Pedagogical Skills

Unit# 1 Introduction to pedagogy

1.1 Pedagogue and pedagogy
1.2 Conceptual understanding of teaching
1.3 Thinking about teachi
1.4 Are teacher born or made

1.1. Pedagogue and Pedagogy:

 Pedagogue: A pedagogue is a term used to describe a teacher or educator who

is involved in the practice of teaching and guiding students' learning. The term
has its roots in ancient Greece, where it referred to a slave who accompanied
children to school. Over time, the meaning has evolved to encompass
professionals dedicated to educating and nurturing the intellectual, social,
emotional, and physical development of learners.
 Pedagogy: Pedagogy refers to the theory and practice of teaching. It
encompasses the strategies, methods, principles, and techniques used by
educators to facilitate learning and promote students' growth and development.
Pedagogy involves the art and science of education, focusing on how knowledge
is transmitted, understood, and applied by learners in various contexts.
 Key Elements of Pedagogy: Pedagogy involves several key elements, including:
 Curriculum Design: Planning and organizing the content, learning
objectives, and instructional materials to meet the needs and interests of
learners.
 Instructional Strategies: Selecting and implementing effective teaching
methods, techniques, and approaches to engage students and facilitate
their understanding and retention of information.
 Assessment and Feedback: Evaluating students' progress and
understanding through various assessment methods, such as tests,
quizzes, projects, and observations. Providing timely and constructive
feedback to guide students' learning and growth.
 Learning Environment: Creating a supportive and inclusive learning
environment that fosters collaboration, inquiry, critical thinking, and
respect for diversity. Promoting positive interactions and relationships
among students and between students and teachers.
 Types of Pedagogy: Pedagogy encompasses various approaches and models of
teaching, including:
  Traditional Pedagogy: Characterized by teacher-centered instruction,
where the teacher plays a central role in delivering content and directing
students' learning activities.
 Constructivist Pedagogy: Emphasizes active, hands-on learning, where
students construct their understanding of concepts through inquiry,
exploration, and problem-solving activities.
 Inquiry-Based Pedagogy: Focuses on student-led investigations and
discovery learning, where students pose questions, gather evidence, and
draw conclusions through guided inquiry and experimentation.

Pedagogy is dynamic and evolving, influenced by educational research, theories of

learning, advances in technology, and changing societal needs and expectations.
Effective pedagogy is responsive to the diverse needs, backgrounds, and interests of
learners and seeks to empower them as active participants in their own learning journey

1.2. Conceptual Understanding of Teaching:

Teaching is a multifaceted process that involves guiding and facilitating learning

experiences to promote students' intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
development. It encompasses a range of activities, strategies, and interactions aimed at
transmitting knowledge, fostering critical thinking, and empowering students to achieve
their full potential. Here's a breakdown of key aspects of the conceptual understanding
of teaching:

 Transmission of Knowledge: At its core, teaching involves the transmission of

knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes from teachers to students. Teachers draw
upon their expertise in the subject matter to design and deliver instruction that
facilitates students' understanding and mastery of key concepts and principles.
 Facilitation of Learning: Teaching goes beyond mere information delivery; it
involves facilitating meaningful learning experiences that actively engage
students and promote deep understanding. Effective teaching fosters inquiry,
exploration, and discovery, encouraging students to construct their knowledge
and make connections between concepts.
 Creation of Learning Environments: Teachers play a pivotal role in creating
supportive and inclusive learning environments that nurture students' intellectual
curiosity, creativity, and confidence. They establish norms, routines, and
expectations that promote collaboration, critical thinking, and respectful dialogue
among students.
  Differentiation and Individualization: Effective teaching recognizes and
accommodates the diverse needs, interests, and abilities of students. Teachers
employ differentiated instruction strategies to adapt their teaching approaches,
materials, and assessments to meet the unique learning styles and preferences of
individual learners.
 Assessment and Feedback: Assessment is an integral part of teaching, providing
teachers with valuable insights into students' progress, understanding, and areas
for growth. Through ongoing formative and summative assessments, teachers
gauge student learning, provide timely feedback, and adjust instruction to
address learning gaps and misconceptions.
 Cultivation of Relationships: Teaching involves building positive and supportive
relationships with students based on trust, empathy, and mutual respect.
Teachers serve as mentors, role models, and advocates for their students, offering
encouragement, guidance, and support to help them overcome challenges and
achieve success.
 Professional Growth and Reflection: Effective teaching is a lifelong journey of
continuous learning and professional growth. Teachers engage in reflective
practice, critically examining their beliefs, assumptions, and practices to refine
their teaching approaches, incorporate new research-based strategies, and
respond to evolving educational needs and contexts.

