Ag(E) -2.3.

1
Principles of Horticultural Crops and Plant Protection 2(1+1)
Lesson 1. Scope of Horticultural Crops
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The term “Horticulture” first appeared in written language in the seventeenth century.
The word horticulture is derived from the latin words hortus means garden and cultura means
to cultivate. Horticulture means garden cultivation. Thus, Horticulture is a part of plant
agriculture which is concerned with cultivation of “garden crops”. Garden crops traditionally
include fruits, vegetables and all the plants grown for ornamental purposes as well as spices,
plantation, medicinal and aromatic purposes. The cultivation of garden plant is in contrast to
the cultivation of field crops which is practiced in an extensive manner. Horticulture relies on
growing and manipulating plants in a relatively intensive manner. The horticultural crops
require very intense care in planting, carrying out cultural operation, manipulating growth,
harvesting, packing, marketing, storage and processing. Many horticultural products are
highly perishable, their water content is essential to their quality and hence mostly utilized in
living stage. In contrast, the products of field crop and forestry are often utilized in non-living
state and are usually high in dry matter.
1.2 DEFINITION OF HORTICULTURE
Horticulture can be very broadly defined as the science with deals with the production
utilization and improvement of (fruits, vegetables, ornamental plant spices and condiments,
medicinal and aromatics, plantation crops) as well as gardening, protective cultivation and
value addition.
Horticulture as a science
Over and above agriculture it involves the application of physics, chemistry and other
fundamentals sciences and plant sciences viz. biochemistry, plant physiology, botany,
genetics and plant breeding etc.
Horticulture as an art
Artistic application of technical knowledge gained e.g. raising flowering plants in
small pot, budding roses with varied colours, pruning trees for shapes, designing gardens,
growing flowers of matching colours and according to the seasons etc.
1.3 OBJECTIVES
To find out way by which horticulture crops can be made to yield optimum benefits to
mankind.
These objectives can be achieved through
- The knowledge of geographical distribution of horticultural plants
- The source and uses of such plants their structure and manner of growth
- The influence of climate and soil on their development
- The methods of their propagation
- The manner, time and degree of pruning them
- Their diseases, pests and their control and
- The manner of harvesting, storing, transporting and using the finished products
1.4 DIVISION OF HORTICULTURE
1. Pomology: The term Pomology is derived from the Latin word ‘pomum’ meaning
‘fruits’ and the Greek term ‘logy’ meaning Science. Thus, pomology is the science of
production of fruit crops. OR The science of growing fruit crops.
(a) Tree fruits: Fruits are produced on tree e.g. Mango, Chiku, Citrus etc.
(b) Small fruits: Fruits are produced on shrubs or vines e.g. Phalsa, Raspberry, Mulberry,
Grapes, Gooseberry, Strawberry
1. Olericulture: The term Olericulture is originated from Latin word ‘oleris’ meaning
pot herb and the English word culture meaning raising of plants. Thus, olericulture is
 the science of vegetable crops. OR The cultivation of vegetable crops. e.g. brinjal,
tomato, potato, radish, carrot, chilli, bottle gourd.
2. Floriculture: It is a science of cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants for
commercial purposes or merely for getting pleasure and as a hobby.
3. Landscape gardening: It is a science of designing and laying out home gardens,
public gardens, parks, road side plantation, avenues etc.
4. Preservation of fruit and vegetables: It is a science of canning of fruits and
vegetables. e.g. fruit juice, jam, marmalade, candy, dehydration etc.
5. Silviculture: Cultivation and management of forest tree e.g. teak wood, neem, ficus,
eucalyptus etc.
6. Plantation crops: Cultivation of tea, coffee, coconut, arecanut, rubber, oil palm etc.
7. Spices and condiments: Cultivation of crops which products are used as adjunct in
food for flavor, aroma and taste. e.g cardamom, clove, nutmeg, coriander, cumin etc.
8. Aromatic and medicinal plants: cultivation of aromatic and medicinal plants like
gugal, aonla, beheda, harde, lucorice, lemon grass etc.
9. Sericulture: Deals with rearing of silkworm and production of silk.
10. Apiculture: Bee keeping rearing for honey production.
11. Mushroom production: Production of different edible species of mushroom
like Agaricus bisporus (button), pleurotus sp. (oyster), Calocybe indica (Milky),
Volvariella volvacea (paddy straw).
1.5 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS EXPLAINED FROM HORTICULTURE POINTS
OF VIEW
Annuals: As the name indicates annuals are plants that live for one year or less, that is the
makes its vegetative growth flowers and produces seed within one year from the sowing date
and then the plant dies. Actually in practices we often see that this definition cannot be
strictly applied to some plants because they often over live the period of one year. e.g. brinjal,
tomato, coleus, geranium etc. They may behave as perennials and yet in context to
horticulture, speaking they are annuals.
Biennials: Biennials plants are those which require two years or parts of two growing
seasons with more or less of a dormant or resting season between to complete their life
period. In the first season or year the seed is sown and the plant makes only vegetative
growth. In the second season or year the plant produces very little vegetative growth and then
flowers produces seed and dies out e.g. onion, beet, carrot, cabbage, radish, chrysanthemum,
dahila etc.
Perennials: These plants do not finish their life cycle in one or two years. They persist from
year to year and go on producing crops of seed from year. Perennials may be herbaceous or
woody and perennials may be trees or shrubs or vines e.g. mango, chiku.
Deciduous: Deciduous plants shed their leaves once in a year when they go to rest. This
happens during the cold season. When temperature starts falling, the leaves change their
colour and become yellow and then fall off. The tree becomes bare and looks dry. All growth
processes stop until spring when, temperature again rises, climate become warmer and the
trees become active once again rises e.g. apple, plum, peach, dhak, siris, amaltas.
Evergreens: Evergreens on the other hand do not have a definite resting season and they do
not shed their leaves during a particular season. All physiological activities go on
continuously and the tree never become completely devoid of leaves and bare. Old leaves fall
of and new leaves grow simultaneously e.g. mango, chiku, citrus.
1.6 IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURE
 Fruits and vegetables play an important role in the balance diet of human being by
providing vital protective nutrients.
 They not only adorn the table but also enrich health from the most nutritive menu and
tone up the energy and vigour of man.
  Fruits and vegetables have a key role in neutralizing the acid produced during
digestion of protein rich and fatty foods.
 They provide valuable roughages which promote digestion and helps in preventing
constipation.
 From unit are of land more income is obtained by growing fruits and vegetables
crops.
 From energy point of view the fruit crops give very high amount of calories per acre
e.g. wheat 1034880 calories/acre and banana 15252800 calories/acre.
 Horticulture is mother of several industries like canning, essential oil, dehydration,
refrigeration, wine, cashew nut, transport etc. which provide work for many people.
Farmers and labours can keep themselves engaged busy throughout year.
 Growing of horticultural crops is an art as well as science which help in mental
development of farmers.
 The fruits and vegetables are chief source of vitamins and minerals which help in
proper health and resistant to disease.
 The flowers, ornamental plants and gardens play a very important role in refreshing
the minds of people and reducing air pollution.
 The growing of horticultural crops also contributes to the aesthetic side of rural and
home life of community.
 Generate employment opportunities.
 Wide source of medicine.
 Effective utilization of wasteland through hardy fruits and medicinal plants.
1.7 SCOPE OF HORTICULTURE
 India has great variety of climate and edaphic conditions which can be exploited by
growing horticultural crops.
 Climates are varying from tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. From this
humid, semi-arid, arid and varying temperature trees are also grown.
 Likewise soils like loamy, alluvial, laterite, medium black, rocky shallow heavy black
sandy etc are also available. From this, large crop areas can be grown with very high
level of adaptability.
 To meet the requirements in terms of vitamins and minerals, minimum of 85 g of
fruits and 200 g of vegetables per head per day with population of above 1000 million
people, fruit and vegetables are to be grown on large scale.
 For providing raw material to small scale industries like silkworm, lack, honey,
match, paper, canning, and dehydration etc. horticulture has wide scope.
 In India larger area of lands are waste land, problematic soil, desert land which can be
utilized for hardy fruits and medicinal plants.
 The fast development of communication and transport system create wide scope for
horticulture development particularly in transporting the perishable commodities and
products.
Thus horticulture has great scope for the following reasons:
 To exploit great variability of agro-climatic conditions.
 To meet the need for fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices beverages in relation to
population growth and nutritional requirement.
 To meet the requirement of processing industries.
 For increasing export and import of horticultural products.
 To improve economical condition of the farmers.
 To generate employment opportunity for labour and human being.
 To protect environment.
1.8 HORTICULTUREAL PLANT CLASSIFICATION
A. Edible plants Names of crops given below in a, b, and c should start with small
letters
a. Vegetables:
(1) Plants grown for aerial portion
- Cole crops: cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli
- Legumes or pulse crops: pea, bean, soy bean cluster bean
- Solanaceous fruit crops: Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli
- Vine crops or cucurbits: Cucumber, Squash, Melon, Bottle gourd
- Green or pot herbs: Spinach, Dandelion, Amaranthus
- Salad crops: Lettuce, Celery, endive
- Miscellaneous: Corn, Asparagus, Okra, Mushroom
(2) Plant grown for underground portions
- Root crops: Beet root, Radish, Carrot, Sweet potato
- Tubers and roots: Potato, Yams, Cassava
- Bulb and corm: Onion, Garlic, Shallot, Leek Gladiolus
b. Fruits:
(1) Temperate (Deciduous) fruits:
- Small fruits: Raspberry, Black berry, grape, cranberry, straw berry.
- Tree fruits: Pomes, apple, pear, quince
- Stone fruits: Peach, plum, apricot
- Nuts: Pecan, filbert, walnut
(2) Tropical and sub-tropical (Evergreen) fruits:
- Herbaceous perennials: Pine apple, Banana
- Tree fruits: (i) Citrus fruits: Orange, lemon, grape gruit
(ii) Miscellaneous: Fig, date palm, mango, papaya, avocado - Nuts: Cashew, Brazil nut,
Macadamia
B. Ornamental plants
(1) Flower and foliage plants:
a. Annuals: Petunia, Zinnia, Snapdragon, Dianthus, Balsam
b. Biennials: Sweet William, holly hock, evening primerose, Gladiolus
c. Perennials: Chrysanthemum, philodendron, Aster amellus, Gerbera, Tulip
(2) Nursery plants
a. Lawn (Turf) plants: Blue grass, Bermuda grass
b. Ground cover: Periwinkle, sedum
c. Vines (Both herbaceous and woody): Virginia, creeper, grape, English ivy
d. Shrubs (Commonly restricted to deciduous shrubs): Forshythia, liac
e. Evergreens (Both shrubs and trees): Spreading juniper, rhododendron, white pine
f. Tree, commonly restricted to deciduous trees: Pin oak, sugar maple, larch
C. Miscellaneous plants:
(1) Herbs, spices, drugs: Dill, nut, meg, spearmint, quinine, digitals
(2) Beverage plants, non alcoholic: Coffee, Tea, Cacao, mate
(3) Oil yielding plants: Tung, sunflower
(4) Rubber plants: Para rubber tree
(5) Plants yielding gums or resins: Sweetgum, slash, pine
Christmas tree: Balsam fire, scotch pine
 Soil and climatic requirements for fruits, vegetables and
floriculture crops.
Lesson 2. Soil Requirement for Fruits, Vegetables and Flowers Crops
Introducion
2.1 SOIL REQUIREMENT
Soil is a thin outer covering of the earth, directly developed by natural forces acting
on natural materials. It is a basic medium for plant growth, supplies nutrients for growing
plants. Soil is the home of the plant root and the reservoir for essential nutrients and water for
its growth and development.
2.1.1 Types of Soil
On the basis of pH, EC and presence of ESP the soil are grouped as (1) Saline (2)
Alkaline (3) Saline-alkali (4) Acidic
On the basis of sand, silt, and clay soils are grouped (classes).
a) Sandy
b) Sandy loam
c) Loamy
d) Silt
e) Silt loam
f) Sandy clay loam
g) Clay loam
h) Sandy clay
i) Clay etc.
Porous aerated and deep soil should be preferred for fruit cultivation. The ideal
orchard soil should be at least 1.8 m deep having a uniform texture, well drained, non-saline
and fertile. Soils with a poor sub soil stratum should be avoided. Fruit tree will not grow well
if there is solid rock or permanent water close to the surface of the soil. Sub soil with a
hardpan or pebbles within 120 cm of the surface soil should not be chose. Extreme conditions
of top and sub soil namely very heavy (clayey) and very light (highly sandy) should be
avoided. Heavy soils are difficult to handle on account of poor drainage while very light soils
are infertile because of leaching of nutrients. Medium textured silt loam or fine sandy loam
makes good orchard soil.
Most fruit plants like slightly acidic to neutral soil reaction (pH 6-7). Some fruit
species can some times tolerate little more acidic or alkaline medium but too acidic or too
alkaline soil should be avoided.
Soils with fluctuating water table are not suitable because the water table moves up
and reaches the root zone damaging the root hairs. When the water table goes down, the trees
with shallow root system struggle for moisture and nutrients causing reduction in growth and
vigour of trees. Thus soils having water table depth of less than 3 m are not usually preferred
for establishing an orchard. Some fruits, however, such as, Mango, Grape, Lime, Ber,
Custard Apple, Avocado and Cashew do well on for wide range of soil type.
2.2 SOILS AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN RELATION TO
HORTICULTURAL CROPS
After laying out the orchard, planting of the fruit trees the farmer is interested in
optimum growth of trees and maximum production of fruit. Soil management, cultivation of
inter crop, irrigation and manuring are the factors to be considered for getting economic
return from it, and maintain the health of trees.
2.2.1 Soil Management
Soil management practices such as cultivation, (interculture, weeding), mulching, sod
culture etc. are of various system used in different parts of the country.
(a) Cultivation (Clean Cultivation):
 Cultivation of orchard soil is important terms, incorporate fertilizers and green
manure and to facilitate absorption of water in the soil and also increased the biological
activities of soil due to better aeration. Deep tillage is not important in orchards because it
may cause injury to the roots of the trees.
(b) Mulching:
It is the system in which materials like hay, straw, cut grasses or plastic sheet spread
over soil surface mulching preventing evaporation of water from soil and it also improve
structure and aeration by reducing rain drop impact.

Fig 1. Mulching
(c) Sod culture:
This is system in which fruit trees are grown in any tillage or mulching. The grass may
remain without cutting but it is usually cut one in a year. This system is not followed in
tropical and subtropical region where it is applied in temperate region.

Fig 2. Sod culture

(d) Weeding:
There should be the removal of weeds, so, as to facilitate other operation like
irrigation, manuring etc.
(e) Inter cropping:
The crop which are raised in the orchard for increasing the income from land are
considered as intercrops e.g. vegetables, pulses, short duration fruit crops banana, papaya,
pineapple, phalsa etc., can be grown in the orchard.
 Fig 3. Inter cropping
1) These fruit trees, which are used as intercrops are also known as filler crop.
2) Cover crop: The crops grown to cover the soil to protect it from soil erosion e.g. grasses,
pulses, moong, cowpea, peas.
3) Green manuring crops: The crops grown in the orchards and after certain growth, they
are buried in the soil for addition of organic manure e.g. sunhemp, cowpea etc.
(f) Manuring:
Fruit trees take large amount of nutrients from soil for their growth. So far maintaining
fertility of soil in orchards, manures and fertilizers are added in the soil.
(1) Organic manures: Compost, FYM, oil cakes etc., improve the physical condition of soil
and add some nutrients.
(2) Fertilizers: Among chemical fertilizers urea, ammonium sulphate, super phosphate,
D.A.P. are common.
Application of fertilizers is depend on the soil and climatic conditions and kind and age of
crops.
 Lesson 3. Climatic Requirement for Fruits, Vegetables and Flowers Crops
3.1 Climate
Climate is the principal factor controlling plant growth. It refers to the average
condition of the atmosphere over along period, where as the term weather is used to describe
the current and temporary atmospheric conditions. For successful growing of horticultural
plants, various components of climate like temperature, humidity, wind, light, rainfall, hail
and frost should be carefully studied.
Man can not control these environmental factors. It is not possible to make any
change in it. But the effect of these factors can be altered. For these we can take certain steps
to increase or decrease its effects. i.e. effect of high or low temperature can be altered,
additional moisture can be given, high wind velocity can be reduced by growing wind break
around the orchard.
Climate of a region is mainly influenced by the factors viz. a) latitude b) altitude c)
topography d) position related to continents and oceans e) large scale atmospheric circulation
patters.
Almost all components of the climate influence horticultural crops. All are closely
interrelated. The effect of each is modified by others. All crops have certain natural threshold
limits of the climatic components beyond which they do not grow normally, but breeding and
selection are gradually extending the threshold for many crops.
Following is a brief account on important climatic components which are affecting the
production of horticultural crops.
3.1.1 Temperature
Temperature is one of the most important components of climate. It plays vital role in
the production of horticultural crops. The different activities of plant like growth and
development, respiration, photosynthesis, transpiration, uptake of nutrients and water and
reproduction (Such as pollen viability, blossom fertilization fruit set etc.), carbohydrate and
growth regulators balance, rate of maturation and senescence, and quality, yield and shelf life
of the edible products. The above function of the plant should be well when the temperature
at the optimum range. During high temperature plant does not perform proper functions of
growth, where in low temperature physiological activities of the plant are stopped.
According to different temperature range in the tropics, the specific trees are grown in
different location e.g. apple, pear, peach, almond are successfully grown in the regions of low
temperature known as temperate fruits. In warm winter areas, due to insufficient chilling
temperature fruit trees fail to complete their physiological rest period or meeting their chilling
requirement. As a consequence, buds remain dormant, and leave and blossoms do not appear
on the trees in the following spring. For this reason temperate fruit like apple, apricot, pear
and plums are not considered suitable for tropical or subtropical regions. For tropical and sub
tropical fruits the minimum temperature must be within the limit of tolerance of the fruit
species. The fruit grown in tropical and sub tropical climate is known as tropical fruit and sub
tropical fruits. Mango, chiku, papaya, banana are successfully grown in high temperature
regions also known as tropical fruits.
The plant performs well in optimum temperature range. The activities of the plant are
affected by very high or very low temperature. The temperature range for plant is
Minimum 4.5° to 6.5° C (40° - 43° F)
Optimum 24° to 27° C (75° - 85° F)
Maximum 29.5° to 45.4° C (85° - 114° F)
Effect of low temperature
The low temperature influenced adversely on plant. There are many effects of low
temperature i.e.
 Desiccation: Imbalance between absorption rate and transpiration rate.
 Chilling injury: There is a disturbance in metabolic and physiological process.
  Freezing injury: It is termed as under cooling protoplasm coagulation.
3.1.2 Humidity (moisture) and frost
The atmospheric humidity plays a vital role in deciding the amount of moisture
needed to produce a fruit crops. In hot, dry weather enormous amount of water is lost through
transpiration. If the atmosphere is humid, even though hot, the amount is much smaller and
thus a site in humid belt needs less irrigation. High humidity combined with high temperature
also promotes rapid growth. Higher yield but increase incidence of pests and diseases.
The water requirement of plant also depends on humidity but generally requirement of
water is differed as per different plant species. e.g. to produce 1 kg dry matter pine tree
require 25 liters. of water, apple required 250 liters, Lucern required 500 liters of water.
The plant gets water from soil, but there are many factors affecting it. i.e. (a) amount
of water in the soil (b) availability of water is also depends on texture and structure of soil (c)
water absorbing area of the tree.
The water is lost from the plant through transpiration by leaves. Transpiration
depends on humidity, temperature, wind, light etc. is necessary to maintain the health of plant
by maintaining the balance between uptake and loss of water.
3.1.3 Light
Light is an electro magnetic radiation which is a form of kinetic energy. It comes from the
sun to the earth as discrete particles called quanta or photons.

