CTH 001 Main

CTH 001 COURSE GUIDE
COURSE
GUIDE
CTH 001
RELIGION AND SOCIETY
Course Developer: Dr. A. R. Williams

National Examination Council
Minna.
Course Writers: Dr. A. R. Williams

Minna.
Dr. Olubiyi A. Adewale

National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos.
Course Editor: Dr. Mrs. M. Atere

Department of Religions
Lagos State University, Lagos.
Programme Leader: Dr. Olubiyi A. Adewale

Lagos.
Course Coordinator: Dr. Awoju. J. Owolabi

Lagos.
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ii

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2006
First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-591-5
All Rights Reserved
Printed by ……………..
For
iii
Contents Page
Introduction ………………………………….......…….…. 1
Course Aims .........…………………………………………….. 1
Course Objectives …………………………………………….. 1-2
Working Through This Course….………………………...……. 2
Course Materials ……………………………………………… 2
Study Units …………..……………………………………… 2-3
References/Further Reading…………………………………..... 4
Assignment File ……………………………….……………. 4
Assessment ............……………………………………….. 4-5
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)...........…………………….. 5
Final Examination and Grading.....……………………......…… 5
Course Weighted Scores ……………………….....……....... 6
Course Overview......................................................................... 6
How to Get the Most from This Course ............................ 7-9
Tutors and Tutorials ..........……………………………………. 9
Summary………………………………………………………. 9-10
iv
Introduction
CTH 001: Religion and Society is a one semester two credit unit
foundational level course. It will be available for students to take
towards the core module of the certificate programme in Christian
Theology. The course is suitable for any foundation student in the
schools of Arts and Social Sciences.
The course consists of 14 study units and it introduces you to the

dynamics, practice and place of Religion in the pre-historic societies of
the world through to the contemporary society of the modern
times. These you will study vis-à-vis the political, cultural, scientific and
sociological development of the times. The material has been developed
to suit students in Nigeria by using more practical examples from our
environment. The intention is for you to demonstrate sound knowledge
of the various types of societies and their religious beliefs and practices.
Course Aims
The aim of this course is to give you sound knowledge in the basic
concepts of society, and their types with a view to understanding the
place, the practice and the function of religion in our society. These will
be achieved by:
• Studying the nature of society;

• Exposing you to the development of society from pre-historic to
modern times; and
• Examining the operation of religion and its influence on all other
phenomenon of human endeavour.
Course Objectives
To achieve the aims set above, there are set overall objectives. In
addition, each unit also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are
included at the beginning of each unit. You should carefully read them
before you start working through the unit. They will serve as a guide to
you as you progress in the study of each unit and also help in self
evaluation.
Stated below are the objectives of this course. There is no doubt that as
you successfully work towards the achievement of these objectives, the
aim of the entire course would have been achieved.
On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:
• Differentiate between the various types of societies;

CTH 001 Religion and Society
• Identify the role of religion in the society;
• Describe the different religious behaviour;
• Explain the influence of modernity on religion and vice versa;
• Differentiate between culture and religion;
• Outline the role of religion in politics;
• Identify the impact of religion on the family; and
• Explain the role of religion on health care and HIV/AIDS.
Working through this course
To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, and
read other materials provided by the National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN). Each unit contains some self Assessment Exercises
(SAEs) and at some points in the course, you are required to submit
assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of this course is a final
examination. Stated below are the components of the course and what
you have to do.
Course Materials
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignment File
5. Presentation
In addition, you must obtain the text materials. They are provided by the
NOUN.
Study Units
This course is divided into three modules and 14 study units. They are
structured as follows:
Module 1: THE STUDY OF SOCIETY AND RELIGIOUS

BEHAVIOUR
Unit 1: The Concept of Society

Unit 2: Religion in Society
ii
Unit 3: Function of Religion

Unit 4: Dimensions of Religious Behaviour
Unit 5: Organization of Religious Behaviour
Module 2: RELIGION AND MODERNITY
Unit 1: Religion and Stratification

Unit 2: Religion and Culture
Unit 3: Religion and Secularization
Unit 4: Religion and Politics
Unit 5: Religion and Science
Module 3: RELIGION AND THE FAMILY
Unit 1: Sexuality and Religious Discourse

Unit 2: The family Patterns
Unit 3: Marriage and Family
Unit 4: Religion and Health
In Module 1, you will study the meaning, nature and development of

society and the function of religion vis-à-vis postulations like the
Marxist, Weberian and Durkheimian theses. The dimensions of religious
behaviour and their organization will also be studied. In module 2, you
will be introduced to religion and modernity. As a guide, you will be
studying some important phenomenon such as religion and stratification,
religion and culture, religion and secularization, politics and religion and
science and religion. The last module, module 3 focuses on religion and
family. Important issues such as sexuality and religion, family
composition, descent pattern, authority pattern, courtship and marriage,
parenthood, divorce, religion and health, and HIV and AIDS are
discussed.
Each unit contains a number of Self Assessment Exercises (SAEs). In

general, these self-tests question you on the materials you have just
covered. It may require you to apply it in some ways. It will help you to
measure your progress and to reinforce your understanding of the
material. Together with the Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs), these
exercises will assist you in achieving the stated learning objectives of
the individual unit and of the course.
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References/Further Reading
Schaefer R. T. (2001) Sociology, seventh edition. New York, McGraw

Hill Companies
Schaefer R. T & Lamm R. P. (1997) Sociology: A Brief Introduction,

New York, McGraw – Hill Companies
Swatos Williams H. (1993) Gender and Religion, Brunkswick N. J.

Transaction.
Mckee J. B. (1981) The Study of Society, New York CBS College

Publishing
Peter Berger (1967) The Sacred Canopy: Elements of Sociological

Theory of Religion, New York Double Day Publishers
Emile Durkheim (1948) The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. New

York, The Free Press.
Bryan Wilson (1969) Religion in Secular-Society, Baltimore, Penguin

Books
James W and Vander Z (1990). The Social Experience: An Introduction

to Sociology, New York, McGraw-Hill Inc.
Zellner W. W. & Marc P. (1999) Some Cults and Spiritual

Communities. A Sociological Analysis, Westport, C. T. Praeger.
Assignment File
The assignment file will be posted to you in due course. In this file, you
will find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for
marking. The marks you obtain for these assignments will count towards
the final mark you obtain for this course. Further information on the
assignment will be found in the assignment file itself and later in the
course guide in the section on assessment. There are several assignments
for this course as each unit is loaded with a minimum of one assignment
at times two assignments.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First are the
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) and second, there is a written
examination. In tackling the TMAs, you are expected to apply
iv
information, knowledge and experience gathered during the course. The

TMA must be submitted to your tutor for assessment in accordance with
the deadlines stated in the assignment file. The work you submit to your
tutor for assessment will weigh 30% of your total course mark. At the
end of the course, you will need to sit for a final examination of three
hours duration. The examination will carry a weight of 70% of your
total course mark.
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)
There are fourteen TMAs in this course. You are expected to carry out
the assignments and submit accordingly. The score from the best three
of the fourteen TMAs will be computed to form your assessment
score. Each will be marked over 10. The 30 score from the three best
assignments will however form 30% of your total score for the
course. The final examination will produce the rest 70%, thus making
the total score for the course 100%.
Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the
assignment file. You will be able to complete your assignments from the
information and material contained in your set books, readings and
study units. However, it is desirable in all degree level education to
demonstrate that you have read and researched more widely than the
required minimum. Using other references will give you a broader view
point and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject.
When each assignment is completed, send it, together with a TMA form
to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on or
before the deadline given in the assignment file. If for any reason you
cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the
assignment is due, to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions
will not be granted after the due date unless there are exceptional
circumstances.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination for CTH 001 will be of two hours duration and
have a value of 70% of the total course grade. The examination will
cover every aspect of the course.
Endeavour to maximally utilize the time between the completion of the
last unit and the commencement of the examination to revise the entire
course. You might find it useful to review your TMAs and comment on
them before the examination.
v
Course Weighted Scores
The following table lay out how the actual course weighted score is
broken down.
TABLE 1: Course Weighted Score
ASSESSMENT MARKS
All Assignments Best three marks at 10% each =
30%
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100%
Course Overview
The table brings together the units, the number of weeks you should take
to complete them and the assignments that follow them.
TABLE 2: Course Organizer
UNIT TITLE WEEKLY ASSESSMENT

ACTIVITY (End Of Unit)
Course Guide Week 1
1 The concept of Society Week 2 Assignment 2
2 Religion in Society Week 3 Assignment 3
3 Function of Religion Week 4 Assignment 4
4 Dimensions of Religions Behaviour Week 5 Assignment 5
5 Organization of Religions Behaviour Week 6 Assignment 6
6 Religion and Stratification Week 7 Assignment 7
7 Religion and Culture Week 8 Assignment 8
8 Religion and Secularization Week 9 Assignment 9
9 Religion and Politics Week 10 Assignment 10
10 Religion and Science Week 11 Assignment 11
11 Sexuality and Religious Discourse Week 12 Assignment 12
12 The Family Patterns Week 13 Assignment 13
13 Marriage and Family Week 14 Assignment 14
14 Religion and Health Week 15 Assignment 15
Revision Week 16
Examination Week 17
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Total 17 weeks
How to get the Most from this Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This
is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and
work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and
at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to a lecture. In the same way that a lecturer might get
you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read, your text
materials or set books. You are provided exercises to do at appropriate
points, just as a lecturer might give you in class exercise.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is
a set of learning objectives. These objectives enable you know what you
should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. These
learning objectives are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is
finished, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the
objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will significantly improve
your chances of passing the course.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a
Reading Section.
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If

you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor or post the question to his
e-mail address. Remember that your tutor’s job is to help you. When
you need help, don’t hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it.
1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.
2. Organize a Study Schedule. Refer to the ‘Course Overview’ for

more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each
unit and how the assignments related to the units. Important
information, e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date of the first
day of the Semester is available from Study centre or tutor
facilitator. You need to gather together all this information in one
place, such as your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method
you choose to use, you should decide on and write in your own
dates for each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything

you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
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they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties
with your schedule, please let your tutor know before is too late
for help.
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need

for a unit is given in the overview at the beginning of each
unit. You will almost always need both the study unit you are
working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same
time.
6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit you will be instructed to read from your set
books.
7. Keep in touch with your study centre as up-to-date course

information will be continuously posted there.
8. Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due
dates), get in touch with your tutor or Study centre to obtain your
next required Assignment. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot
by doing the assignment carefully. They have been designed to
help you meet the objectives of the course and, therefore, will
help you pass the examination. Submit all assignments not later
than the due date.
9. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor.
10. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s
objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
keep yourself on schedule.
11. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next
unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned,
pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the
tutor marked assignment form and also written on the
assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have
any questions or problems.
viii
12. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
Tutors and Tutorials
There are 8 hours of tutorials (eight 1-hour sessions) provided in support

of this course. You will be notified of the dates, times and location of
these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your tutor,
as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and
provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor-
marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two
working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and
returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail or discussion

board if you need help. The following might be circumstances in which
you would find help necessary. Contact your tutor if:
• you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings;
• you have difficulty within the exercises;
• you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your

tutor’s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance
to have face to face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the
course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a
lot from participating in discussion actively.
Summary
CTH 001 aims at giving you sound knowledge in the basic concepts of
society, and their types with a view to understanding the place, the
practice and the function of religion in our society. The broad themes to
be examined are the relationship between society and religious
ix
behaviour, the influence of religion on modernity and vice versa, and

religion and the family.
We wish you success in this course and hope you find it both interesting
and useful.
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MAIN
COURSE
COURSE CODE CTH 001
COURSE TITLE RELIGION AND SOCIETY
Course Developer: Dr. A. R. Williams

Minna.
Course Writers: Dr. A. R. Williams

Minna.
Dr. Olubiyi A. Adewale

Lagos.
Course Editor: Dr. Mrs. M. Atere

Department of Religions
Lagos State University, Lagos.
Programme Leader: Dr. Olubiyi A. Adewale

Lagos.
Course Coordinator: Dr. Awoju. J. Owolabi

Lagos.
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
xi

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2006
First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-591-5
All Rights Reserved
Printed by ……………..
For
xii
Table of Contents Page
Module One 1
Unit 1 The Concept of Society ……………………. 1-18
Unit 2 Religion in Society …………………… 19-26
Unit 3: Theories on Functions of Religion in Society … 27-35
Unit 4: Dimensions of Religious Behaviour ……… 36-41
Unit 5: Organization of Religious Behaviour ……… 42-48
Module Two 49
Unit 1: Religion and Stratification ……………… 49-60
Unit 2: Religion and Culture ……………… 61-69
Unit 3: Religion and Secularization ……………… 70-78
Unit 4: Religion and Politics ……………… 79-87
Unit 5: Religion and Science ……………… 88-96
Module Three 97
Unit 1: Sexuality and Religious Discourse ………. 97-108
Unit 2: The Family Pattern ………. 109-115
Unit 3: Marriage and Family ………. 116-126
Unit 4: Religion and Health ………. 127-137
xiii
MODULE 1
UNIT 1 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIETY
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The meaning of Society
3.2 The nature of Society
3.3 The development of Complex Society
3.4 Social Institutions
3.5 Modern Society
3.6 The good Society
3.7 Measuring Society
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Religion plays a significant role in the lives of people all over the world
and religious practices of some sort are evident in every society. That
makes religion a ‘cultural universal’, along with other general practices
found in every culture. Currently, an estimated 4 billion people belong
to the many religious faiths of the world. In an effort to explore the
place, practice, role and influence of religion on its adherents, it
becomes imperative to study and have a good understanding of the
various types of societies in which religion has thrived. This unit
therefore focuses on the basic concept and nature of society with a view
to understanding the development of societies from pre-modern to
modern society.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
It is desired that by the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Define extensively what society is;
• Explain the nature of society;
• Describe how society develops from simple to complex one;
• Identify the various social institutions;
1
• Explain the features of modern societies;
• Describe a good society; and
• Measure growth and development in society.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Society
In trying to understand what something is, it is often useful to break it

down into its basic elements. The basic elements of society are three:
population, territory and social organization.’
Population
A society has a population, while groups and organizations have

members. The difference is simple, but basic. In Leon Mayhew’s phrase,
the societal population is “the self perpetuating inhabitants of territorial
areas.” By mating and reproduction, a population reproduces itself. Note
that we are dealing here with a population, not necessarily a
people. Whether or not the population of a society shares a culture and
views itself as one people is something to be determined by observation
of the actual case, not something to be taken for granted. The Ghanaians
in Nigeria are a distinct people but they are also only part of the
population of a larger national society, even though, many of them wish
to be separate.
Territory
A self-perpetuating societal population inhabits a given territory on a

relatively permanent basis. Such a territory is the largest within which
mating is common and residence is relatively permanent.
Social Organization
A societal population in its territory is involved in complex processes of

social interaction. It carries on a set of activities – economic, political,
and educational among others – that organizes social life. Each of these
several social activities becomes a partly independent structure of social
relations with their own specific characteristics. Yet they also overlap
with each other, link together and share much in common, for they are
activities carried on by the same population. These components give us
a definition: Society is all of the systems of social interaction carried on
by a population within a specified territory.
2
While we can easily recognize that we live our lives inside a society, not
outside or independent of it, we often do not fully grasp what this
means. For one thing, we become the unique person, as a particular
society encourages, or at least allows certain forms of personal
development – and discourage, even forbid others. In some cases, forms
of personal development fall beyond what is humanly possible within
that society. Miniver Cheevy could not be a bold warrior with bright
sword on a prancing stallion because nobody can in the twentieth
century. That is beyond the limits of what his society can offer him for
personal development.
No one society, then, offers us the entire range of what is humanly

possible. History provides us with a long record of ways to be human
long lost in practice, though sometimes still alive in books and movies
and so still available to us in fantasy. From anthropology we learn of
very different peoples and what may seem to us their strange though
sometimes quite attractive ways to be human. In each case different
kinds of societies provide different ways to be human.
In living our own lives, we do so necessarily within the roles and

routines of our own society, which constrain us to be and do some things
and not be and do some other things. We never escape society which
was there before us and will be there after us, though it may change
during our lifetime, a little or a lot. To live within a society means to be
involved in a small and personal world of everyday life, of the familiar
and manageable, of people we know and love (or even hate). We
experience in face-to-face relations family, friends, neighbours, co-
workers, fellow students, teachers, employers, traffic cops, local
merchants and the like. Our daily activities interlock with theirs.
There once was a time when this small world of daily life could be the
limits of a society, for there were tribes and little villages for which no
larger world existed. But that is long since past; now society extends
into a larger world which we do not directly experience but relate to
only impersonally and indirectly. Large and remote systems penetrate
our small worlds. In Nigeria, laws are made which affect our daily lives.
Our own small daily world of town, neighbourhood, or campus then is

not a world unto itself. It is, instead, part and parcel of a large society
which always extends well beyond the range of our daily experience. In
the past, when people’s lives were entirely bound within the small world
of daily life, the common sense developed from living within this small
world seemed sufficient to understand what was happening and what to
expect. But for a few of us, that is no longer the case; modern society
includes so much more than our own small worlds that the experience of
3
everyday life is not an adequate guide to understanding

society. Sociology came into being for just that reason. Something else
besides common sense was needed to understand what society was all
about.
Why is there society?
To answer this question, we must start with two basic observations

about the nature of individuals.
1. At birth, the human organism is helpless to meet its own

needs. Others must protect and care for it or it will die. Also, it
needs others from whom it can learn how to do the things
necessary to live. Human life can be sustained only if the slowly
growing human organism (slowly growing compared to most
other animals) is cared for while it learns how to do the things
necessary to take care of itself.
2. The above, in turn, tells us that the human organism is not

genetically programmed, that is, its specific behaviour is not
provided by some set of inherited instincts. Instead, all human
beings must go through a prolonged, complex learning
process. We become human by this learning process, and this, in
turn, requires persistent association with other human beings.
Human beings, then, do not come into the world ready-made by nature,
already fitted out with the necessary instincts to adapt to the natural
environment. The consequences which flow from these basic points are
fundamental to an understanding of why there is society.
In the first place, it means that human beings have had to work out for
themselves ways to survive. Possessing no instinctive knowledge and
skills, human beings have learned from experience, have developed
useful skills and have made tools and constructed shelter from whatever
materials the environment made available.
Secondly, human survival can only be accomplished if human beings act

collectively. Cooperation can accomplish things no one person could
manage alone. From the earliest period of human existence, providing
food and shelter, bringing into being a new generation, taking care of it
and teaching it what it must know, required that individuals cooperate
with one another. They had to develop some organized way to see that
what needed to be done got done. Some tasks need to be shared, some to
be divided among different persons. African Bushmen, for example,
hunted down game, while their women collected roots, fruits, nuts and
other vegetable foods, a task that could be carried out while taking care
4
of infants. And both sources of food were necessary, since hunting did
not provide a regular and predictable source of food.
From this perspective, human society is the outcome of collective