1.3. Thinking About Teaching:

"Thinking about teaching" refers to the process of critically reflecting on one's beliefs,
practices, and experiences as an educator. It involves engaging in deliberate and
systematic inquiry into the art and science of teaching to enhance teaching effectiveness
and student learning outcomes. Here are some key aspects of thinking about teaching:

 Reflective Practice: Reflective practice is at the heart of thinking about teaching.

It involves taking a step back to critically examine one's teaching methods,
instructional decisions, and interactions with students. Reflective teachers ask
themselves questions such as:
 What worked well in this lesson, and why?
 What challenges did students encounter, and how can I address them?
 How did students respond to my teaching strategies, and what can I learn
from their feedback?
 How can I improve my teaching to better meet the diverse needs of my
students?
  Professional Growth: Thinking about teaching is essential for ongoing
professional growth and development. It requires educators to stay informed
about current research, best practices, and emerging trends in education.
Teachers engage in professional learning communities, attend workshops and
conferences, and pursue advanced degrees to deepen their understanding of
teaching and learning.
 Evidence-Based Practice: Effective thinking about teaching is grounded in
evidence-based practice. It involves using data, research findings, and assessment
results to inform instructional decision-making and improve teaching
effectiveness. Teachers analyze student performance data, conduct action
research projects, and seek feedback from peers and mentors to evaluate and
refine their teaching practices.
 Pedagogical Flexibility: Thinking about teaching involves being flexible and
adaptable in response to the evolving needs and contexts of learners. Effective
teachers recognize that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to teaching and
continuously seek to experiment with new strategies, technologies, and
instructional methods to engage students and enhance learning outcomes.
 Cultural Responsiveness: Thinking about teaching requires cultural competence
and awareness of the diverse backgrounds, experiences, and identities of
students. Teachers reflect on how their own cultural biases and assumptions may
impact their teaching practices and strive to create inclusive learning
environments that honor and respect students' cultural perspectives and
identities.
 Collaborative Inquiry: Thinking about teaching is a collaborative endeavor that
involves sharing ideas, insights, and resources with colleagues. Teachers engage
in collaborative inquiry projects, peer observations, and professional learning
communities to exchange feedback, share best practices, and support each
other's growth as educators.

Unit #2 effective teacher

2.1 What is an effective teacher?
2.2 Key behaviors contributing to ET
2.3 Helping behavior related to ET
2.4 Elements of teaching effectiveness

2.1 What is an effective teacher?

 An effective teacher is someone who possesses the ability to inspire, engage, and
educate their students successfully. They are able to facilitate learning
experiences that cater to the diverse needs of their students while fostering a
 positive and supportive learning environment. Effective teachers demonstrate
proficiency in their subject matter, as well as in pedagogical techniques,
communication skills, and classroom management.

2.2 Key behaviors contributing to effective teaching (ET):

 Clear Communication: Effective teachers communicate ideas clearly and

concisely, ensuring that students understand the lesson objectives, instructions,
and feedback.
 Adaptability: They are flexible and capable of adjusting their teaching strategies
to meet the needs of diverse learners.
 Passion and Enthusiasm: Passionate teachers inspire students through their
genuine enthusiasm for the subject matter and learning process.
 Effective Classroom Management: They establish and maintain a positive and
orderly classroom environment conducive to learning.
 Empathy and Understanding: Effective teachers demonstrate empathy towards
their students, understanding their individual strengths, challenges, and learning
styles.
 Continuous Professional Development: They are committed to lifelong
learning and seek opportunities to enhance their teaching skills and knowledge.

2.3 Helping behavior related to effective teaching (ET):

 Supportive Feedback: Effective teachers provide constructive feedback that

helps students understand their strengths and areas for improvement.
 Encouragement: They encourage students to take risks, persevere through
challenges, and believe in their ability to succeed.
 Accessibility: Effective teachers make themselves available to students outside of
class time for additional support and clarification.
 Resourcefulness: They offer resources and tools to assist students in their
learning journey, such as supplementary materials, study guides, or tutoring
sessions.