Light is one of the most important affecting plant life. It is an integral part of the
photosynthetic reaction in that it provides the energy for the combination of carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O) in the green cells having chlorophyll for the formation of
carbohydrates with release of oxygen. The following equation is to explain the oxidation of
water in photosynthesis.
 The performance of crop of growth of plants is influenced by three aspects of light (a)
quantity of light (b) intensity of light (c) duration of light.
a) Light intensity: Light intensity refers to the number of photons falling on a given area or
to the total amount of light which plants receive; the intensity of light varies with the day,
season, distance of equator, dust particles and water vapour in atmosphere, slope of the land
and elevation. Symptoms associated with low light intensity are decrease in rate of
photosynthesis with normal rates of respiration, decrease supplies of carbohydrates for
growth and yield, leaf tips become discoloured, leaves and bud drop, leaves and flowers
become light in colour. Due to high light intensity, the plant wilts and light coloured leaves
may become gray in colour due to reduction in chlorophyll, the rate of photosynthesis is
lowered down while respiration continues. All above reasons cause low yields.
b) Quality of light:Refers to the length of the waves. The visible part of spectrum of
electromagnetic radiation ranges from wavelength 390 to 730 µm (nanometer). It is also
called photosynthetically active radiation.

In general, red and blue light produce a greater dry weight. Green light inhibits plant
growth. Red light promotes seed germination, growth and flower bud formation in long day
short night plant. Photosynthesis is more in the red region. In apple the blue violet region is
more important for the development of red pigments and colour.
c) Duration of light: Refers to the period for which light is available. Duration of light
required is also known as photoperiod.
Photoperiodism: Response of plant to length daily exposure to the light is known as
photoperiodism or relation of the time of flowering formation of tubers, fleshy roots etc. to
the daily exposure length of period of light.
The plants are mainly grouped into three according to duration of light required.
1. Long day plant: Those plants which require 16 hours or more of daily exposure of light
and short night 8-10 hours of dark period for induction of flowering e.g. radish, cauliflower,
cabbage, carrot, spinach.
2. Short day plant: Those plants which require 12 hours or less of daily exposure of light
and long night 10 to 14 hours dark period for induction of flowering. e.g. strawberry, potato,
sweet potato, chrysanthemum, cosmos, poinsettia etc.
3. Day neutral plants: Day neutral plants are those plants in which flowering are induced
irrespective of duration of light. Such plants are also known as photo insensitive plants. e.g.
tomato, chilli, okra, carnation, dianthus, African violet.
4. Intermediate plants: Those plants which require definite period of daily exposure of light.
e.g. wild kidney bean, Indian grass, broom grass.
3.1.4 Rainfall
This is a very important factor for horticultural crops, and if a garden or orchard is to be
established in a new area it is essential that the pattern of rainfall in the region be studied
before any decision is taken concerning the types of crop to be cultivated. Well-distributed
and consistent rainfall is always desirable for and ideal orchard site. Rain at the time of
flowering is not suitable, because most of tropical fruit crops are sensitive to rain.
3.1.5 Wind
The effect of high wind on crops can be appreciable. Complete physical destruction
may result because little can stand against winds of the order of 100 km/hour, even large trees
become uprooted. Some crops have quite low damage even due to high wind speed. In many
regions high winds can destroy the flowers, fruits etc. Wind breaks can help reduce this
problem. The wind break trees, like saru, eucalyptus, Ingadulsis are growing around the
orchard for protection.
 Criteria for site selection, layout and planting methods, nursery
raising
Lesson 4. Criteria for site selection
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The spacing of fruit trees for each species should be the optimum. When intercrops,
multiple crops, etc., are to be grown, the spacing of the orchard trees may be kept at its
maximum. The vigorous varieties as well as the varieties growing in fertile soil generally
require wider spacing. The system of planting of a fruit crop to be adopted in a particular plot
should be decided upon much earlier before laying out the orchard.
Under dry land horticulture in situ method of planting of rootstocks should be
followed and later on the desirable scion variety is side grafted when the rootstock attains
desirable size. There should be provision for wind breaks around the orchard to protect the
fruit trees from the clutches of strong wind.
Fencing of orchard sufficiently ahead of planting should be done. Selection of fruit
varieties suitable to the area and procurement of genuine plant materials from reliable sources
are essential. Nursery for maintaining the clones and rising of seedlings should be located
near the water source.
4.2 IMPORTANT POINTS FOR PLANNING AN ORCHARD:
4.2.1 Selection of site
It is always better to start an orchard in a predominantly fruit-growing area than in a
new locality where few or no orchard exists. This will not only help in sharing experience of
local fruit growers but also purchasing of plant materials, orchard equipments, transport,
marketing, storage of fruits etc. It would be easier through co-operation with growers.
Besides, the site for an orchard should be either as close to a consuming centre/market as
possible or on a metal road or connected by rail. Over and above, the orchard site should have
favourable climatic and soil conditions and good source of irrigation.
4.2.2 Climate
The climate of the site where fruits are to be grown on commercial scale must be
considered carefully. Factors like day and night temperature, rainfall (frequency, amount and
intensity), wind, light, atmospheric humidity, hail storm frost occurrence, etc. are very
important for selection of fruits to be grown there. Listed below are the fruits suitable for
regions with different climatic conditions.
Tropical climate: Fruits like mango, banana, papaya, pineapple, sapota, ber,
breadfruit, cashew, coconut, etc. thrive well in this climate.
Subtropical climate: In this climate, guava, grape, litchi, citrus, date, phalsa, pomegranate,
peach (requiring low-chilling), pear etc.
Temperate climate: In this climate fruits like apple, pear, peach, plum, blackberry,
strawberry, apricot, walnut, almond, etc. grow well.
Hence, while planning the orchard, the fruits suitable to the particular site should be
kept in mind and planting of fruit species can be done accordingly taking into consideration
the topography also.
4.2.3 Soil
Though most of the fruits may be grown on a wide variety of soil such as clay, sand,
sandy loam, clay loam, loam etc., a loam or sandy loam soil is considered to be the best for
most fruits. Shallow soils with rocky substrata, soils with very high or low pH, soils having
poor drainage and high water table during rainy season should be avoided. The fruit growers
must have at least a fair knowledge of soil type, its depth, reaction, water table and fertility
status before selecting a definite variety of fruit trees to be grown there. The orchard site
should have uniform soil with at least three to four feet top soil on which the fruit trees will
grow. Sandy soil may be suitably utilized for growing cashew nut, coconut, etc. gravelly red
late rite for cashew nut, mango, jackfruit etc. loamy soil for banana, papaya, litchi, sapota etc.
However, the orchard soil of poor fertility can be improved in the course of orchard soil
management by green manuring, intercropping, etc.
After selecting the site and before planting fruit tress, it is necessary to prepare the
land by carrying out certain preliminary operation such as clearing and leveling of land,
making provision for irrigation water, providing of fences, planting of windbreaks, planning
of buildings etc.
4.2.4 Clearing and leveling the land
If the land is already under cultivation, nothing except preliminary preparation is
necessary. If uncultivated, it is necessary to put them under deep ploughing and leveling. If
the selected site is under forest, the existing trees and bushes should be removed by
uprooting. The land then should be thoroughly ploughed, harrowed and leveled. While
preparing the land, the subsoil which is usually less fertile than the surface soil, should not be
disturbed as far as possible. In these hills, terrace should be made along the contours.

4.2.5 Irrigation source

An orchard flourishes well when put under irrigation particularly during the dry
months. So the source of irrigation should be a permanent one assuring supply of requisite
quantity of irrigation water throughout the year. Whatever may be the source of irrigation a
well, a shallow or a deep tube well, it should be sunk well ahead of planting. In high hills,
where the rainfall and snowfall are adequate and evaporation from soil is not very high due to
prevailing low temperature, a few tanks may be installed for collection of rain or snow water
to tide over the critical periods of the year.
4.2.6 Fencing
To protect the trees of the orchard from frequent visits of wild and stray animals, and
to prevent stealing of fruits and other orchard properly, some kind of fence is highly
necessary. This may be made by erecting mud walls or high brick walls with tops lined with
glass pieces, or barbed wire fencing.
The first one through quite effective against big animals offer very little obstacle to
monkeys and thieves. The second one being permanent and very effective from the security
point of view is preferred. But it involves a large initial expenditure which is beyond the
means of ordinary fruit growers. The third one, the barbed wire fencing which costs
moderately, is not only effective against practically all animals and human beings, but it also
neither shades nor takes away any plant food from it.
So the orchard boundary may be fenced with pillars and barbed wires. The pillars may
be of wood, angle iron, stone-cement concrete etc. this fence may be further strengthened by
erecting live hedges which will not only help to stop the entry of animals and human beings
but also from a thick live-wall around the orchard for privacy and help to safeguard the
produce which cannot be seen from outside. The live hedge must have the following
qualities:
(a) It should be quick growing
(b) Easy to raise by seeds or cuttings of vegetative parts
(c) Should be drought resistant
(d) Should have dense foliage
(e) Should preferably be thorny
(f) Should stand pruning to develop thick and compact growth
The plants suitable for live hedge are Inga dulcis, Parkinsonia aculeate L, Prosopis
juliflora, Carissa carandas, Casuarina equisetifolia, Duranta plumeri, Sesbania aegyptiaca,
Acacia sp.,Zizyphus sp., Lawsonia alba, Gliricidia, Bahunia sp., Polyalthia longifolia, etc.
To establish a live hedge, the soil along the fence is dug 2 feet wide and 2 feet deep at
the commencement of the rainy season. After sowing the seeds or planting the cutting along
the boundary of the orchard, the plants are allowed to grow. In the course of time trimming
and pruning are done to develop a thick and tall hedge as required.
It has also been found very useful when a cattle driven trench of 3 ft. deep and 4 lt.
wide is dug after the live hedge around the border.
4.2.7 Windbreaks
Fruit orchards usually face heavy losses when a strong wind of high velocity passes
through the orchard. Damages like uprooting of trees, breaking of branches, destruction of
blooms, dropping of immature fruits, erosion of surface soil, etc. are caused very often by
wind. Hence, establishment of a tall-growing windbreak is necessary to protect the orchard.
The planting of windbreaks should precede that of the fruit trees by at least two years, if they
are to give effective protection to the orchard. A well-established windbreak reduces the
velocity of wind; checks evaporation loss of soil moisture prevents cold wind and reduces
frost damage to a great extent.

The efficiency of a windbreak depends upon the height of the trees and their
compactness. Ordinarily it has maximum effectiveness for a distance about 3-4 times as great
as its height. The first row of fruit trees should be about away from the windbreak row. To
prevent the roots of the windbreak trees from interfering with the normal growth of the fruit
trees, a 3-4 ft. deep trench should be dug at a distance of 10 ft. from the windbreak row.
An ideal windbreak should be upright in growth and occupy as little space as possible.
It should be tall, mechanically strong, quick growing and sufficiently dense to offer the
maximum resistance to the wind. One to two rows of such trees are planted at a close
spacing, usually 12-23 ft. apart for having a tall and close tree-wall which can help to resist
the incoming heavy flow of wind. Trees commonly grown as windbreaks are Polyalihia
longifolla, Casurina equisdilfolla, Erythrlna indica, Eucalyptus globules, Grevillia robusta,
Dalbergia sissoo, Putranjiva roxburghii, Syzygium sp., Mangsfera indica, Averrhoa
carambola, Bambusa sp., etc.
4.2.8 Buildings
Any building which is to be constructed in the orchard should be planned before
planting, though their construction may be done later on. An orchard provides a very pleasant
site for a dwelling. Other buildings such as implement shed, bullock shed and labour quarters
may also be constructed.
4.2.9 Roads, Paths, Irrigation and Drainage Channels
Planning of roads, paths, irrigation and drainage channels should be done well in
advance. Roads and paths are absolutely necessary for making every portion of the orchard
easily approachable and for convenience in operations like manuring, spraying and
transportation. The footpaths should be made in between the rows of trees without utilizing
any additional space of the orchard. Small non-spreading type of avenue trees may be planted
beside the road to enhance the beauty of the orchard.
The permanent irrigation and drainage channels should be dug in straight lines and
without interfering the main roads to economize the use of irrigation water by avoiding
seepage in the channels during the dry and hot seasons and for efficient drainage of excess
water from the individual plot of the orchard during rainy season or flood-affected areas.
Before the actual laying out of the orchard and undertaking the planting work, a
detailed plan of the orchard should be drawn showing the boundary, main gate, roads and
paths, source of irrigation, drainage and irrigation channels and also the individual plots for
the fruit to be grown. This will help to establish the orchard correctly and conveniently.
 Lesson 5. Layout and Planting Methods
5.1 LAYOUT
The layout of the orchard is a very important operation. Under this, the arrangement of
fruit plants in the plot is carefully done to put the plants at a suitable distance for proper
development and for accommodating the requisite number of plants per unit area in addition
to improving the aesthetic look of the orchard. Hence, the factors which are considered
important for proper layout of the orchard are (i) system of planting and (ii) planting distance
of individual fruit species which again would provide the following advantages:
1. Allow equidistance for each tree for uniform growth.
2. Allow easy orchard operations like cultivation, intercropping, irrigation, spraying of
plant protection chemicals and growth regulators, harvesting etc.
3. Proper utilization of orchard space avoiding wastage of land.
4. Help in proper supervision and management of the orchard.
5. Aloe further extension of area from time to time so that subsequent planting would
match with the existing orchard planting.
5.2 SYSTEM OF PLANTING
The system of planting to be adopted is selected after considering the slope of land,
purpose of utilizing the orchard space, convenience etc. Generally, six systems of planting are
recommended for fruit trees.
5.2.1 Square system
This system is considered to be the simplest of all the system and is adopted widely.
In this system, the plot is divided into squares and trees are planted at the four corners of the
square, in straight rows running at right angles. While laying out the plot a base line is first
drawn parallel to the road, fence or adjacent orchard, at a distance equal to half the spacing to
be given between the trees. Pegs are fixed on this line at the desired distances. At both ends
of the base line right angles are drawn by following the simple carpenter’s 3, 4, 5 meters
system. After the formation of three lines it is easy to fix all the other pegs to mark the tree
locations in between the lines at the required spacing by using ropes connecting the pegs of
the lines in opposite directions.
Under this system, intercultural operations, spraying, harvesting etc., can be done
conveniently and easily. Planting of quick growing fruit trees like papaya, banana, guava
during the early life of the orchard is possible. Rising of inter-crops like vegetables, ginger,
turmeric, cumin, coriander and such other spices can be done conveniently cultivation and
irrigation can be done in two directions.

5.2.2 Rectangular system

In this system, the plot is divided into rectangles instead of squares and trees are
planted at the four corners of the rectangle in straight rows running at right angles. The same
advantages which have been mentioned in the square system are also enjoyed here. The only
difference is that in this system more plants can be accommodated in the row keeping more
space between the rows.

5.2.3 Triangular system

In this system, trees are planted as in the square system but the plants in the 2 nd , 4th,
6th and such other alternate rows are planted midway between the 1 st, 3rd, 5th and such other
alternate rows. This system has no special advantage over the square system except providing
more open space for the trees and for intercrops. It is not only a difficult layout but
cultivation also in the plots under this system becomes difficult.

5.2.4 Hexagonal system

In this system, the trees are planted at the corners of an equilateral triangle and thus,
six trees from a hexagon with the seventh tree at the centre. This system is generally followed
where the land is costly and very fertile with ample provision of irrigation water. Though 15
per cent more trees can be planted in a unit area by this method over the square system, fruit
growers usually do not adopt it, as it is difficult to layout and cultivation in the plot cannot be
done so easily as in the square system.
For laying out the plot, a base line is drawn in one side as in the square system. Then
an equilateral triangle having rings at each corner and with sides equal to the length of the
required distance is made of heavy wire or chain. Two of these rings are then placed on the
stakes of the base line and the position of the third ring indicates the position of a tree in the
second row. This row is then used as the base line and pegs are set in the third row. In this
way entire plot is laid out.
5.2.5 Quincunx system
This system of planting fruit trees is similar to square system, except that a fifth tree is
planted at the centre of each square. As a result the tree number in an unit area becomes
almost double the number in the square system. The additional tree in the centre is known as
“filler”. The fillers are usually quick growing, early maturing and erect type fruit trees like
banana, papaya, pomegranate, etc., which are removed as soon as the main fruit trees planted
at the corner of the square come into bearing. The planting of filler trees provides an
additional income to the grower in the early life of the orchard.

