger the difference in electronegativity, the greater the dipole. So this
technically means that when two different elements are covalently bonded they must at least be weakly
polar.

We normally classify strongly polar substances as molecules capable of hydrogen bond. (ie covalent
bond between hydrogen and either fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen).

For simplicity, we are going to call all strongly polar substances as polar molecule and all weakly
polar substances as non-polar.

101
Water as a Polar Molecule
Water is an example of a polar substance. It is strongly polar due to the huge difference in
electronegativity between hydrogen and oxygen. This hydrogen bond gives water a lot of different special
properties.

Water has significantly higher melting, boiling point, and density compared to molecules with similar
molecular weight.

This is because during the process of melting or boiling, intermolecular forces need to be broken. In polar
substances, these intermolecular forces are very strong due to the presence of
the dipole dipole force.

More energy is required to break the intermolecular force of polar substances

meaning that the melting and boiling points of these substances are higher.

Density is higher in polar substance because the stronger intermolecular force

will pull the molecules closer to each other. 102
Intermolecular Forces and Carbon Allotropes
Diamond is a very hard substance with very high melting and boiling point.
This is due to the fact that when energy is applied to diamond, you are
actually using it to try and break the very strong covalent bonds between the
carbon atoms. This is very difficult to do, hence the high melting and boiling
point as well as the harder strength.

When energy is supplied to graphite, it goes into breaking the the much
weaker intermolecular force between the layers of hexagonal rings. This is
why graphite is brittle with a much lower melting and boiling point.

103
Properties of Substances
The properties of substances are influenced by the bonds in the substance.

In this section, we will discuss the properties of 5 different types of bonding.

● Metallic bonding
● Nonpolar covalent molecular
● Polar covalent molecular
● Covalent lattice
● Ionic bonding

104
Properties of Metallic Bonded Substances
In metallic bonding, the sea of delocalised electrons has a big impact on its properties.

Metallic bonded substances are very good conductors of electricity due to the delocalised electrons being
free to move around.

The electrons being free to move will allow the lattice to move around each other this causes metallic
bonded substances to be ductile and malleable. (Shown in diagram below)

Metallic bonds requires a significant amount of energy to break so the melting and boiling point is
generally very high and hence metals are usually solids at room temperature.

105
Properties of Non-Polar Covalently Bonded Substances
When energy is applied to a molecular substance, it goes into breaking the intermolecular forces between
the molecules. If enough energy is applied, it can be great enough to break the forces between the
molecules. This is what occurs during changes of state such as melting or boiling.

In non-polar substances the intermolecular forces are very weak this causes most of them to be gases at
room temperature.

In covalent bonds, the valence electrons are locked into the bond itself and are not free to move around,
therefore covalently bonded substances are not good conductors of electricity.

Small non-polar molecule will partially dissolve in water but

overall they are insoluble.

Examples of non-polar molecules are carbon dioxide (CO 2),

oxygen gas (O2) and nitrogen gas (N2)
106
Properties of Polar Covalently Bonded Substances
The difference between polar and non-polar molecules is that polar
molecules have a dipole-dipole force between molecules. These
strong dipole-dipole force requires more energy to break compared
to dispersion forces. Therefore polar molecules generally have
higher melting and boiling point compared to non-polar molecules
of the same molecular mass.

Polar molecules cannot conduct electricity due to the electrons

being locked in the bonds. They can be found as gas, liquids or
solids.

Polar molecule also dissolves readily in water.

107
Covalent Lattice
It is extremely difficult to melt a covalent lattice structure as the heat energy provided is not used to break
intermolecular forces but intramolecular covalent bonds. These require significantly more energy.
Covalent lattice substances generally will not melt, instead they will decompose.

The lattice structure also give these substances very high strength but makes them inflexible and brittle.

Examples of covalent lattice structures are diamond and graphite (pencil lead).

108
Ionic Lattice
Ionic lattice have very high melting and boiling points. This is similar to the
other lattice structures where the energy from heating will go to breaking
ionic bonds (intramolecular force) which are very strong. Therefore requiring
a large amount of energy in order to melt.

Ionic lattice structure cannot conduct electricity in the solid state, this is due
to the charge not being able to move in this state. However, when an ionic
lattice structure is in the molten state, the charge particles are able to move
and can therefore conduct electricity.

Ionic lattice are not ductile and malleable due to ions not being able to move
around each other in the solid state.

109
Solubility in Water
Water is commonly used as a solvent due to its ability to dissolve a large variety of substances.

In order for something to dissolve in water, the substance must be able to separate and spread evenly in
between the water molecules. Generally small molecules will dissolve, large molecules and lattices
should not dissolve,

Soluble: Polar covalent molecules, some ionic lattices

Partially soluble: Small non-polar covalent molecules

Insoluble: Metallic structures, covalent lattice structure and some ionic lattices

110
Solubility in Water
Why are polar molecules soluble?

Water is polar substances, when another polar substance is placed in

water, the dipole dipole forces will allow the water molecule will surround
the polar molecule and allow it to spread evenly into the water forming a
solution. Example: Alcohol and water

When a non-polar substance is placed in water, the dipole dipole force

between the water molecule makes them hold onto each other. Therefore it
does not allow the non-polar molecule to spread evenly into water.
Example: Cooking oil and water

The generally rule for solubility is like dissolves like. Which means that
polar molecule will dissolve into other polar molecule. Non-polar molecule
will dissolve into other non-polar molecules.
111
Solubility in Water
Why do some ionic lattice dissolve in water but some don’t?

Ionic lattice structure are made from charged particles. This means that water can also surround the ions,
taking the lattice apart and dissolving the ions into the solutions.

Some ionic lattice are insoluble because the forces between the ions in the ionic lattice is stronger than
the attraction between the water molecules and the ions. This means that the water molecules can not
take the lattice apart. The lattice stays together and does not
dissolve in the water.

112
Solubility in Water
What is partially soluble?

Non-polar molecules normally do not dissolve in water, however

if the molecules are small enough. Eg. oxygen gas (O 2) or carbon
dioxide (CO2). A small amount will dissolve in water and we call
this partially soluble.

This is very important for life as aquatics species can not survive
if oxygen and carbon dioxide does not dissolve in water.

Why does large non-polar molecule and lattice not dissolve in

water?

Large molecules and lattices are generally too large to separate

in between the water molecule. So they do not dissolve. Also
they are usually non-polar, which means the water to tend to
stick to each other instead of surrounding the other substance. 113
 Summary of Properties
Metallic Bonding Polar Covalent Non-Polar Covalent Lattice Ionic Lattice
Molecular Covalent
Molecular

Melting / Boiling High Low Very Low Very high High

Points

Electrical / Heat Good conductor Poor conductor Poor conductor Poor conductor Poor conductor as
Conductivity a solid but good
when molten

Malleability and High N/A (Low) N/A (Low) Low Low

Ductility

Solubility in Water Insoluble Soluble Small = Partially Insoluble Sometimes

soluble
Large = Insoluble

NOTE: These are general properties, there are always some exceptions to each group. 114