2.4 Elements of teaching effectiveness:

 Content Knowledge: A deep understanding of the subject matter being taught.

 Pedagogical Skills: Effective use of teaching strategies and methods to facilitate
learning.
 Classroom Management: Establishing and maintaining a positive and organized
learning environment.
  Student Engagement: Keeping students actively involved and interested in the
learning process.
 Assessment and Feedback: Providing meaningful assessments and constructive
feedback to support student learning and growth.
 Relationship Building: Cultivating positive relationships with students built on
trust, respect, and understanding.
 Continuous Improvement: A commitment to ongoing reflection and
professional development to enhance teaching practice.

These elements collectively contribute to teaching effectiveness and help create a

conducive environment for student learning and success.

Unit#3 The pedagogical Cycle

3.1 Academic learning Time
3.2 Clarity and Academic structure
3.3 Questioning, student responses and feedback
3.4 Lesson planning approaches

The pedagogical Cycle

The pedagogical cycle is a framework that outlines the key stages of the teaching and
learning process. It provides a systematic approach for teachers to plan, implement, and
assess their instructional practices. While variations may exist, a common pedagogical
cycle typically consists of the following stages:

1. Planning:

 In the planning stage, teachers identify the learning objectives and goals
they want to achieve during the instructional unit or lesson. They consider
the needs, interests, and prior knowledge of their students when designing
the curriculum and selecting appropriate teaching strategies and
resources. Planning also involves sequencing the content in a logical
manner and determining how to assess student learning.

2. Implementation:

 Implementation refers to the actual delivery of instruction in the classroom

or learning environment. During this stage, teachers engage students in
learning activities, present content using various teaching methods,
facilitate discussions, and provide guidance and support as needed.
Implementation involves creating a dynamic and interactive learning
 environment that promotes student engagement, participation, and
collaboration.

3. Assessment:

 Assessment is an integral part of the pedagogical cycle and involves

gathering evidence of student learning to evaluate their progress and
achievement of learning objectives. Assessment methods may include
formative assessments, such as quizzes, discussions, and observations, as
well as summative assessments, such as tests, projects, and presentations.
Teachers use assessment data to monitor student learning, identify areas
for improvement, and provide feedback to students to support their
continued growth.

4. Reflection:

 Reflection is the final stage of the pedagogical cycle and involves

reviewing and evaluating the effectiveness of instructional practices and
student learning outcomes. Teachers reflect on their teaching strategies,
classroom management techniques, and assessment methods to identify
what worked well and what could be improved. Reflection also involves
soliciting feedback from students and colleagues, considering alternative
approaches, and making adjustments to future instruction based on
insights gained from the reflection process.

By following the pedagogical cycle, teachers can systematically plan, implement, assess,
and reflect on their teaching practices to support student learning and achievement.
This cyclical process promotes continuous improvement and fosters a culture of lifelong
learning among educators.

3.1 Academic learning Time

 Academic learning time (ALT) refers to the portion of instructional time during
which students are actively engaged in learning tasks that are aligned with the
curriculum objectives. It emphasizes the quality of time spent on learning rather
than just the quantity of time spent in the classroom. Maximizing academic
learning time is crucial for ensuring that students have ample opportunities to
acquire new knowledge, develop skills, and deepen their understanding of
concepts.
Strategies for maximizing academic learning time include:

 Clearly defining learning objectives and expectations to students.

 Designing engaging and relevant learning activities that capture students'
interest and promote active participation.
 Providing opportunities for collaborative learning and peer interaction.
 Using instructional time efficiently by minimizing transitions and disruptions.
 Differentiating instruction to meet the diverse needs of students.
 Monitoring students' progress and providing timely feedback to support their
learning.

By maximizing academic learning time, teachers can optimize the learning experience
for students and enhance their academic achievement.

3.2 Clarity and Academic Structure:

 Clarity and academic structure are essential components of effective teaching that
contribute to student understanding and success. Clarity involves communicating ideas,
instructions, and expectations in a clear and understandable manner, ensuring that
students know what is expected of them and how to succeed. Teachers should articulate
learning objectives, provide clear explanations of concepts, and offer explicit guidance on
tasks and assignments.