adaptation to a natural environment, a process of finding how to live
cooperatively in such a way as to make nature yield enough to sustain
life. By cooperative activity among humans learning from one another,
skills are acquired; knowledge is accumulated, techniques and tools are
developed; and all are transmitted to the next generation. It seems that
human life must have been carried on in social groups, however small
and primitive from the very beginning of human existence.
There is a basic lesson to be learned from this: out of their struggle with
nature, human beings provided for their biological survival and they
produced a special life. The answer to our question – why is there
society? – is surely not starting or even surprising, but is nonetheless
basic; society is produced by the cooperative activity of human beings.
It has to be stated that the human organism becomes human only in a
society. Neither the fully human organism – the person – nor society
comes from nature ready made; that is, neither is genetically produced.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3.1
Identify and explain briefly the three elements of Society.
3.2 The Nature of Society
This definition of society does not assume in advance that a society is

highly integrated and culturally united. It can be, of course, but often it
is not. Culturally different peoples may share the same society. They
may even participate in common activities in a reasonable workable
way. The world today abounds in such societies; so much so that it is
difficult to find a society with a population that shares one culture.
While a society can absorb and contain culturally different peoples, it

nonetheless suffers strain and conflict for doing so. This becomes
particularly apparent when the cultural differences are differences of
language or religion (and sometimes both). The strife in Nigeria among
the Tivs and the Jukuns of Taraba State, the Modakekes and the Ifes of
Osun State, the Muslims and Christians of Northern Nigeria, in South
Africa between the Whites and the Blacks, in Sudan between the
Muslims North and the Christians South, in Northern Ireland between
Catholic and Protestants and in Canada between French-speaking and
English-speaking peoples are examples frequently in the news. (In these
cases, the differences of religion and language are matched by
5
differences of class and wealth; if this were not so, the conflict
symbolized by the religion and/or language would be less severe).
Among the new nations of Africa, the original tribal identities which
distinguish one African people from another, still persist and even
flourish. However, the new national boundaries do not coincide with the
original tribal territories and as a result; most African nations contain
more than one tribal people. Some tribes have even been divided by
boundaries cutting across their ancient tribal lands. As a consequence,
tribal loyalties are the basis for intense struggle for power within these
newly developing societies. These new societies, in effect, are still
emerging out of old tribal ones.
Societal Boundaries
Most of us – social scientists included – hold the idea that a society is a

relatively self sufficient, self contained structure with well-marked
boundaries that both separate it and insulate it from the surrounding
environment of other societies. From this perspective, a society is the
largest system of social interaction, within which all other groups,
organizations and institutions are sub-units. But such a conception is no
longer adequate in the modern world, however reasonable it might once
have seemed. In the world today, societies cannot be viewed as self-
sufficient and self-contained.
Several crucial activities of modern society – economic production,

technological development and use, scientific research and development
– flow easily across societal boundaries. Furthermore, the trained
managers, technicians and scientists involved in these activities also
move readily from one society to another. The mobility of goods and
technology is matched by the mobility of the world’s most highly
trained personnel. By these activities, forms of modern culture such as
scientific and technological knowledge also flow into and across
societies. Modern ideologies do also and no society in the world is
exempted from the influence of one or more ideological currents.
Capitalism or socialism, for example, is one variant or another of
managerial ideologies.
Mass culture too penetrates almost all societies. Wearing jeans and
listening to rock music on records or radio become the aims of millions
of young people in many societies. Nigerian movies and television
programs are seen all over Africa and Hilton hotels and even McDonald
hamburgers can be found all over the globe. Now European football –
soccer to us – a truly worldwide sport, is finding acceptance in Nigeria
and world over.
6
In discussing the nature of society, what relevant features can you

identify?
3.3 The Development of Complex Society
Human societies have been developing in form and structure for

thousands of years. While it is not our task to review that long history
here, it is useful to have some conception of what that process was.
Though the time span, by human perspective is very long, the historic
record is quite clear, human societies have become increasingly more
complex in their organization and also larger in size. If we ignore all the
extraordinary variation and diversity in human societies known to
archaeologists and historians, we can account for this evolutionary
process from the time of nomadic groups to today’s modern industrial
society as an evolution of forms of society distinguished from one
another by four basic processes.
1. Improved technology for production of food, clothing and shelter.

2. Increased population and expansion into a larger territory.
3. Greater specialization of groups and roles and a greater
differentiation of occupations, classes and other groups in the
organization of society.
4. Increasing centralization of control in order to manage and
coordinate an increasingly complex society.
Hunting and Gathering Societies
The most primitive form of human society was that of hunting and
gathering. Lacking all but the most simple tools, hunting and gathering
peoples grouped together in small, usually nomadic bands – nomadic
because they had constantly to move on to find more edible plants and
more animals to hunt. For such people, life was an existence lived close
to the subsistence level, with little surplus food ever available. Since
they could not store or preserve food, life often went quickly from feast
to famine.
Each group was small, probably an average about fifty persons. They
were self-sufficient, having little contact with any other people, so that
each small band or tribe lived largely by itself, depending solely on its
own resources. When primitive people learned to cultivate the soil,
about ten thousand years ago, the way was set for the emergence of a
more complicated form of society, though one still primitive in
character. The digging stick and later the hoe permitted the planting of
seeds and the harvesting of crops.
7
Now some time could be devoted to activities other than tilling the
soil. In some societies, such as that of the Zuni Indians of New Mexico,
a great deal of time was devoted to ceremonial activities while other
horticultural societies spent much time and energy in war. In either case,
there were new specialized roles, priests and warriors. There was also a
modest economic specialization with some people designated to
specialize in the production of the now greater range of goods made for
daily use: weapons, tools and pottery and utensils. These were larger
societies than those of the hunting and gathering stage. Such increased
size of society led to a necessary political organization, with headmen or
chiefs as full time political leaders, something not possible for hunting
and gathering people.
Horticultural societies gradually improved in technology. The hoe

replaced the digging stick, terracing and irrigation developed as did
fertilization and there was also the development of metallurgy and the
manufacture of metal tools, axes and knives especially. These
technological advances made possible the further enlargement of society
both in expansion over a greater geographical area and by increased
density – a larger population could be sustained in the same
geographical area. The settled village relatively permanent and enduring
was now fundamental to social life.
Agrarian Societies
If the horticultural society began to emerge with the invention of the

digging stick and later the hoe, it was the invention of the plough,
harnessed to domesticated animal that set in motion the evolution of
agrarian society some five to six thousand years ago. A wide range of
technological developments greatly increased the productivity of
society, accompanied by increases in the territory occupied and the size
of the occupying population. This led to the growth of governing
systems, with armies and ruling classes (warfare was a common activity
in agrarian societies). The political extension of control over wide
territories even led to the development of great empires.
But perhaps most important characteristic of agrarian societies was the

emergence of the urban community. Cities emerged as coordinating and
controlling centres for agrarian societies, producing the historic contrast
between rural and city life, between farmer and peasant, on the one hand
and artisan and merchant on the other. Indeed, the advanced technology
produced a surplus that made possible an extensive trade and commerce
and the emergence of classes of artisans and merchants. The cities also
housed a ruling class, as well as administrators and religious and
military leaders.
8
Within the class of artisans increasing specialization produced a vast

increase in the number of different crafts, perhaps as many as 150 to
2,000 in the larger cities. When one adds to this the many other kinds of
occupations – officials, soldiers, priests, merchants, servants, and
labourers – it becomes clear that the urban centres of agrarian societies
had produced a notable diversity of occupations. Though these cities
were the controlling centres of agrarian societies, they were never more
than a minority of the entire population. Between the twelfth and
fifteenth centuries in Europe, for example, the urban population was
probably never more than 10 percent of the total. For any agrarian
society, the limits of the technology required that the large majority of
the population live in rural villages and be directly engaged in the tilling
of the soil. Only with the coming of industrial society was that changed.
Industrial Societies
Over the last two hundred years, advances in technology and changes in
economic organization have altered the agrarian form of society beyond
recognition and brought about industrial society. What first marks
industrial society is its enormous technological advance, which permits
the use of far more diversified raw materials, quite different sources of
energy, far more complex and efficient tools, and as a consequence, an
enormous increase in the production and consumption of material
goods. The industrialization of society, in fact, has vastly increased the
standard of living of industrial populations.
It has had other consequences as well as the destruction of local market
systems through integration into larger ones, the growth of large
corporations to produce goods and employ large staffs, and even more
intensive specialization of labour, producing thousands of occupations
where before there were merely hundreds, and an increase in the size of
cities as well as the steady increase in the proportion of the total
population living in cities. Industrialization urbanizes the population.
The growth of societies with such large and diversified populations had
a further political consequence; it means the emergence of the modern
nation-state, a political entity that takes on more and more functions of
service and control.
There are many other changes in society involved in the transition from
agrarian to industrial society in community, in family, in life-style, in
politics and in culture. Much of what sociology is about is an effort to
understand how thoroughly industrialization has altered human society
over the past two hundred years, what forms and modes of life it makes
available and what in turn it has put beyond the possibility of experience
for today’s people. It is concerned with understanding what has
9
happened to reshape human society, what society is now like and what
directions of change seem now to be in the making.
What are the major characteristics of a Complex Society?
3.4 Social Institutions
Fundamental to the analysis of society is the understanding of social

institutions. There are two different ways to speak of institutions. One
begins with the idea of an institution’s norm and defines an institution as
a complex of such norms. Institutional norms are supported by strong
group consensus and sanctions for violation are imposed by enforcing
agencies for they are obligatory. They are, indeed, what Sumner meant
by the ‘mores.’ A second conception of institution stresses the social
acts which the norms govern, thus suggesting institutional roles and
relations. These two ways to define institutions are not
incompatible. One calls institutions the norms that govern action, the
other calls institution the action itself. An institution is clearly composed
of both norms and actions. But we still need to know something else,
why some activities are institutionally normative and some are not.
It is conventional to designate such major patterns as the family, the

economy and politics as social institutions. But this is misleading for not
every kind of familial, economic and political activity is
institutionalized. What is basic is that some activities are more important
than others for the maintenance of society. Each societal population
devises ways to produce goods and feed itself to govern and regulate its
ways of living and to educate the young to carry on social life.
If it is important that these activities are carried out, it is equally

important how they are carried out. It is here that we get closer to the
idea of an institution. In a capitalist society, there are legal contracts and
private property. In the modern society, marriage is monogamous and
bigamy is forbidden. In a political democracy, the citizens possess the
right to vote and only the legislature the citizens elect can enact
laws. Within the framework of economy, family and politics, each of
these specific actions – making contracts – are legitimate actions
morally and legally sanctioned and supported. They are institutions.
Social institutions have two components (1) established practices and

actions and (2) the norms that make these practices and actions the
legitimate ones. That second component tells us something important
about the institutions and about the organizations of society. The
varieties of human experience make it clear enough that there is more
10
than one way of carrying out these important activities; property needs
to be privately owned and marriage needs to be monogamous. But while
different societies choose different ways, any one society chooses only
one way and makes it the only legitimate way for it, morally and legally.
Seeing an institution as composed of norms and actions gives us a
definition. An institution is a normative system of social action deemed
morally and socially crucial for a society.
If we were properly technical, we would not call the whole range of

economic or political activities institutions but perhaps, institutional
spheres, for only some of these activities are institutionalized. Selling a
used car or writing a letter to your congressman are not institutionalized
actions but the right of private property and voting in an election are
institutionalized activities. With that warning, then, the institutions of
society are:
1. Family: Every society develops a social arrangement to

legitimize mating and the care and socializing of the young.
2. Education: The young must also be inducted into the culture and
taught the necessary values and skills. In pre-industrial societies,
this is accomplished largely within the kinship system but in
modern societies, a separate system of education develops.
3. Economy: Every society organizes its population to work to

produce and to distribute material goods.
4. Polity: Every society develops a governing system of power and

authority, which ensures social control within a system of rights
and rules, protects and guarantees established interests and
mediates among conflicting groups.
5. Religion: In societies, there is always a sense of sacredness

about life. It is still a powerful integrating and cohesive
force. Religion gave cultural _expression in symbol and rite to
this sense of the sacred. But in some modern societies, religion
performs this integrating function but weakly, if at all.
The legitimisation that religion once provided, science now does though
not in exactly the same way, but claims to possess the only valid
knowledge and which then legitimizes a wide range of practices and
actions in modern society.
Institutions
11
Consensus and Coercion – While it is proper to emphasize that,

institutions are the legitimate way to carry out necessary social
activities; it would be wrong to create the impression that they
originated only through common agreement and are supported by an
unchallenged moral consensus. This historical record would support no
such interpretation. Complex societies were shaped in processes of
ecological expansion in the struggle for control of territory and
populations, victorious groups imposed their institutions on
others. Many people became Christian for example, through “conversion
by the word.” Conquest and coercion have had as much to do with the
establishment of social institutions as have consensus.
What precisely is a Social Institution? Enumerate any five of such

Institution.
3.5 Modern Society
While human society has taken many forms over thousands of years and
has become more complex, now we inhabit a modern society. It is that
form of society that interests us the most. The gradual emergence of
what we now call modern society was complex process of social
disruption and change that altered old institutions beyond recognition
and gave them radically new forms. It was a turbulent historical process,
marked often by violence, revolution and class struggle. Eventually, it
changed the whole world.
Whatever else it is, modern society is an industrial society. The

recognition of this fact is perhaps the first (and therefore now the oldest)
idea in understanding how modern society differs from what went
before. Those scholars who insist that we define modern society as
basically an industrial society point out that the demands and
consequence of industrial production which most basically influence the
structure of modern society.
Industrial societies emphasize industrial production of goods and thus

give priority to whatever will maximize that production. That gives
them some features in common, however else they differ in cultural
traditions, the same technology, similar technical and scientific
knowledge and the same effort to provide the necessary technical
training, the same job classifications and skill rankings, which in turn
shape the structure of occupations and occupational rewards. Industrial
societies strive for technical and productive efficiency and so for them
12
the “rational” course of action is always determined by cost-accounting,

they strive to get more for less.
In industrial society, technical occupations increase at the expense of

non-technical ones, and the distribution of wages and salaries among
occupations is fairly similar. In such a society, management and
administration emerge as major functions and as major occupations of
authority and prestige. There is increasing specialization and
furthermore, the separation of the economic system from the family and
from religion; home and work place are no longer the same.
The Master Trends
But modern society is more than an industrial structure; it is the outcome

of a number of master trends that have been going on for several
hundred years. They include the following:
Capitalism
The emergence of capitalism began as far back as the thirteenth

century in medieval Europe. It developed into powerful tradition
destroying system of privately owned production for profit, which
enormously increased material productivity, reshaped the class
structure and fundamentally altered the basic institutions of society.
Industrial Technology
The development of mechanized processes vastly increased the

production of goods, shifted the base of work from agriculture to
industry and raised the material level of the population. Capitalism
exploited technology to create wholly new factory systems of
industrial manufacturing and many new specialized occupations. The
development of this industrial system is what is meant by the
Industrial Revolution. It is this system that makes a society into an
industrial society.
Urbanization
The transformation of society by capitalism and industrialism shifted

the population from predominantly rural to predominantly urban
locations. While cities are not new, only in modern society has most
of the population lived in urban areas.
The Nation State
13
The ecological expansion created by industrial capitalism brought

the nation state into being as the politically controlling unit,
extending national loyalties into more diverse human populations
than ever before.
Bureaucracy
The need to administer larger units of population brought about by

ecological expansion, particularly with people from diverse cultural
origins, brought into common use the bureaucratic form of
organization, particularly in the economic and political
spheres. Again, modern society did not invent bureaucracy, but it has
made it a basic feature of its structure.
Science
Scientific knowledge is the most valued knowledge in modern

society. It makes possible the control and exploitation of nature and
the harnessing of varied forms of energy. From such knowledge,
technological advance is assured.
Mass Education
Modern society requires, at a minimum, the literacy of all its

population. Beyond that, it requires mass education to train the
population in industrial techniques and skills, to build commitment
and loyalty to the nation-state and its institutions, and to produce a
highly trained scientific and technological class.
In modern society, by contrast, the realm of the sacred shrinks. Modern

society maximizes the practical and useful. Furthermore, the rational
mind of science encourages scepticism about practices not based on
tested procedures. Science also develops attitudes that welcome new
practical ideas and new technical knowledge. In modern society, in
short, the dominant place once accorded religion is replaced by the
primacy given to science, its methods and its practical application.
Describe a Modern Society. What are the Master Trends that make a
Society modern?
3.6 The Good Society
Communal
14
The good society is communal. It is a community, rather than a

bureaucracy or an aggregate of unrelated people. This means that social
life is based upon a consensus of values and ideals about how society
should be organized and how we should live our lives. Each of us feels
that we belong and are bound to enduring social relations with people
we love and respect. People care and cooperate.
Controllable
In the past, people felt that the conditions of their existence were largely
beyond their control. Limited knowledge and a limited technology gave
a limited control over nature and human existence was necessarily one
of scarcity and unending labour. The poverty and suffering of most
human beings was accepted as inevitable. The fear of the unknown, the
uses of magic, the ever present threat of disaster, even the concept of
punishing gods for God in religion were expressions of this experience
of limited control.
Now, in modern society, science and technology have much diminished

these fears of uncontrollable natural forces, yet modern people still do
not feel they control the conditions of their lives. Now, it is not nature
but society that seems uncontrolled, or even in control. For modern
people, a utopian image of a good society tends to emphasize the
capacity of human beings to have a rational control over the
circumstances of their lives. Bell warned that conflict between
professionals as experts and the populace would be common in post
industrial society. Decentralization and self-government become goals
for social change, designed to bring the social world down to human
scale and within the reasonable control of those who must live in it. But
it is a goal ridiculed or even denounced in turn by those committed to
the continuity of trends in modern society which will make post-
industrial society seem even more uncontrollable by the majority of
people.
Self- Fulfilment
More and more in modern society increasing numbers of individuals

demand the opportunity for a fulfilling and rewarding life, free of
demeaning drudgery and boring routine. They expect to be able to
realize their full potential of abilities and skills. Once it was common to
think that only the elite, a naturally gifted minority could achieve such
self-fulfilment and personal self-development. But in the modern world,
it is no longer easy to sustain such notions of a few who deserve the
privilege of self-realization while the rest labour in drudgery to make
that possible.
15
The Ideal and the Possible
The concept of the good society operates at two levels, the ideal and the
historical. The ideal is simply a statement of what human society is at its
best, a community ordered by the values of justice, equality and
liberty. At the historical level, the good society is the historically
possible approximation, the nearest and best given the limitations of
knowledge and technology.
What prompted the concept of ‘The Good Society?’ Mention some

significant ingredients of the Society.
3.7 Measuring Society
Human societies are large, complex and ever changing

structures. Getting the measure of them, that is, analyzing and assessing
them, is always a difficult task. There are, however, at least, two ways in
which some assessment of society can be made: the evolutionary and the
comparative.
The evolutionary development of society from more primitive to

complex forms, as we have seen, culminated in a modern society which
was capitalist, industrial and urban. That evolutionary process we can
expect to go on. It suggested how a new form of society would evolve in
the near future out of trends in the present society.
Karl Marx too used an evolutionary conception of the development of

human society which was then to be followed by a new form, a socialist
society that would create the conditions he argued for the creation of a
community of truly free and equal individuals. (That, by the way, was
his meaning of communism, not what is meant by the term today as a
consequence of the society created by the Russian revolution).
The comparison of folk and modern society is but one effort to be

comparative. There are many other ways, including the comparison of
developed with underdeveloped for dependent societies or of one
particular society, say that Nigeria with another which is basically
similar, say Ghana or with one which is both like it in some ways and
quite different in others, say the United States. A disciplined comparison
of societies is a method for bringing out basic features that might not be
so evident if we just examine one society. Comparing Nigeria to some
16
other societies or comparing Nigeria today to what it was before 1999 is

a way of bringing out its distinctive features.
Lastly, comparing the real society with an image of the good society
provides another point of analysis. In particular, it enables people to ask
whether the real as it really is, is all that is possible, or whether it is
reasonable to hope and struggle for something better.
Identify and explain two major ways in which some assessment of