5.2.6 Contour system

It is generally followed on the hills with high slopes. It particularly suits to a land with
undulated topography, where there is greater danger of erosion and irrigation of the orchard is
difficult. The main purpose of this system is to minimize land erosion and to conserve soil
moisture so as to make the slope fit for growing fruits. So, the contour line is designed and
graded in such a way that the flow of water in the irrigation channel becomes slow and thus
finds time to penetrate into the soil without causing erosion.
5.3 Spacing of Fruit Trees
Provision of optimum spacing to fruit trees is one of the most important aspects of
successful fruit culture. If the spacing is inadequate, the fruit trees will grow poorly, produce
small quantity of fruits of inferior quality, and suffer from various diseases and insect pests.
The cultural practices of the orchards are also greatly hindered. Weeds and grasses grow in
abundance and rob off the vitality of the trees, resulting in their early decline and premature
death. On the other hand, if the spacing is too wide, there will be wastage of valuable orchard
land without having any direct benefit on the ultimate yield of the orchard. The optimum
spacing is therefore, desired so that the fruit trees may grow and bear crops properly. The
optimum spacing is one in which the tree on attaining its full size will not touch the branches
of the neighbouring ones and the root-system of one tree must not encroach that of the
adjoining tree. The spacing given to fruit trees is generally governed by the following factors:
1. Climate and soil
2. Varieties
3. Growth habit
4. Rootstocks
5. Nature of irrigation
6. Pruning
It is very difficult to suggest the exact spacing for fruit trees which will suit every locality
or soil. However, the spacing given below for some of the important fruits may be considered
as a safe guide for planting fruit orchards both in the hills and plains.
 Lesson 6. Nursery Raising
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Nursery is a place where plant are cultivated and grown to usable size. Nursery
techniques involve raising seedling, sapling and graft economically useful and ornamental
plants through scientific methods. Several new techniques are available, which are cheap and
effective. These new techniques are useful in increasing the success rate of graft and rooting
of cutting; increasing seedling vigour; reducing transplanting shock and generally reducing
the quantum of manual work. The nursery management gained a status of commercial
venture where retailer nurseries sell planting materials to the general public and nurseries,
which sell only to other nurseries and to commercial landscape gardeners, and private
nursery, which supply the needs of institutions of private estates.
1. Site for nursery should be selected at such places where abundant sunshine and proper
ventilation is available.
2. Nursery site should be on higher location so that water stagnation is avoidable.
3. In humid and rain prone areas nursery place should be well protected from heavy
rains through protected structures.
4. The site should be nearer to irrigation facilities and accessible.
5. It should be protected from stray animals, snail, rats etc.
6. Soil should be sandy loam or loamy with pH range of 6 to 7 and rich in organic matter
and free from pathogenic inoculums.
6.2 NECESSITY OF NURSERY
Nursery is necessity for every horticulture grower. The development of seedling in
nursery is not only reduces the crop span but also increase the uniformity of the crop and
thus, harvesting as compared to direct sown crops. Transplanting of seedling are also
eliminate the need of thinning and providing good opportunities for virus free vigorous off
season nursery, if grown under protected condition. Nursery is helpful and convenient to
manage seedling under small area and grower can get timely plant protection measures are
with minimal efforts. Development of a nursery provides favourable climate to emerging
plants for their better growth and development. The effective utilization of unfavourable
period by preparing nursery under protected condition. Seed cost of some crops like hybrid
vegetables, ornamental plants, spices and some fruits can be economized through nursery.
Nursery production help in maintaining effective plants stand in shortest possible time
through gap filling. Although many fruits and vegetable seeds can be sown directly in field,
experiment has shown that raising seedling in a nursery has a number of advantages as
discussed below.
1. Intensive care- Seedling receives better care and protection in the nursery. The
average garden soil is not an ideal medium for raising seedling especially from the
point of view of soil tilth. At an early stage of development most vegetable crops
require special attention that is not possible in main field.
2. Reduction of costs- fewer seeds are used for raising seedling in the nursery than for
sowing directly in the field, because in the letter seedling have to be thinned to one
which is wasteful. When expensive hybrid seeds are used, transplanting therefore
become more economically attractive. Pesticides and labour are also reduced under
nursery conditions as compared to planning directly in the field.
3. Opportunity for selection- Raising, seedling in a nursery afford the grower an
opportunity to select well-grown, vigorous, uniform and dieses free seedling.
4. Extend a short growing season for late maturing crops – seedling can be raised in
nursery under a protected environment before condition outside become suitable for
growth and transplanted into field when condition allow, thus reducing the amount of
time spent in the field.
 5. Forced vegetable production for an early market – generally prices of horticulture
produce are attractive when production or supply is low. Vegetables can be grown
“out - of- season” in a nursery when condition are not yet favourable. Such crops will
thus mature earlier after transplanting and hence stand to fetch a higher price in the
market.
6.3 NURSERY MANAGEMENT
The first stage in successful production of horticulture crops is to raise healthy
vigorous seedlings. Young plants whether propagated from seed or vegetative require a lot of
care particularly during the early stages of growth. They have to be protected from adverse
temperature, heavy rain, wind and verity of pests and diseases. If small seeded vegetables are
shown directly in field, germination is often poor and the young plants grow very slowly and
require a long time to mature. Also the season may be short for full development in the field.
To overcome these problems many vegetables crops are grown in nurseries before being
transplanted in field. A vegetables or fruit nursery is a place where plants be cared for during
the early stages of growth, providing optimum conditions for germination and subsequent
growth until they are strong enough to be planted out in their permanent place. A nursery can
be as simple as a raised bed in an open field or sophisticated as a glass-house with micro-
sprinklers and an management and the plant propagation are same, though they are altogether
different but inter-related. In fact mass multiplication of quality planting material is the
central theme of nursery management but nursery management is a trade oriented dynamic
process, which refers to efficient utilization of resource for economic returns. Nursery
management is a team effort to reach the desired goal.
The main phase of nursery management are (1) planning- edaphic climatic and
socioeconomic consideration; demand for planning materials; provision of mother block,
requirement of land area, water supply, working tools, growing, structures and inputs
availability; accessibility; trained man power; plant protection; disposal of planting materials
etc. (2) implementation- land treatment, protection, against biotic interference and soil
erosion, proper layout, input supply (3) monitoring and evolution-physical presence, rapid
response, critical analysis, intensive to worker and (4) feed back for further refinement. The
key elements of hi-tech nursery management are place, plant and the person behind.
6.3.1 Advantage of nursery management
 It is possible to provide favourable growth conditions i.e. germination as well growth.
 Better care of younger plants as it is easy to look after nursery in small area against
pathogenic infection, pests and weeds.
 Crop grown by nursery raising is quite early and fetch higher price in the market, so
economically more profitable.
 There is saving of land and labour as main fields will be occupied by the crops
rotation can be followed.
 More time is available for the preparation of main field because nursery is grown
separately.
 As vegetables seeds are expensive particularly hybrids, so we can economized the
seed by sowing them in the nursery.
6.4 LAYOUT OF MODEL NURSERY
Nursery is the place where all kinds of plants like trees, shrubs, climbers etc. are
grown and kept for transporting or for using them as stock plants for budding, grafting, and
other methods of propagation or for sale. The modern nurseries also serve as an area where
garden tools, fertilizers are also offered for sale along with plant material. The area for
models nursery production is prepared for effective utilization of inputs and to do things in
proper manner, institutions for nursery establishment as per their requirement design various
location specific models. But their some important component, which should be taken into
care and provision, should be made for these during planning and lay-out preparation for
nurseries.
i. Fence : Prior to the establishment of a nursery, a good fence with barbed wire must be
erected all around the nursery to prevent trees pass of animals and theft. The fence could be
further strengthened by planting a live hedge, with thorny fruit plants. This also adds beauty
in bearing and also provides additional income through sale of fruits and seedling obtained
from the seed.
ii. Roads and paths: A proper planning of roads and paths inside the nursery will not add
only beauty, but also make the nursery operation easy and economical. This could be
achieved by dividing the nursery into different blocks and various sections. But at the same
time, the land should not be wasted by unnecessarily lying out of paths and roads. Each
road/path should lead the customer to appoint of interest in the nursery area.
iii. Progeny block / mother plant block: The nursery should have a well-maintained
progeny block or mother plant block/scion bank planted with those varieties in good demand.
The layer cutting should be obtained preferably from the original breeder/research institute
from where it is released or from a reputed nursery. One should remember that, the success of
any nursery largely depends upon the initial selection of progeny plants or mother plants for
further multiplication. Any mistake made in this aspect will result in loss of the reputation of
the nursery. A well managed progeny block or mother plants block will not only create
confidence among the customers but also reduces the cost of production and increases the
success rate of grafting/budding/layering because of availability of fresh scion material
throughout the season within the nursery itself and there will not be any lag period between
separation of scions and graftage. There are so many cultivars for fruit crops, grow only
important cultivar in mother blocks as per demand and germ plasma conservation.
iv. Irrigation systems: Horticultural nursery plants require abundant supply of water for
irrigation, since they are grown in poly bags or pots with limited quantity of potting mixture.
Hence sufficient number of wells to yield sufficient quantity of irrigation water is a must in
nursery. In areas with low water yields and frequents power failures, a sump to hold
sufficient quantity of water to irrigate the nursery plants is also very much essential along
with appropriate pumps for lifting the irrigation water. In areas where electricity failure is a
problem, which is more common, an alternative power supply is very essential for smooth
running of pump set. Since water security is a limiting factor in most of areas in the country a
well laid out PVC pipeline systems will solve the problems to a greater extent. An
experienced agricultural engineer may be consulted in this regard for lay-out of pipeline. This
facilitates efficient and economic distribution of irrigation water to various components in the
nursery.
v. Office cum stores: An office-cum-stores is needed for effective management of the
nursery. The office buildings may be constructed in a place, which offers better supervision,
and also to receive customers. The office buildings may be decorated with attractive
photographs of fruit storeroom of suitable sizes is needed for storing poly bags, tools and
implements, packaging materials, labels, pesticides, fertilizers etc.
vi. Seed beds: In a nursery, this component is essential to raise the seedling and rootstock.
These are to be laid out near the water source, since they require frequent watering and
irrigation. Beds of 1.0 meter width of any convent length are to be made. A working area of
60 cm between the beds is necessary. This facilities are easy in slowing of seeds, weeding,
watering, spraying, lifting, of seedling. Irrigation channels are to be made laid out
conveniently. Alternatively, sprinklers irrigation systems may be provided for watering the
beds; which offers uniform germination and seedling growth.
vii. Nursery beds: Rising of seedling / rootstalk in poly bags requires more spaces compared
to nursery beds but mortality is greatly reduced along with uniformity. Nursery beds area
should also have a provision to keep the grafted plants either in trenches of 30 cm deep and
1.0 meter wide so as to accommodate 500 grafts in each bed. Alternatively the graft / layer
can be arranged on the ground in beds of 1.0 meter wide with 60 cm working place in
between the beds. Such beds can be irrigated either with a rose fitted to a flexible hosepipe or
by overhead micro-sprinklers.
viii. Potting mixture and potting yard: For better success of nursery plants, a good potting
mixture is necessary. The potting mixture may be prepared well in advance by adding
sufficient quantity of super phosphate for better decomposition and solubilization. The
potting mixture maybe kept near the potting yard, where potting / pocketing is done.
Construction is a potting yard of suitable size facilities potting of seedling or grafting /
budding operations even on a rainy day.
 Macro and micro propagation methods
Lesson 7. Macro Propagation Methods
7.1 PROPAGATION
Production of seed individual includes
(i) Sexual or seed propagation
(ii) Asexual or vegetative propagation
7.1.1 Sexual propagation: Reproduction by seed; but seed is under ordinary condition a
result of fusion of male and female germ cells or gametes, characters of both parents are
inherited by the seed or the new individual and therefore the new individual formed in this
way are not true-to-type.
7.1.2 Asexual propagation: Does not involve the gametes from parents. It is simply a
vegetative or somatic extension of one parent and there is no chance of inheriting a mixture
of characters.
7.2 SEED PROPAGATION
7.2.1 Seed: Anatomically, seed is an embryo plant or fertilized, ripened ovule consisting of a
rudimentary stem and root, together with a supply of food sufficient for establishing the plant
in a new location and enclosed in a protective coat (seed coat).
7.2.2 Viability: A seed is viable if it is capable of germinating or ability of seed to germinate.
7.2.3 Vitality: The vigour or strength possessed by the seed for growth.
7.2.4 Short viable seeds: cashew, jack fruit, jamun, citrus, mango, neem etc.
7.2.5 Seed with hard seed coat: babul (acasia), gulmohar, chiku, amaltas etc. Such seed
should be given some treatment before growing for quick germination.
(1) Mechanical treatment:
(i) Scarifying: Seed is filled in a scarifier which is a drum with inner surface rough, hard and
sharp. The hard seed coat is filled and ground out by rotary action.
(ii) Others: Breaking or cracking with hammer, drilling a hole, rubbing against stone, filling.
(2) Chemical treatment:
- Sulphuric acid at conc. of 50 % and 25 %
- Potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
(3) Soaking in water: Seed are soaked in warm water for 24 hours or 4 to 5 days sometime
they are soaked in cow dung paste.
(4) Stratification: Keeping seed in alternate layers with sand or soil and kept constantly moist
but not waterlogged.
7.3 SEXUAL METHODS
7.3.1 Advantages:
 Seedling trees (sexual method) are generally long lived; bear more heavily are
comparative more hard.
 Propagation from the seed is the only means of reproduction where the method of
vegetative propagation is not possible or economical as in papaya, phalsa, mangosteen
etc.
 Inbreeding for evolution of new varieties, the hybrids are first raised from seed and it
is, therefore, essential to employ this method in such cases.
 Propagation from seed has been responsible for the production of some chance
seedlings of highly superior merits, which has been of some chance seedlings of
highly superior merits, which has been of great benefit to the fruit industry. It may be
mentioned that commercial mango varieties originated from seed and were, later on,
perpetuated vegetatively.
 Seed like those of some citrus species and some mango varieties are capable of giving
out more than one seedling from one seed. They can be carefully detected in the
nursery stage.
  The rootstocks upon which the fruit varieties are budded or grafted are really obtained
by means of sexual propagation.
 Seedlings are comparatively cheaper and easy to rise.
7.3.2 Disadvantages:
 The seedling trees are not uniform in their growth, yielding capacity and fruit quality
as compared to grafted trees.
 They make more time to bear the maiden crop as compared to the grafted plants.
 The seedling trees become large for economic management i.e. the cost of harvesting,
pruning and spraying is more as compared to the grafted trees.
 It is not possible to perpetuate the exact characters of any superior selection through
seed and so to multiply superior hybrids or chance seedlings, vegetative methods have
to be employed.
 In case the seedlings, it is not possible to avail of the modifying influence of
rootstocks on the scion as in case of vegetatively propagated fruit trees.
7.4 ASEXUAL OR VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
It is also known as clonal propagation. Vegetative parts such as leaf, stem or root are used
instead of seeds. It is a function of the somatic mechanism of plants. It is therefore essential
to have some fundamental knowledge of the basic anatomy of certain parts.
7.4.1 Roots and stem structures
i. Root:- An organ for absorption of water and nutrients and serve as an anchor for the plant.
Older portions mainly work of transporting water and nutrients and stored food material
where as only younger fibrous roots absorbed the water and nutrients.
ii. Stem:- Supports leaves flowers and fruits and acts as a link between roots and leaves. It
also acts as a temporary storage place for reserved food materials.
iii. Dicotyledonous plants:- The vascular bundles (xylem, phloem and cambium) have a
regular systematic arrangements so made that they form a circular ring. Mango, Chiku,
Guava.
iv. Monocotyledonous plants:- They do not form a ring but are more or less scattered at
random throughout the thickness of the stem. Banana, Date, palm, Coconut.
v. Xylem:- They are well differentiated thick walled fibers, conducting vessels and wood
parenchyma on the outer side of wood, ventral cylinder. Main function of xylem is to
transport water and nutrient (salt) absorbed by roots to the upper portion of the plants.
vi. Phloem:- They are well differentiated, fibrous and conducting tissues on the inner side of
the bark or cortical layer. Main function of phloem is to transport food material (CH 2O),
hormones and co-factor synthesized by leaves.
vii. Cambium:- Between xylem and phloem there is a thin layer of thin walled,
undifferentiated meristematic tissues is known as cambium. They occur in a continuous ring.
Their main function is to divide and sub-divide giving rise to new cells that may later on
became differentiated in to one another of the various tissues of the wood of bark.
viii. Function of cambium necessary for plant propagation:-
 Use full in secondary growth of stem and root.
 Regeneration and over walling over is possible for recovery of injury to the plants.
 Callus produced by cambium is necessary for budding, grafting and cutting etc.
 Adventitious roots on stem mostly arise from cambium.
ix. Callus:- It is a mass of undifferentiated (parenchyma cells) tissues produced by cambium
which gradually covers the points or areas originally exposed (arising from the living cells of
both scion and stock).
x. Regeneration:- Recovering the injured surface all over at the same time.
xi. Over walling:- Recovering the injured surface from the outer margins.
xii. Buds:- A bud is a rudimentary stem or embryo stem when, a bud develop into a branch
is known as vegetative bud. But when it develops into a flower is known as flower bud. It is
also called fruit bud.
Bud is defined as a growing point of undifferentiated tissues surrounded by embryonic
leaves or blossoms.
1) Terminal bud: A bud formed at the tip of a branch which has stopped growing for the
season.
2) Axillary or lateral bud: This is a regular bud which develops in the leaf axil or the node.

3) Adventitious bud: This is a bud formed on an unusual part like internode, leaf, or root.
4) Dormant bud: When its dormancy period is less than one year(season) is known as
dormant bud.

5) Latent bud: If for some reason a dormant bud does not start growing even after a year, it
may not grow even for more number of years is known as latent bud.

xiii. Suckers: These are shoots growing from latent adventitious buds on roots.

xiv. Water sprouts: These are shoots growing from latent adventitious buds on stems or
branches.
7.4.2 Advantages of vegetative propagation:- Seed propagation is easier method and very
widely used for sowing other agricultural crops, vegetative propagation is the practice
adopted mostly by horticulturist. Following are the advantages:
 True breeding seeds can be ensured on by vegetative method because it is a
reproduction of somatic cells. There is no cross pollination and segregation.
 When seed is not formed, vegetative methods is the only way i.e. Banana and some
(seedless) varieties of grape and citrus.
 Vegetative propagated plant bear earlier but life period is shorter than seed propagated
plants e.g. mango and chiku graft bear early fruiting.
 Some disease or insect resistant scion can be grown on suitable rootstock for the
particular soil condition, i.e. Jamburi is resistant to gummosis and we can successfully
grafted citrus on jamburi, in Australia, Northern, spy apple is used as root stock for
apple, which is resistant to woody aphis, similarly, European varieties of grapes
grafted on the root stock of American varieties to avoid the damage of phyloxera
insect.
 Dwarfting trees are practiced by budding or grafting on suitable roots orange on wood
apple.
 Branches of male plant can be grafted on female plants.
 Reduction in the size and number of thorns i.e. jamburi root stock for citrus.
 Correction of mistakes by budding or crown grafting or side grafting.
 In cooler regions trifoliate orange is used as (citrus) rootstock against heavy frost.
 More than one variety can be grown on one plant e.g. Roses.
7.4.3 Disadvantages:- The following are the disadvantages of Asexual method of
propagation in fruit plants.
 The vegetative propagated plants, particularly the budded and grafted ones are not
generally so vigorous and long lived as the seeding trees.
 No new varieties can be evolved by the vegetative means of propagation.
7.5 FACTORS AFFECTING ROOT FORMATION IN CUTTINGS
i. Medium for rooting of cuttings: The medium in which cuttings, are planted must be loose
and easily worked so as to facilitate planting of cuttings as well as their removal without
damage to new roots. Ordinary budding sand, if clean and free from any foreign materials
and dirt is a very satisfactory medium. Loose sandy loam soil with good drainage is the most
suitable alone for planting cuttings directly in the nursery.
Decaying organic matter in the medium is objectionable since it will promote the
growth of fungi and bacteria, which in turn might be cause the cutting to die before root
formation.
ii. Temperature:- Control of temperature is very important in rooting of cuttings. Very high
temperature is not inductive to root formation 65 °Fahrenheit to 70 °Fahrenheit is the best
temperature for most plants.
iii. Humidity:- A high degree of humidity is essential otherwise cuttings will be desiccated.
The roundabout area, the walls, paths and beds must be frequently sprinkled with water to
maintain humidity.
iv. Chemical treatment:- Synthetic hormones like the indole-3-acetic-acid, indole-3-butyric
acid and napthaleneacetic acid are very useful in increase root formation.
v. Mechanical treatments:- These include partial removal of leaves, slanting basal cut and
some injury near the basal end. It is believed that by injury areas of callus is exposed for
rooting.
vi. Stored food:- Two fundamental requirements are there for successful rooting of cutting
(i) The plant must have the capacity to develop roots. (ii) Energy must be supplied for these
processes (Rooting).
The available carbohydrates and nitrogen markedly affect the rooting of cuttings.
Shoots from which cuttings are to be taken are sometimes girdled to increase the stored food
above the girdle. The girdle also prevents auxins from flowing dow.
vii. Age and maturity of the tissues:- Certain kinds of plants can be grown best from semi
hard wood cuttings but not so from terminal or herbaceous cuttings. Some other grows best
only from the fully matured basal portions and still others grow best from heel or mallet
cuttings, only in which second year wood is also included.
viii. Etiolation:- It is considered to be necessary for better rooting.
7.6 GRAFTAGE
Graftage is the process of joining a part of a plant with another in such a way that both
will unite to work as a unit and the unit will continue growth. Two different methods based
on the same principles are included under the term graftage viz, grafting and budding.
7.6.1 Special terms in connection with grafting and budding:-
i. Stock:- Stock is that part of a graft which has the root and which supports the growth, made
by the other component scion. Root system of the stock and the above ground growth of the
scion constitute a graft. A stock is called “seedling root stock” if it is grown from seed and
“clonal roots stock” if it is propagated by vegetative methods of propagation e.g. cutting,
layering etc.
ii. Scion:- Scion is a portion of the stem or branch of the variety that is desired to propagate.
It may be a shoot or a branch a few inches long or one feet long and has many dormant buds
on it. It may be taken from current or past season’s growth or even older wood, but in most
species growth of current or past season makes better scion than does the older wood. The
scion for grafting is a piece of a branch while the scion for budding is only a single bud with
a little bark.