Academic structure involves organizing content and learning activities in a logical and coherent
manner to facilitate learning and comprehension. This includes sequencing lessons in a logical
order, making connections between related concepts, and providing scaffolding to support
students as they progress in their learning.

Strategies for promoting clarity and academic structure include:

 Clearly stating learning objectives at the beginning of each lesson.

 Breaking down complex concepts into manageable steps.
 Providing examples and illustrations to clarify abstract ideas.
 Using graphic organizers, outlines, and other visual aids to organize information.
 Establishing routines and procedures to create a predictable learning environment.
 Checking for student understanding regularly and providing feedback to address
misconceptions.
By fostering clarity and academic structure, teachers can help students navigate the learning
process more effectively and achieve greater success in their academic pursuits.

3.3 Questioning, Student Responses, and Feedback:

 Effective questioning, student responses, and feedback are integral to

the teaching and learning process. Questions serve as a tool for
promoting critical thinking, encouraging active participation, and
assessing student understanding. Teachers can use a variety of
questioning techniques, such as open-ended questions, probing
questions, and hypothetical questions, to stimulate thinking and engage
students in meaningful dialogue.

Strategies for effective questioning, student responses, and feedback include:

 Asking open-ended questions that require students to think critically

and express their ideas.
 Allowing wait time to give students an opportunity to formulate their
responses.
 Encouraging students to provide evidence and reasoning to support
their answers.
 Providing feedback that is specific, constructive, and timely.
 Using a variety of feedback methods, such as verbal feedback, written
feedback, peer feedback, and self-assessment.
 Creating a supportive and non-judgmental environment where students
feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and ideas.

By incorporating effective questioning, student responses, and feedback into

their teaching practices, teachers can promote active learning, deepen student
understanding, and foster a culture of continuous improvement.

3.4 Lesson Planning Approaches:

 Lesson planning approaches involve the systematic process of designing

and organizing instructional activities to achieve specific learning
 objectives. There are various approaches to lesson planning, each with
its own strengths and advantages. Some common lesson planning
approaches include:

 Backward Design: Starting with the desired learning outcomes and

then designing instruction and assessments to achieve those goals. This
approach emphasizes the importance of aligning instruction with the
intended learning objectives.

 Differentiated Instruction: Adapting instruction to meet the diverse

needs, interests, and learning styles of students. This approach
recognizes that students have different strengths, challenges, and
preferences and seeks to provide multiple pathways to learning.

 Cooperative Learning: Incorporating collaborative activities that

promote teamwork, communication, and problem-solving skills. This
approach encourages students to work together to achieve common
goals and learn from one another.

 Scaffolded Instruction: Providing support and guidance to help

students gradually build their understanding of complex concepts. This
approach breaks down learning tasks into manageable steps and
provides additional support as needed to ensure student success.

 Inquiry-Based Learning: Encouraging students to explore and

investigate real-world problems or phenomena through inquiry and
discovery. This approach fosters curiosity, creativity, and critical thinking
skills by engaging students in authentic learning experiences.

Teachers can choose the lesson planning approach that best suits their
teaching style, the needs of their students, and the learning objectives of the
instructional unit. By carefully planning and designing instruction, teachers can
create engaging and meaningful learning experiences that support student
success and achievement.

Unit #4 Models of Teaching

4.1 Direct model
 4.2 Co-operative learning
4.3 Mastery learning
4.4 Problem based learning
4.5 The transmitter of knowledge
4.6 Inductive inquiry
4.7 Inter personal learning

4.1 Direct Model:

 The Direct Model is a traditional approach to teaching where the teacher plays a
central role in delivering content and guiding instruction. In this model, the
teacher typically presents information to the students through lectures,
demonstrations, or presentations. The emphasis is on clear communication of
facts, concepts, and skills from the teacher to the students. Following the
presentation of content, students may engage in structured activities or exercises
to reinforce their understanding of the material. Assessment in the Direct Model
often involves quizzes, tests, or assignments to evaluate students' comprehension
and mastery of the content. While this model can be effective for delivering
information efficiently, it may not always promote active engagement or deep
understanding among students.