Society can be made.
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is important to note that society never existed in a vacuum. However,

all the systems of social interaction carried on by a population within a
specified territory contribute to the society. The evolutionary
development of society from more primitive to complex forms
culminated in a modern society. The concept of the ‘Good Society’ was
also presented by Sociologist. The good society is said to be communal,
controllable and gives its population a fulfilling and rewarding life.
Religion however, has influenced and is still affecting the various
societies world over. All such influences will be our focus in subsequent
units.
5.0 SUMMARY
The concept of society with emphasis on its development from primitive

to modern has been the focus in this unit. The development from simple
to complex and the institutions that make up the society were also
studied. Historic image of the good society compares real and imagined
societies by such criteria as communal, controllable and self-fulfillment
and two other ways to measure society which are by evolutionary
development and by comparison of one society to another or by one
society to different historic periods in its development, were highlighted
in the study.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1 a. Describe the term Society.

b. Give an account of the evolutionary process of society from
the primitive to modern times.
2 a. What do you understand by social institution?

b. Identify and explain any five institutions of society.
17
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Schaefer R. T & Lamm R. P. (1997) Sociology: A Brief Introduction

New York, McGraw – Hill Companies
Mckee J. B. (1981) The Study of Society, New York CBS College

Publishing
18
UNIT 2 RELIGION IN SOCIETY
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Religion and Society
3.2 Religion and Social Cohesion
3.3 Religion and Social Control
3.4 Religion and Social Support
3.5 Religion and Social Change
3.6 Religion and Psychotherapy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Understanding the connection between religion and society is the main

focus in this unit. The functional interpretation has been the dominant
one. It asserts that every society has a number of necessary conditions
that it must successfully meet in order to survive and one of these is the
cohesion or solidarity of its members. Religion, it is asserted provides
this function for society. This unit will put you through these roles of
religion in our society.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
It is hoped that by the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the connectivity between religion and society;
• Express how religion serve in achieving social cohesion;
• Describe the role of religion in social control;
• Demonstrate how religion can be used for psychotherapy;
• Specify the role of religion as social support; and
• Explain the role of religion in social change.
19
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Religion and Society
How to explain or even define religion has probably yielded less

scholarly agreement than almost any other matter studied. Religion is so
diverse in historical development, so culturally varied that definitions
developed from either our African or Western experience often fail to
encompass it adequately. What comes out of these scholarly efforts,
however, is the recognition that religion emerges from common
experience in society and offers explanations that transcend whatever
mundane, factual knowledge is available. These are explanations
expressed in symbolic forms and acts which relate a people to the
ultimate conditions of their existence.
As human societies have evolved over long periods of time, so also have
religions. Each of the world’s religion, in its own distinctive way, has
conferred a sacred meaning upon the circumstances of a people’s
existence. Some religions, such as Christianity and Islam, have grown
far beyond their social origins, now counting their believers in the
hundreds of millions. Though Christianity may not claim the largest
number of adherents, Christians nonetheless are not less than 40 percent
of all religious believers in the world.
We have no historical or archaeological reason to believe that religion

began full-blown. Instead, it developed slowly with the evolution of
human society, and in its more primitive forms-itself an evolutionary
development beyond the earliest pre-religious people – possessed no
organization or special roles (no church or clergy), only a communal
sharing in rituals that gave expression to religious symbols. As religion
and society evolve, a sense of sacredness takes concrete form in objects
and images that become sacred, whether these are persons, animals or
natural objects, human artefacts or symbolic expressions. The sacred
also becomes conveyed and expressed for the living in ritual, where
behaviour gives objective form to mood and feeling. A division among
the sacred and the profane eventually marks off religious from
nonreligious activity.
Explain how religion evolved in human society?
20
3.2 Religion and Social Cohesion
According to the functionalist perspective, sharing the same religious

interpretation of the meaning of life unites a people in a cohesive and
binding moral order. This was what Emile Durkheim meant when he
defined religion as:
. . . a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to

sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and
forbidden –beliefs and practices which unite into one
single moral community called a Church, all those who
adhere to them.
But these members of the moral community also share a common social
life. The religious community and the society have the same members.
When that occurs, religion, by providing a moral unity then provides a
society with powerful social “cement” to hold it together. When the
moral community of believers is identical with the social community, as
is common in more traditional societies; then the symbolism of the
sacred supports the more ordinary aspects of social life. Religion then
legitimizes society; it provides sacred sanction for the social order and
for its basic values and meanings.
Furthermore, the commitment of individuals to these shared beliefs is

renewed and refreshed each time the members come together to
worship, that is, when they become a congregation. Such a sense of
renewal is even stronger when they come together on ceremonial
occasions of great sacred meaning such as, for example Id-el fitr or Id-el
kabr for Muslims, on Easter and Christmas for Christians. But the
unifying rituals of faith are also called upon by individuals on the most
significant occasion for family and for the individual; at birth, at
marriage, and at death.
In traditional societies the religious and the nonreligious spheres of life

are not sharply differentiated. But in modern, industrial societies,
religion and society are not the same. The emergence of different modes
of life- experience leads to different meanings about life, producing a
religious differentiation. The all-encompassing church gives way to
competing religious group. Religion may still provide cohesion, but now
only for subgroups of society.
21
What is social cohesion? What way has religion promoted cohesion in

your society?
3.3 Religion and Social Control
Liberation theology is a relatively recent phenomenon and marks a

break with the traditional role of churches. It was this role that Karl
Marx opposed. In his view, religion impeded social change by
encouraging oppressed people to focus on other-worldly concerns rather
than on their immediate poverty or exploitation. Marx acknowledged
that religion plays an important role in propping up the existing social
structure. According to Marx, religion reinforces the interests of those in
power, grants a certain religious legitimacy to social inequality, and
contemporary Christianity, like the Hindu faith, reinforces traditional
patterns of behaviour that call for the subordination of the powerless.
The role of women in the church and in Islam is another example of

uneven distribution of power. Assumptions about gender roles leave
women in a subservient position both within Christian churches, in
Islam and at home. In fact, women find it difficult to achieve leadership
positions in many churches as they do in large corporations. Like Marx,
conflict theorists argue that to whatever extent religion actually does
influence social behaviour, it reinforces existing patterns of dominance
and inequality. From a Marxist perspective, religion functions as an
“agent of de-politicization”. In simpler terms religion keeps people from
seeing their lives and societal conditions in political terms by obscuring
the overriding significance of conflicting economic interests. Marxists
suggest that by inducing a “consciousness among the disadvantaged,
religion lessens the possibility of collective political action that can end
capitalist oppression and transform society”.
In what ways has religion influenced social control in Nigeria?
3.4 Religion and Social Support
Most of us find it difficult to accept the stressful events of life such as

death of a loved one, serious injury, bankruptcy and divorce among
others. This is especially true when something “senseless” happens.
How can family and friends come to terms with the death of talented
college student, not even 20 years old, from a terminal disease? Through
its emphasis on the divine and the supernatural, religion allows us to “do
something” about the calamities we face. In some faiths, adherents can
22
offer sacrifices or pray to a deity in the belief that such acts will change
their earthly condition. At a more basic level, religion encourages us to
view our personal misfortunes as relatively unimportant in the broader
perspective of human history or even as part of undisclosed divine
purpose. Friends and relatives of the deceased college student may see
this death as being “God’s will” and as having some ultimate benefit
that we cannot understand. This perspective may be much more
comforting than the terrifying feeling that any of us can die senselessly
at any moment- and that there is no divine “answer” as to why one
person lives a long and full life, while another dies tragically at a
relatively early age.
Faith-based community organizations have taken on more and more

responsibilities in the area of social assistance. In fact, as part of an
effort to cut back on government funded welfare programmes,
government leaders have advocated shifting the social “safety net” to
private organizations in general and to churches and religious charities
in particular.
Explain social support. How has religion influenced the social support
system in your community?
3.5 Religion and Social Change
Many religious activists, especially in Latin America, support liberation

theology, which refers to use of a church in a political effort to eliminate
poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice evident in secular
society. Advocates of this religious movement sometimes display
sympathy for Marxism. Many believe that radical liberation, rather than
economic development in itself, is the only acceptable solution to the
desperation of the masses in impoverished developing countries. Indeed,
the deteriorating social conditions of the last two decades have nurtured
this ideology of change.
A significant portion of worshippers are unaffected by this radical

mood, but religious leaders are well aware of liberation theology. The
official position of Pope John Paul II and others in the hierarchy of the
Catholic Church is that clergy should adhere to traditional pastoral
duties and keep a distance from radical politics. However, activists
associated with liberation theology believe that organized religion has a
moral responsibility to take a strong public stand against the oppression
of the poor, racial and ethnic minorities, and women.
23
The term liberation theology has a recent origin, dating back to the 1973
publication of the English translation of A Theology of Liberation. This
book is written by a Peruvian priest, Gustavo Gutierrez, who lived in a
slum area of Lima during the early 1960s. After years of exposure to the
vast poverty around him, Gutierrez concluded: “The poverty was a
destructive thing, something to be fought against and destroyed…. It
became crystal clear that in order to serve the poor, one had to move
into political action”.
Gutierrez’s discoveries took place during a time of increasing

radicalization among Latin American intellectuals and students. An
important element in their radicalization was the theory of dependencia,
developed by Brazilian and Chilean social scientists. According to this
theory, the reason for Latin America’s continued underdevelopment was
its dependence on industrialized nations (first Spain, then Great Britain,
and, most recently, the United States). A related approach shared by
most social scientists in Latin America was a Marxist-influenced class
analysis that viewed the domination of capitalism and multinational
corporations as central to be problems of the hemisphere. As these
perspectives became more influential, a social network emerged among
politically committed Latin American theologians who shared
experiences and insights. One result was a new approach to theology,
which rejected the models developed in Europe and the United State and
instead built on the cultural and religious traditions of Latin America.
In the 1970s, many advocates of liberation theology expressed strong

Marxist views and saw revolutionary struggle to overthrow capitalism as
essential to ending the suffering of Latin America’s poor. More recently,
liberation theology seems to have moved away from orthodox Marxism
and endorsement of armed struggle. As an example, Gutierrez
(1990:214, 222) has written that one does not need to accept Marxism as
an “all-embracing view of life and thus exclude the Christian faith and
its requirements”. Gutierrez adds that the proper concerns of a theology
of liberation are not simply the world’s “exploited against,” “despised
cultures,” and the “condition of women, especially in those sectors of
society where women are doubly oppressed and marginalized”.
What social change has religion introduced into the Nigeria society?
3.6 Religions and Psychotherapy
In Africa, particularly in Nigeria there is another way in which religion

sustains people; it becomes a supporting psychology, a form of
psychotherapy. Religion is viewed in upbeat terms, and God
24
is conceived of as a humane and considerate God; such a hopeful

perspective turns away from the older Christian conception of a stern
and demanding God.
Psychologizing Religion
This “psychologizing” of religion has created an “Americanized

religion” (as sociologists Louis Schneider and Sanford M. Dombusch
have called it). Norman Vincent Pearl, a prominent Protestant
clergyman, with his “power of positive thinking” serves as a typical
example. It provides peace of mind, promises prosperity and successes
in life, as well as effective and happy human relations. It is thus a source
of security and confidence, of happiness and success in this world.
Pastoral counselling - for which clergymen get psychological training -
is apparently a more significant function of American clergy than it is
European or African clergy. According to one careful observer:
The more routine but flourishing engagement of religion

in the affairs of a very large proportion of Americans
consist in their submitting hurts and hopes to the care and
help of pastors. Gauged by both consumer demand and by
clergymen’s self-emulation, the chief business of religion
in the United States is now- as it has probably long been-
the cure of souls.
The religious practitioner has now moved into a relevant place in the
mental health field as a helping professional. Consequently, pastoral
counselling has become so much a specialty that a national organization
- the American Association of Pastoral Counsellors - has been formed,
to set professional standards, regulate practice, and certify practitioners.
Discuss the role of religion as psychotherapy in the Nigerian society.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The connectivity between religion and society became evident when the
functional interpretation of religion by scholars became dominant. You
must have through this study understood that religion plays vital role in
social cohesion, social control, social change and social support and
even as psychotherapy in many societies.
5.0 SUMMARY
25
Religion gives expression to the sense of sacredness in human life; a

division between the sacred and the profane marks off religious from
nonreligious activity. A functional interpretation of religion stresses how
sharing in religious beliefs creates moral cohesion and thus makes
society morally legitimate. But religion also provides a mechanism for
social control and a source of psychic and emotional support for
individuals.
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1a. Give a scholarly definition to the term social cohesion

b. What role has religion played in the achievement of cohesion in
Nigeria?
2a. What is social control?
b. In what ways has religion been used as a tool for social control?
7.0 REFERENCES
Schaefer R.T. & Lamm R. P (1997) Sociology: A Brief Introduction,

New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
Mckee J. B. (1981) The Study of Society, New York: CBS College

Publishing.
Peter Berger (1967). The Sacred Canopy: Elements of Sociological

Theory of Religion, New York: Double day publishers.
Bryan Wilson (1969). Religion in Secular Society, Baltimore: Penguin

Books.
26
UNIT 3 THEORIES ON FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION IN

SOCIETY
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Overview of Function of Religion
3.2 Durkheim Theory
3.3 Weberian Thesis
3.4 Marxist Critique
3.5 The Integrative Function
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Reference
7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit will focus on theories on the function of religion in society as

postulated by some prominent sociologist. It will begin with a brief
overview of the approaches of the sociology. Emile Durkheim
introduced the first approach while other sociologists used other
approaches in studying religion. Particular attention will be given to the
insights of Karl Marx and Max Weber.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of a thorough study of this unit you should be able to:
• Explain the position of Emile Durkheim on the role of religion in

society;
• Explain the stand of Max Weber on the role religion could play in a
society;
• Identify the position of Karl Marx on the function of religion in

society;
27
• Compare and contrast the sociological positions of each scholar; and
• Explain the integrative function of religion in society.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Overview of Functions of Religion
Sociologists are interested in the social impact of religion on individuals

and institutions. Consequently, if a group believes that it is being
directed by a “vision from God,” a sociologist will not attempt to prove
or disprove this “revelation.” Instead, he or she will assess the effects of
the religious experience on the group. Since religion is a cultural
universal, it is not surprising that it plays a basic role in human societies.
In sociological terms, these include both manifest and latent functions.
Among its manifest (open and stated) functions, religion defines the
spiritual world and gives meaning to the divine. Religion provides an
explanation for events that seem difficult to understand, such as our
relationship to what lies beyond the grave.
The latent functions of religion are unintended, covert, or hidden. Even

though the manifest function of church services is to offer a forum for
religious worship, they might at the same time fulfil a latent function as
a meeting ground for unmarried members.
Functionalists and conflict theorists both evaluate religion’s impact as a

social institution on human societies. We will consider a functionalist
view of religion’s role in integrating society, in social support, and in
promoting social change, and then look at religion as a means of social
control from the conflict perspective. Note that, for the most part,
religion’s impact is best understood from a macro-level viewpoint,
oriented toward the larger society. The social support function is an
exception: it is best viewed on the micro level, directed toward the
individual.
Distinguish between latent and manifest function of religion.
3.2 Durkheimian Theory
Emile Durkheim was perhaps the first sociologist to recognize the

critical importance of religion in human societies. He saw its appeal for
the individual, but – more important- he stressed the social impact of
religion. In Durkheim’s view, religion is a collective act and includes
28
many forms of behaviour in which people interact with others. As in his

work on suicide, Durkheim was not interested in the personalities of
religious believers as he was in understanding religious behaviour
within a social context. Durkheim initiated sociological analysis of
religion by defining religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices
relative to sacred things”. In his formulation, religion involves a set of
beliefs and practices that are uniquely the property of religion - as
opposed to other social institutions and ways of thinking. Durkheim
argued that religious faiths distinguish between the everyday world and
certain events that transcend the ordinary. He referred to these realms as
the sacred and the profane.
The sacred encompasses elements beyond everyday life which inspire

awe, respect, and even fear. People become a part of the sacred realm
only by completing some ritual, such as prayer or sacrifice. Believers
have faith in the sacred; this faith allows them to accept what they
cannot understand. By contrast, the profane includes the ordinary and
commonplace. Interestingly, the same object can be either sacred or
profane depending on how it is viewed. A normal dinning room table is
profane, but it becomes sacred to Christians if it bears the elements of a
communion. For Confucians and Taoists, incense sticks are not mere
decorative items; they are highly valued offerings to the gods in
religious ceremonies marking new and full moons.
Following the direction established by Durkheim almost a century ago,

contemporary sociologist view religions in two different ways. The
norms and values of religious faiths can be studied through examination
of their substantive religious beliefs. For example, we can compare the
degree to which Christian faiths literally interpret the Bible, or Muslim
groups follow the Qur’an (or Koran). At the same time, religions can be
examined in terms of the social functions they fulfil, such as providing
social support or reinforcing the social norms. By exploring both the
beliefs and the functions of religious, we can better understand its
impact on the individual, on groups, and on society as a whole.
What is the difference between the profane and the sacred according to
Durkheim?
3.3 The Weberian Thesis
For Karl Marx, the relationship between religion and social change was
clear: religion impeded change by encouraging oppressed people to
focus on other worldly concerns rather than on their immediate poverty
or exploitation. However, Max Weber was unconvinced by Marx’s
29
argument and carefully examined the connection between religious

allegiance and capitalist development. His findings appeared in his
pioneering work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, first
published in 1904.
Weber noted that in European nations with Protestant and Catholic

citizens, an overwhelming number of business leaders, owners of
capital, and skilled workers were Protestant. In his view, this was no
mere coincidence. Weber pointed out that the followers of John Calvin
(1509-1564), a leader of the Protestant Reformation, emphasized a
disciplined work ethic, this-worldly concern, and rational orientation to
life that have become known as the Protestant ethic. One by-product of
the protestant ethic was a drive to accumulate savings that could be used
for future investment. This “spirit of capitalism,” to use Weber’s phrase,
contrasted with “the moderate work hours”, “leisurely work habits”, and
“lack of ambition” that he saw as typical of the times.
Few books on the sociology of religion have aroused as much

commentary and criticism as the protestant ethic and the spirit of
capitalism. It has been hailed as one of the most important theoretical
works in the field and as an excellent example of macro-level analysis.
Like Durkheim, Weber demonstrated that religion is not solely a matter
of intimate personal beliefs. He stressed that the collective nature of
religion has social consequences for society as a whole.
Conflict theorists caution that Weber’s theory even if it is accepted-

should not be regarded as an analysis of mature capitalism as reflected
in the rise of large corporations, which transcend national boundaries.
The primary disagreement between Kari Marx and Max Weber
concerned not the origins of capitalism, but rather its future. Unlike
Marx, Weber believed that capitalism could endure indefinitely as an
economic system. He added, however, that the decline of religion as an
overriding force in society opened the way for workers to express their
discontent more vocally.
We can conclude that, although Weber provides a convincing