iii. Matrix:- Matrix is the place on the root stock that is prepared for joining the scion or the
bud.
iv. Compatibility:- The word compatible designates the suitability of the reciprocal influence
of stock and scion on each other. If the influences of one on the other are all suitable to each
other we say that both are compatible.
7.6.2 Limitations of graftage:-
For the successful union of the two parts, following three conditions must be fulfilled.
 Close botanical relationship.
 Continuous contact of cambium layers and tight fitting(closeness of fit)
 Compatibility
 Lesson 8. Micro Propagation Methods
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Micro-propagation is one of the important contributions of plant tissue culture to
commercial plant propagation and has vast significance. The technique provides a rapid
reliable system for a production of large number of genetically uniform disease free plantlets.
Micro-propagation is the technique of developing plants from very small portion of plants
such as shoots tip root tip, embryo, stem, pollen grain, callus or single cell. Plant tissue
culture owes its origin to the revolutionary concept of totipotency of plant cell propounded by
the famous German plant physiologist, Haberlandt in 1902. This technique has opened a vast
scope for improve of fruits and plantation crops though micro-propagation, creating genetic
diversity, germplasm conservation virus elimination, development of somatic hybrids and
gene transfer.
Micro-propagation holds a great promise in fast multiplication of fruit and nut crops,
which are invariably propagated asexually to meet the ever increasing demand for adequate
and timely supply of clean planting material. It is possible through micro-propagation to
produce millions of identical plants under controlled and aseptic conditions, economy of time
and space, affording greater output and augmentation of elite, disease free propagules, safer
and quarantined movements of germ plasm across nations. It also induces precocity in
flowering, precision timing uniformity and often increases yield.
In fruit and plantation crops, comparatively difficult to micro-propagate, protocol
have been developed for citrus, apple, banana, papaya, pineapple, grape, peach, plum,
almond, walnut, strawberry, oil palm and date palm. In India, commercial exploitation of
micro-propagation is limited to oil palm, strawberry and banana. It is primarily because of the
highly heterozygous nature of the material which requires independent protocol for the
different genotypes, problems of clonal fidelity, involvement of rootstock and overall costs.
However, attempts are on to standardize protocol for crops like mango, cashew, walnut, oil
palm, coconut, litchi, sapota and cocoa.
8.1.1 Micro-Propagation Types:
(1) Meristem culture e.g. orchid, carnation
(2) Tissue culture e.g. banana, date palm
(3) Ermbryosis e.g. tobacco
(4) Embryo tube use e.g. orchid.
8.2 IMPORTANCE OF TISSUE CULTURE TECHNIQUE
All the cells in an organism carry the same genetic information, yet show variations in
expression,. Our knowledge of cell and tissue cultures has been developing with full swing,
specially in bio-transformation, forestry, genetic engineering, morphogenesis, somatic
hybridization, secondary metabolite production, hybridization, variety development and their
conservation, maintaining pathogen free plants and rapid clonal propagation, totipotency,
differentiation, cell division, cell nutrition, metabolism radio biology, cell preservation, etc. It
is now possible to cultivate cells in quantity, or as clones from single cells; to grow whole
plant from isolated meristems and to induce callus or even single cell to develop into
complete plant either by organogenesis or directly by embryogenesis in vitro.
The production of haploid through tissue culture form anthers or isolated microspores
and of protoplasts from higher plant cells has served as the basic tools for genetic engineering
and somatic hybridization. Tissue culture technique helps to propagate plants of economic
importance such as orchids and other ornamental plants in large numbers by their meristem
culture or by other in vitro methods. This provides them virus-free plantlets, Propagation of
valuable economic plants through tissue culture based on the principle of totipotency (every
cell within the plant has potential to regenerate into a whole plant).

In plant breeding, embryo, ovary and ovule culture as well as in vitro pollination have
been employed to overcome morphological and physiological sterility and incompatibility. In
recent years, plant tissue culture technique is in increasing use for producing haploids from
anthers or isolated microspores, and of protoplasts from higher plant cells and the recognition
of the potential of these materials in genetics and plant breeding. One of the most significant
developments in the field of plant tissues culture during recent years are the isolation, culture
and fusion techniques which have their special importance in studies of plant improvement
by cell modification and somatic hybridization.
Plant tissue culture technique is a boon in the studies of the biosynthesis of secondary
metabolites and provides an efficient means of producing economically important plant
products (fine chemicals). Plant tissue culture also provides raw material to pharmaceutical,
cosmetic and confectionary industries examples are berberine, ginseng, shikonin and vanilla.
8.3 PLANT TISSUE CULTURE PRINCIPLES
The technique has developed around the concept that a cell is totipotent when it has
the capacity and ability to develop into whole organism. The principles involved in plant
tissue culture are very simple and primarily an attempt, whereby an explant can be to some
extent freed from inter-organ, inter-tissue and inter-cellular interactions and subjected to
direct experimental control.
The most common culture in plant tissue is callus, which is wound tissue composed of
undifferentiated, highly vacuolated and unorganized cells.
8.3.1 Callus Culture
For raising the callus tissues, a tissue culturist must have clear understanding of some
basic principles. A cell from any part of the plant like shoot apex, bud, leaf, mesophyll cells,
epidermis, cambium, anthers, pollen, fruit etc., when inoculated in a suitable medium under
aseptic laboratory conditions can able to differentiate and multiply. This results into the
formation of an amorphous mass of cells known as callus, which can be induced to re-
differentiate on appropriate medium to develop embryoids which directly develop into the
plantlets, eventually giving rise to a whole viable plant.

The term clone (from the Greek klon, meaning: a slip or twig suitable for plant
propagation) was suggested by Webber (USA) in 1903 to explain those plants which were
obtained by a sexual reproduction; it is even applied to DNA multiplication (cloning of genes
in bacteria). In strict scientific sense, cloning means an organism obtained from a single cell
through mitotic divisions.
8.3.2 Meristem Culture
When a meristem is cultured in vitro, then it produces a small plant bearing 5 or 6
leaves. This could be obtained within a few weeks. Then the stem is cut into 5-6 small micro
cuttings, which under favorable conditions, become fully grown plants.
8.3.3 Organ Culture
A body of higher plants has complex inter-relationships between different organs like
root, shoot, apical meristem, leaf primordia, floral buds, ovary, ovule, anther lobs, pollen
grains, fruit, seed, etc. In this method a particular organ is isolated and cultured under
laboratory conditions in a chemically defined medium where they retain their characteristic
structures and other features and continue to grow as usual. In organ culture, organs are not
induced to form callus, therefore, it differs from the callus culture where the organization of
the intact tissues is lost.
This technique provides and experimental system to define the nutrients and growth
factors that are usually received by the organ from other organs of the plant body and from
surrounding environment. It also helps us in understanding the inter-dependence of organs
with respect to various physical and chemical growth factors including growth hormones.
Organ culture technique also provides the knowledge about the various problems of
morphogenesis and the sites of biosynthesis of specific metabolites and growth compounds. It
may be used as a tool for improvement of various economically important crops.
 Organ culture may be grouped into two major categories: vegetative organs (root
culture, leaf culture, and shoot tip culture) and reproductive organs (complete flower culture,
isolated ovary culture, isolated ovule and embryo culture, pollen mother cell culture, seed and
fruit culture).
 Plant growing structures, pruning and training
Lesson 9. Plant Growing Structures
9.1 PLANT GROWING STRUCTURES
Following are most commonly used plant growing structures for horticultural plants:
9.1.1 Shade Houses: Shade houses in nurseries in tropical and sub-tropical regions offer
many advantages like raising of seedling in bags directly, protecting the grafts from hot
summer months, effective irrigation through upside down overhead micro sprinklers. The
shade house made with shade nets ( 50% or 75%) for regulation of shade are particularly very
useful in arid regions where the humidity is very low during summer months.

9.1.2 Green Houses /Poly Houses: Grafting or budding of several fruit species under poly
house or low cost green houses with natural ventilation will enhance the percentage graft /
bud take besides faster growth of grafts due to favourable micro climatic conditions of poly
house. In green house construction a wood or metal frame work is built to which wood or
metal sack bars are fixed to support panes of glass work. in all poly house/greenhouse means
of providing air movement and air exchange is necessary to aid in controlling temperature
and humidity. It is the best, if possible to have in the green house heating and self –opening
ventilators and evaporative cooling systems. Plastic covered green houses tend to be much
lighter than glass covered once with a build up of excessive high humidity.
i. Polythene film: This is the most inexpensive covering material but it is the short lasting
one. However, UV ray resisting polyethylene film of various thicknesses is usually
recommended which lasts longer.

ii. PVC film : This material is pliable and comes in various thickness and widths unto 6 Ft. it
is longer lasting than polythene and is more expensive PVC surface of films tends to collect
dust and lower the light intensity in due course of time.
iii. Polyester film: This is strong material with excellent extremes of heat or cold through it
is costly than polythene film /PVC film.
iv. Fiber glass: Rigid panels, corrugated or flat fiberglass sheets embedded in plastic are
widely used for green house construction, fiberglass is strong, long lasting, lightweight and
easily applied which is coming in a variety of widths, lengths an thickness. It is costlier than
poly thin film/PVC film.
40.1.3 Hotbeds: The hotbeds is often used for same purpose as a green house but in a smaller
scale. Amateur operations and seedling can be started and leafy cuttings root easily in the
cold seasons in such structures. Heat is provided artificially below the propagating medium
by electric heating cables, pot water, steam pipes or hot air blows. As in the green house, in
the hot beds attention must be paid for shading and ventilation as well as temperature and
humidity control.
9.1.4 Lath Houses:- These structures are very useful in providing protection from the sun for
container grown nursery stocks in areas of high summer temperatures and high light intensity.
Well-established plants also require lath house protecting including shade-loving plants. Lath
house construction varies widely depending on the material used. Aluminium pre-fabricated
lath house are available but may be more costly than wood structures. Shade is provided by
appropriate structures and use of shade nets of different densities allows various intensities of
light in the lath house.

9.1.5 Miscellaneous Propagating Structures:-

1. Mist Beds: These are valuable propagating units both in the green house and out doors and
are useful mainly in rooting of leafy cuttings.
2. Mist Chambers: This is structure used to propagate soft wood cutting, difficult to root
plants and shrubs. Here the principle is to spray the cutting with a minimum quantity of
water. This is achieved by providing the cutting a series of intermittent spraying rather than a
continuous spray. The intermitted spraying can be done easily by means of a high-pressure
pump and a time switch. The pumps leads to a pipeline systems inside the propagating
structure. The mist nozzles are fitted to these pipelines and suitability spaced over the
propagating material.

3. Nursery Bed: These are raised beds or boxes made of bricks and morter, provided with
drainage holes at a bottom. The dimension of the boxes are 60 cm high, 120 cm broad and
length as required preferably not exceeding 10 m roof structures for planting on both sides
and forming ridges at the center are constructed on the top of the nursery beds. These
structures may be made permanent with angle iron or maybe made of wood. bamboos mats,
palm leaf mats are placed over these structures to protected the seedling from hot sun and
heavy rains.
4. Fluorescent Light Boxes: Young plants of many species grow satisfactory under artificial
light from fluorescent lamp units. Although adequate growth of many plant species may be
obtained under fluorescent lamps but not up to the mark compared to good green house
conditions.
5. Propagating Cases: Even in green house, humidity condition are often not sufficiently
high for rooting. The use of enclosed frames or cases covered with glass or plastic materials
may be necessary for successful rooting. In using such structures, care is necessary to avoid
the build up of disease organism due to high humidity.
6. Plastic Mulch: Mulch is a material used for covering the soil in order to prevent weed
growth avoids direct evaporation of the water from the soil and to increase soil temperature,
mulching seedbeds with opaque black plastic film prevents weed growth completely and
because of higher soil temperature and better conservation of soil moisture, brings about early
germination and faster seedling growth.
7. Mini-Green Houses: The plants need carbon dioxide for making food through
photosynthesis. The green house helps in providing additional carbon dioxide to the plants to
enhance their rate of photosynthesis. This can be achieved by enclosing the plants in a box
like structure made out of bamboo and colourless transparent plastic, with a lid at the top. The
lid is closed after sun set, so that carbon dioxide produce due to respiration accumulate in the
box. After sun rise the plant start photosynthesis and since there is higher carbon dioxide
content around the plant, the rate of carbon assimilation is higher. After a few hours the lid is
opened to prevent over-heating alternatively. A plot or beds of plant can be provided with
plastic films skirting supports by bamboo stakes, about 12 cm. high. Since CO 2 is heavier
than air it tends to settle around the plants.
8. Light Chamber: Several plants to go into winter dormancy when the day length shorts.
Additional light from tube lights, given after sun-set, creates long day conditions that prevent
the plants from going into winter dormancy. Light given at the end of the day. Also
encourage growth of green leaves; they grow tall without developing lateral branches. On the
other hand, if they are exposed to fluorescent light from tube-lights laid on the grounds, they
developed side branches and show a bushy habits.
9. High-Humidity Chambers: This technique resolves the common problems of graft or
cutting dying due to desiccation when planted in the soil for rooting, by ensuring a humid
atmosphere around the cuttings, thus wood preventing excessive evaporation. The
cutting/grafts are planted on a sand beds, enclosed on all the sides by a dome made of GI wire
and covered with a transparent, colourless plastic film. The sand is watered to field capacity,
and plastic film traps evaporation inside the chamber creating a highly humid atmosphere.
The dome must be shaded, since direct sunlight will heat up the internal atmosphere of the
dome, killing the plants.
9.2 GREEN HOUSE
Plants under natural conditions grow and bear flowers, fruits and seeds in their own
specific manner but there are some hurdles like unfavorable weather conditions, attack of
insects, pests and diseases etc., which restrict their development and growth. There is a need,
therefore, to protect the plants from such adverse conditions so as to allow them to grow
vigorously. This led to the invention of a shelter where the plants can grow or pass over their
critical period of growth under most favorable condition. The shelter so prepared is known as
Green house which is generally a structure covered with a transparent material to utile the
solar radiant energy and to provide suitable environmental conditions for the optimum growth
of plants.
9.2.1 Types of Green Houses
A greenhouse is a place where plant can grow under controlled conditions so as to
grow, develop and produce at the will of the grower. In the beginning, these houses or
structure were fully covered with attached roof or a covering, which could be lifted with ease.
But later on, they were being covered with stales and further, with glass and as such they
came to be known as glasshouses. Now, many types of materials are available to cover them.
Hence different other names depending upon the type of covering used are common.
Glasshouse is with a roof and sides off glass of different sizes. Instead of glass,
fiberglass, which is stronger, durable and does not break into pieces, is used and so the name
of such a house is fibre glasshouse. This is hardier than the glasshouse but is costlier than
that, though the chances of its breakage are much less. Plastic house or plastic green house
has a cover of a transparent alkathene or polythene which is strong enough to withstand the
varying temperature of summer and winter, hail, strong winds etc, these are also known as
poly-houses, Poly-tubes or poly tunnels. But, in general, greenhouse is the commonly
accepted and popular name.
Types of material used for making a structure of the greenhouse also vary. Two things
are necessary for a greenhouse. i.e. the frame or structure and the cover. To support the cover
and structures on the sides, pillars are needed. The structure of pillars or support may vary
with type of frame and size of a greenhouse. Small and semicircular greenhouses, i.e. poly-
tunnels may not need pillars or support in the centre but heavy or large greenhouses which
may have heavy structure of iron or wood, do not need strong support to have the roof and
sides intact.
 Frames may be wooden or of iron or aluminum for a greenhouse of glass cover.
Pieces of glasses are fixed tightly in the frames by putting some fixing material along the
sides of the glass. In case of poly-house the sides and roof are covered with a polythene sheet,
which is placed deep in the soil to hold it. In some cases the sheet is put in between the two
tubes/frames.
Pillars of cement and concrete mixture are also built to support the roof of a
greenhouse of glass or fiberglass. Number of pillars are needed will depend upon the size of a
greenhouse but six pillars are necessary at the minimum level. The height of these pillars also
varies but generally the highest pillar may be 3 meter tall. Pillars can be round, square or
rectangular but in practice, the side pillars are usually square in shape while the central ones
may be round to avoid unnecessary clash in greenhouse. When wooden pillars are used, they
are usually square in shape of the width 8-10 cm. Iron or metallic pillars are also used but
they are usually of round but hollow pipes of the diameter of 5-10 cm. Pillars of cement and
concrete mix are usually white washed or painted with paint while the wooden and metallic
structures are painted with paint. If money is available, these structures may be painted with a
silver paint. Doors and windows may also be painted with white or silver paint. Some people
paint the wooden frames with green paint which is also good but white or silver paint
provides good sanitary look.
Depending upon the material to be kept, the specific period of keeping in the
greenhouse and the type of material for construction and coverage, the size and shape of
greenhouse varies. Heavy greenhouse with pillars of cement and concrete mix with a
fiberglass top or cover may last for 2 decades or so while other may last for 5 years or so. On
the other hand, plastic houses or poly-tunnels do last for 2-3 years only provided they are
maintained in the best manner.
Shape of the greenhouse is generally, pentagonal from the front and back. For about 2
meters, they do not have the straight walls then it tapers toward the top to form a triangle
which is needed for the easy run off of rainwater or snow. Wind may pass over it. Leaves
etc., if they fall on the roof do not stay there for a long period they are blown off by the wind.
9.2.2 Equipments for Greenhouse
Common greenhouses are just shelters for the plants with the aim of protecting the
plants or other plant material from extreme variations in the temperature like snow falls in
hills, drought in plains and excessive rains. These greenhouses have only benches to keep the
plant pots or trays in order. They do have a hard floor that may be a cemented one and there
is good provision for the drainage of water. For control of temperature, the doors and
windows are opened for free passage of air current.
Equipments and furnishings are needed in a greenhouse will depend upon the type of
material to be raised or stored and under what conditions they are to be kept. Simple
greenhouses are the structures which can house the plants under shade. They are not provided
with sophisticated equipments. Generally, during a warm weather, plants are either watered
frequently or pone of water is created artificially in the center to keep the humidity under
check. Doors may be opened or closed to provide ventilation, air passage and to raise the
temperature.
Misting, cooling, heating, balancing the air supply with its quantity and quality,
artificial lighting, controlling temperature and humidity are some of the operations which are
governed by different automatic equipments fixed in a green house.
An ideal greenhouse must have a good system for control of temperature, humidity,
nutritional requirement and pathogens.
 Lesson 10. Pruning and Training
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Some of cultivated fruit trees grow wild and do not give sufficient yield unless pruned
or trained to a specific form. All types of fruit tree do not require pruning e.g. mango, chiku,
etc and some fruit trees can grow well naturally e.g. pineapple, papaya they do not require
pruning. While most deciduous tree like apple, pear, almond etc and grapes, ber, fig citrus,
pomegranate, guava etc require pruning to train them for desired shape.
10.2 PRUNING
Pruning may be defined as the art and science of cutting away of portion of plant to
improve its shape, to influence its growth, flowering and fruitfulness and to improve the
quality of the product. It is done to divert a part of plant energy from one part to another part
of plant.