4.2 Cooperative Learning:

 Cooperative Learning is an instructional approach where students work together

in small groups to achieve shared learning goals. In this model, students
collaborate on tasks or projects, with each member of the group contributing
their knowledge, skills, and perspectives. Cooperative Learning emphasizes
communication, teamwork, and mutual support among students. It provides
opportunities for students to engage in peer teaching, problem-solving, and
critical thinking. By working collaboratively, students can develop interpersonal
skills, build relationships, and enhance their understanding of the content
through discussion and interaction with their peers.

4.3 Mastery Learning:

 Mastery Learning is an instructional approach that focuses on ensuring that all

students achieve mastery of specific learning objectives or skills before
progressing to more advanced content. In this model, instruction is organized
into discrete units or learning tasks, and students work through these units at
their own pace. Mastery Learning typically involves formative assessment,
 feedback, and opportunities for remediation or enrichment based on individual
student needs. Students are provided with additional support or challenges as
needed to help them achieve mastery of the content. Mastery Learning
emphasizes personalized instruction, continuous progress monitoring, and a
focus on student outcomes rather than time-based benchmarks.

4.4 Problem-Based Learning:

 Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional approach that immerses students in

real-world, complex problems or scenarios. In this model, students work collaboratively
in groups to identify and understand the problem, research relevant information, develop
hypotheses or solutions, and evaluate their findings. PBL emphasizes critical thinking,
problem-solving skills, and self-directed learning. By engaging in authentic problem-
solving experiences, students develop a deeper understanding of the content and gain
practical skills that are applicable beyond the classroom.

4.5 The Transmitter of Knowledge:

 The Transmitter of Knowledge model, also known as the traditional or lecture-based

approach, centers around the teacher as the primary source of information. In this model,
the teacher delivers content through lectures, presentations, or demonstrations, and
students passively receive and absorb the information. The emphasis is on the
dissemination of knowledge from the teacher to the students, with limited opportunities
for interaction or active participation. While this model can be efficient for delivering
large amounts of information, it may not always promote deeper understanding or
engagement among students.

4.6 Inductive Inquiry:

 Inductive Inquiry is an instructional approach that involves guiding students through a

process of inquiry and discovery to construct their own understanding of concepts. In this
model, students begin with observations, data, or examples, and then use reasoning and
evidence to make generalizations, identify patterns, and draw conclusions. Inductive
Inquiry promotes critical thinking, hypothesis testing, and the development of analytical
skills. By engaging in hands-on exploration and discovery, students develop a deeper and
more meaningful understanding of the content.

4.7 Interpersonal Learning:

 Interpersonal Learning focuses on the social and emotional aspects of learning and
emphasizes the importance of relationships and interactions among students and between
students and teachers. In this model, learning is viewed as a collaborative and relational
process, where students engage in dialogue, share perspectives, and support one another's
learning. Interpersonal Learning fosters empathy, communication skills, and a sense of
 belonging and community within the classroom. By creating a supportive and inclusive
learning environment, Interpersonal Learning enhances student engagement, motivation,
and overall well-being.

Unit # 5 Questioning
5.1 Nature of Question
5.2 The purpose of Questions
5.3 Convergent and divergent questions
5.4 Wait time
5.5 Common problem in Using questions

5.1 Nature of Question:

 Questions are inquiries or prompts designed to elicit information, stimulate

thinking, and promote learning. They can vary widely in their nature, complexity,
and format. Here are some key aspects of the nature of questions:
 Open-ended vs. Closed-ended: Questions can be open-ended, allowing
for multiple possible answers and encouraging critical thinking and
discussion. Closed-ended questions typically have a single correct answer
and are often used to assess factual knowledge or comprehension.
 Factual vs. Analytical: Factual questions focus on gathering specific
information or details, while analytical questions require students to
analyze, evaluate, or synthesize information and apply critical thinking
skills.
 Level of Difficulty: Questions can range from simple, low-level questions
that require basic recall or recognition to more complex, higher-order
questions that demand deeper understanding, analysis, and evaluation.
 Purpose: The purpose of a question can vary depending on the
instructional goals and objectives. Questions may be used to assess prior
knowledge, check for understanding, guide discussion, promote reflection,
or prompt problem-solving.