description of the origins of European capitalism, this economic system
has subsequently been adopted by non-Calvinists in many parts of the
world. Contemporary studies in the United States show little or no
difference in achievement orientation between Roman Catholics and
Protestants. Apparently, the “spirit of capitalism” has become a
generalized cultural trait rather than a specific religious tenet.
30
Compare and contrast Weber and Marx opinion of the role of religion in
social change.
3.4 The Marxist Critique
Karl Marx described religion as an “opiate” particularly harmful to

oppressed peoples. In his view religion often drugged the masses into
submission by offering the hope of salvation in an ideal after life as
consolation for their harsh life on earth. For example, during the period
of slavery in the United States, white masters forbade blacks to practice
native African religion, while encouraging them to adopt the Christian
religion. Through Christianity slaves were prodded to obey their
masters; they were told that obedience would lead to salvation and
eternal happiness in the hereafter. Viewed from a conflict perspective,
Christianity may have pacified certain slaves and blunted the rage that
often fuel rebellion.
Marx acknowledged that religion plays an important role in legitimating

the existing social structure. The values of religion, as already noted,
reinforce other social institution and the social order as a whole. From
Marx perspectives, religion promotes stability within society and
therefore helps to perpetuate patterns of social inequality. In a society
with several religious faiths, the dominant religion will represent the
ruling economic and political class.
Marx concurred with Durkheim’s emphasis on the collective and

socially shared nature of religious behaviour. At the same time, he was
concerned that religion would reinforce social control within an
oppressive society. Marx argued that religion’s focus on otherworldly
concerns diverted attention from earth problems and from needless
suffering created by unequal distribution of valued resources.
Religion reinforces the interests of those in power. For example, India’s

traditional caste system defined the social structure of that society, at
least among the Hindu majority. The caste system was almost certainly
the creation of the priesthood, but it also served the interests of India’s
political rulers by granting a certain religious intimacy to social
inequality.
In the view of Karl Marx and later conflict theorists, religion is not
necessarily a beneficial or admirable force for social control. For
example, contemporary Christianity, like the Hindu faith, reinforces
traditional patterns of behaviour that call for the subordination of the
31
powerless. Assumptions about gender roles to leave women in the

subservient position both within Christian churches and at home are
usually upheld in the church. In fact, women find it as difficult to
achieve leadership position in many churches as they do in large
corporations. In 1993, 89 percent of all clergy in the United States were
males compared to 99 percent in 1983. While women play a significant
role as volunteers in community churches men continue to make the
major theological and financial judgment for nation wide church
organization. Conflict theorists argue that to whatever extent religion
actually does influence social behaviours. It however reinforces existing
patterns of dominance and inequality. From a Marxist perspective,
religion functions as an “agent of de-politicizing”. In simpler terms,
religion keeps people from seeing their lives and societal condition in
political terms by obscuring the overriding significance of conflicting
economic interest. Marxists suggest that by inducing a “false
consciousness” among the disadvantaged religion lessens the possibility
of collective political action that can end capitalist oppression and
transform society.
It should be noted, however, that religious leaders have sometimes been

in the forefront of movements for social change. During the 1960s, Dr.
Martin Luther King, Jr. supported by numerous ministers, priests, and
rabbis fought for civil rights for Blacks. In the 1980s, the sanctuary
movement of loosely connected organizations began offering asylum,
often in churches, to those who seek refugee status but are regarded by
the Immigration and Naturalization Service as illegal aliens. By giving
shelter in homes, offices, or places of worship to those refused asylum,
participants in the sanctuary movement are violating the law and
become subject to stiff fines and jail sentences. Nevertheless, movement
activities (including many members of the clergy) believe that such
humanitarian assistance is fully justified. The efforts of religious groups
to promote social change are noticed all over the world today.
Marx and Durkheim concurred on the nature of religious behaviour.

Discuss.
3.5 The Integrative Function of Religion
Emile Durkheim’s view of religion as an integrative power in human

society is reflected in the modern functionalist thought. Durkheim
sought to answer a perplexing question: “How can human societies be
held together when they are generally composed of individuals and
social groups with diverse interests and aspirations.” In his view,
religious bonds often transcend these personal and divisive forces.
32
Durkheim acknowledges that religion is not the only integrative force-

nationalism or patriotism may serve the same end.
Why should religion provide this “societal glue”? Religion, whether it is

Buddhism, Christianity, or Judaism, offers people meaning and purpose
for their lives. It gives them certain ultimate values and ends to hold in
common. Although subjective and not always fully accepted, these
values and ends help a society to function as an integrated social system.
For example, the Christian ritual of communion not only celebrates a
historical event in the life of Jesus (the last supper) but also represents
collective participation in a ceremony with sacred social significance.
Similarly, funerals, weddings, bar mitzvahs and confirmations serve to
integrate people into large communities by providing shared beliefs and
values about the ultimate question of life.
Although the integrative impact of religion has been emphasized here, it

should be noted that religion is not the dominant force maintaining
social cohesion in contemporary industrial societies. People are also
bound together by patterns of consumption, laws, nationalistic feelings,
and other forces. Moreover, in some instances religious loyalties are
dysfunctional; they contribute to tension and even conflict between
groups or nations. During the Second World War, the Nazis attempted
to exterminate the Jewish people, and approximately 6 million European
Jews were killed. In modern times, nations such as Lebanon (Muslims
versus Christians), Northern Ireland (Roman Catholics versus
Protestants), and India (Hindus versus Muslims and, more recently,
Sikhs) have been torn by clashes that are in part based on religion.
In the 1990s, the bloody conflict in the former Yugoslavia has been
exacerbated by related religious and ethnic tensions. Serbia, Macedonia
and Montenegro are dominated by the Orthodox Church, and Croatia
and Slovenia by the Catholic Church; the embattled republic of Bosnia-
Herzegovina has a 40 percent Islamic plurality. In many of these areas,
the dominant political party is tied into the most influential church.
Religious conflict has been increasingly evident in the Sudan and in
Nigeria as well as exemplified in the clashes in Northern Nigeria
between Christians and Muslims.
Define integration. In what way has religion performed integrative

function in Nigeria?
4.0 CONCLUSION
33
We have taken time to study the critical and scholarly position of some
sociologist on the role of religion in the society in this unit. The position
of Durkheim who was the first to approach religion from the functional
perspective was highlighted. Other scholars whose critical works were
studied include Karl Marx and Max Weber.
5.0 SUMMARY
Religion is found throughout the world because it offers answers to such

ultimate questions as why we exist, why we succeed or fail, and why we
die.
Emile Durkheim stressed the social aspect of religion and attempted to

understand individual religious behaviour within the context of the
larger society.
From a Marxist point of view, religion lessens the possibility of

collective political action that can end capitalist oppression and
transform society.
Max Weber held that Calvinism (and, to lesser extent, other branches of
Protestantism) produced a type of person more likely to engage in
capitalistic behaviour.
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1 a. Explain manifest and latent function of religion

b. What is the Durkheimian position on the place of religion in
society
2 a. Give an account of the Marxist ideology in relation to the

role of religion in society.
b. How is it different from Weber’s opinion?
34
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Schaefer R.T. & Lamm R. P (1997) Sociology: A Brief Introduction,

New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.

Publishing.

Theory of Religion, New York: Double Day Publishers.
Bryan Wilson (1969). Religion in Secular Society, Baltimore, Penguin

Books.
35
UNIT 4 DIMENSIONS OF RELIGIOUS BEHAVIOUR
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Belief
3.2 Ritual
3.3 Experience
3.4 Varieties of Religious Behaviour
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments.
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
All religions have certain elements in common, yet these elements are
expressed in the distinctive manner of each faith. The patterns of social
behaviour are of great interest to sociologists, since they underscore the
relationship between religion and society. Religious beliefs, religious
rituals, and religious experience all help to define what is sacred and to
differentiate the sacred from the profane. Let us now examine these
three dimensions of religious behaviour in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
It is expected that on the completion of this study unit you should be

able to:
• Give account of a society’s belief system;
• Explain religious rituals as practiced in societies;
• Express different kind of religious experience;
• Differentiate between beliefs and experience; and
36
• Differentiate between rites and rituals.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Belief
Some people believe in life after death, in supreme beings with

unlimited powers, or in supernatural forces. Religious beliefs are
statements to which members of a particular religion adhere. These
views can vary dramatically from religion to religion. The Adam and
Eve account of creation found in Genesis, the first book of the Old
Testament, is an example of a religious belief. Many people in the
United States strongly adhere to this biblical explanation of creation and
even insist that it be taught in public schools. These people, known as
creationists, are worried about the secularization of society and oppose
teaching that directly or indirectly question biblical scripture.
Explain religious belief. What are the common beliefs of most major
religious groups?
3.2 Ritual
Religious rituals are practices required or expected of members of a

faith. Rituals usually honour the divine power (or powers) worshipped
by believers; they also remind adherents of their religious duties and
responsibilities. Rituals and beliefs can be interdependent; rituals
generally involve the affirmation of beliefs, as in a public or private
statement confessing a sin. Like any social institution, religion develops
distinctive normative patterns to structure people’s behaviour.
Moreover, there are sanctions attached to religious rituals, whether
rewards (pins for excellence at church schools) or penalties
(expulsion from a religious institution for violation of norms).
Among Christians in Nigeria, rituals may be very simple, such as

praying at a meal or observing a moment of silence to commemorate
someone’s death. Yet certain rituals, such as the process of canonizing a
saint, are quite elaborate. Most religious rituals in our culture focus on
services conducted at houses of worship. Thus, attendance at a service,
silent and spoken reading of prayers, and singing of spiritual hymns and
37
chants are common forms of ritual behaviour that generally take place in
group settings.
From an interactionist perspective, these rituals serve as important face-

to-face encounters in which people reinforce their religious beliefs and
their commitment to their faith. One way to think of religious ritual is as
how people “do religion” together. From Muslims, a very important
ritual is the hajj, a pilgrimage to the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi
Arabia. Every Muslim who is physically and financially able is expected
to make this trip at least once. Each year over 2 million pilgrims go to
Mecca during the one week period indicated by the Islamic lunar
calendar. Muslims from all over the world make the hajj, including
those in Nigeria, where many tours are arranged to facilitate this ritual.
Some rituals induce an almost trancelike state. The Plains Indians eat or
drink peyote, a cactus containing the powerful hallucinogenic drug
called mescaline. Similarly, the ancient Greek followers of the god Pan
chewed intoxicating leaves of ivy in order to become more ecstatic
during their celebrations. Of course, artificial stimulants are not
necessary to achieve a religious “high”. Devout believers, such as those
who practice the Pentecostal Christian ritual of “speaking in tongues”,
can reach a state of ecstasy simply through spiritual passion.
Ritual is said to be common to all religious groups. Explain a common

ritual in your religion.
3.3 Experience
In sociological study of religion, the term religious experience refers to

the feeling or perception of being in direct contact with the ultimate
reality, such as a divine being, or of being overcome with religious
emotion. A religious experience may be rather slight, such as the feeling
of exaltation a person receives from hearing a choir sing Handel’s
“Hallelujah Chorus.” But many religious experiences are more
profound, such as Muslim’s experience on a hajj. In his autobiography,
the late African America activist Malcolm X wrote of his hajj and how
deeply moved he was by the way that Muslims in Mecca came
together across lines of race and color. For Malcolm X, the colour
blindness of the Muslim world “proved to me the power of the One
God”.
Still another profound religious experience is, at a turning point in one’s

life making a personal commitment to Jesus. According to a 1997
national survey, more than 44 percent of people in the United States
38
claimed that they had a born-again Christian experience at some time in

their lives-a figure that translates into nearly 80 million adults. An
earlier survey found that Baptists (61 percent) were the most likely to
report such experiences; by contrast, only 18 percent of Catholics and 11
percent of Episcopalians stated that they had been born again. The
collective nature of religion, as emphasized by Durkheim, is evident in
these statistics. The beliefs and rituals of a particular faith can create an
atmosphere either friendly or hostile to this type of religious experience.
Thus, a Baptist would be encouraged to come forward and share such
experiences with others, whereas an Episcopalian who claimed to have
born again would receive much less support.
What is religious experience? In what ways has it influenced adherents’

commitment to their faith?
3.4 Varieties of Religious Behaviour
Because religious behaviour finds expression in so many aspects of

everyday life, we find it difficult to disentangle religion from other
institutional spheres. In fact classifying behaviour as religious or
political or economic is a relatively recent custom. For instance,
although the ancient Greeks had notions regarding various gods, they
did not have a word for religion. But precisely because religious
behaviour is so varied, we have difficulty thinking about it unless we
find some way to sort it into relevant categories. Although no categories
do justice to the diversity and richness of the human religious
experience, sociologist Recce McGee has provided a scheme that is both
intelligent and manageable: simple supernaturalism, animism, theism,
and a system of abstract ideals.
Simple supernaturalism prevails in pre-industrial societies. Believers

attribute a diffuse, impersonal, supernatural quality to nature, what some
South Pacific peoples call mana. No spirits or gods are involved, but
rather a “force” that influences events for better or worse. People
compel the superhuman power to behave as they wish by mechanically
manipulating it. For instance, a four-leaf clover has mana; a three-leaf
clover does not. Carrying the four-leaf clover in your wallet is thought
to bring good luck. You need not talk to the four-leaf clover or offer
it gifts- only carry it. Similarly, the act of uttering the words “open
sesame” serves to manipulate impersonal supernatural power; you say it,
and the door swings open on Aladdin’s cave. Many athletes use lucky
charms, elaborate routines, and superstitious rituals to ward off injury
and bad luck in activities based on uncertainty. Mana is usually
employed to reach practical, immediate goals- control of the weather,
39
assurance of a good crop, the cure of an illness, good performance on a

test, success in love, or victory in battle. It functions much like an old-
fashioned book of recipes or a home medical manual.
A belief in spirits or otherworldly beings is called animism. People have

imputed spirits to animals, plants, rocks, stars, rivers and, at times, other
people. Spirits are commonly thought to have the same emotions and
motives that activate ordinary mortals. So humans deal with them by
techniques they find useful in their own social relationships. Love,
punishment, reverence, and gifts- even cajolery, bribery, and false
pretences- have been used in dealing with spirit. Occasionally, as with
mana, supernatural power is harnessed through rituals that compel a
spirit to act in desired way- what we call spells.
In theism religion is centred in a belief in gods who are thought to be

powerful, to have an interest in human affairs, and to merit worship.
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are forms of monotheism, or belief in
one god. They all have established religious organizations, religious
leaders or priests, traditional rituals, and sacred writing. Ancient Greek
religion and Hinduism (practiced primarily in India) are forms of
polytheism, or belief in many gods with equal or relatively similar
power. Gods of the Hindus are often tribal, village, or caste deities
associated with particular place- a building, field, or mountain- or a
certain object-animal or tree.
Finally, some religions focus on a set of abstract ideals. Rather than

centring on the worship of a god they are dedicated to achieving moral
and spiritual excellence. Many of the religions of Asia are of this type
including Taoism and Buddhism. Buddhism is directed toward reaching
an elevated state of consciousness, a method of purification that
provides a release from suffering ignorance, selfishness, and the cycle of
birth and rebirth. In the Western world, humanism is a religion based on
ethical principles. Its adherents discard all the logical beliefs about God,
heaven, hell, and immortality, substituting for God the pursuit of good in
the here and now. Heaven is seen as the ideal society on earth and hell,
as a world in which war, disease, and ignorance flourish. The soul is the
human personality and immortality is a person’s deeds living on after
death, for good or evil, in the lives of other people.
Sociologist Robert N. Bellah suggests that a sharp dualism - the historic

distinction between “the world” and some “other world” no longer
characterizes the major religions of contemporary Western nations.
Modern religions tend to mix the sacred and the profane. They
increasingly ground their claim to legitimacy in their relevance for the
contemporary human condition rather than their possession of
supernaturally revealed wisdom. God becomes less remote and more
40
approachable. Religion is seen as providing a “sacred canopy” that

shelters its adherents from feelings of chaos, meaninglessness, and
ultimate despair.
Not only are believers brought increasingly face-to-face with God; they
must also choose the God they are to worship. Creeds must not only be
lived up to; they must be interpreted and selectively combined,
modified, and personalized in ways each person finds meaningful. This
process of choosing and adapting often assumes the character of a
lifelong journey rather than a one-time determined reality.
Simultaneously, the definition of what it means to be “religious” and the
meaning of the “ultimate” expand, becoming more fluid and open to
individual interpretation. Even so, as Bellah recognizes, sects and
fundamentalist religions with orthodox beliefs and standards continue to
retain the allegiance of segments of the population and undergo periodic
revivals as reactions against the uncertainties of modern society.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit concentrated on the pattern of religious behaviour among

people of different religious faith. Three common elements among the
religious, group were treated. Namely religious beliefs, religious, rituals,
and religious, experience. Other varieties of behaviour exhibited by
religious groups were also highlighted.
5.0 SUMMARY
The three dimensions of religious behaviour which are belief, ritual and
experience are the generally accepted as the most common elements to
all religion of the world.
Belief in life after death and in supreme beings with unlimited power are
said to be common to most religion. Ritual practices are expected of
adherents of a faith. These are often carried out to honour the divine
powers. Religion experience refers to the feeling or perception of being
in direct contact with the ultimate reality. Varieties of religious,
behaviour as presented by some scholars were highlighted.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain religious rituals as one of the major dimensions in

religious behaviour with a relevant example from your religion.
2. Define the term belief. Identify and compare two common beliefs
in Islam and Christianity.
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READINGS
41
Schaefer R.T. & Lamm R. P (1997) Sociology: A Brief Introduction

New York: McGraw-Hill companies.