10.2.1 Objects of Pruning:

 Training of young trees
 Maintenance of grown up trees i.e. to maintain the health of bearing plant
 Bringing vigour in old trees
10.2.2 Effect of Pruning
 It increases new vegetative growth
 In young trees flowering will be delayed
 In old trees there will be new vigorous vegetative growth which bears fruit
 It reduces bearing surface are as a result tree remain dwarf which is compensated by
accommodating more number of dwarf trees (because pruning is a dwarfing process)
 Improvement in size, colour and quality of fruits
10.2.3 Principles of Pruning:
 Young trees are pruned to train it to acquire a desired shape.
 In old trees light heading back is done to stimulate the flowering
 In bearing trees light pruning is done to stimulate fresh growth. it bearing flower buds
on fresh growth
 In old trees heavy pruning is done to restore vigorous
 All the diseased, weak, dead or shading branches must be removed.
10.2.4 Systems of Prunings
 Heading back: Only tops of branches are headed back or cut off (light pruning).
 Thinning out: Complete removal of a branches or a part
 Dehorning: Cutting away the main limbs or thick major branches
 Bulk pruning: Heavy pruning all over the tree. For good fruit production only
judicious heading back or thinning out should be done.
10.2.5 Rules of Pruning
 Never leave a stub as far as possible
 Minimum cut surface
  Start cutting from the lower end first, leave half way or even less and then cut from
the top
 Keep the cut surface clean and smooth
 Protect the wound with Bordeaux paste.
10.3 TRAINING:
It means developing a desired shape of the tree with particular objectives by
controlling habit of growth. Training is start from nursery stage of plant. Some fruit crops
like grape vines, ber, fig, guava etc require training.

10.3.1 Objects of Training:

 To admit more light and air to the centre of the tree to expose maximum leaf surface
to the sun
 To direct the growth of the tree so that various cultural operations such as spraying,
ploughing, harvesting can be performed easily and at lower cost.
 To protect the tree from sun burn and wind damage.
 To secure a balanced distribution of fruit bearing parts of the tree.
10.3.2 Principles of Training:
 Formation of the mainframe work must be strong. The branches must be suitable
spaced apart and the tree must be balanced on all the sides.
 Never allow several branches to grow at one place or very near each other.
 Careful training of main branches is very essential.
 Another important point about training is that if two branches are growing at the same
point try to train them to grow at a wider angle. Narrow angle is always weak.
10.3.3 System of Training:
 Central leader system:
In this system the central leader branches are allowed to grow indefinitely so that it will
grow more rapidly and vigorously than the side branches and tree became tall. Such a tree
bears fruit more near the top. The lower branches are less vigorous and less fruitful.

 Open centre or vase system:

 The main stem is allowed to grow only up to a certain height about 1.5 to 1.8 m and then
it cut for development of lateral branches. It allows full sunshine to reach each branch.

 Delayed open centre or modified leader system:

It is intermediate between the above systems. It is developed by first training the tree to
the leader type by allowing the central axil to grow un pruned for the first four or five years.
Then central stem is headed back and lateral branches are allowed to grow as in the open
centre system.
 Bush system:
An unpruned tree multi stem and dwarf growing habit.
 Over head trellis or Bower system:
When vines are trained on mandap.
 Modified bower or Telephone system:
Similar to bower system except that after every two meter as space is kept to walk and carry
out cultural operations.
10.4 SPECIAL HORTICULTURAL PRACTICES FOR INDUCING FRUITING
Of the many factors influencing floral initiation, carbohydrates-nitrogen ration
appears to be the one factor that could be controlled. The accumulation of carbohydrates can
be brought about by more rapid manufacture and less immediate utilization. In vegetative
weak plants, favorable conditions for carbohydrate accumulation will have to be created by
provision of desired temperature, light, water and nutrient change while in vigorous plants
this change is to be induced by the reduction of water and nutrient supply. Regulation of
fruiting can be effected by influencing fruit bud differentiation or by influencing fruit set and
development.
Pruning, root pruning, ringing, girdling, notching, bending, smudging are some of the
specialized horticultural practices followed for regulation of fruiting.
10.4.1 Ringing and Girdling
Ringing consists of removing a ring of bark about 1 to 2 cm wide around the trunk or
branches, while Girdling is a milder treatment to draw a knife around the branch so as to cut
through the bark but not the wood. A wire tied very firmly round the stem also serves the
same purpose.
Ringing or girdling will increase the concentration of carbohydrates above the wing.
It will also reduce the nitrogen supply because subsequent to the stopping of food to the
roots, the root growth will be stopped and hence the supply of nitrogen to the tree will slowly
decrease and became limited. No more root growth, no nitrogen supplies. The result will be a
wide C: N ratio and then flowering increased. Ringing is a drastic operation done when fruit
trees fail set fruit. It is likely to check vegetative growth and to some extent the growth of
roots. Ringing is done in vigorous mango tree.
 i. Notching
It is similar to ringing except that in notching only soil slip bark about 0.2 to 0.5 cm
thick and 1.5 to 2.5 cm in length is removed just above or close to a dormant bud in slantwise
so that the latex does not coagulate in the bud itself. The bud selected should be large,
plampy and healthy which is produced on a perfect mature wood and has undergone
dormancy. Generally 3 to 4 buds in the middle portion of the selected shoot are best to
operate on. Fig has responded to notching and it is practiced in fig cultivation. The season for
notching the fig is August-September.
ii. Bending
Bending a branch downward, sometimes checks growth and causes accumulation of
starch in the branch with greater flowering. This tends to increase carbohydrate
concentration. The bending brings pressure on the bark on the translocation of photosynthesis
is obstructed due to narrow passage. The bending of branches is usual as a substitute for
severe pruning in shaping the young trees and more fruit is borne because more branches are
left to bear and more leaves are left to synthesize food material. In case of bending the effect
of apical dominance of the growing shoot is removed and auxins during translocation activate
the dormant buds. This is usually practiced with local guava variety in the Maharashtra state
(Deccan area).
iii. Smudging
Smudging is a practice of smoking the tree by burning brush wood on the ground and
allowing smoke to pass through the centre of the crown of the tree. The smoking is
discontinued as soon as the terminal buds begin to swell. Not commonly followed in India.
Practice of smoking to the trees like mango, commonly employed in the Philippines to
produce off-season crop. Smoking containing ethylene gas, which is responsible for initiation
of flowering.
iv. Root pruning
Root pruning results in less carbohydrate utilization of the top growth through there is
a little more utilization of carbohydrate for root functions. There is an accumulation of
carbohydrates due to check of top growth, which results in fruit bud differentiation. As the
effect of root pruning is to check the vegetative growth. The plant became dwarf. Root
pruning is a method of inducing fruitfulness or determining the time of flowering. The root
pruning is done two months before the bloom required. The main roots are exposed to the sun
and the fibrous roots are cut, so water is withheld. The trees are allowed to go dry until their
leaves wither and fall down. The time taken for leaf fall is from 3-4 weeks. After that
exposed roots are covered with a mixture of soil and manure. The trees are then immediately
irrigated. First irrigation may be given with very less water. The trees burst into flowering in
about 2-3 weeks. Practice very widely adopted by citrus growers in western and central India
(in santra). The trees on which root pruning is practiced quite frequently are short lived and
are liable to be week and unhealthy. Hence root pruning is usually restored to when other
method such as ringing etc. Root pruning is generally included in bahar treatments given to
fruit trees like mosambi, santra, guava, pomegranate, lime etc. It is also practiced while
manuring large trees like mango, by trench method where smaller roots coming in the trench
are usually cut away.
v. Bahar treatment
This practice is followed with fruit trees like mosambi, santra, grape fruit, guava,
pomegranate ber, lime etc. in the state of Maharashtra, M.P. and Gujarat etc. As there is no
distinct winter (very cold winter) these fruit trees are usually continuous vegetative growth
resulting in indistinct flowering season. This practice is useful in encouraging flowering as
well as regulating the time. About 1 to 1 ½ months prior to the expected flowering irrigation
is withholding. There are three flowering season namely Mrig bahar, Hasta bahar and Ambe
bahar.
Mrig bahar: Flowering in June-July
Hasta bahar: Flowering in October-November
Ambe bahar: flowering in December-February
The orchard is ploughed up to 20 cm depth both ways and the roots are exposed by
removing the upper 10-15 cm of soil within a radius of 60-90 cm around the trunk. The dead
and decayed fibrous roots are removed in the area exposed. The leaves start turning yellow,
shrivel and fall. These are the indication to know that the trees have rested long enough and
accumulated food reserves. The exposed roots are then recovered with original soil and
necessary manures are added. Trees are irrigated lightly. The second watering is given on the
3rd or 5th day and first two watering stimulate blossoming and if heavy irrigations are given at
the beginning, this may tend to vegetative growth only. Root exposure is not necessary in
case of sandy, sandy loam and other types of light soils. The choice of bahar depends upon
availability of water and time of year the fruit is required in the market. Where irrigation
water is available, the grower prefers Hasta or Ambe bahar.
10.5 GROWTH REGULATORS
Growth retardants like CCC, (in Mango 1000 ppm.), higher concentration of Auxin,
NAA (in Mango 200 ppm), Ethylene -750 ppm, Paclobutrazol -4-6 g (Cultar).
10.5.1 Use of Hormones as Plant Growth Regulators in Horticultural Crops
 What are hormones: Hormones are internally synthesized compound in plants bodies
and they markedly affect the metabolic activities inside the plant. They required in
very minute quantities.
Since plants make them they are organic in nature, however, they can also be prepared
synthetically and such synthetic hormones are also as effective as the organic hormones
produced naturally by plants.
 Effectiveness of hormones: Different hormones have regulatory effects on different
activities. Further, two derivates of a compound can also have different effects.
 Carriers: The medium in which the hormones are mixed is called carrier. This may be
water, alcohol, oil, charcoal powder, talc or flour etc.
 Spreaders: Certain plants have waxy coatings on their bodies. In such cases spreader
like soap are mixed with hormones. Spreaders reduce the surface tension and even
ensure spreading of the liquid applied.
 Use of hormones - It is done in following activities:
i. Rooting of cutting
ii. Blossom thinning
iii. Preventing fruit drop
iv. Increasing fruit setting or development of parthenocarpic fruits
 v. Germination of seeds
vi. Early maturity
vii. Weed control
i. Rooting of cutting: Various chemicals compounds are known to be useful in rooting of
cutting e.g. sugars, potassium permanganate, manganese, iron, phosphate etc. carbon
monoxide can also be useful in root formation but the most successful are indolebutyrie acid
(IBA) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). Some new promising hormones are
trichlorophenoxyacetic and trichlorophenoxypropionic acid.
These hormones are effective only when used in low concentrations. In high
concentration they inhibit growth. Mixture of hormones is more effective than single
hormone.
(a) Advantages:
 Percentage of success in rooting increases
 Quicker root formation
 More root and heavier roots
 Lesser time
(b) Limitation: Plants must have natural capacity. Hormones can only help and
proper environmental condition.
ii. Blossom thinning: Thinning of fruits is the term commonly used for reducing the number
of fruits. Thinning does reduce the number of fruits but the remaining fruits become bigger
and gain more weight. In excessive bearing, thinning becomes a necessity. In papaya NAA
has been reported to be effective for thinning of fruits.
Naphthaleneacetic acid, naphthalenacetymide sodium salts of NAA is most effective.
Proper concentration and the stage of flowers are important. Only fully opened but
unpollinated flowers will be killed. Any mistake in concentration might loss the entire crop.
iii. Preventing fruit drop: Abscission layer is the cause of fruit drop. This is a corky layer of
cells at the base of petiole of the junction of fruit and stalk. Hormones can prevent the
formation of abscission layer.
Quality of fruit is not affected. It is not harmful. Naphtaleneacetic acid and its
derivatives are the best. If fruits are not picked in time they may become overripe. More work
is done on use of hormones for preventing pre harvest drop in apples.
iv. Increasing fruit setting by seedless fruit production: As early as 1909 it was found that
water extract of pollen grains when applied to pistil of flowers induced parthenocarpy,
N.A.A. are useful. At present the use is limited to glass house crops particularly tomato.
v. Germination of seeds: Not much success has been obtained in increasing germination
through hormone treatment.
vi. Controlling flowering: Ethylene and acetylene are used in Hawali and Australia for early
flowering in pineapples. Application of NAA (0.006 % spray) is found to reduce maturity
period by 2 months in pineapples. In tomato tridobenzoic acid changes leaf buds into flower
buds.
vii. Weed control: Poisonous chemicals like arsenic, boron or petroleum compounds can kill
weeds but they are dangerous to human life.
10.5.2 Synthetic Hormones: These are superior to chemical poisons.
1. Selective in action
2. Harmless to soil, harmless to man and animals
3. Less expensive and non corrosive
4. Not inflammable
5. Synthetic in nature and required in very low concentration
6. Kill the entire system
e.g. 2-4 Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2-4, D), 2-4-5- Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2-4-5, T),
2-Methyl-4 Chlorophenoxyacetic acid, Isopropyl-N-Phenylearbamate.
10.5.3 Glossary of Terms
 Auxin: A substance synthesized by a plant and able to influence growth at some point
other than the point of synthesis comparable to a hormone in animals.
 Growth regulators: Any substances or physical factor, either external or internal that
influences a growth process in a more restricted sense, a substance that influences
growth.
 Hormone: A substance synthesized by an animal organism that is able to influence
growth at some point other than the point of synthesis comparable to an auxin in
plants. Sometimes the term is used in a broad sense to include auxins.
Plant regulators: Are the organic chemical compounds which modify or regulate
physiological processes in an appreciable measure in the plants when used in small
concentrations. They are readily absorbed and move rapidly through the tissues when applied
to different parts of the plants.
 Fertilizer application, fertigation & irrigation methods
Lesson 11. Fertilizer Application and Fertigation
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than
liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the
growth of plants. It typically provide six types of macronutrients: nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca),magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S); in
varying proportions and seven types of
micronutrients: boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),molybdenu
m (Mo), and zinc (Zn).
The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in
quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (0% moisture) basis (DM). Micronutrients are
consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts per million
(ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM. Only three other
macronutrients are required by all plants: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These nutrients are
supplied by water and carbon dioxide.
11.2 METHODS OF APPLICATION
While selecting the method of application of manures and fertilizers to the nursery
plants, nurserymen should consider the nutrients, their ability to be effectively absorbed, their
effect on soil and environment, equipment availability and the relative cost involved.
However, in general, fertilizers in the nursery are applied either as surface application, sub-
surface application or as foliar sprays.
(a) Surface application: Band placement along the rows is the most commonly used method
of fertilizers application by the nurserymen. It is an effective and efficient method for the
application of nitrogen, since nitrogenous fertilizers move into the root zone with the
downward movement of water. However, direct surface application is not suggested for
applying phosphorous, potassium and other nutrient because they may get fixed on the
exchange complex.

(b) Sub-surface application: Incorporation of the fertilizers into the soil by subsurface
application is the most effective means of applying nutrients that are fixed (P, K etc.) on the
exchange complex or are slow to move into the soil solution. Nurserymen can best
incorporate these materials into the soil prior to planting the nursery crop.
(c) Foliar application: In general, nutrients can be applied through foliar means immediately
after the symptoms have appeared. For nursery plants, foliar application of the nutrients is
very effective as compared to soil application because through foliar means, nutrients are
absorbed at a faster rate. Moreover, wastage of nutrients is also very less. For foliar
application, the nutrients should be applied when there is sufficient foliage on the plant. The
nutrient should either be applied in the morning or late evening hours. Similarly, it is always
better to add some wetting agents like Tween-20, Triron-X-100 etc. in the spray solutions as
these help to absorb the nutrients even more effectively. Borax is used for supplying boron,
which is difficult to dissolve in fresh water. Therefore, one should use lukewarm water for
this purpose.

(d) Top dressing: It implies to application of fertilizer in standing crop. Nitrogen and
micronutrient fertilizers are administered to the plants using this method.

(e) Localized placement: In this technique, fertilizers are applied close to the seeds or plants.
This technique is very much economic and less quantity of fertilizers is required for the
purpose of applying the nutrients.
(f) Contact placement: In this technique, seeds and fertilizers are applied simultaneously at
the time of sowing. To avoid salt injury, seeds and fertilizers are applied at different depths.
(g) Band placement: In this technique, the fertilizers are applied in band. This is especially
useful in widely spaced crops like fruits and plantation crops in which by applying in band
close to the root spread, the fertilizer saving is achieved.
Row placement: It consists of placing the fertilizer along the rows of crops. Fertilizer
may be applied in one or both sides of the rows depending upon spread of the crops. This
technique is suitable for application of fertilizer in vegetable crops.
(j) Pellet placement: In this technique, fertilizers are applied in pellet form. For making
pellet, soil and fertilizers are mixed in the ratio of 1:10 and made into dough. Small pellets
are made out of it and placed in root zone of plant.
(k) Other forms of application
 Starter solution: It is mild solution of NPK in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 used for soaking
seed, dipping roots and spraying over seedlings for early start of the crop. Feeding
starter solution, the seedlings establish early and start growth soon.
 Fertigation: Application of fertilizer along with irrigation water is called fertigation.
  Foliar spray: Mild solution of nutrient is applied over foliage.
11.3 FERTILIZER DOSE
Fertilizer dose is calculated based on requirement of crops/plants for its various
physiological activities. While applying fertilizer, nutritional status of soil is taken into
account. After deducting contribution of soil, rest amount is replenished externally using
fertilizer. To ascertain this dose, following approaches are resorted.
11.3.1Maintenance Concept
In this approach, whatever quantity of nutrient is removed by crop, it is supplemented by
application of fertilizer to maintain original nutritional status of soil.
11.4 FERTIGATION
This term refers to supply of dissolved fertilizers to crops through an irrigation
system. Continuous applications of small quantities of soluble nutrients overcome the
problems of loss of fertilizers due to runoff of leaching, save labour and ensure uniform
placement of nutrients around roots, in turn encouraging rapid and maximum uptake by
plants. Fertigation offers a potential technique to reduce fertilizer wastage and increase
fertilizer use efficiency. Fertigation became possible after development of micro irrigation
systems. Fertilizers to be used and method of mixing with irrigation water should be selected
with proper care. Only readily soluble fertilizer products can be used for this purpose.
Specific soluble fertilizer formulations for particular crops are available in markets, which are
costly but cost effective also. Uniformity of water application, which ensures even fertilizer
distribution, method of injection, type of fertilizer and scheduling are significant factors to be
considered. Fertilizer should be injected at scheduled times at optimum concentration with
limited quantity of water to avoid leaching losses. Fertigation immediately before or after
irrigation or heavy rains should be avoided. After injection of fertilizers, system should be
run for 15-20 minutes to prevent any clogging of emitters. Fertigation is beneficial in fruit
crops like mango, banana, grapes and papaya.
 Lesson 12. Irrigation Methods
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most important factors for maximization of yield. A fractional
application of irrigation water is based on the knowledge of the consumptive use of water by
crop and relationship between the moisture status of root-zone and yield potential of the crop.
Depletion of soil moisture results in reduction of yields. Increase in soil moisture stress
produces moisture deficit in the plants. Therefore, assessment of the optimum needs of water
for the root zone is a must.
Water is required in large quantities by all plants, and it is known to be the most
universal solvent in which gases and salts enter and move through the plants. It is the
‘hydraulic fluid’ used to move plant parts and open and close the stomata. The life processes
of plants are governed by supply and demand of water. If supply ceases the transpiration,
evaporation, respiration etc. get disturbed which in turn affects leaf turgidity, cell division,
cell elongation, and general growth pattern in plants. Photosynthesis is sufficiently impaired
due to inadequate supply of water. Water maintains turgidity in leaves with high specific heat
and heat of water vaporization acts as a barrier against high and low temperature. Water is
also important in governing physical, chemical and biological activities in the soil.
Inadequate supply of irrigation water in out country is very common feature whereby
cultivators are forced to gamble with monsoon, which are uncertain and unevenly distributed.
The drought and floods are common in several states. If a drought occurs during a critical
period of crop growth, the yield and quality are affected adversely. Thus, an efficient and
economic use of available water is of utmost importance. The economic use of water depends
upon various factors viz., kind and type of soil, kind and variety of crop, quality and quantity
of water available, source of water and method of irrigation etc.
12.2 WHY TO IRRIGATE?
 To meet the requirement of the crop by adding water to the soil
 To cool the soil environment around these root zone thereby making more favorable
environment for plant growth.
 To wash out or dilute the salts in the soil and thus help in maintaining the salt balance.
 To reduce the hazards of soil piping.
 To soften the tillage pans.
 To put the land and labor into an economic use.
 To increase production, productivity and potentiality of crops.
12.3 FACTORS AFFECTING WATER REQUIREMENT OF HORTICULTURAL
CROPS
 The irrigation efficiency
 The nature of the crop
 The climatic conditions
 The character of soil
 The method of irrigation and
 The insect-pests and disease havoc.
12.4 HOW TO IRRIGATE?
Much attention is required to the efficient use of water. As water becomes a rare
commodity and the need becomes more pressing for maximum economic returns, new and
more efficient methods of measuring and evaluation technique of handling irrigation water
are necessary. For optimum production, timely application of water in proper quantity at
proper intervals is absolutely essential.
12.5 METHODS OF IRRIGATION
12.5.1 Surface Irrigation
Surface irrigation is one of the simplest and widely adopted methods all over the
world, especially in India. The water is made to flow on the soil surface or in the furrow. This
method is advantageous one own to less investment. The disadvantages are this method
requires more attention; soil becomes more puddle and bake; more losses of water through
seepage and over irrigation; uneven distribution of water and farm machinery cannot
conveniently cross at different point.
This includes flooding and furrow irrigation
(1) Flooding includes (a) free wild flooding (b) border flooding (c) check flooding and (d)
basin method (Single and double)
(2) Furrow irrigation includes
(a) deep furrow method and (b) corrugation method.
12.5.2 Sub-Surface Irrigation
This system includes two methods viz., natural and artificial. Artificially porous pipes
are laid underground below the root zone and water is allowed to move in pipes. The water
moves freely upward by capillary movement. In this method, the maintenance is very cheap;
there is no soil cracking in this method and little to no wastage of water. At the same time,
this method requires adequate drainage, involves high initial cost in purchasing the tile pipes;
and also not suitable in all types of soils. In certain parts of the USA this method is adopted
conveniently for irrigation potato crop.
12.5.3 Sprinkler Irrigation
This method is followed where topography is uneven and the soil is porous, shallow
or highly arable. Irrigation by this method at the seedling stage has proved very beneficial. In
this method the water is conveyed to the field under pressure through pipes having several
nozzles, which spray the water on the crop plants. The advantages are this method insures
uniform distribution of water economy of water; may be adopted in various types of soil; no
fear of soil erosion; no hindrance in the use of farm implements; and water soluble fertilizers
can also be applied through sprinkler. This method is also not free from disadvantages like
very high initial cost; more loss of water under very hot days through increased evaporation;
and strong winds ay also cause uneven distribution of water.