5.2 The Purpose of Questions:

 Questions serve multiple purposes in education, and their effectiveness depends

on how well they align with instructional objectives and engage students in the
learning process. Here are some common purposes of questions:
  Assessing Prior Knowledge: Questions can be used to gauge students'
existing knowledge and understanding of a topic, helping teachers identify
areas of strength and areas that may require further instruction.
 Checking for Understanding: Questions allow teachers to assess
students' comprehension and monitor their progress throughout a lesson
or instructional unit. By asking questions, teachers can determine whether
students have grasped key concepts and are able to apply them.
 Promoting Critical Thinking: Questions can stimulate higher-order
thinking skills, such as analysis, evaluation, and synthesis. By posing
thought-provoking questions, teachers encourage students to think
critically, solve problems, and engage in deeper exploration of content.
 Guiding Discussion: Questions serve as a tool for facilitating classroom
discussion and promoting active participation among students. By asking
probing questions, teachers can prompt dialogue, encourage peer
interaction, and foster collaborative learning.
 Providing Feedback: Questions can be used to provide feedback to
students on their learning progress and performance. By asking targeted
questions, teachers can identify misconceptions, clarify misunderstandings,
and offer guidance to support student learning.
 Fostering Reflection: Questions encourage students to reflect on their
learning experiences, make connections between new information and
prior knowledge, and consider the implications of their learning. Reflective
questions promote metacognition and help students develop a deeper
understanding of the content.

Overall, questions play a vital role in the teaching and learning process, serving as a
means of assessment, engagement, and guidance that promotes active learning and
critical thinking skills.

5.3 Convergent and Divergent Questions:

 Convergent questions typically have a single correct answer and focus on

narrowing down possibilities. They often require students to recall information or
apply previously learned concepts. Examples include questions like "What is the
capital of France?" or "What is the formula for calculating the area of a
rectangle?"
 Divergent questions, on the other hand, have multiple possible answers and
encourage creative thinking, exploration, and open-ended discussion. They
 prompt students to generate ideas, consider alternative perspectives, and engage
in deeper analysis. Examples include questions like "What are the different ways
we can reduce pollution in our community?" or "How might the characters in the
story react differently to the events?"

5.4 Wait Time:

 Wait time refers to the pause or delay between when a question is posed by the
teacher and when a student responds. Providing adequate wait time is essential
for effective questioning and promoting student engagement and critical
thinking. Research has shown that increasing wait time leads to several positive
outcomes:
 Students provide more thoughtful and accurate responses.
 The quality of student responses improves.
 More students are encouraged to participate in discussions.
 Students have time to process information and formulate their thoughts
before responding.
 Wait time allows all students, including those who may need more time to
process information or formulate their responses, to actively participate in the
learning process.

5.5 Common Problems in Using Questions:

 Some common problems educators may encounter when using questions

include:
 Asking too many closed-ended questions: Over-reliance on convergent
questions can limit students' opportunities for critical thinking and creative
expression.
 Insufficient wait time: Not providing enough time for students to think
before responding can lead to rushed or incomplete answers.
 Overuse of a few students: Calling on the same students repeatedly can
discourage participation from other students and limit diverse
perspectives in classroom discussions.
 Ambiguity or bias: Asking questions that are unclear or biased can
confuse students or lead them to provide expected answers rather than
thinking independently.
  Lack of differentiation: Not varying the types and complexity of
questions to meet the needs of diverse learners can result in
disengagement or frustration among students with different learning
styles or abilities.
 Addressing these challenges requires intentional planning, practice, and
reflection on questioning techniques to ensure that questions effectively support
student learning, engagement, and critical thinking skills.

SUGGESTED BOOKS / READINGS

 Adker, M. P., & Sadker, D. P. (2009). Teachers, schools and society (7th ed.). USA:
Discovery Pub. House.
 Borich,G.D(1996),Effective TeSaching Methods(3rd ed. ).USA: Prentice Hall.
 Crowl,T.K & Podell,D.M (1997),Educational Psychology Widow on Theaching.
USA:Brown & Benchmark Publication
 Sadker, M. P., & Sadker, D. P. (2009). Teachers, Schools and Society (7 th Ed.). USA:
Discovery Pub. House.
 Sprinthall,A & spenthall,C (1994), Educational psychology(6thed.) USA:McGraw-Hill, Inc.
 Woolfolk,A.E(1990),Educational psychology(4th ed.) USA:Prentice Hall