UNIT 5 ORGANIZATION OF RELIGIOUS BEHAVIOR
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Ecclesiae
3.2 Denominations
3.3 Sects
3.4 Cults
3.5 Comparing Forms of Religious Organization
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The collective nature of religion has led to many forms of religious

association. In modern societies, religion has become increasingly
formalized. Specific structures such as churches, mosques and
synagogues are constructed for religious worship; individuals are trained
for occupational roles within various fields. These developments make it
possible to distinguish between the sacred and secular parts of one’s
life- a distinction that could not be made in earlier societies in which
religion was largely a family activity carried out in the home.
Sociologists find it useful to distinguish between four basic forms of

organization: the ecclesia, the denomination, the sect, and the cult. As is
the case with other typologies used by social scientists, this system
of classification can help us to appreciate the variety of organizational
forms found among religious faiths. Distinctions are made between
these types of organizations on the basis of such factors as size, power,
degree of commitment expected from members, and historical ties to
other faiths.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
42
It is hoped that at the end of this study unit, you should be able to:
• Define ecclesiae;
• Explain denomination and their forms;
• Differentiate between the sects;
• Explain what cult is and the types; and
• Compare the different forms of religious organization.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Ecclesia
An ecclesia (plural, ecclesiae) is a religious organization that claims to

include most or all of the members of a society and is recognized as the
national or official religion. Since virtually everyone belongs to the
faith, membership is by birth rather than conscious decision. Examples
of ecclesiae include the Lutheran church in Sweden, the Catholic
Church in Spain, Islam in Saudi Arabia, and Buddhism in Thailand.
However, there can be significant differences even within the category
of ecclesia. In Saudi Arabia’s Islamic regime, leaders of the ecclesia
hold vast power over actions of the state. By contrast, the Lutheran
church in contemporary Sweden has no such power over the Riksdag
(parliament) or the prime minister.
Generally, ecclesiae are conservative in that they do not challenge the

leaders or polices of a secular government. In a society with an ecclesia,
the political and religious institutions often act in harmony and mutually
reinforce each other’s power over their relative spheres of influence.
Within the modern world, ecclesiae tend to be declining in power.
Define the term ecclesia. Compare the ecclesiastical setting of Iran and
Rome.
3.2 Denominations
A denomination is a large, organized religion that is not officially linked

with the state or government. Like an ecclesia, it tends to have an
explicit set of beliefs, a defined system of authority, and a generally
respected position in society. Denominations count among their
43
members large segments of a population. Generally, children accept the

denomination of their parents and give little thought to membership in
other faiths. Denominations also resemble ecclesiae in that few demands
are made on members. However, there is a critical difference between
these two forms of religious organization. Although the denomination is
considered respectable and is not viewed as a challenge to the secular
government, it lacks the official recognition and power held by an
ecclesia.
No nation of the world has more denominations than the United States.
In good measures it is a result of the nation’s immigrant heritage. Many
settlers in the “new world” brought with them the religious
commitments native to their homelands. Denominations of Christianity
found in the United States, such as those of the Roman Catholics,
Episcopalians, and Lutherans, were the outgrowth of ecclesiae
established in Europe. In addition, new Christian denominations
emerged, including new Mormons and Christian Scientist.
Although by far the largest single denomination in the United States is

Roman Catholicism, at least 20 other Christian faiths have 1 million or
more members. Protestants collectively accounted for about 56 percent
of the nation’s adult population in 1993, compared with 26 percent for
Roman Catholics and almost 3 percent for Jews. There are also 5 million
Muslims in United States while a smaller number of people adhere to
such eastern faiths as Hinduism, Confucianism, and Taosim.
How is denomination different from an ecclesia?
3.3 Sects
In contrast to the denomination is the sect, which Max Weber termed a

“believer’s church”, because affiliation is based on conscious acceptance
of a specific religious dogma. A sect can be defined as a relatively small
religious group that has broken away from some other religious
organization to renew what it views as the original vision of the faith.
Many sects, such as that led by Martin Luther during the Reformation,
claimed to be the “true church”. This is because they seek to cleanse the
established faith of what they regard as extraneous beliefs and rituals.
Sects are fundamentally at odds with society and do not seek to become
established national religions. Unlike ecclesiae, sects require intensive
commitments and demonstrations of belief by members. Partly owing to
their “outsider” status in society, sects frequently exhibit a higher degree
of religious fervour and loyalty than more established religious groups
do. Recruitment is focused mainly on adults; as a result, acceptance
44
comes through conversion. Among current-day sects in the United

States and other countries are movements within the Roman Catholic
Church that favour a return to use of Latin in the mass.
Sects are often short-lived; however, if able to survive, they may

become less antagonistic to society and begin to resemble
denominations. In a few instances, sects have been able to endure over
several generations while remaining fairly separate from society.
Sociologist Milton Yinger uses the term established sect to describe a
religious group that is the outgrowth of a sect, yet remains isolated from
society. The Hutterites, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventists,
and Amish are contemporary examples of established sects in the United
States.
Explain how sects originate. Identify their major characteristic
3.4 Cults
The cult accepts the legitimacy of other religious groups. Like the
denomination, the cult does not lay claim to the truth, but unlike the
denomination it tends to be critical of society. The cult lacks many of
the features of a traditional religious; sees the source of unhappiness and
injustice as incorporated within each person; holds the promise of
finding truth and contentment by following its tenets; believes it
possesses the means for people to unlock a hidden or potential strength
within themselves without necessarily withdrawing from the world; and
holds a relatively individualized, universalized, and secularized view of
the Divine.
The cult does not require its members to pass strict doctrinal tests, but
instead invites all to join its ranks. It usually lacks the tight discipline of
sects whose rank-and-file members hold one another “up to the mark”.
And unlike a sect, it usually lacks prior ties with an established religion:
it is instead a new and independent religious tradition. The cult
frequently focuses on the problems of its members, especially
loneliness, fear, inferiority, tension, and kindred troubles. Some cults are
built around a single function, such as spiritual healing or spiritualism.
Others, like various “New Thought” and “New Age” cults, seek to
combine elements of conventional religion with ideas and practices that
are essentially nonreligious. Still others direct their attention toward the
pursuit of “self-awareness,” “self-realization.” wisdom, or insight, such
as Vedanta, Soto Zen, the Human Potential Movement and
Transcendental Meditation.
45
International attention focused on religious cults in 1993 as a result of

the violence at the Branch Davidians’ compound near Waco, Texas. The
Davidains’ began as a sect of the Seventh-day Adventists church in
1934 and based their beliefs largely on the biblical book of Revelation
and its dooms day prophecies. In 1984, the Davidians’ sect split, with
one group emerging as a cult under the leadership of David Koresh.
After a 51-day standoff against federal authorities in early 1993, Koresh
and 85 of his followers died when the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) attempted to seize control the Davidians’ compound. In 1995,
religious cults again received international attention when members of
the Japanese religious group Aum Shinrikyo were accused of a poison
gas attack on the Tokyo subway system that killed a dozen people and
injured 5500.
As psychotherapist Irvin Doress and sociologist Jack Nusan Porter have

suggested, the word cult has taken on a negative meaning in the United
States and is used more as a means of discrediting religious minorities
than as a way of categorizing them. They note that some groups, such as
the Hare Krishnas, are labeled as “cults” because they seem to come
from foreign (often nonwestern) lands and have customs perceived as
“strange”. This reflects people’s ethnocentric evaluations of that which
differs form the commonplace. James Richardson, a sociologist of
religion, does not like the term cult and prefers to call such groups new,
minority, or exotic religions.
It is difficult to distinguish sects from cults. A cult is a generally small,

secretive religious group that represents either a new religion or a major
innovation of an existing faith. Cults are similar to sects in that they tend
to be small and are often viewed as less respectable than more
established ecclesiae or denominations. Some cults, such as
contemporary cults focused on UFO sightings or expectations of
colonizing outer space, may be totally unrelated to the existing faiths in
a culture. Even when a cult does not accept certain fundamental tenets of
a dominant faith, such as belief in the divinity of Jesus or Muhammad, it
will offer new revelations or new insights to justify its claim to be a
more advanced religion.
As is true of sects, cults may undergo transformation over time into

other types of religious organizations. An example is the Christian
Science church, which began as a cult under the leadership of Mary
Baker Eddy. Today, this church exhibits the characteristics of a
denomination.
46
Explain the term “cult”. Identify and explain the operation of any cult in
Nigeria.
3.5 Comparing Forms of Religious Organization
Clearly, it is no simple matter to determine whether a particular religious

group falls into the sociological category of ecclesia, denomination, sect,
or cult. Yet as we have seen, these ideal types of religious organizations
have somewhat different relationships to society. Ecclesiae are
recognized as national churches; denominations, although not officially
approved, are generally respected. By contrast, sects as well as cults are
much more likely to be at odds with the larger culture.
Ecclesiae, denominations, and sects are best viewed as ideal types along
a continuum rather than as mutually exclusive categories. Since the
United States has no ecclesia, sociologists studying this nation’s
religions have naturally focused on the denomination and the sect. These
religious forms have been pictured on either end of a continuum, with
denominations accommodating to the secular world and sects making a
protest against established religions.
Advances in electronic communications have led to still another form of

religious organization; the electronic church. Facilitated by cable
television and satellite transmission, televangelists (as they are called)
direct their message to more people than are served by all but the largest
denominations. While some televangelists are affiliated with religious
denominations, most give viewers the impression that they are
disassociated from established faiths.
The programming of the electronic church is not solely religious. There

is particular focus on issues concerning marriage and the family, death
and dying, and education; yet more overtly political topics such as
foreign and military policy are also discussed. Although many television
ministries avoid political positions, others have been quite outspoken.
Most noteworthy in this regard is Pentecostal minister Pat Robertson, a
strong conservative. Robertson founded the Christian Broadcasting
Network in 1961, served for many years as host of CBN’s syndicated
religious talk show. The 700 club, and took leave of his television posts
in 1986 to seek the 1988 Republican nomination for president in US. He
has continued his political activism through his leadership of the
Christian coalition.
Compare the characteristics and operations of sect with that of a cult.
47
4.0 CONCLUSION
Norms, beliefs and rituals provide the cultural fabric of religion, but
there is more to a religion than its cultural heritage. As with other
institutions, there is also a structural organization in which people are
bound together within networks of relatively stable relationship. This
unit has examined the ways in which people organize themselves in
fashioning religious life.
5.0 SUMMARY
Distinctions are made between the varieties of organization forms found

among religious faith. This were made based on factors such as size,
power, degree of commitment expected from members and historical
ties to the faith. The organization so studied included ecclesia,
denominations, sects and cults. Comparisons of these forms of
organizations were also examined in the unit.
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1a. What is meant by Ecclesia?

b. Distinguish between an ecclesia and a denomination.
2a. Explain the term “cult”.
b. How will you differentiate a cult from a sect?
Schaefer R.T. & Lamm R. P (1997) Sociology: A Brief Introduction

New York: McGraw-Hill companies.

48
MODULE 2
UNIT 1 RELIGION AND STRATIFICATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Sub-Urban Church
3.2 Religion and Radical Politics
3.3 Religion among the Oppressed
3.4 Radical and Conservative Religion
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is the first unit of the second module of this course. In the first
module, you dealt with society and religious behaviour. Under that, you
studied the meaning, nature and development of society and the
functions of religion vis-à-vis postulations like the Marxist, Weberian
and Durkheimian theses. You also studied the dimensions of religious
behaviour and their organizations. In this module however, you will be
studying religion and modernity. In this first unit, focus will be on
religion and stratification in the areas of geography, economics, politics
and religion itself.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Define the sub-urban church;
• Discuss the challenges involved in working in the sub-urban church;
• Discuss the relationship between religion and politics;
49
• Evaluate the role of religion among the oppressed; and
• Differentiate between the conservative and the radical in religion.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Sub-urban Church
According to the geographical distribution of churches, there are three

types of churches namely the urban, the rural and the sub-urban
churches. In this part, you will be focusing on the sub-urban church.
The Characteristics of the Sub-urban Church

1. The sub-urban church has a wide range of sizes: the size of the sub
-urban church ranges from 30 to 800 people but it is usually less than
120 people.
2. The sub-urban church has a great variety theologically and

denominationally. You will find out that within the environment you
will find the charismatic, the evangelical, the liberal, the liturgical as
well as the traditional oriented churches, thus making ministering in
such an environment very challenging.
3. The sub-urban church caters for a wide range of ages. In such

churches you will find the elderly, the family groups (consisting of
parents and children) and also the youth. This diversity in the age range
to be catered for makes ministering in the sub-urban church to be more
challenging.
Despite all the challenges involved in the running of the sub-urban

church, the church has a lot of potential for growth and expansion.
3.2 Religion and Radical Politics
When it comes to politics, especially in the Christian religion, there are

many dissenting voices. Many Christian sects reject any involvement
and participation in politics. Many of these sects rest their position on
Jesus’ statement that his kingdom is not of this world, which they
interpret to mean that earthly politics should be rejected. Examples of
these sects are the Amish and the Hutterites. Apart from Christianity,
some of the Oriental religions also reject participation in politics. These
include Taoism. Taoism teaches that politics was insincere and they
actually have a very dim view of the state. They thus favour withdrawal
from politics and promote life of contemplation. There are some
conservative and severely ascetic schools of thought in Hinduism and
50
Buddhism that also reject political involvement. The following religions

also reject participation in politics: Jehovah’s Witnesses,
Christadelphians, Old Order Amish and Rastafarians.
3.3 Religion among the Oppressed
Religion by its very nature can be subjected to various usages. This is

expressed in the words of Karl Marx as follows: “Religious distress is at
the same time the expression of real distress. Religion is the sigh of the
oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, just as it is the spirit of
the spiritless situation. It is the opium of the people.” In his explanation
as to the continual existence of religion, Hazel Croft opines that “people
look to religion because it fulfils a need in a world which is full of
competition, misery and oppression. In a society divided by class, where
the majority of people have no real control of their lives, religion can
seem to provide a solution. This is why religious ideas have often found
mass support at times of great upheaval”.
The irony of the situation lies in the fact that traditionally the oppressed
has looked up to religion in the acceptance of their position and the
resignation to their fate while on the other hand the oppressors have
appealed to the same religion to justify their continuous oppression of
the oppressed. It looks as if the two divides are appealing to the same
authority to justify what they are doing.
3.4 Radical and Conservative Religion
Among the religious people there have always been two great divides:
the radicals and the conservatives (also known as the fundamentalists).
Conservative/Fundamental Religion
The Microsoft Premium Encarta defines fundamentalism as follows:

“movement with strict view of doctrine: a religious or political
movement based on a literal interpretation of and strict adherence to
doctrine, especially as a return to former principles”. Fundamentalism or
conservatism has been known largely for its hard-line position on
various religious, political as well as social issues. Fundamentalism as a
religious principle is reflected in the three major religions of the world
namely: Christianity, Judaism and Islam.
Fundamentalism in Christianity
Fundamentalism, in Christianity arose as a movement among Protestants

which began in the United States in the late 19th century. It emphasized
51
as absolutely basic to Christianity the following beliefs: the infallibility

of the Bible, the virgin birth and the divinity of Jesus Christ, the
sacrifice of Christ on the cross as atonement for the sins of all people,
the physical resurrection and second coming of Christ, and the bodily
resurrection of believers.
Origin
Fundamentalism is rooted in 18th and 19th century American revivalism.

Until the middle of the 19th century, its principal beliefs were held by
almost all orthodox Protestant denominations, particularly by
evangelical denominations. Fundamentalism as an organized,
conservative movement dates from the early part of the 20th century. It
developed out of a series of Bible conferences, the first ones held in
1876. These were called by members of various denominations who
strongly objected to the following: the historical-literary study of the
Bible, known as the higher criticism; the attempts (still continuing) to
reconcile traditional Christian beliefs and doctrines with contemporary
experience and knowledge; and the acceptance of a scientific view of the
world, particularly the popularization of the theory of evolution. Such
trends and beliefs were opposed by many conservative members of
Protestant denominations.
The more conservative members of each denomination at first attempted

to exclude from their own institutions people they considered outspoken
or unyielding liberals. As a result a number of ministers and theologians
were dismissed for espousing higher criticism. The exceptionally
conservative, however, set up various rival bodies and educational
institutions to spread their creed. Fundamentalism began to flourish in
1909 with the publication and distribution of 12 books called The
Fundamentals. By the time the 12th of the series had been published,
about 3 million copies of The Fundamentals had been distributed
throughout the United States and elsewhere.
Development
Fundamentalism spread in the 1920s. It was strongest in rural areas,

particularly in California, in the Border States, and in the South. In these
areas, Fundamentalists sharply delineated the issue of biblical
infallibility in historical and scientific matters. The controversy over this
issue grew most intense in the secular sphere when Fundamentalists
urged many states to pass legislation forbidding the teaching of
evolution in public schools. Several southern and Border States, among
them Tennessee, passed such laws. The Tennessee statute led, in 1925,
to the world-famous trial of John Thomas Scopes, a high school
instructor, who was convicted of teaching evolution in defiance of law.
52
The orator and politician William Jennings Bryan was an associate

prosecutor at the trial; the lawyer Clarence Darrow defended Scopes. In
1968 the US Supreme Court ruled that such laws were unconstitutional.
Fundamentalism lost momentum in the early 1930s. The main reasons

were the acceptance by most Americans of modern scientific theories
and methods, more liberal religious doctrines, and the lack of an
effective national organization to lead the Fundamentalist associations.
Fundamentalism, along with the related, but more moderate Evangelical
movement, has since revived, primarily in reaction to such
contemporary theological movements as ecumenicity, neo-orthodoxy,
and Modernism. In 1948 an international Fundamentalist group was
formed; centred in Amsterdam, the International Council of Christian
Churches claims support from 45 denominations in 18 countries.
Islamic Fundamentalism
Islamic Fundamentalism is also known as Islamic revivalism or

Islamism. It is the name given to a movement of religious, social, and
political reform in the Islamic world. Its particular doctrinal
characteristic is the combination of traditional Muslim values based on
the Shari’ah law of Islam with programmes of social and economic
modernization. Most distinctively, Islamic fundamentalists (Islamists)
aim to take power in Muslim states and use the state organization to
carry out their objectives.
Origin
Islamic fundamentalist ideas first emerged in the salafiyya movement of