12.5.4 Drip Irrigation

In this method, thin non-corrosive perforated plastic tubes are placed on the soil
surface or in furrows, and in some cases buried in the soil, and connected to a controlled
water supply source. The water and/or fertilizer is distributed evenly in a continuous slow
flow directly to the plant roots in upward as well as downward directions. In drip irrigation
system, almost all water is applied directly to the root zone and surface area remain almost
dry, and hence it requires about 25 per cent less quantity of water than that of surface
irrigation; the tendency of weed growth and leaf shedding is minimized.; further, drip
irrigation is fair, suitable under saline soil conditions, it saves extra labour, and it makes
possible the localized fertilizer application. Drip irrigation hastens the maturity and
overcomes the erosion and seepage problems and does not interfere with cultural practices.
Similarly, pitcher irrigation has proved very advantageous in case of cucurbits.

The production, productivity and potentiality of crops may be obtained up to a desired

level with an efficient use of irrigation water in combination with other several agricultural
inputs in right amounts, in right time through right method of applications.
12.6 HOW TO INCREASE WATER USE EFFICIENCY?
 Proper selection of crop and varieties according to local agro climatic condition.
 Short growth duration.
 By changing cropping pattern of farm.
 Use of chemicals, which shorten the life cycle of the plant and reduce transpiration.
 Selection of high yielding varieties.
 Use of fertilizers.
 Reasonable control of inhibitors.
 Proper cultural and environmental manipulation.
 Characterize the stages of plant growth, which are most and least critical during life
cycle of plants.
12.7 WATER MANAGEMENT IN NURSERY
These methods are not suitable for nursery growing due to their several ill effects.
Carbonate (RSC) and boron content are also used to find out suitability of irrigation water.
Irrigation water, which contain more than 3 ppm boron is harmful to the nursery plants. The
classification of water on the basis of E.C. and boron content and its suitability for different
soils have been given in Table 43.1 and Table 43.2, respectively.
Table 12.1: Classification of irrigation water based on electric conductivity
EC
Class Quality characterization Soils for which suitable
(m mhos/cm)
C1 <1.5 Normal water All soils
C2 1.5-3 Low salinity water Light and medium textured soils
Light and medium textured soils
C3 3-5 Medium saline water
for semi-tolerant crops
Light and medium textured soils
C4 5-10 Saline water
for tolerant crops
C5 >10 High saline water Not suitable
Table 12.2: Classification of water on the basis of boron content
Soils for which
Class Boron (ppm) Quality characterization
suitable
B1 <3 Normal water All soils
Clayey soil and
B2 3-4 Low boron water medium textured
soils
B3 4-5 Medium boron water heavy textured soils
B4 5-10 Boron water heavy textured soils
B5 >10 High boron water Not suitable
Harvesting, grading and packaging, post harvest practices
Lesson 13. Harvesting, Grading and Packaging
13.1 HARVESTING
Different kinds of fruits need different methods of harvesting. Some fruits are easily
pulled, although there is possibility of tearing off a piece of flesh and/or ding. Some fruits are
harvested with stalk with aid of clipper or shear, where the stalk may be source of damage
especially during packaging. Fruits at higher branches are harvested with long a hold with a
bag (mango). Fruits may be caught as it fall using mechanical harvesters. The best means of
reaching high fruits is with a ladder. In banana the trunk is cut with a sickle over half way
through and then the bunch is cut. About 30 cm. of the stalk must be left to make the
handling easy. Citrus fruits are very much susceptible to damage while harvesting. During
wet and humid condition the rind will be turgid and liable to bruising or tear-off rind is
common if the fruits are pulled. The post harvest quality and storage life of fruits are
controlled by maturity. Vegetables are harvested as and when they attain maximum size and
yet are tender. Over Maturity in root crops causes sponginess and pithiness. Delay in
harvesting of onion and garlic reduces their storage quality.
13.1.1 When to Harvest Horticulture Crops?
 During cooler part of the day (in morning).
 Do not harvest in hot period, cause wilting and shriveling.
 Harvesting during rains or immediately after rains should not be carried
out.
Citrus fruit become susceptible to damage if harvested during rains, as their rind becomes
turgid and prone to easy bruising sunscald.
No any bruising or injurious during harvesting may later manifest as black or brown
patches, e.g. Latex coming out of stem in mango should not be allowed to fall on fruits as
creates a black spot.
13.1.2 Post Harvest Handling
Care in harvesting and handling is necessary to preserve subsequent quality of fruits and
vegetables, faulty harvesting and rough handling at the farm directly affect market quality.
Oil gummosis is common peel injury of citrus fruits (causing extensive losses) which mostly
occurs at harvest, if not done carefully. Mechanical injury to the rind forces the oil out of the
epidermal oil glands, which kills adjacent cells of the flavor and also causes soil spotting on
the surface of adjacent undamaged fruit. When put together cells killed by oil are readily
infected by fungi resulting in increased decay. Oil spotting can be reduced or eliminate by
good handling practices.
1. Bruises and injurious later show up as brown and black patches (e.g. banana, bhindi)
making the commodities unattractive and physiological disordered. Rough handling
on produce is cumulative. Several small bruises on a tomato can produce an off-
flavour for consumers
2. Entries to micro organism leading to rotting.
3. Respiration is increased markedly by damages and storage life is shortened. Lack of
knowledge in harvesting and handling results in substantial lost of fruits and
vegetables.
 It is estimated that 20 to 30% of the fruits and vegetables produced is being wasted due to
defective methods of picking, storage, and transport procedures in our country. The quality of
fresh fruits and vegetables defoliated due to these faulty handling procedure. The climatic
condition in our country also limits post handling life of there commodities Hence proper
scientific method used to be allowed in harvesting and all the post harvesting operation of the
fruits and vegetables to prevent the huge losses being occurred and to maintain the quality.
Post harvest technology is simple term as”Field to Table”. Programme involving the science
applied in providing the consumers with best quality of fruits and vegetables from the field.
Post harvest handling consists of the following procedures:
13.2 GRADING, SORTING & SIZING
Grading, sorting, and sizing are based on soundness, firmness, cleanliness, size, weight,
colour, shape, maturity, diseases, insect damage and mechanical injury. They are grouped in
size. This is an important procedure to be followed in post harvest handling, before packaging
storage, transport or marketing to minimize loss and maintain quality.
 Additional operation: Along with grading, certain additional operation which
include washing, pre cooling, degreening, curing, waxing, fungicidal and other
chemical treatment are also essential preparatory steps to packaging , storage
transportation and subsequent marketing, washing, improves appearance, remove dirt,
soil, scale insect, sooty mould, fungicide and insecticide residues. Detergent are added
to water for effectiveness washing. The excess of surface water is dried by blowing
heated air.
 Pre-cooling: Pre-cooling is done to remove field heat as high temperature is
detrimental to the keeping quality of fruits and vegetables. General aims are to slow
down the respiration minimize the susceptibility to micro organism and reduce water
loss. Several methods used are (a) air -cooling, (b) hydro cooling- fungicides can be
added in cooling water. (c) vacuums cooling- most rapid methods of pre cooling,
especially, for leafy vegetables curing- certain vegetables like onion have to be cured
after harvest before storage and transport marketing.
 Degreening: In certain cases development of ripe colour by degrading the green
colours is induced usually by the treatment with ethylene under controlled
temperature and humidity and O2 and CO2 concentration e.g. Banana, Mango, Citrus,
Tomato.
 Waxing: (1) Waxing is done to reduce the evaporation loss of water from the fruits
and vegetables thereby increasing the storage life. (2) It gives a fresh glossy
appearance which improves the market value. (3)Recommended fungicides can be
added to the wax to reduce the spoilage buy fungus. The wax replaces the natural
protecting waxy layer which is removed by handling, washing, etc. CFTRI Mysore,
has developed a wax emulsion (Waxol-123) for waxing of fruits and vegetables.
13.3 PACKAGING
Packaging is done for more efficient handling and marketing , greater appeal, more
potential life. Packaging requirement vary with different fruits and vegetables. Packaging
cannot improve quality. Hence only best possible produce should be packed. Inclusion of
decayed or damaged produced in bulk or consumer packages may become a source of
infection and reduce the sale at the market. Packaging is not a substitute for refrigeration;
packaging combined with refrigeration is the best methods. A good package is aim to
protection of product from physical. Physiological and pathological deterioration causes
throughout storage, transport and market.
Benefits of packaging:- serves as an efficient handling units, serves as a good storage unit,
protect quality and reduce waste, protect from mechanical damage and moisture loss, provide
beneficial modified atmosphere, prevent pilferage, provides service and sales motivation.
Material for packaging:-wooden boxes, bamboo basket are the conventional packs. Fibre
board cartoons, corrugated card boards, and several flexible plastic packaging. Materials used
for packing material are (1) polyethylene (low density)-most widely used for consumer
packaging ,strong considerably moisture proof , resistant to several chemicals and cheap (2)
polyprophlene (3)polyvinyl chloride film (4) cellophane (5) polifilm. The emphasis is being
made now to use those materials which contains less or no wood for packaging as our forest
resources being exhausted fastly and is at a precarious condition.
Consumer packaging with plastic:- the original function of packaging was to contain carry
and dispence products. However the use of plastic as packaging materials has allowed so
much variation and versatility as to protect ,presence, process, store, measure, communicate,
and display of products. Fruits and vegetables are packaged in smaller quantities in
polyethylene pouches as consumer packages. In these films proper ventilation is needed to
prevent moisture accumulation. Leading to rotting of the content and to relegate O2 and CO2
concentration inside pack. High CO2 concentration may cause deterioration in quality of the
content. Congenial modified atmosphere inside the pack would increases the storage life of
the contents.
 Pre Packaging: Pre packaging increases the shelf life by creating modified
atmosphere with an increase in concentration of CO 2 in package. L.D.P.E. films have
high O2 and CO2 transmission rates are more durable.
 The pouch used reducing bruising facilitates inspection, reduces moisture losses and
prevent dehydration. In pre packaging leaves stalk stem are washed cleaned and
weight quantities are put in pouches.
 Ethylene absorbents hydrate lime may insert in packages to retard ripening process.
 A wide range of packages like gunny bags, bamboo ,woven ,grass stem basket,
wooden cares, earthen pots, corrugated fibre board cartoons and rigid plastic carats
are used.
 Wheat and paddy straws, banana leaves, dry grass are used as cushioning material.
13.4 STORAGE
Storage of fruits and vegetables prolongs their usefulness, it is also check market glut,
provide wide selection of fruits and vegetables throughout the year, helps in orderly,
marketing, increases profits to the producers and preserve the quality of the living products.
The principal aim of storage is to control rate of transpiration, respiration and disease
infection and to preserve the commodity in its most usable form for consumers without
proper storage, the following undesirable things may occur
1. Sprouting:- e.g. onion, ginger, garlic, potatoes etc.
2. Rooting:- e.g. sweet potato, onion etc.
3. Seed germination:-e.g. pod bearing vegetables, tomato, papaya etc.
4. Degreening:-e.g. potatoes of exposed to light, green portion contain solanin which is
toxic.
5. Toughening: e.g. Green beans, bhindi etc.
13.4.1 Factors affecting storage:
i. Pre-harvested factors: climatic, cultural, and pathogenic
ii. Harvesting and handling practices: mechanical injuries
iii. Pre-cooling: an important factor prior to storage reduces P.L.W. and improves storage life.
iv. Cleanliness
v. Variety and stage of maturity at harvest - prematurely harvested mango, bananas, tomatoes
will not ripe satisfactorily.
13.4.2 Storage life:
It may be prolonged by (a) proper control of post harvested diseases (b) chemical
treatments (c) irradiation (d) refrigeration (e) controlled atmosphere storage.
a. Proper control of post harvest diseases:
Knowledge of the time and made of infection is essential for the development of an
effective programme for diseases control. Fruits attached to the plant may be infected by
direct penetration of a fungus through enticle by wounds or by natural openings. Many most
harvested diseases are through injuries after harvest such as cut steams and mechanical
damage to the surface in the course of handling and transporting
Cut-stem infection: e.g. crown root of banana hands, black-root of pineapple and stem
end root of papaya and mango.
Post harvested diseases initiated in wound create during or after harvest may be
controlled by fungicides treatment. If application can be made before pathogen has
penetrated deep into the fruits.
Low temperature reduces the severity of post harvest diseases by retarding ripening
and also by retarding the growth of micro-organism
Humidity more than 90% favour the development of post harvest diseases. Plastic
films of low permeability and without ventilation increases post harvest diseases.
Control of post harvest diseases – the basic principles are (1) prevention (2) cure (3)
delaying the appearance of symptoms and (4) retarding diseases spread more than one
approach is usually required for satisfactory diseases control.
b. Chemical treatments:
Growth regulators like GA, MH, CCC, ALAR, and other chemicals like acetylene gas
ethylene gas are used to regulate ripening and storage life of fruit and vegetables.
Post harvest treatment with GA markedly retards ripening and tomatoes guava, bananas and
mangoes.
Malik hydrazide (MH) a growth retardant inhibits spouting of onion, potato. Ethylene,
acetylene are used to hasten ripening in fruits.
c. Irradiation:
Low radiant dosage is applied to fresh fruits and vegetables to prolong their storage
life. Irradiation can delay the ripening destruction of spoilage micro-organism and
disinfection. It has been used successfully in retarding the sprouting of potatoes, sweet
potatoes, onion. Irradiation is successful in control of fruit fly on citrus, mango seed, weevil
control, papaya fruit fly control. For some fruit like mango, banana, papaya and additional
advantage in the use of irradiation for disinfestations purpose is retardation of ripening. in
several vegetables irradiation is not useful as it causes discoloration excessive softening, off
flavour, increase decay etc.
 Irradiation method is not cleared as safe to use for prolongation of shelf life of fruits
and vegetables in India though its use in certain commodities like onion and potatoes is
cleared in several other countries.
d. Refrigeration:
To date refrigeration is the only known economical methods for long term storage of
fruits and vegetables, all the other methods of regulating ripening and deterioration are at best
supplemental to refrigeration. Other methods are not worked satisfactory without
refrigeration. Refrigeration requirements vary with different kinds of fruits and vegetables
and their maturity stages which are standardized.
Optimum temperature for the even ripening and development of good flavor, and
attractive colour of most fruits generally fall within a range of 59-79’ F. mangoes ripened at
68’F contains 20% as much sugar as these ripened at 95’F at storage temperature of about
75’F is optimum for the storage of most fruits except grapes, litchi, pomegranate, and apple
which require a low temperature range 32 to 41’F. Leafy vegetables require 90% to 96% R.H.
They should not be stored together with ripening fruits as ethylene is injurious to them.
Fruit and vegetables bean cucumbers, bhendi, sweet peeper, squash and tomatoes are
sensitive to chilling at very low temperature. They are to be stored as 40 to 50’ F. Higher
temperature cause toughening, yellowing and decay while low temperature cause pitting.
Chilling injury: A major problems in post harvest handling at low temperature which
otherwise would prolong their storage life .chilling injury is a disorder induced by low, but
non freezing temperature is susceptible fruits and vegetables.
(a) pitting- limes, mangoes, avocado.
(b) water-soaking – tomato
(c) smoky-appearance- banana
(d) surface discoloration- mango etc.
e. Controlled atmosphere storage:
Controlled atmosphere (CA) implies to addition or removal of gases, resulting in an
atmospheric composition substantially different from normal air. CA storage is a system for
holding produce in respect to the proportion of nitrogen (N 2), oxygen(O2), or carbon dioxide
(CO2). Other gasses such as CO or ethylene are also added to the storage atmosphere. CA
storage process could be the most important innovation in fruit and vegetables storage since
the introduction of mechanism of refrigeration. This method, if combined with refrigeration
markedly retards respiration activity and may delay softening yellowing, quality change etc.
Lesson 14. Post Harvest Practices
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The quality of fruits and vegetables can preserved after harvest if certain post harvest
practises like respiration, moisture loss, diseases etc can be handled properly. Effect of these
factors on quality of horticultural products is discussed here.
14.1.1 Respiration:
Fresh fruits and vegetables differ basically, not only from all other commodities, but
from other perishable foods, as they are alive and carry on many life process characteristic of
living things, even after harvest respiration is the most important of this process. In
respiration the metabolites are broke down by oxidation and quality and the life of fruits and
vegetable deteriorate. The respiration rate is good index of rate of living. Fruits and
vegetables that respire fast give us the greatest handling problems as they are the most
perishable. Some vegetables in order of ascending respiration rates are (1) potato, (2)
cabbage, (3) peas. Fruits in order are (1) apple, (2) citrus, (3) banana, (4) peaches, (5)
strawberry. Other bio-chemical changes occurring in the fruits and vegetable may cause their
aging and deterioration.
14.1.2 Loss of moisture:
Loss of moisture with consequent wilting and shriveling of produce is perhaps the
most obvious way in which freshness is lost. When one realizes that most fruits and vegetable
are compost of from 80 to 95% shrivel so readily. The relative humidity in the intercellular
spaces of most plant tissue is continuously near 100% or saturated. produce will loss moisture
to the surrounding air almost any time the humidity of the air is less than saturated and
thereby deteriorate.
14.1.3 Harvesting condition:
Harvesting fruits and vegetables when they are not in prime condition of maturity is
another cause for deterioration in quality. Fruits and vegetables should be harvested at their
optimum stage of maturity.
14.1.4 Handling:
Rough and careless harvesting and post harvest operation causing cuts, bruises and
other damages is another important cause of deterioration. Fruits and vegetables are to be
handling very carefully. It is said that they should be handled just like handling a new born
baby and not like ‘hardware’. Physically damages have a major effect on quality and they
provide entry to have a micro-organism causing deterioration and decay.
14.1.5 Post harvest diseases:
Deterioration due to decay is the greatest source of spoilage of fruits and vegetables.
After harvest all fruits and vegetables covered with countless micro-organism, bacteria and
mould spores. Some of which can cause decay under certain condition when added any sort
of skin injury provides entry to these micro-organism causing decay into the fruits and
vegetables, When these commodities are exposed to warm temperatures. Especially under
humid condition, infection usually increases.
14.1.6 Pre-harvested factors: Length of storage, respiration, chemical composition, external
appearance, anatomical structures, decay, taste quality and other post harvest behaviour and
characteristics partly reflect certain pre harvest condition to which produce is exposed apart
from variety and maturity. These pre-harvest condition may be grouped into, (a)
environmental and (b) cultural factors
(a) Environmental: Temperature, relative humidity of the atmosphere, light ,soil texture,
wind, elevation, and rainfall.
(b) Cultural: Mineral nutrition, soil management, pruning, thinning, chemical sprays,
rootstock, density of planting, weeding, irrigation and drainage etc. These factors affect the
attainment of maximum quality at the time of harvest. It is impossible, however to
determined the relative contribution of each quality. Since the above factors are multifarious,
some are controllable and some are not.
14.2 MATURITY STANDARD (HARVEST INDEX)
The quality of fruit and vegetables cannot be improved, but it can preserve after
harvest, Good quality is obtained when harvesting is done at the proper stage of maturity.
Immature fruits when harvested will give poor quality and no or erratic ripening. Similarly,
Vegetables harvested early may give poor quality or poor yield. Immature tomatoes are more
sensitive to physical damage, shrivelling, and decay. Delayed harvesting of fruits and
vegetables reduce their quality increase their suitability to decay and hence low market value.
In some cases for distance market, they are picked at mature but unripe stage thus difficulty
arises in assessing the optimum maturity level for different fruits and vegetables. Maturity
standard or the harvest index means standard or the fruit and vegetables if harvested should
give optimum quality and yield. Often harvest indices become arbitrary and subjective.
Hence the approach should be to combine several methods of assessing maturity.
(a) Visual methods: Skin colour, size, persistence of style, fullness of fruits etc.
(b) Physical means: Case of separation or abscission length, specific gravity, flavor.
(c) Chemical analysis: Solids, acids, solid to acid ratio, sugar, starch content.
(d) Computation: Days from bloom, heat units.
(e) Physiological method: Various physiological methods are described below:
1. Curing: - Under high temperature and humidity outer tissues developed wound periderm
which acts an effective barrier against infection and water loss. e.g. potato, onion and
garlic. Potatoes are held at 18’C for 2 days and then at 7-10’C for 12 days at 90% R.H.
2. Degreening:- Process of decomposing green pigment in fruits usually by applying
ethylene or other similar metabolic inducers to give a fruit its characteristic colour as
preferred by consumers.
 It is applicable to banana, mango, citrus and tomato.
 The best degrening temperature is 27’C.
 Higher temperature delay degreening.
 Relative humidity should be 85-90% e.g.ethylene kerosene.
 Higher humidity cause condensation and slower degreening.
 Lower humidity cause shriveling and peel breakdown.
3. Precooling:- Precooling is a means of removing the field heat, It slows down respiration of
produce, minimizes susceptibility to attack of micro-organism, reduces water loss.
4. Washing and drying:-
 This is done to improve their appearance prevent wilting and remove micro-
organism.
 Fungicides or bacteria are used in washing water.
5. Sorting and grading:-
  Immature disorder and badly bruised fruits and vegetables are sorted out.
 Grading is based on size, weight, colour and shape.
6. Waxing:-
Natural waxy layer of fruit and vegetables is properly removed by washing. Waxing
means an extra discontinuous layer of wax applied artificially with sufficient thickness and
consistency to prevent anaerobic condition within the fruit provides necessary protection
against decay of organisms.
 It improves appearance of fruits and make more acceptable.
 It increases storage life at ambient temperatures.
Suitable fungicides should be added in wax emulsion to prevent micro-organisms.
 Garden tools, management of orchard
Lesson 15. Garden Tools
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to an excellence output from nursery one should be careful in performing
several operations in time with expertise. In day to day routine various cultural operations are
carried out in the nursery. From this purpose many tools and accessories are required from
time to time. Some tools are simple and used for simple operations. However, special
equipments are required for specific operations some of the tools and accessories are required
for different operations in the nursery are described below.
15.2 KNIVES
In general, in the nursery, two types of knives viz. budding and grafting knives are
required for propagation work. A grafting knife in general has a straight 7.5cm long blade
and strong long handle. The budding knife on the other hand may have a straight or a bit
curved blade of shorter length. It has, however a spatula at the end of handle, which is used
for lifting the bank during the budding operation. Sometimes a knife having two parallel
blades (double blade knife) is also necessary. It is required for patch budding. However, very
often a budding knife is used for grafting purpose also. These knives may have either a
folding or fixed blade. The blades of knives should be made from high carbon steel and
should always be very sharp.