Muslim purification and revival led by Muhammad Rashid Rida, a
Syrian writer based in Egypt in the early 20th century. These ideas were
taken up and modified by educational societies in Syria and Egypt
during the 1920s; the best known was the Muslim Brotherhood founded
in Egypt in 1928 by Hasan al-Banna. During World War II the Muslim
Brotherhood expanded, achieving a following estimated at 2 million,
developed political ambitions, and threatened the survival of the
Egyptian political system. Branches were established in other Muslim
countries. In 1954, however, the Brotherhood was suppressed by the
new Free Officer regime, and for the next 20 years Islamic
fundamentalism was overshadowed by the secular regimes, such as the
Baath parties, and ideologies that dominated most Muslim states. There
were, however, continued developments in the ideas of fundamentalists,
notably in the work of Abu A’la al-Maududi in Pakistan and Sayyid
Qutb who was executed in1966 in Egypt.
Revival
53
Islamic fundamentalism spread rapidly from the 1970s, aided by several

factors. These included the reverses suffered by secular Arab regimes in
the Six-Day War with Israel of 1967; the wealth and influence of Saudi
Arabia, which patronized Islamic causes; the economic difficulties of
several states during the 1980s owing to the fall in the price of oil; and
especially the acceleration in the pace of modernization in Muslim
countries, including the rapid growth of cities. The leaders of Islamic
fundamentalism tended to be men who had been exposed to modern
education and came from outside the ranks of the traditional ulema
(religious scholars): their followers came especially from the new
immigrants to the cities. Islamic fundamentalism is essentially an urban
movement, and may be seen as a response to the problems of transition
from traditional rural to modern urban economic and social structures.
Doctrinally, it takes the form of hostility to the Western styles of the
older secular political leadership; and more generally to certain, but by
no means all, ideas proceeding from the West.
Spread of Islamic Fundamentalism
Powerful fundamentalist movements developed in many Muslim states

in the 1980s and 1990s, notably in the Middle East, North Africa,
Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Similar movements were visible in South
East Asia, Central Asia, and Caucasia, and support was found among the
growing Muslim communities in Western European states. The
fundamentalists engaged widely in educational and charitable work and
demonstrated the extent of their political support in elections. It is
generally thought that the Muslim Brotherhood would have won far
more parliamentary seats in Egypt had it not been for government
interference. In 1992 the Algerian general elections were cancelled
when it was supposed that the Islamic Salvation Front would win. In
1996 an Islamic party, Welfare, emerged as the largest single party in
Turkey and its leader, Necmettin Erbakan, became prime minister,
although resigning a year later. Islamists also won much electoral
support in Lebanon, Jordan, Yemen, and Kuwait. In 1989 a
fundamentalist party, the National Islamic Front, came to power through
a military coup in Sudan. In Iran the 1979 revolution brought to power a
mixed fundamentalist/traditional Islamic regime and in 1996 the
Taliban, a traditional/conservative Islamic movement, won power in
Afghanistan by military victory. Islamist movements in various states
began to build links, a process fostered in particular by Hassan Abdullah
al-Turabi, the Sudanese Islamist leader, who established the periodic
Popular Arab and Islamic Conference as a forum for Islamist groups.
Repression and Militancy in Islamic Fundamentalism
54
During the 1990s secular and other established regimes became

increasingly concerned at the threat from the Islamists and began to
repress their organizations. Some Islamists began armed struggle against
the regimes, although it should be noted that not all militants (jihadis)
were Islamists; some came from other Islamic strains. The greatest
violence took place in Algeria where the Groupe Islamique Armé (GIA)
began a ferocious, bloody struggle directed against government and
civilians and which led to a major civil war. Other wars took place in
Chechnya and Tajikistan. In Egypt militant Islamists had been active
since the late 1970s and had succeeded in assassinating president Anwar
al-Sadat in 1981. They continued their attacks on government, the
Coptic community, and foreign tourists. Islamist groups fought against
the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. A factor in
militancy was the activities of so-called Afghan Arabs, that is to say
those Arab volunteers who had fought against the Soviet Union in
Afghanistan during the 1980s and who were found in various places
including Bosnia-Herzegovina, Chechnya, Sudan, and Afghanistan
during the 1990s. Best known among them was the Saudi Osama bin
Laden, who went first to Sudan and then to Afghanistan. Many returned
to Yemen where they were repressed in 2000 and 2001. The established
regimes increasingly prevailed against Islamists who were dismissed
from power: in Sudan, where Al-Turabi was first excluded from
government and then arrested and imprisoned in 2001, and in Turkey,
where the Welfare Party was shut down in 1998 and its successor soon
afterwards. The civil war in Algeria reached its peak in 1995 and
thereafter declined in intensity.
As they were defeated in Arab and other countries many Islamists took
refuge in Western Europe. Egypt complained of the shelter given to the
militants and demanded their extradition but European governments
were reluctant to take action that might be regarded as illiberal or might
offend Muslim communities in their countries. A feature of the 1990s,
however, was that the Islamic militants increasingly turned their attacks
against Western targets, complaining that Western powers supported
anti-Muslim regimes. At first the targets were linked to Israel but the
aim of the militants soon widened. In 1995 the GIA arranged a series of
bomb explosions in Paris because of French support for the Algerian
government. But the principal target of the Islamic militants was the
United States, which was blamed for its support for Israel and for its
military presence in the Arabian Peninsula following the Gulf War. In
1993 an Egyptian group bombed the World Trade Centre in New York;
in 1996 a US complex in Dharan, Saudi Arabia, was bombed; in 1998
there were bomb attacks on US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania; in
2000 a group attacked the US destroyer, USS Cole, while it was
refuelling in Aden, Yemen; and on September 11, 2001, the twin towers
of the World Trade Centre were attacked and destroyed. The US blamed
55
Bin Laden for these last four episodes and they became the basis for the
“war against terror” that was launched in 2001.
Conservatism in Judaism
Conservatism in Judaism has been reflected largely in the following

movements: Judaism is closer to the Conservative position.
Orthodoxy
Modern Orthodoxy, championed by Samson R. Hirsch in the 19th

century in opposition to the Reformers, sought a blend of traditional
Judaism and modern learning. Orthodoxy is not so much a movement as
a spectrum of traditionalist groups, ranging from the modern Orthodox,
who try to integrate traditional observance with modern life, to some
Hasidic sects that attempt to shut out the modern world. The emigration
to America of many traditionalist and Hasidic survivors of the Holocaust
has strengthened American Orthodoxy.
Around the world, Orthodoxy has many regional distinctions derived

from their local cultures. North European and American Orthodoxy
retain a more Ashkenazic flavour, while South European, North African,
and Middle Eastern Jewry have maintained a more Sephardic version. In
Israel, Orthodoxy is the only officially recognized form of Judaism and
elsewhere, with the exception of America, most religiously affiliated
Jews are nominally Orthodox.
Zionism
In Eastern Europe, where Jews formed a large and distinctive social

group, modernization of Judaism also took the form of cultural and
ethnic nationalism. It argued for the creation of a new state of Israel and
for return to the historic homeland. Like the other resurgent national
movements in the east, the Jewish movement emphasized the
revitalization of the national language (Hebrew) and the creation of a
modern, secular literature and culture. Zionism, the movement to create
a modern Jewish society in the ancient homeland, took firm hold in
Eastern Europe after its initial formulations by Leo Pinsker in Russia
and Theodor Herzl in Austria in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Zionism is a secular ideology but it powerfully evokes and is rooted in
traditional Judaic messianism, and it ultimately led to the creation of the
state of Israel in 1948. The issue of Zionism now dominates the
relationship of Judaism and Israel with Muslims and Christians: it has
become, often as a result of threats to Israel, a militant form of
56
nationalism. Some ultra-Orthodox Jews refuse to recognize Israel as

they believe only the Messiah can create Israel again.
Conservative Judaism
The founding thinker of Conservative Judaism was the German

Zacharias Frankel, but the founder of the movement was Solomon
Schechter at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. The
Conservative movement embodies the sense of community and folk
piety of modernizing Eastern European Jews. It respects traditional
Jewish law and practice while advocating a flexible approach to the
Halakah. It recognizes modern criticism of the authorship and
composition of the Bible and other important texts. In 1983 the
Conservative movement voted to ordain women as rabbis. It is possibly
the single largest Jewish denomination in America accounting for 33 per
cent of synagogue affiliation. It has also recently spread to Britain and
Israel where it is called by its Hebrew name Masorti (“traditional”).
Radical/Liberal Religion
Liberalism is an attitude or philosophy, or movement that has as its

basic concern the development of personal freedom and social progress.
Liberalism and democracy are now usually thought to have common
aims, but in the past many liberals considered democracy unhealthy
because it encouraged mass participation in politics. Nevertheless,
liberalism eventually became identified with movements to change the
social order through the further extension of democracy.
The course of liberalism in a given country is usually conditioned by the

character of the prevailing form of government. For example, in
countries in which the political and religious authorities are separate,
liberalism connotes, mainly, political, economic, and social reform; in
countries in which a state Church exists or a Church is politically
influential, liberalism connotes, mainly, anticlericalism. In domestic
politics, liberals have opposed feudal restraints that prevent the
individual from rising out of a low social status; barriers such as
censorship that limit free expression of opinion; and arbitrary power
exercised over the individual by the state. In international politics,
liberals have opposed the domination of foreign policy by militarists and
military considerations and the exploitation of native colonial people,
and they have sought to substitute a cosmopolitan policy of international
cooperation. In economics, liberals have attacked monopolies and
mercantilist state policies that subject the economy to state control. In
religion, liberals have fought against Church interference in the affairs
57
of the state and attempt by religious pressure groups to influence public

opinion.
A distinction is sometimes made between so-called negative liberalism

and positive liberalism. Between the mid-17th and the mid-19th
centuries, liberals fought chiefly against oppression, arbitrariness, and
misuses of power and emphasized the needs of the free individual.
About the middle of the 19th century many liberals developed a more
positive programme stressing the constructive social activity of the state
and advocating state action in the interests of the individual. The
present-day defenders of the older liberal policies deplore this departure
and argue that positive liberalism is merely authoritarianism in disguise.
The defenders of positive liberalism argue that state and Church are not
the only obstructers of freedom, but that poverty may deprive the
individual of the possibility of making significant choices and must
therefore be controlled by constituted authority.
Humanism
In post-medieval European culture liberalism was perhaps first

expressed in humanism, which redirected thinking in the 15th century
from the consideration of the divine order of the world and its
reflections in the temporal social order to the conditions and
potentialities of people on Earth. Humanism was furthered by the
invention of printing, which increased access of individuals to the
classics of antiquity. The publication of vernacular versions of the Bible
stimulated individual religious experience and choice. During the
Renaissance in Italy the humanist trend affected mainly the arts and
philosophic and scientific speculation. During the Reformation in other
countries of Europe, particularly those that became Protestant, and in
England, humanism was directed largely against the abuses of the
Church.
As social transformation continued, the objectives and concerns of

liberalism changed. It retained, however, a humanist social philosophy
that sought to enlarge personal, social, political, and economic
opportunities for self-expression by removing obstacles to individual
choice.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have studied the definition of the sub-urban church as
well as the characteristics of the sub-urban church. You have also
studied the major reaction of religion to politics and the basis for the
religious opposition to political participation. You have devoted much
time to the study of the development of fundamentalism in Christianity,
58
Islam and Judaism-the three monotheistic religions of the world and also
the development of religious liberalism.
5.0 SUMMARY
The following are the major points that you have studied in this unit:
• Fundamentalism in religion has been expressed in the three great

monotheistic religions of the world –Christianity, Islam and Judaism.
• Fundamentalism, in Christianity upholds the infallibility of the Bible,

the virgin birth and the divinity of Jesus Christ, the sacrifice of
Christ on the cross as atonement for the sins of all people, the
physical resurrection and second coming of Christ, and the bodily
resurrection of believers.
• Islamic Fundamentalism calls for the combination of traditional

Muslim values based on the Shari’ah law of Islam with programmes
of social and economic modernization.
• In Judaism, fundamentalism has been lived out in orthodoxy,

Zionism and conservatism.
• Liberalism has been identified with modern humanism movement

that decries any form of barrier on human freedom and is directed
mainly against the church.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. Discuss the development of fundamentalism in Christianity.
2. What are the features of fundamentalism based on your

understanding of Islamic fundamentalism?
Schaefer R. T. (2001) Sociology, seventh edition. New York: McGraw

Hill Companies

New York: McGraw – Hill Companies
59
Swatos Williams H. (1993) Gender and Religion, Brunkswick N. J.

Transaction.

Publishing


York: The Free Press.
Bryan Wilson (1969) Religion in Secular-Society, Baltimore: Penguin

Books

to Sociology, New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.

Communities. A Sociological Analysis, Westport: C. T. Praeger.
Electronic Sources:
Microsoft Encarta Premium, DVD 2006.
60
UNIT 2 RELIGION AND CULTURE
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Idea of Culture
3.2 Elements of Culture
3.3 Aspects of Culture
3.4 Religion as Culture
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you studied the relationship between religion and
stratification, especially religion and radical politics, the relationship
between religion and the oppressed. You also studied the comparison
between radical and conservative religion. In this unit, you will be
studying the relationship between religion and culture. You will be
exploring the elements and aspects of culture as well as how religion
and culture inter-relate.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
• Define culture;
• Enumerate and discuss the various elements of culture;
• Enumerate and analyze the relationship between the various aspects

of culture; and
• Analyze the relationship between religion and culture.
61
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Idea of Culture
Culture is one of the common words that are so often used that we think
we know what they mean but they are pretty difficult to define. The
word culture has varied meanings from agriculture to medicine to
sociology and anthropology. The multiplicity of meaning attached to the
word makes it very difficult to define. You will now explore some of
the many meanings of the word culture. In agriculture culture has been
used to designate the process of nursing or cultivating plants or crops. In
scientific and medical sciences it is used for the growing of biological
materials. Knowledge and sophistication acquired through education and
exposure to the arts is also termed culture. The development and use of
artefacts and symbols in the advancement of the society is also termed
culture.
Odetola and Ademola (1985) defined culture as “configuration of

learned and shared patterns of behaviour and of understanding
concerning the meaning and value of things, ideas, emotions and
actions”. Culture refers to the total way of life of a society. It is made up
of its members’ custom, traditions and beliefs, their behaviour, dress,
language, their work, their way of living, relationship network and their
attitudes to life, the focus of group loyalties and the way they all
perceive the world. As far as this course is concerned, we shall see
culture from the above perspective – that which makes a people what
they are as distinct from other groups of people. The following are the
concepts that grew out of the idea of culture.
Culture Traits
Traits are the smallest elements by which a culture can be described. It

is thus a distinguishing or peculiar feature or characteristic of a given
culture. Culture complex is derived from a number of culture traits that
fit together and from culture complex culture patterns are derived.
Subculture
A subculture is a distinctive culture that is shared by a particular group

within a culture, because that group exists as a smaller part of the total
culture.
62
Culture Change
Culture is dynamic in nature and therefore does experience changes.

Culture change can occur accidentally. For example, if there is a severe
outbreak of epidemic that claimed a lot of lives, there are certain
adjustment a society may make that will result in culture change.
Culture change can also occur as a result of technological innovation.
For example, many homes in Africa no longer use their hands to eat
because of the introduction of spoons, forks and knives. Culture can also
change when two groups with differing culture come to live together.
There would be what is called cultural diffusion as the two cultures
would intermingle and the people of one group will adopt the traits of
the other group and vice versa.
Culture Lag
W. F. Ogburn in his book titled Cultural Lag as Theory, defines culture

lag as follows: “culture lag occurs when two or three parts of culture
which are correlated changes before or in a greater degree than the other
part does, thereby causing less adjustment between the two parts than
existed previously”.
Culture Shock
Culture shock occurs when there is a sharp contrast between two

different cultures and one group suffers a serious emotional reaction to
the other group’s behaviour. Most Africans suffer from culture shock
when they find themselves in Europe where a child can tell the parents
“don’t be stupid”. Such a statement is considered as an insult in Africa
where respect for the elders is not taken lightly.
Discuss the implication of the concepts that grow out of culture and their
impact on humanity.
3.2 Elements of Culture
The following are the elements that you can point to and say “that is
there to show and sustain this culture”.
Artefacts
Artefacts are the physical things that are found that have particular
symbolism for a culture. They may even be endowed with mystical
63
properties. Artefacts can also be more everyday objects, such as the

bunch of flowers in reception. The main thing is that they have special
meaning, at the very least for the people in the culture. There may well
be stories told about them. The purposes of artefacts are as reminders
and triggers. When people in the culture see them, they think about their
meaning and hence are reminded of their identity as a member of the
culture, and, by association, of the rules of the culture. Artefacts may
also be used in specific rituals. Churches do this, of course. But so also
do organizations.
Stories, histories, myths, legends, jokes
Culture is often embedded and transmitted through stories, whether they

are deep and obviously intended as learning devices, or whether they
appear more subtly, for example in humour and jokes. Sometimes there
stories are true. Sometimes nobody knows. Sometimes they are
elaborations on a relatively simple truth. The powers of the stories are in
when and how they are told, and the effect they have on their recipients.
Rituals, rites, ceremonies and celebrations
Rituals are processes or sets of actions which are repeated in specific

circumstances and with specific meaning. They may be used in such as
rites of passage, such as when someone is promoted or retires. They may
be associated with company events such as the release of a new event.
They may also be associated with everyday events such as Christmas.
Whatever the circumstance, the predictability of the rituals and the
seriousness of the meaning all combine to sustain the culture.
Heroes
Heroes in a culture are named people who act as prototypes, or idealized

examples, by which cultural members learn of the correct or “perfect”
behaviour. The classic heroes are the founders of the society or
organization, who are often portrayed as much whiter and perfect than
they actually are or were. In such stories they symbolize and teach
people the ideal behaviours and norms of the culture.
Symbols and symbolic action
Symbols, like artefacts, are things which act as triggers to remind people
in the culture of its rules and beliefs among others. They act as a
shorthand way to keep people aligned. Symbols can also be used to
indicate status within a culture. This includes clothing, office decor and
so on. Status symbols signal to others to help them use the correct
behaviour with others in the hierarchy. They also lock in the users of the
64
symbols into prescribed behaviours that are appropriate for their status
and position. There may be many symbols around an organization, from
pictures of products on the walls to the words and handshakes used in
greeting cultural members from around the world.
Beliefs, assumptions and mental models
An organization and culture will often share beliefs and ways of

understanding the world. This helps smooth communication and
agreement, but can also become fatal blinkers that blind everyone to
impending dangers.
Attitudes
Attitudes are the external displays of underlying beliefs that people use
to signal to other people of their membership. Attitudes also can be used
to give warning, such as when a street gang member eyes up a member
of the public. By using a long hard stare, they are using national cultural
symbolism to indicate their threat.
Rules, norms, ethical codes, values
The norms and values of a culture are effectively the rules by which its
members must abide, or risk rejection from the culture (which is one of
the most feared sanctions known). They are embedded in the artefacts,
symbols, stories, attitudes, and so on.
1. List the elements of culture and write short notes on five of them.
3.3 Aspects of Culture
The following are the important aspects of culture:
Value
Values are relatively general beliefs that either define what is right and
what is wrong or specify general preferences. A belief that homicide is
wrong and a preference for modem art are both values.
Norms
Norms, on the other hand, are relatively precise rules specifying which
behaviours are permitted and which prohibited for group members.
When a member of a group breaks a group norm by engaging in a
65
prohibited behaviour, the other group members will typically sanction

the deviant member. To sanction is to communicate disapproval in
some way to the deviant member.
When asked to give examples of a norm in our society, most students

tend to think of laws, especially, for instance, laws against murder and
physical assault. Most laws in a society are indeed social norms. The
more important point, however, is that your life is governed by many
norms that are not laws.
Culture Variation
If we take an overview of the hundreds of societies that exist or have

existed in the world, the first thing that strikes our attention is that there
is tremendous variation with regard to the cultural traits found in these
societies. Many societies have values and norms that are directly
opposite to those that we might take for granted in this society. In most
societies many individuals believe that there exists one God, responsible
for all of creation, and they describe this God using imagery that is
undeniably “male”. Swanson (1960) found that about half the pre-
industrial societies in the world also believe in a single God, responsible
for creation, although that God is not always seen as a male. Among the
Iroquois Indians, for instance, God was female, while among some
South American Indians called the Lengua, God is a beetle. But the
remaining societies in the world either believe in many gods, no one of
which is responsible for all creation, or do not believe in personalized
gods of any sort.
Cultural Universals
Despite all the diversity that exists in the world there are cultural
universals. That is, there are elements of culture found in every single
known society. Every society, for instance, has some rules limiting
sexual behaviour, though the content of these rules varies greatly from
society to society. In every known society there is a division of labour
by sex, with certain tasks being assigned to females and other tasks to
males. The task-assignments to either men or women, however, vary
among societies.
One of the most important of all cultural universals has to do with the
relative status of men and women. There are many societies in which
men, on the average, have more political power and more social prestige
than women. These societies are usually called patriarchies. Then there
are a fair number of known societies in which men and women are
roughly equal in social status, either because one group does not on the
average, have more power and prestige than the other, or because greater
66
male power and prestige in certain areas of social life is balanced by

greater female power and prestige in other areas of social life. Yet in all
the societies of the world, there has never existed a true matriarchy, that
is, a society in which women have more political power and more social
prestige than men. The most important point to make in connection with
cultural universals, however, is that the number of such universals is
relatively small, at least as compared to the ways in which cultures vary.
Cultural Integration
Before closing this section it is necessary to point out that many of the
elements of a given culture are interrelated, so that a change in one such
element can produce changes in other elements.
1. Discuss the aspects of culture
3.4 Religion as Culture
Religion is undoubtedly one of the most important aspects of culture. A

culture’s religious beliefs, passed down from one generation to the next,
tell us much about the members’ values, interests, and ideals, as well as
explain customs and everyday activities.
This is particularly true of the African society. E. W. Smith confirms

this in his book African Ideas of God (1950:14) when he says that, “any
full explication of religion involves complete exploration of social and
political, material, culture, law and custom as well as the physical
environment”. Odetola and Ademola (1985:84) also concur by admitting
that “specific religious beliefs, as well as denominational membership,
are associated with cultural surroundings”.
It has to be noted that as an aspect of culture, religion can be regarded as

cultural universal in that from time immemorial; religion has been in
existence among different groups of people all over the world. The
variation of religious object notwithstanding, there is the existence of
religion among all the societies in the world.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt about the various usages of the world
culture as well as the definition that would be adopted in this module.
You have also been exposed to the various elements and aspects of
culture and the fact that religion as an aspect of culture is a cultural
universal.
67
5.0 SUMMARY
The following are the major items you have studied in this unit:
• Culture has different meanings to different professionals
• Culture in thus module would be seen as the totality of the way of

life of a particular group of people
• Religion as an aspect of culture is a cultural universal
1. Enumerate and discuss the elements of culture.