15.3 KUDALI
It is an important tool for budding of pits or digging of soil. Kudali has a metal blade
attached to a wooden handle. It is operated manually and considered very important nursery
tool.

15.4 GARDEN FORK

Garden fork is mainly used for breaking of soil clods during preparation of nursery
beds of field.
15.5 WEEDING FORK
It loosens the soil and equally useful in weeding. It consists of a long handle with a
blade having teeth. It is drawn manually with the help of handle to collect the weeds and cops
of plants etc.

15.6 KHURPI
Khurpi is widely used for various cultural operations in the nursery but mainly for
removal of weeds and loosening of soil for preparation aeration. It has a sharp edge triangular
blade fitted with a wooden handle.

15.7 CROW BAR

It is an iron rod with one end pointed and other as wedge shaped. Crow bar is mainly
used for digging of pits.

15.8 WATER CANS

Watering cans are used for irrigation for irrigation of annual flowers, vegetables and
newly transplanted seedlings of various flowering annuals and vegetables or young plants in
pots. These are made up of galvanized iron sheet and sometimes these are also made up to
plastic. These cans are fitted with a rose over the nozzle, which is very useful for equal
distribution of water over the germinating seedings.
15.9 GARDEN RAKES
Garden rakes are used for collecting stones and bricks bits from the bed, scarifying
the glass surface and gathering the fallen leaves. A toothed rake is always better for such
operations.

15.10 SECATEURS
Secateurs is considered as the most important tool for a propagator or a nurseryman.
Secateur is used for excising soons, lapping off the rootstock, removing the undesirable
sprouts/ shoots from the stock, preparation of the scion sticks and for pruning operation. The
blade of the secateurs should be of a good quality because poor quality blades may not give
smooth cuts to the stocks and scion.

15.11 GRAFTING MACHINES

Many machines have been developed and commercially used for the preparation of
scion sticks and bud wood for budding and grafting operations in many developed countries
of the world. These machines are however, not very common in India. Grafting and budding
knives are used for grafting purpose.
15.12 PRUNING SAWS
Several types of saws are required for different operations involved in preparation of
horticultural plants. The commonly use are (half noon) saws, Lamp Home saws and straight
saws. All off them have long and widely set teeth to facilitate pruning or cutting of a green
wood. In general, a small saw is required for cutting hard branches of the stock plant and
sometimes the same saw can be used for pruning also. Its blade should be narrow so that it
can pass through the narrow or closely spaced branches.

15.13 PRUNING SHEARS

The different types of shears like hard shears looping shears, tree trimmers etc. are
needed in a garden .Pruning shears should not be very expensive but these should be made up
of good steel. Similarly these should make a smooth and clean cut with least injury to the
plants.
15.14 LADDER
In preparation work ladder is required for operations like cutting of bud wood,
training of vigorous plants and top working of old and declining plants. In general step ladder
or straight ladders or hook ladders are used for suck operations in the propagation field.
15.15 TYPING & WRAPPING MATERIALS
In the most of the grafting and budding methods, it is essential to hold scion and stock
firmly together to have successful graft/ bud union , for which , a suitable typing or
wrapping material is required / Accordingly nurserymen and other propagators use different
material to achieves desired results from budding and grafting.
1. Waxed String and Cloth: It is the most commonly used typing material by the
nurserymen. It can easily be prepared by dipping narrow strip (25-30 cm wide) of
long cloth in the melted bee wax. This waxed clothes strips can be use for typing the
stock and scion after budding or grafting. The added advantage of using these stripes
is that these eliminate the need of further waxing. Such types of wrapping material
restrict the entry of water to the bud union.
2. Waxed String: Next to waxed cloth, waxed strings are the most commonly used
typing material. It can be prepared by soaking a ball of cotton twine in a a mixture of
resin (1 kg), bee wax (500 g) and linseed oil (250gms) and paraffin (120 g) for 10 to
15 minutes. This cotton ball should be rotated repeatedly while kept in the above
mixture. For large scale grafting operations waxed strings is the most convenient
because it adheres to plant part without typing. However, it should be strong enough
to hold the grafted plant parts together and week enough to be broken by hand.
3. Raffia Fiber: It is a strong fiber and it not easily damaged by heat or rain. For proper
working with raffia fiber, it must be moistened by wrapping it in damp cloth
overnight.
4. Rubber Strip: Rubber strip provided better grip to the stock and scion than raffia
fiber or waxed cloth. These are highly elastic and can be.
 Lesson 16. Management of Orchard
Management of Orchard
16.1 Orchard Management
Careful management of orchard is essential for successful fruit growing. Main cultural
practices include those for better soil management, nutrition, training and pruning, irrigation
and weeding.
16.1.1 Soil Management Practices
Objectives of soil management practices are maintenance of physical condition of
soil, efficient weed control, conservation of moisture level and checking of soil erosion.
Various methods of soil management can be adopted to achieve these goals.
i. No cultivation: This practice is followed in orchards of various countries including USA
and Australia. Orchards believe that beneficial effects of soil cultivation are confined to top
layer of 10-15 cm, whereas trees have much deeper root systems. Moreover, cost of orchard
maintenance can be reduced to considerable extent by this method.
ii. Clean culture: Interspaces of orchards are kept clean by frequent ploughing. This is
adopted extensively in India. Clean culture has advantage of no competition for water and
nutrients by weeds with main crops but has a number of disadvantages. Frequent cultivation
results in soil erosion, creation of hardpan in soil, depletion of humus and nitrogen levels and
injury to feeding roots of crops.
iii. Cover cropping: Growing of cover crops or green manure crops after removing weeds in
orchard has many advantages, important ones being checking soil erosion and enrichment of
soil. Green manure crops like Sunnhemp, Cowpea, Daincha or any legume are sown in
interspaces at onset of monsoon and incorporated into soil towards end of season for better
results. Permanent cover crops are also graown in certain orchards with better results.
Leguminous creepers like Calapagonium muconoides, Centrosema pubescens and Peuraria
phaseoloides are preferred for this purpose. These plants dry up during summer to save
moisture and start growing again in rainy season to from a mat in orchard, preventing weed
growth and soil erosion.
iv. Sod culture and sod much: Maintaining a permanent cover of grass in interspaces is
referred to as sod culture. This practice helps in reducing soil erosion especially in sloppy
areas but compete with crops for moisture and nutrients, which make additional manuring
and irrigation essential in orchards. If the grass is cut frequently and spread on ground, the
system is called as sod mulch.
v. Mulching: Mulching is a very important practice with a number of plus points. This helps
in preventing soil erosion, reducing weed growth in turn cutting down cost of cultivation and
adding organic matter to soil in many cases. Suitable materials such as straw, dried leaves,
saw dust, coir dust, special types of paper and polythene sheets can be used for mulching.
vi. Intercropping: During initial years of orcharding, where fruit trees are in juvenile stage,
there will be no returns from orchards. Intercropping is one of the best methods to tackle this
problem. Growing intercrops not only fetches income to grower but also helps in soil
management by reducing weed growth, checking erosion and enriching soil. Selection of
crops for intercropping should be based on suitability and marketability. Fast growing and
early fruiting crops like papaya, pineapple, banana, guava, vegetables such as brinjal, tomato,
chillies and spices like ginger and turmeric can be selected based on other factors.
47.1.2 Nutritional Management
As in any other crops, growth, development and productivity of fruit plants are also
highly influenced by nutrient supply. Nutrient management is a very important aspect in
orcharding. Plants require supply of sixteen elements of which carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
are obtained from atmosphere and need not be applied. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
are major / primary elements required by plants in large quantities. Secondary nutrients
include calcium, magnesium and sulphur used in considerable quantities for normal growth
of plants. Minor or micronutrient elements comprise of iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron,
molybdenum and chlorine which are essential for normal growth and development, but in
very small quantities. Elements such as sodium, aluminium, silicon and cobalt are required in
traces for some fruit species. Specific functions are performed by various nutrient elements in
all metabolic activities and growth, development, productivity and quality of plants and their
produces. Lack of availability in sufficient quantities of nutrients causes deficiency symptoms
expressed in different ways depending on specific roles played by the elements. On the other
hand, supply of nutrients in excess results in toxicity symptoms, which may affect growth and
development and may lead to mortality depending on intensity.
Nutritional requirement of a crop should be assessed before going for fertilizer and
manurial application. Nutrient status of soils can be determined by soil analysis. Whole plant
and plant part analysis may be useful to assess nutrient status of plants. Leaves being the
main site of metabolism in plants, analysis of leaves is the most reliable diagnostic method n
almost all plant species. Analysis of leaves at correct stage of development indicates nutrient
status of whole plant based on which nutritional requirements and deficiency symptoms can
be assessed. Diagnostic leaf to be used for analysis has already been standardized for
different fruit species. Details of index leaves / tissues for important tropical and subtropical
fruits are as follows:
Avocado Fifty leaves from 5-7 months old non-fruiting terminal shoots.
Banana Petiole of third open leaf from apex at four months after planting.
Recently matured leaves from middle part of secondary or
Ber
tertiary shoots with a sample size of 40.
Citrus Thirty leaves with petiole from new flush.
Fifth leaf from apex at two months after new growth with sample
Custard apple
size of 30 numbers.
Fig Twenty five fully expanded leaves from current shoots.
Petioles at fifth leaf position for forecasting yield and petioles
Grape
opposite to bloom for quality.
Guava Recently matured leaves (25) from third pairs on shoots.
4-7 months old leaves along with petiole from middle part of
Mango
shoots.
Papaya Sixth petiole from apex with a sample size of 20 numbers.
Pineapple White basal portion of fourth leaf from apex.
Sapota Tenth leaf from shoot apex with a sample size of 30.
Organic and inorganic manures can be used as sources of nutrient elements for fruit
crops. Continuous application of inorganic fertilizers results in soil destruction, which should
be avoided as far as possible. Organic manures help in improvement of soil tilth, aeration,
water holding capacity and microbial activities. Commonly available organic manures
include farmyard manure, compost, vermicompost, leaf mould, oil cakes, fishmeal and meat
meal. Biofertilizers help in improving soil characters and plant growth and fruit quality
through enhancing hormonal activities. Commonly used growth promoting organisms of
biofertilizers include Rhizobium species, Azospirillum, Pseudomonas and VAM (Vesicular-
arbuscular mycorrhizae). Integrated nutrient management incorporating inorganic and
organic sources of nutrients, biofertilizers and other practices, which will help to maintain
soil health and environment is an ideal approach in orchard management.
16.1.3 Irrigation
Requirement of water by plants differ according to climatic conditions, type of crop,
type of soil, cultivation and management practices. Plant species vary in their capabilities to
utilize available water or to withstand water stress. Quantity of water to be applied and
frequency of irrigation should be standardized for a species under specific agro climatic
conditions. Irrigation is a very important operation accounting a considerable portion of cost
of production. Economic and judicious use of water for betterment of crop should be
followed for successful fruit culture. Availability of water source is a primary criterion for
selecting site for orchard. During establishment stage, watering is inevitable for all fruit
crops. Afterwards, requirement of irrigation depends on crop nature and critical stages. For
example, grape requires high moisture during flowering and berry development but needs a
little stress during ripening. Banana and papaya require high moisture during growth and fruit
development. Citrus needs stress to induce flowering but blooming and fruit development
demand ample moisture.
Different methods of watering are available, such as surface irrigation, sub irrigation
and spray / sprinkling. Where water availability is rich, surface irrigation methods can be
adopted. Basin and furrow systems come under this category apart from flooding. Basin
method is widely practiced in orchards all over the world, where in shallow basins are taken
surrounding plant bases and water is directed towards this either by channels or houses.
Furrow system is one of the best methods of irrigation in orchards. Depth, length and width
of furrows depend on nature of soil and spread of root system of crops. In general, depth of
furrows varies from 10 to 25 cm. In sub irrigation system, water is applied below soil surface
and here, water quantity required is very high and is feasible only in soil with specific strata
of an imperious lower layer, open, porous intermediate layer and a finely textured top layer
with capillary action. Spray systems of irrigation indicate application of water to soil surface
in the form of sprays. Overhead or sprinkler method is expensive in the installation stage but
uses less quantity of water and recurring expense is also less. Since water is applied from
overhead, foliage of trees also gets washed with water simulating situation of natural rains.
Modified method of sprinkling system is called as 'slop' irrigation in which water is poured to
drench surface soil in root zone. Installation charges are more but loss of water through
evaporation, seepage and runoff is relatively negligible. Drip irrigation is a modified version
of slop system. Water is directly applied to root zone through conducting pipelines inside
soil. Initial cost is very high but has the advantages of checking weed growth in orchard and
increasing fruit yield. Both slop and drip systems are grouped under sub surface irrigation
methods.
16.1.4 Training and Pruning
Training and pruning are essential operations in successful orcharding. Training is
tying, fastening, staking or supporting a plant over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or
pruning some parts for giving plants a definite framework. Pruning is scientific removal of
buds, shoots or roots to produce more and superior quality of fruits. Training methods are
adopted mainly in initial years whereas; pruning is to be performed annually to regulate fruit
but formation.
16.1.5 Weeding
Excessive weed growth in orchards affects growth and development of main crops.
Weed growth should be controlled for better results. In clean cultivation, weeds are not
allowed to grow through frequent cultivation of soil. In sod culture, controlled and selected
grasses are grown in interspaces of orchards. Weeding is a routine orchard operation
accounting a considerable portion of cost of production. Manual weeding is costly and
availability of labour may be a problem. Use of herbicides is now being adopted for effective
weed control in orchards throughout world. Herbicides can be grouped as contact chemicals,
growth regulators and soil sterilants based on nature of action. Contact herbicides kill weeds
soon after application and are more effective in annual weeds. Selective and non-selective
herbicides are available in this category. Simazine, Diuron, EPTC, Nitrofen etc. are
commonly used selective chemicals. Oil emulsions of DNBP and Pentachlorophenol are used
as broad spectrum non-selective herbicides in orchards. Growth regulators such as 2,4-
dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D), 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4,5-T) and methyl
chlorophenoxy acetic acid (MCPA) are used as effective herbicides at higher concentrations
of more than 1000 ppm. Soil sterilants are herbicides used for sterilizing soil to prevent
growth of weeds. According to the duration of action these may be non-residual, temporary
(effective for a few months) or permanent sterilants (effective for one or two years). Based on
stage of application, herbicides may be pre-emergent or post emergent ones, former types
mainly being used at time of land preparation and latter types being used frequently in
orchards to control weed growth, which in turn reduce cost of cultivation and increase yield
per unit area.
Application of herbicides in orchards is being widely practiced at present owing to
beneficial effects associated with this operation. For different fruit crops, for specific growing
conditions, type of herbicides, dosage and method of application have been standardized.
Extraction and storage of vegetable seeds
Extraction and Storage of Vegetable Seeds
17.1 EXTRACTION OF VEGETABLE SEEDS
The vegetable seeds are separated from the mixture having impurities by various
processes as described below:
17.1.1 Separation based on weight (or specific gravity):
Cleaning seed by differences in specific gravity is one of the oldest seed cleaning
techniques. When done by hand in the wind it is commonly referred to as winnowing. On the
simplest scale, seed and materials are dropped before a wind source (either natural wind or a
fan). The heavier materials fall closer to the wind source while lighter materials are carried
further from the wind source. On a small-to-medium scale this is a very effective method to
quickly clean seed. Many screen cleaners have a fan to assist in blowing off some dust and
chaff.
Gravity tables are probably the most widely used machines. They separate seeds by
differences in seed weight. Gravity tables operate by blowing air up through the body of the
machine which holds a fine-screened, tilted "deck" on the surface. The seed is fed by a
hopper and passes over the deck. The screen openings are small, so no seed or material passes
through, and the screening material has a slight nap that 'holds' the seed. The air moving
through the screening lifts lighter material - it then 'floats' down the deck; the heavier material
remains in contact with the screening material because of the nap - it moves up the deck.
17.1.2 Cleaning wet-seeded crops:
Wet seeds are seeds that are produced in a fruit such as tomatoes, cucumbers, and
squash. They are processed by crushing the fruits by hand or with a wet seed extractor. Some
wet-seeded seed crops benefit from a fermentation process following the extraction. Others
can simply be washed thoroughly and dried.
a. Wet processing of seed: It involves following three steps:
1. Removal: For seeds located inside fleshy fruits and vegetables such as squash,
cucumbers, and tomatoes, wait for the fruit to fully ripen on the plant. Typically, fruit
is harvested at a stage that is much more mature than the maturity at which the fruit
would be harvested for eating. Wash the fruit, then break open the fruit and remove
the seeds. Clean pulp residue from seed by washing or fermenting (see below).
2. Drying: Spread the seeds out on a tray in a warm, dry place, and let dry. Seeds should
not reach temperatures over 95 F.
3. Fermentation: Seeds such as tomato, pepper, cucumber, and squash are typically
processed by fermentation as it facilitates removing the pulp from the seed and in
some cases kills certain bacterial seed borne pathogens.
b. Fermentation of wet-seeded crops: It involves following nine steps:
1. Rinse dirt and debris from fruit.
2. Mash the fruit and pour the mixture of seeds, pulp, and juice into a large container
(garbage cans work well).
3. Place bucket in a location at 75-80 F (24-27 C). Ferment tomatoes for up to three days
and squash for up to 2 days, depending on the ambient temperature. At 75 - 80 F,
fermentation may require 42 to 72 hours.
 4. Stir the fermenting mixture two or three times a day to aerate the mixture and
facilitate even fermentation.
5. In two to three days a white scum may appear on the top of the mixture. This is
normal and indicates that fermentation is successfully taking place. After the two- to
three-day period, seed is ready to be rinsed. Pour off the top layer of scum and pulp.
Pour water into the remaining mixture so that the volume is doubled.
6. Stir, allow the mix to settle again, and pour the top layer of pulp and debris off the
top. Some lighter, less viable, seed may be poured off with this top layer.
7. Repeat this washing process from 3 to 6 times, until the water is fairly clear.
8. Pour the remaining contents (seed) through a large strainer retaining the seed and
draining off the remaining water.
9. Spread the drained seed out onto a fine screen to dry. Fine mesh window screening
works well for most seeds. Distribute the seed on thescreen so that the seed layer is as
thin as possible (less than 1/4 inch). Avoid placing seed on paper, as drying seed may
stick to the paper and paper may hold moisture. Stir the seed frequently to encourage
even drying. If possible, place seed in front of a fan or gentle breeze to facilitate
drying.
17.2 SEED STORAGE
The loss of viability impairs the biological value or function of seeds, which is to
protect and nourish the living cells of the embryo, until seedling is established. The cultivator
is concerned with the phenomena of seed longevity because he wants high germination and
vigorous seedlings from the seed which he has planted. Nursery men concerned with seed
viability to get maximum return of it. While scientist accept high longevity of this is breeding
stocks and not to loose the value able material through death of seed. For all mankind it is
concerned with seed longevity since the genetic material concerned in seed bank may be
essential to our survival in changing ecology of this world in future.
In the tropical climates where both temperature and humidity are high, seed storage often
present problem which are lacking in temperate conditions. Seed longevity is affected by
several factors as follows.
1. Seed factor: Seed storage begins immediately after maturity regardless of where or
seeds are held. Viability of seed varies with the crop and it is short lived in onion,
beans, cowpea, and capsicum seeds. In heritance of seed longevity is not limited to
the species but also to cultivars. Generally healthy, pulpy and well matured seed
stored better than immature seed. The moisture content of the seed during storage is
no doubt the most influential factor affecting their longevity. It is important to harvest
mature relatively dry seeds or to reduce the moisture content of freshly harvested seed
soon after harvest.
2. Storage environment: The storage requirements for the maintenance of viability vary
for different type of seed. Storage temperature and seed moisture content are the two
storage condition both relative humidity and temperature are kept low of the two seed
moisture content in relatively more than temperature. Temperature are also play in
important role in of seed although it does not appear to be a controlling with normal
range of biological activity of seed, insect and mold increase as temperature increase.
Higher the moisture content of the seed the more they are adversely affected by the
temperature. Decreasing temperature and seed moisture content there for is an
 effective means of maintaining seed quality in storage. Harrington (1972) stated that
life of seed halves (1) for every 50°C increase in storage temperature (2) for increase
in every one percent of seed moisture. This holds well between 5-14 percent of seed
moisture and 0 to 50°C temperature most of the vegetable seed ideal stored at 6-7%
moisture content.
3. Storage container: A storing of seeds in the containers made up of suitable packing
material will prevent the direct contact of seed with the storage environment and this
is another approach for retaining viability. The packaging materials used are paper,
cotton, metal, plastic, glass and laminated foil. These are selected according to kind
and amount of seeds to be packed, during of storage etc.
4. Storage fungi: The storage fungi comprise mainly aspergillum and pencillium spp
which affects the seed storability. These fungi will grow successfully at moisture
content equivalent to RH of 85% or above. Storage fungi affect the seed by decrease
in germination, discoloration, production of mycotoxins, heating and total decay.
Chemical treatment with fungicides prevents the attack of storage fungi.
5. Physiological and biochemical changes in seeds during storage: Among many
physiological manifestation of seed deterioration are changed in seed colour, delayed
germination, decreased tolerance to sub optimal environmental conditions during
germination and storage conditions, reduced germination and seeding growth and
increased number of abhoma/seedlings. Biochemical changes includes 1) increase or
decrease in enzyme activity, 2) decrease in oxygen up take, 3) increase in leaching of
organic and inorganic constituents from seed, 4) increase in free fatty acid, 5)
decrease in total soluble sugar, 6) increase in reducing sugar and decrease in total
soluble sugar, 7) decrease in protein and increase in amino acid, 8) changes in
carbohydrate, organic acid and protein metabolism.
To conclude, a quality seed is required for better establishment of seeding in field as well
as for higher crop production. This could be achieved through
a. Production of seed under ideal climatic and enrich soil condition
b. Supplementation of seed through seed treatment
17.2.1 Proper handling and storage of seed for higher longevity.
The proper handling and storage of seeds for higher longevity depends upon various factors
namely storage temperature and relative humidity. The recommended temperature and
relative humidity for storages of some vegetable seeds are listed in Table 48.1 and Table
48.2.