2. Discuss the aspects of culture.
7. 0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Hill Companies.

New York: McGraw – Hill Companies.
Swatos Williams H. (1993) Gender and Religion, Brunkswick: N. J.

Transaction.

Publishing


Books.

68

Communities. A Sociological Analysis, Westport: C. T. Praeger.
Brown, A. Organizational Culture. London: Pitman, 1995.
T. O. Odetola and A. Ademola, Sociology: An Introductory African

Text. London: Macmillan, 1985.
Electronic Sources:
69
UNIT 3 RELIGION AND SECULARIZATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sources of Secularism
3.2 Islam and the Secular World
3.3 Religion and the Secular World
3.4 Renaissance Humanism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we focused on the issue of religion and culture and you
have seen that religion is an aspect of culture and it is a cultural
universal. You also studied the different theories that rise out of the
concept of culture like culture lag, culture trait, culture shock and
subculture. In this unit however, you will be studying a more volatile
issue: religion and its relationship with secularization. First, you will
need to know what secularization is and the sources of secularization as
well as the relationship between religion and the secular world as well
Islam as a religious entity on its own and the secular world.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Define secularization;
• List the sources of secularization;
• Discuss how religion should relate to the secular world; and
• Analyze the response of Islam to the secular world.
70
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Secularization
Secularization is a way of life and thought that is pursued without

reference to God or religion. It comes from the Latin word saeculum
which referred to a generation or an age. "Secular" thus came to mean
"belonging to this age or worldly." In general terms, secularism involves
an affirmation of immanent, this-worldly realities, along with a denial or
exclusion of transcendent, other-worldly realities. It is a world view and
life style oriented to the profane rather than the sacred, the natural rather
than the supernatural. Secularism is a nonreligious approach to
individual and social life.
Historically, “secularization” first referred to the process of transferring

property from ecclesiastical jurisdiction to that of the state or other non-
ecclesiastical authority. In this institutional sense, “secularization” still
means the reduction of formal religious authority as in education as an
example. Institutional secularization has been fuelled by the breakdown
of a unified Christendom since the Reformation, on the one hand, and by
the increasing rationalization of society and culture from the
Enlightenment to modern technological society, on the other.
A second sense in which secularization is to be understood has to do

with a shift in ways of thinking and living, away from God and toward
this world. Renaissance humanism, Enlightenment rationalism, the
rising power and influence of science, the breakdown of traditional
structures such as, the family, the church and the neighbourhood, the
over-technicalization of society, and the competition offered by
nationalism, evolutionism, and Marxism have all contributed to what
Max Weber termed the “disenchantment” of the modern world.
Fujio also describes secularization thus: “secularization might be

explained more accurately as being a process of the functional
differentiation of other social elements, such as politics, law, economics,
and education, from religion, as the result of social changes in the
society where religion was once the dominant norm”. Having got an
idea of what secularization is you can now proceed to the sources of
secularization.
The Emergence of Higher Criticism
71
Though biblical criticism has started long before the Enlightenment, it

was not until the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries that the
Bible came to be examined in a truly critical fashion. The Protestant
Reformation had reintroduced serious study of the Bible after centuries
of neglect, and the new critical methods that developed in historical and
literary scholarship during this period were soon applied to biblical
texts. Among the first biblical critics were the 17th-century English
philosopher Thomas Hobbes, the 17th-century Dutch Jewish
philosopher Baruch Spinoza, and the French scholar Richard Simon.
This radical criticism soon gave birth to the Tubigen School with its lots
of anti-faith assertions. The anti-faith assertions led to the erosion in the
authority of the Bible, thereby preparing the ground for secularism.
18th Century Darwinism
Cornish Paul was quite right when he says that in Europe and North
America, secularism can be traced to the 18th-century Age of
Enlightenment or Age of Reason. Enlightenment thinkers attacked
classical traditions and religious authority. In particular, they argued that
the separation of Church and State would enable the free exercise of
human intellectual capacities and imagination, and would bring about
government by reason rather than by tradition and dogma. The 1787
Constitution of the United States is the outstanding example of 18th-
century secularist thinking and practice.
The Medieval Church
It sounds ridiculous to say that one of the sources of secularization is the

church. But it is the truth because the relationship of the church towards
what is political and even knowledge at that time was unwholesome.
This is an objective appraisal of the period:
Christianity in medieval Europe, it is argued, was

responsible for the emergence and success of secularism in
the West. It recognised the division of life into what
belonged to God and what belonged to Caesar, it lacked a
system for legislation and regulation of mundane affairs,
and it had for many centuries been associated with
despotic regimes and with oppressive theocracies.
Furthermore, Medieval Christianity entertained the
existence of a special class of people, the priests, who
claimed to be God’s representatives on earth, interpreting
what they alleged was His words and using their religious
powers to deprive members of the community of their
basic rights. In other words, the Christian theocratic
establishment constituted a major obstacle hindering
72
progress and development, and consequently hindering

democracy.
The need to challenge the overbearing attitude of the church in those

periods actually paved the way for the Enlightenment.
Renaissance Humanism
Renaissance Humanism is a term that is used to describe a literary and

cultural movement focusing on the dignity and worth of the individual
that spread through Western Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. This
Renaissance revival of Greek and Roman studies emphasized the value
of the Classics for their own sake, rather than for their relevance to
Christianity.
The movement was further stimulated by the influx of Byzantine

scholars who came to Italy after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks
in 1453 and also by the establishment of the Platonic Academy in
Florence. The academy, whose leading thinker was Marsilio Ficino, was
founded by the 15th-century Florentine statesman and patron of the arts
Cosimo de' Medici. The institution sought to revive Platonism and had
particular influence on the literature, painting, and architecture of the
times.
The collection and translation of Classical manuscripts became

widespread, especially among the higher clergy and nobility. The
invention of printing with movable type, around the mid-15th century,
gave a further impetus to humanism through the dissemination of
editions of the Classics. Although in Italy humanism developed
principally in the fields of literature and art, in Central Europe, where it
was introduced chiefly by the German scholars Johann Reuchlin and
Melanchthon, the movement extended into the fields of theology and
education, and was a major underlying cause of the Reformation.
Rationalism
Rationalism is derived from the Latin word ratio, which actually means
“reason”. In philosophy, it is a system of thought that emphasizes the
role of reason in obtaining knowledge, in contrast to empiricism, which
emphasizes the role of experience, especially sense perception.
Rationalism has appeared in some form in nearly every stage of Western
philosophy, but it is primarily identified with the tradition stemming
from the 17th-century French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist
René Descartes. Descartes believed that geometry represented the ideal
for all sciences and philosophy. He held that by means of reason alone,
certain universal, self-evident truths could be discovered, from which
73
much of the remaining content of philosophy and the sciences could be

deductively derived. He assumed that these self-evident truths were
innate, not derived from sense experience.
The rationalists were keenly interested in science and played an

important part in its development; not so much by any discoveries they
made as by their willingness to press the importance of the mathematical
and geometrical approach in going beyond, and helping to explain,
sensory appearances. Epistemological rationalism has been applied to
other fields of philosophical inquiry. Rationalism in ethics is the claim
that certain primary moral ideas are innate in humankind and that such
first moral principles are self-evident to the rational faculty. Rationalism
in the philosophy of religion is the claim that the fundamental principles
of religion are innate or self-evident and that revelation is not necessary,
as in deism. Since the end of the 1800s, however, rationalism has chiefly
played an anti-religious role in theology.
What are the factors that prepare the way for secularism?
3.2 Islam and the Secular World
It is generally believed in the Islamic society that secularization is

bequeathed to the world by the Christian movements of the 18th century.
This has somehow given a basis of rejection of the movement because
an average Muslim would repudiate anything Christian.
Until early 19th century, it is claimed that the entire Arab region was
Islamic in norms, laws, values and traditions. Secularism is alien to
Islam whose values provide guidance and direction for both spiritual and
mundane affairs. To the conservative Muslim therefore secularism is a
new cultural model being introduced quietly by enthusiasts and admirers
of the West or imposed by the authorities of colonialism that are putting
forward a new set of standards that are claimed to be alien to Islamic
standards. Institute of Islamic Political Thought holds that the leaders of
the Islamic trend believed that modernization and progress should be
sought but without relinquishing the accomplishments of the Islamic
civilization. This position is stated in strong clear terms by the Arabic
world and it is strengthened in the words of R. Ghannouchi, in paper
presented at Pretoria University, South Africa, August 1994 titled “al-
harakah al-islamiyah wal-mujtama` al-madani” (The Islamic Movement
and Civil Society) as follows: Arab secularism has been a declaration of
war against Islam, a religion that, unlike any other, shapes and
influences the lives of Muslims, a religion whose values and principles
are aimed at liberating mankind, establishing justice and equality,
74
encouraging research and innovation and guaranteeing the freedoms of

thought, expression and worship. Therefore, secularism is entirely
unnecessary in the Muslim world; for Muslims can achieve progress and
development without having to erect a wall between their religious
values and their livelihood.
Evaluate the Islamic position on secularism.
3.3 Religion and the Secular World
In this section you will be concerned with studying the relationship

between religion and the secular world. This relationship has been one
of suspect, wherein religion suspects the secular world of being demonic
and of being an instrument in the hands of the devil to destroy people’s
faith. Consequently, the majority of the reaction of religion to the
secular world is that urgent steps needed to be taken in order to salvage
the world from the grips of secularism. D. W. Gill in the Elwell
Evangelical Dictionary says that “in no sense, of course, is the
distinction between the sacred and the secular an unbridgeable gap. In
the same way that God speaks and acts in the saeculum, Christians must
speak and act creatively and redemptively. This means that the secular
world must not be abandoned to secularism”. In his analysis of the
effects of secularism on the world, John Stott, one of the leading British
evangelical writers in his book The Contemporary Christian notes three
major effects. These will be discussed below.
The Quest for Transcendence
Stott says that the increase in the world’s quest for transcendence is one
major fall out of the secularization of the world. He opines that the quest
for transcendence as witnessed in the world today is not just the search
for ultimate reality but also a protest against the attempt to eliminate
God from our world. This quest for transcendence is lived out in four
major areas:
a. The recent collapse of Euro-Marxism (the classical Marxism that has

been presented as a substitute for religious faith).
b. The disillusionment with secularism as epitomized in the rejection of

materialism either in the capitalistic or the communistic guise.
c. The epidemic of drug abuse which can be seen as a genuine search

for a higher consciousness.
75
d. The proliferation of religious cults alongside the resurgence of New

Religious Movements (especially the ancient religions of Oriental
world).
The Quest for Significance
One of the after-effects of secularism is the fact that most human beings
have been diminished in the value or worth. The followings are the
agents of dehumanization:
a. Technology: despite the fact that technology can be liberating it is

also dreadfully dehumanizing. For example, in the United States
today human beings are no longer identified by their proper names
but by numbers.
b. Scientific Reductionism: in most scientific teachings today, human

beings are seen as animals.
The Quest for Community
One of the effects of secularism is social disintegration. This is felt more

in Africa as there is social tension between those embracing the
secularizing tendencies of the West and those struggling to remain
African. In the face of all these devastating effects, what should be the
response of religion?
1. The people of faith must live their lives in this secular world
under the Lordship of the God and in obedience to his will rather
than the will of the word.
2. The people of faith must work to ensure that religion is given a

voice among the many other voices struggling to choke it out. To
fail to articulate the Word of God in the saeculum, however, is to
acquiesce in a secularism which, by excluding the Creator, can
lead only to death.
We will end this section by quoting Stott who though is writing for
Christians have summarized what will happen if religion leaves our
world completely to secularism:
At the same time, unless we listen attentively to the voices

of secular society, struggle to understand them, and feel
with people in their frustration, anger, bewilderment and
despair, weeping with those who weep, we will lack
authenticity as the disciples of Jesus of Nazareth. Instead
we will run the risk (as has often been said) of answering
76
questions nobody is asking, scratching where nobody is

itching, supplying goods for which there is no demand – in
order words, of being totally irrelevant, which in its long
history the church has often been.
Discuss the effects of secularization on the people.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have studied the concept of secularization which is a

very interesting concept. Secularization has been defined as an attempt
to take God away from the world. The sources of secularism have been
identified as the emergence of higher criticism, 18th century Darwinism,
humanism, rationalism and the church herself. You have also seen the
position that Islam has taken on the issue as well as the effects of
secularization and what the response of the church should be to it.
5.0 SUMMARY
The following are the major points that you have learnt in this unit:
• Secularization has been defined as a way of life and thought that

is pursued without reference to God or religion.
• The sources for secularism are: the emergence of higher

criticism, 18th century Darwinism, humanism, rationalism and the
church herself.
• Secularism is alien to Islam whose values provide guidance and

direction for both spiritual and mundane affairs.
• To the conservative Muslim secularism is a new cultural model

being introduced quietly by enthusiasts and admirers of the West.
• The effects of secularism includes: the quest for transcendence,

the quest for significance and the quest for community.
• People of faith must struggle to see that the word of God remains
a force to be reckoned with in the world.
77
1. What are the effects of secularism?
2. Discuss how religion should respond to the devastating effects of

secularization.

Hill Companies.


Transaction.

Publishing.



Books.

John Stott, (1992) The Contemporary Christian, Leicester: Inter Varsity

Press.
D. W. Gill, Elwell Evangelical Dictionary, Leicester: Inter Varsity

Press, 1985.
78
UNIT 4 RELIGION AND POLITICS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 State Religion
3.2 Islam as a Political Movement
3.3 Concept of Political Religion
3.4 Liberation Theology as an Aspect of Religious Politics
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we examined the relationship between religion and

secularism. In that section you learned what secularism is and the factors
that led to the rise of secularism. You also studied the contributions of
the church to the rise of secularism. We discussed the reaction of Islam
to secularism as a concept bequeathed to the world by the church and
the Western civilization. In this unit, you will also be examining another
volatile concept: religion and politics. You will examine all the concept
of political religion, the concept of Islamic as a political movement as
well as the rise of what is called state religion.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Define state religion;
• Describe types of state churches;
• List the countries with state religion in both Christianity as well as

Islam;
• Discuss the development of the political character of Islam; and
• Discuss Liberation Theology as an aspect of Religious Politics.
79
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 State Religion
A state religion is also called an official religion or established church or

state church. It is a religious body or creed officially endorsed by the
state. The term state church is associated with Christianity, and is
sometimes used to denote a specific national branch of Christianity.
State religions are examples of the official or government-sanctioned
establishment of religion, as distinct from theocracy. It is also possible
for a national church to become established without being under state
control.
Types of State Church
Mono State Church
The degree and nature of state backing for denomination or creed

designated as a state religion can vary. It can range from mere
endorsement and financial support, with freedom for other faiths to
practice, to prohibiting any competing religious body from operating
and to persecuting the followers of other sects. In Europe, competition
between Catholic and Protestant denominations for state sponsorship in
the 16th century evolved the principle cuius regio eius religio ("states
follow the religion of the ruler") embodied in the text of the treaty that
marked the Peace of Augsburg, 1555. In England the monarch imposed
Protestantism, with himself taking the place of the Pope, while in
Scotland the Church of Scotland became the established Kirk in
opposition to the religion of the ruler.
Poly State Church
In some cases, a state may have a set of state-sponsored religious

denominations that it funds; such is the case in Alsace-Moselle in
France.
Authoritarian State Church
In some communist states, notably the People's Republic of China, the

state sponsors religious organizations, and activities outside those state-
sponsored religious organizations are met with various degrees of
official disapproval. In these cases, state religions are widely seen as
efforts by the state to prevent alternate sources of authority. Countries
with state religions include the following:
80
Roman Catholic
Jurisdictions which recognize Catholicism as their official religion are

Argentina, Bolivia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Haiti, Malta, Monaco and
Vatican City.
Eastern Orthodox
Jurisdictions which recognize one of the Eastern Orthodox Churches as

their official religion are Cyprus and Greece.
Lutheran
Jurisdictions which recognize the Lutheran church as their official

religion are Denmark, Iceland and Norway.
Anglican
Only England with the Church of England recognizes the Anglican

Church as her state religion.
Islamic countries
Countries which recognize Islam as their official religion are Afghanistan,

Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya,
Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia,
Tunisia , United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Sunni Islam is found in
Algeria, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and Somalia. Shi'a Islam is the state-
sanctioned religion in Iran.
Buddhist countries
Countries which recognize Buddhism as their official religion are Bhutan,

Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
Define State Religion.