Table 17.1: Recommended temperature, relative humidity and approximate storage life
of various vegetable seeds:
==========================================================
Vegetables Temperature (ºC) Relative humidity (%) Approximate Storage life
===========================================================
Beans: Lima in pods 40-45 95 7-8 days
Lima shelled 37 95 10-14 days
Dolichos lab in pods 32-35 90 2-3 weeks
Snap bens 38-42 95 10-14 days
Winged 32 90-95 2-3 months
Beet root 32 90-95 2-3 months
Bitter gourd 33-35 85-90 1 month
Brinjal 50-55 90-95 2-4 weeks
Cabbage, early 32 95-98 3-6 weeks
Cabbage, later 31-32 95-98 4-5 months
Carrot topped 32 95 5-6 months
Cauliflower 32-35 85-95 5-8 weeks
Celery 31-32 92-95 8 weeks
Coriander leaves 32-35 90 5 weeks
Chow-chow 52-55 90 3 weeks
Cucumber 50-55 95 10-14 days
Garlic (bulbs) dry 32 60-65 7-8 month
Ginger 55 65 5-6 months
Gourd, bottle 45 85-90 4-6 weeks
Gourd, snake 65-70 85-90 2 weeks
Green, various leafy 32 95 10-14 days
Knol, knol 33-34 90 3 months
Mushroom 32 95 1 weeks
Muskmelon, cantaloupe 35-38 85-90 10 days
Muskmelon honeydew 45 85 4-5 weeks
Okra 45-50 90-95 1-2 weeks
onion, white 34 70-75 4-5 months
onion red 32 70-75 5-6 months
pea, green 32 88-92 2-3 weeks
pepper, sweet(green) 45 85-90 3-5 weeks
potato 38-40 85 7-8 months
pumpkin 35-60 70-75 3-5 months
radish, topped 32 88-92 3-5 weeks
spinach 32 95 10-14 days
squash, summer 50 95 1 week
squash, winter 50-60 60 3-4 months
sweet potato 55 90 4-5 months
tapioca root 32-35 85 5-6 months
tomato, mature green 50-55 85-90 5-6 weeks
tomato, ripe 35-45 85-90 5-7 days
turnip 32 90-95 2-4 months
watermelon 45-60 80-90 2 weeks
yam 80 60-70 3-5 weeks
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 17.2: Recommended temperature and relative humidity approximate storage life
of fresh fruit in commercial storage.
Commodity Temperature Relative Humidity Approximate storage period
(ºC) (%)
Apples 30-40 90 3-8 months
Apricots 31-32 90 1-2 week
Avocados 40-55 85-90 2-4 week
Banana 56-58 90-95 -
Strawberry 32 90-95 5-7 days
Cherries 32 90-95 3-7 days
Coconuts 32-35 80-85 1-2 months
Dates 0 or 32 75 or less 6-12 months
Figs fresh 31-32 85-90 7-10 days
Grapes vinifera 30-31 90-95 3-6 months
Guavas 45-50 90 2-3 weeks
Lemons - 85-90 1-6 months
Limes 48-50 85-90 6-8 weeks
Litchies 35 90-95 3-5 weeks
Mangos 55 85-90 2-3 weeks
Oranges 38-48 85-90 3-8 weeks
Papayas 45 85-90 1-3 weeks
Peaches 31-32 90 2-4 weeks
Pears 29-31 90-95 2-7 months
Pineapples 45-55 85-90 2-4 weeks
Pomegranates 32 90 2-4 weeks
_____________________________________________________________

Important pests and diseases and their control

Important pests
Horticulture production has become a key driver for economic development in many of the
states in the country and it contributes 30.4 per cent to GDP of agriculture. India is globally,
second largest producer of fruits and vegetables. Country is the largest producer of mango,
banana, coconut, cashew, papaya, pomegranate etc. and also largest producer and exporter of
spices. In the foreign trade, export growth of fresh fruits and vegetables in term of value is 14
per cent and of processed fruits and vegetables is 16.27 per cent. Production losses due to
pests are around 30 per cent of the total economy of our country. However, study of pest and
their management is important in the horticultural crop production.

Mango hoppers :
Nymphs and adults cause withering and shedding of flower buds and flowers. Presence of
small drops of honeydew on lower leaves followed by development sooty mould. Clicking
sound due to movement of jassids amidst leaves is a common phenomenon.
control
i.Spray two rounds of acephate 75 SP @ 1 g/lit, phosalone 35
EC @ 1.5ml/lit,or phosphamidon 85 WSC @ 1 ml/lit. First
at the time of panicle emergence and the second a fortnight
later.
ii.Phosphamidon 85 WSC @ 1 ml + Neem Oil 5 ml/lit may be
sprayed against both hoppers and shoot webber

Fruit fly
Semi-ripe fruits are with decayed spots and droppings of
fruits. Maggot is yellowish. Adult fly is light brown with transparent wings
control
i.Interspaces may be ploughed to expose and kill the soil borne
puparia.
ii.The infested and fallen fruits should be carefully disposed of.
iii.Apply a bait spray combining anyone of following insecticides
with molasses or jaggery (10 g/lit) two rounds at weekly interval
before ripening Fenthion 100 EC @ 1 ml/lit (or)
Malathion 50 EC @ 2 ml/lit.

Shoot and fruit borer :

General symptoms of damage are withered
terminal shoots, bore holes on shoots plugged with excreta,
shedding of flower buds, drying of leaves due to boring on petioles by larvae. Larva is pink in
colour. Adult is medium siz
ed moth with forewings having black and brown patches and dots. Hind wings are opalescent
with black dots
control
i.Collection and destruction of infested plant parts like shoots,
buds and fruits.
ii.Avoid ratooning to minimize shoot and fruit borer infestation.
iii.Spray anyone of the following twice at 30 days after planting at fortnightly interval.
a.Quinalphos 25 EC 2 ml/lit + NO 2 ml/lit + Teepol 1 ml/lit.
b.Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE) 5% (50 g/lit).
iv.Avoid synthetic pyrethroids.

Aphid :
Curling and crinkling of leaves, stunted plants with honeydew secretion and sooty mould are
the symptoms of damage. Large number of aphids are seen on tender/apical shoots.Nymph is
greenish brown or yellow in colour. Adult is yellowish green to dark green in posterior side.
control
i.Release the first instar grubs of Chrysoperla carnea
@ 10,000/ha.
ii.Spray methyl demeton 25 EC or dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lit
when situation warrants

Mealy bug :
Severe infestation results in drying of leaves and
inflorescence. Nymphs and adults are pinkish and undergo diapause in soil during winter.
control
i.Releaseryptolaemus montrouzieri beetles @ 10/tree
ii.Spray Neem Oil 5 ml + Triazophos 2 ml/lit or Neem Oil 5 ml +
Phosalone 2 ml/lit.

Important diseases

The Horticulture (fruits including nuts, vegetables including potato, tuber crops, mushroom,
ornamental plants including cut flowers, spices, plantation crops and medicinal and aromatic
plants) has become a key drivers for economic development in many of the states in the
country and it contributes 30.4 per cent to GDP of agriculture, which calls for knowledge and
technical backstopping. Intensive cultivation of the high valued horticultural crops, resulted
in the outbreak of several diseases of National importance. In recent days, stakeholders
import planting materials from North American Countries. Introduction of planting materials
also impose threat in the introduction of new diseases not known to be present earlier.
However, the diseases, if not managed on a war foot, it will result in drrastic yield reduction
and quality of the produces. Hence adoption of suitable management measures with low
residue levels in the final produces becomes as a need of the hour. In this regard, this paper
gives emphasis on the diagnosis of plant diseases and their management.

Anthracnose:
Anthracnose symptoms occur on leaves, twigs, petioles, flower clusters (panicles), and fruits.
The incidence of this disease can reach almost 100% in fruit produced under wet or very
humid conditions. On leaves, lesions start as small, angular, brown to black spots and later
enlarge to form extensive dead areas. Panicles develop small black or dark-brown spots,
which can enlarge, coalesce, and kill the flowers .Petioles, twigs, and stems are also
susceptible and develop the typical black, expanding lesions. On the lesions and dead
portions, minute pink cushion shaped fructifications called acervuli are seen under moist
conditions. Fruits may also drop from trees prematurely due to rotting. On immature fruits
infections penetrate the cuticle, but remain quiescent until ripening of the fruits begins.
Green fruit infections that take place at mature stage remain latent and invisible
until ripening and carry the fungus into storage.
control
i.Spraying the trees twice with Carbendazim (0.1%) or Mancozeb (0.2 %) or combination of
Carbendazim 12 % + Mancozeb 63 % @ 0.1 % at 15 days interval during flowering to
control blossom infection and twice during pea nut stage to prevent fruit infection.
ii.Alternate sprayings of Carbendazim and Mancozeb to avoid development of resistance in
pathogen to fungicides .
iii.Spraying five times with Pseudomonas fluorescens FP 7

Die back / Fruit Stem end rot :

The disease is characterized by drying of twigs and branches
followed by complete defoliation, which gives the tree an appearance of scorching by fire.
Tip die back disease occurs on the branches,trunk of infested trees that start drying slowly at
first and suddenly branches become completely dried /killed resulting gummy substance
oozes out or remains hanging on the tree .The dark area advances and young green
twigs start withering first at the base and then the twig or branch dies, shrivels and falls called
die back. This may be accompanied by exudation of gum. In old branches, brown streaking of
vascular tissue is seen on splitting it longitudinally.
control
i.Pruning of infected plant parts from 7-10 cm below the infection site and pasting the cut
ends with Bordeaux paste .
ii.Spraying the trees twice at 15 days interval with Carbendazim (0.1%) or combination of
Carbendazim 12 % + Mancozeb 63 % @ 0.1 % during pea nut stage to prevent fruit
infection.
iii.Fruits should be harvested with stalk (5 cm), otherwise, the opening must be sealed with
wax.

Powdery mildew :
Appearance of a whitish, powdery growth of the fungus on
leaves, panicles and young fruit which later turns brown and fall. The white growth can also
be seen on the undersurface of young infected leaves which becomes distorted. Severe
infection of young leaves results in premature leaf drop. On mature leaves, the spots turn
purplish brown, as the white fungal mass eventually disappears. On developing
inflorescence powdery growth leads to drying of flowers . Young fruits at peanut stage are
covered with mildew that leads to corky tissue and drops
control
i.Pruning of diseased leaves and panicles.
ii.hree sprays of fungicides at different stages starting with Wettable Sulphur (0.2%) at the
time of panicle initiation followed by Dinocap (0.1%) subsequently followed Tridemorph
(0.1%) at 15-20 daysinterval.
iii.sparying with mycobutanil @0.1% or Triademefon @0.1% or
carbendazim @0.1% or Thiopahante methyl 0.1% found effective against disease