Discuss the implications of state religion.
3.2 Islam as a Political Movement
Islam as a political movement has a diverse character that has at

different times incorporated elements of many other political
movements, while simultaneously adapting the religious views of
Islamic fundamentalism, particularly the view of Islam as a political
81
religion. A common theme in the 20th century was resistance to racism,

colonialism, and imperialism. The end of socialism as a viable
alternative with the end of the Soviet Union and the Cold War has
increased the appeal of Islamic revolutionary movements, especially in
the context of undemocratic and corrupt regimes all across the Muslim
world. Islamism grew as a reaction to these trends, and as a desire to
create a government based on the tenets of Islam.
The political character of Islam
Islam is a religion which has existed for over fourteen centuries in many
different countries. As such, diverse political movements in many
different contexts have used the banner of Islam to lend legitimacy to
their causes. Not surprisingly, practically every aspect of Islamic politics
is subject to much disagreement and contention between conservative
Islamists and liberal movements within Islam.
Muhammad, the Medinan state and Islamic political ideals
Islamists claim that the origins of Islam as a political movement are to

be found in the life and times of Islam's prophet, Muhammad. In 622
CE, in recognition of his claims to prophet hood, Muhammad was
invited to rule the city of Medina. At the time the local Arab tribes of
Aus and Khazraj dominated the city, and were in constant conflict.
Medinans saw in Muhammad an impartial outsider who could resolve
the conflict. Muhammad and his followers thus moved to Medina, where
Muhammad drafted the Medina Charter. This document made
Muhammad the ruler, and recognized him as the Prophet of Allah.
During his rule, Muhammad instituted the laws of the Qur'an,
considered by Muslims to be divine revelation. Medina thus became a
state based on Islamic law, which is still a basic demand of most Islamic
movements. Muhammad gained a widespread following and an army,
and his rule expanded first to the city of Mecca and then spread through
the Arabian Peninsula through a combination of diplomacy and military
conquest. On the extreme end of the political spectrum, militant Islamic
groups consider Muhammad's own military policies against the pagan
tribes of Arabia to legitimize jihad against non-Muslims.
The early Caliphate and Islamic political ideals
After Muhammad's death, his community needed to appoint a new

leader (giving rise to the title Caliph, meaning "successor"). Thus the
subsequent Islamic empires were known as Caliphates. Alongside the
growth of the Umayyad Empire, the major political development within
Islam in this period was the sectarian split between Sunni and Shi'ite
Muslims; this had its roots in a dispute over the succession of the
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Caliphate. The Shi'ites favored a succession model based on the

inheritance of Muhammad's authority by his family. However, the Sunni
sect emerged as triumphant in most of the Muslim world, and thus most
modern Islamic political movements (with the exception of Iran) are
founded in Sunni thought.
Muhammad's closest companions, the four "rightly guided" Caliphs who

succeeded him, continued to expand the state to encompass Jerusalem,
Ctesiphon, and Damascus, and sending armies as far as the Sindh. The
Islamic empire stretched from Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) to Persia
under the reign of the Ummayad dynasty. The conquering Arab armies
took the system of Shariah laws and courts to their new military camps
and cities, and built mosques for Friday jam'at as well as Madrasahs to
educate local Muslim youth. These institutions resulted in the
development of a class of ulema who could serve as qadis (Shariah-
court judges), imams of mosques and madrasah teachers. These
classical scholars and jurists all owed their livelihood to the
expansionary Islamic empire. Not surprisingly, these ulema gave legal
and religious sanction to militarist interpretations of jihad. The political
terminology of the Islamic state was all the product of this period. Thus,
medieval legal terms such as khalifa, shar'iah, fiqh, maddhab, jizya, and
dhimmi all remain part of modern Islamist rhetoric.
The modern political ideal of the Islamic state
In addition to the legitimacy given by medieval scholarly opinion,

nostalgia for the days of successful Islamic empire simmered under later
Western colonialism. This nostalgia played a major role in the Islamist
political ideal of Islamic state, which primarily means a state which
enforces traditional Islamic laws. The Islamist political program is
generally to be accomplished by re-shaping the governments of existing
Muslim nation-states; but the means of doing this varies greatly across
movements and circumstances. Many Islamist movements, such as the
Jamaat-e-Islami in Bangladesh, have found that they can use the
democratic process to their advantage, and so focus on votes and
coalition-building with other political parties. Other more radical
movements such as Jamatul Mujahideen Bangladesh embrace militant
Islamic ideology, and may even resort to Islamist terrorism.
In the face of the tremendous poverty, corruption and disillusionment

with conventional politics, the political ideal of the Islamic state has
been criticized by many espousing liberal movements within Islam as
being utopian and not offering real solutions. Ziauddin Sardar is an
example of such people.
83
Discuss the development of the political character of Islam
3.3 The Concept of Political Religion
Political religion is actually a sociological terminology that is used to

describe a political ideology with cultural and political power equivalent
to those of a religion and often having many sociological and
ideological similarities with religion. Examples of this case have been
Nazism in Germany and Fascism in Italy.
Aspects of Political Religion
Suppression of Religious Beliefs
In political religion, loyalty to any other entity such as religion is not

acceptable because it will interfere with loyalty to the concept of
political religion. The authority of potential religious leaders is a threat
to the authority of the political religion. In such cases, religious sects are
either suppressed or banned altogether.
Absolute Loyalty
Loyalty to the state or political party and acceptance of the government

or party ideology is supreme. Those that express dissenting voices may
be expelled, ostracized, imprisoned, re-orientated or even exterminated.
It is common to see people taking loyalty oaths before being employed
especially into government offices.
Fear
The political religion often maintains its power base by instilling some
kind of fear into the populace. To uphold this, there are frequent
displays of the powers of the military in the face of the people.
Personality Cult
The leader of the party in political religion is often elevated to a near-

godlike status. The people may be required to carry his posters at home
as well as in the offices.
Propaganda
The state usually in doing this will through its control of the media feed
the people with all sorts of propaganda.
84
Discuss the aspects of political religion.
3.4 Liberation Theology as an aspect of Religious Politics
Discussions on Religion and Politics cannot be said to have been

exhausted without discussing liberation theology. In this section, we will
look briefly into what liberation theology is and why it has a political
character.
Liberation theology is an important, sometimes controversial, school of

theological thought. At its inception, it was predominantly found in the
Roman Catholic Church after the Second Vatican Council; although
some suggest that it was first articulated by Dietrich Bonhoeffer during
the late 1930s. It is often cited as a form of Christian socialism, and it
has had particularly widespread influence in Latin America and among
the Jesuits, although its influence has diminished within Catholicism in
the past decade. Though most elements of liberation theology were
rejected by the Vatican, and liberation theologians harshly admonished
by Pope John Paul II, curtailing its growth, within Protestant circles it is
recognized as an important school of thought, of equal standing with
neo-Orthodoxy, Feminist Theology and Process Theology among
others.
In essence, liberation theology explores the relationship between

Christian, specifically Roman Catholic, theology and political activism,
particularly in areas of social justice, poverty, and human rights. The
main methodological innovation of liberation theology is to do theology
(that is, speak of God) from the viewpoint of the economically poor and
oppressed of the human community. According to Jon Sobrino, S.J., the
poor are a privileged channel of God's grace. According to Phillip
Berryman, liberation theology is "an interpretation of Christian faith
through the poor's suffering, their struggle and hope, and a critique of
society and the Catholic faith and Christianity through the eyes of the
poor."
Liberation theology focuses on Jesus Christ as not only Savior but also
as Liberator of the Oppressed. Emphasis is placed on those parts of the
Bible where Jesus' mission is described in terms of liberation, and as a
bringer of justice. This is interpreted as a call to arms to carry out this
mission of justice - literally by some. A number of liberation
theologians, though not all, also add certain Marxist concepts such as
the doctrine of perpetual class struggle.
85
Liberation theology also emphasizes individual self-actualization as part

of God’s divine purpose for humankind. In other words, we are given
life so that we may pursue it to its full potential. Obstacles, or
oppressions, put in our path must therefore be resisted and abolished.
In addition to teaching at some Roman Catholic universities and

seminaries, liberation theologians can often be found in Protestant-
oriented schools. They tend to have much contact with the poor, and
interpret sacred scripture partly based on their experiences in this
context - what they label praxis.
4.0 CONCLUSION
As you went through this unit, you would have realized the fact that
religion is essentially political in nature and that hardly can the two be
separated. You have learnt about the state religion where the state
dictates what religion should be followed either by way of sponsorship
or suppression of other religions. You have also been exposed to the
development of the political character of Islam. You were finally
exposed to liberation theology as an example of the political side of
Christian theology.
5.0 SUMMARY
• State religion is the religious body officially endorsed by the State.
• Countries that have state religions in Christianity, Islam and

Buddhism have been listed.
• Islam as a political movement has incorporated the elements of

political movements and has also adopted Islamic fundamentalism as
a religious view.
• The origin of Islam as a political development has to do with the

invitation of Prophet Muhammad to rule the city of Medina in 622
CE.
• After Prophet’s Muhammad’s death the political development in

Islam brought out two sects: the Sunni and the Shi’ite Muslims.
• Political religion is a political ideology with cultural and political

power equivalent to that of a religion.
86
• Liberation theology explores the relationship between Christian

theology and political activism.
1. What is the relationship of political religion to religion itself?

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of state religion?

Hill Companies.


Transaction.

Publishing.

Theory of Religion, New York Double Day Publishers.


Books.
James W and Vander Z (1990). The Social Experience: An introduction


Communities: A Sociological Analysis, Westport: C. T. Praeger.
Brown, A. Organizational Culture. London: Pitman, 1995.
T. O. Odetola and A. Ademola, (1985) Sociology: An Introductory

African Text. London: Macmillan.
Electronic Sources:
87
UNIT 5 RELIGION AND SCIENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Religion and Science
3.2 Methodology in Science and Religion
3.3 The Attitude of Religion to Science
3.4 Attitude of Science to Religion
3.5 The Future of Religion and Science
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit you learned about the relationship between religion and
politics. In this unit, we will examine the age-long relationship between
religion and science. We believe that one way or the other you have
been drawn into the argument whether religion is anti-science and vice
versa. In fact we feel you might have even taken a position according to
your exposure. In this unit however, you will be exposed to some
information that will lead you to build a more informed thinking on the
issue. You will have to study the historical overview of the conflict
between the two concepts and the sources of the conflict as well as what
can be done to remove the seemingly conflict between science and
religion.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Define science;
• Analyze the methods of science and religion in arriving at the truth;

and
• Discuss the historical overview of the conflict between science and

religion.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Religion and Science
88
It would be very important to say that from the very beginning, there
had been no conflict between science and religion. Keith Ward, a
professor of Divinity of the University of Oxford and Dapo Asaju, a
professor of New Testament in his inaugural lecture at the Lagos State
University had said that in the13th century Europe, Christian theology
was regarded as the queen of the sciences. This is because “Science”, in
the Aristotelian sense, was a systematic exposition of an area of
knowledge which was ideally founded on self-evident or certain first
principles. The first principles of Christian theology, it was thought,
provide the most certain of all principles, since they were revealed by
God. Thus theology becomes the paradigm of science.
It has to be noted however that since that time, the word “science” has
changed its meaning, so that now most people would regard a science as
an experimental investigation into a physical phenomenon, where
precise observations can be made and measurements taken, where
experiments are repeatable and publicly testable, and where hypotheses
need to be constantly tested and re-assessed. In such a context, theology
is no longer seen as a science at all. There are no precise measurements
in religious faith, no repeatable experiments, no public testing, and no
equations which might help one to predict events accurately. This is the
beginning of the contemporary conflict between science and religion.
Historically, science has had a close and complex relationship with

religion; religious doctrines and motivations have often been central to
scientific development, while scientific knowledge has had profound
effects on religious beliefs. A common modern view, described by
Stephen Jay Gould as "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA), is that
science and religion deal with fundamentally separate aspects of human
experience and so, when each stays within its own domain, they co-exist
peacefully. Another view known as the conflict thesis-popularized in the
19th century by John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White, but
now largely rejected by historians of science-holds that science and
religion inevitably compete for authority over the nature of reality, so
that religion has been gradually losing a war with science as scientific
explanations become more powerful and widespread. However, neither
of these views adequately accounts for the variety of interactions
between science and religion (both historically and today), ranging from
antagonism, to separation and to close collaboration.
3.2 Methodology in Science and Religion
Generally speaking, religion and science use different methods in their

effort to ascertain truth. The scientific method relies on an objective
approach to measure, calculate, and describe the
89
natural/physical/material universe. Religious methods are typically more

subjective (or inter-subjective in community), relying on varying
notions of authority, through any combination of: revelation, intuition,
belief in the supernatural, individual experience, or a combination of
these to understand the universe. Science attempts to answer the "how"
and "what" questions of observable and verifiable phenomena; religion
attempts to answer the "why" questions of value and morals. However,
some science also attempts to explain such "why" questions, and some
religious authority also extends to "how" and "what" questions regarding
the natural world, creating the potential for conflict.
3.3 The Attitude of Religion to Science
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Judaism, Christianity, and

Islam all developed many centuries prior to the modern era; their
classical works show an appreciation of the natural world, but most of
them express little or no interest in any systematic investigation of the
natural world for its own sake. However some religion, for example
Buddhism, contains a systematic investigation of the truth. Some early
historical scientific texts have been preserved by the practitioners of
religion. Islam, for example, collected scientific texts originating from
China to Africa and from Iberia to India.
Proponents of Hinduism claim that Hinduism is not afraid of scientific

explorations, or of the technological progress of mankind. According to
them, there is a comprehensive scope and opportunity for Hinduism to
mold itself according to the demands and aspirations of the modern
world; it has the ability to align itself with both science and spiritualism.
This religion uses some modern examples to explain its ancient theories
and reinforce its own beliefs. For example, some Hindu thinkers have
used the terminology of quantum physics to explain some basic concepts
of Hinduism such as the Maya or the illusory and impermanent nature of
our existence.
In the Medieval era some leading thinkers in Judaism, Christianity and

Islam, undertook a project of synthesis between religion, philosophy,
and natural sciences. For example, the Jewish philosopher Maimonides,
like the Christian philosopher Augustine of Hippo, held that if religious
teachings were found to contradict certain direct observations about the
natural world, then it would be obligatory to reinterpret religious texts to
match the known facts. The best knowledge of the cosmos was seen as
an important part of arriving at a better understanding of the Bible. This
approach has continued down to the present day; Henry Drummond, for
example, was a 19th century Scot who wrote many articles, some of
which drew on scientific knowledge to tease out and illustrate Christian
ideas.
90
However, by the 1400s tension was keenly felt under the pressures of
humanistic learning, as these methods were brought to bear on scripture
and sacred tradition, more directly and critically. In Christianity, for
instance, to bolster the authority of religion over philosophy and science,
which had been eroded by the autonomy of the monasteries, and the
rivalry of the universities, the Church reacted against the conflict
between scholarship and religious certainty, by giving more explicit
sanction to officially correct views of nature and scripture. Similar
developments occurred in other religions. This approach, while it tended
to temporarily stabilize doctrine, was also inclined toward making
philosophical and scientific orthodoxy less open to correction, when
accepted philosophy became the religiously sanctioned science.
Observation and theory became subordinate to dogma. This was
especially true for Islam, which canonized medieval science and
effectively brought an end to further scientific advance in the Muslim
world. Somewhat differently in the West, early modern science was
forged in this environment, in the 16th and 17th centuries: a tumultuous
era, prone to favor certainty over probability, and disinclined toward
compromise. In reaction to this religious rigidity, and rebelling against
the interference of religious dogma, the skeptical left-wing of the
Enlightenment increasingly gained the upper hand in the sciences,
especially in Europe.
The phenomenon of religious fundamentalism, especially Protestant,

Christian fundamentalism which has arisen predominantly in the United
States, has been characterized by some historians as originating in the
reaction of the conservative Enlightenment against the liberal
Enlightenment. In these terms, the scientific community is entirely
committed to the skeptical Enlightenment, and has incorporated, into its
understanding of the scientific method, an antipathy toward all
interference of religion at any point of the scientific enterprise, and
especially in the development of theory. While many popularizers of
science rely heavily on religious allusions and metaphors in their books
and articles, there is absolutely no orthodoxy in such matters, other than
the literary value of eclecticism, and the dictates of the marketplace. But
fundamentalism, in part because it is an undertaking primarily directed
by scientific amateurs, tends to be inclined toward maximal interference
of dogma with theory. Typically, fundamentalists are considerably less
open to compromise and harmonization schemes than their forebears.
They are far more inclined to make strict identification between
religiously sanctioned science, and religious orthodoxy; and yet, they
share with their early Enlightenment forebears the same optimism that
religion is ultimately in harmony with "true" science. They typically
favor a cautious empiricism over imaginative and probabilistic theories.
This is reflected also in their historical-grammatical approach to
91
scripture and tradition, which is increasingly viewed as a source of

scientific, as well as religious, certainty. Most significantly, they are
openly hostile to the scientific community as a whole, and to scientific
materialism.
The fundamentalist approach to modernity has also been adopted by the

Islamic movements among Sunni and Shi'a Muslims across the world,
and by some Orthodox Jews. For example, an Enlightenment view of
the cosmos is accepted as fact, and read back into ancient texts and
traditions, as though they were originally intended to be read this way.
Fundamentalists often make claims that issues of modern interest, such
as psychology, nutrition, genetics, physics and space travel, are spoken
to directly by their ancient traditions, "foretold", in a sense, by their
religion's sacred texts. For example, some Muslims claim that quantum
mechanics and relativity were predicted in the Qur'an, long before they
were formulated by modern scientists; and some Jewish fundamentalists
make the same claim in regard to the Torah.
In response to the free-thought encouraged by Enlightenment thinkers

over the last two centuries, many people have left organized religion
altogether. Many people became atheists and agnostics, with no formal
affiliation with any religious organization. Many others joined Secular
Humanism or the Society for Ethical Culture: non-religious
organizations that have a social role similar to that which religion often
plays; others joined non-creedal religious organizations, such as
Unitarian Universalism. People in these groups no longer accept any
religious doctrine or perspective which rests solely on dogmatic
authority.
In between these extreme positions lies the position of non-

fundamentalist religious believers. A great many Christians and Jews
still accept some or many traditional religious beliefs taught in their
respective faith communities, but they no longer accept their tradition's
teachings as unquestionable and infallible. Liberal religious believers do
believe in gods, and believe that in some way their god(s) revealed their
will to humanity. They differ with religious fundamentalists in that they
accept that the Bible and other religious documents were written by
people, and that these books reflect the cultural and historic limitations
and biases of their authors. Thus, liberal religious believers are often
comfortable with the findings of archaeological and linguistic research
and critical textual study. Some liberal religious believers, such as
Conservative Jews, make use of literary and historical analysis of
religious texts to understand how they developed, and to see how they
might be applied in our own day. Liberal religious Jewish communities
include Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism.
92
3.4 Attitude of Science to Religion
Scientists have many different views of religious belief. The various

views form the basis of the attitude of the person to religion. The
following four are the summary of the views:
• Some scientists consider science and religion mutually exclusive;
• Some believe that scientific and religious belief are independent of

one another;
• Some believe that science and religion can and should be united or
"reunited;" and
• Some believe that science and religion can conflict because both
attempt to accomplish the same thing: inform people's understanding
of the natural world.
It has been argued that many scientists' conceptions of deities are

generally more abstract and less personal than those of laypeople.
Atheism, agnosticism, Humanism and logical positivism are especially
popular among people who believe that the scientific method is the best
way to approximate an objective description of observable reality,
although the scientific method generally deals with different sets of
questions than those addressed by theology. The general question of
how we acquire knowledge is addressed by the philosophical field of
epistemology.
According to a recent survey, that is carried out by Larson and Witham,

in 1998 and published in their article “Leading Scientists Still Reject
God” it is discovered that belief in a god that is “in intellectual and
affective communication with humankind” and belief in “personal
immortality” are most popular among mathematicians and least popular
among biologists. In total, about 60% of scientists in the United States
expressed disbelief or doubt in the existence of deities in 1996. This
percentage has been fairly stable over the last 100 years. Among leading
scientists defined as members of the National Academy of Sciences,
93% expressed disbelief or doubt in the existence of a personal god in
1998.
3.5 The Future of Religion and Science
93
One has to say that across the years the spirit that science is anti religion
has been enormous. Today however, there seems to be a reversal. The
anti-religion spirit of science is gradually on the decline. The
overwhelming voice that may indicate the future path of religion and
science is that the two can be married for a complimentary role.
Robert Russell opines that science can help to do theology better. He is

quoted by Jodi Beyeler in Science and Theology News of April 28 2005
(on line version) to have said that “contrary to the popular myth that
science is atheistic or that religion is irrelevant to science, we now know
from the history of 20th-century cosmology that philosophy and
theology can play a creative role in science.” Henry Swift, in another
magazine, Metareligion, also opines that the current scenario is being
prepared for when there is going to be a marriage of the wisdom of the
East about our inner world of consciousness (which is actually religious)
and the Western scientific wisdom. He concludes that “future scientists
may have to be trained not only in sciences but also be students of their
inner spirituality”.
Apart from this tendency that seems to come mainly from Christianity,
other religions like the Baha’i faith also encourage intercourse between
religion and science. In fact, one of the basic principles of the Baha’i
faith is that religion and science should work together for the
improvement of the world. From these indicators, you will discover that
the future relationship between religion and science will move towards
complimentary relationship and quit the antagonist relationship that
seems to be the case.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have studied the history of the conflict between science
and religion from when theology has been regarded as the queen of
science to when there comes a change and science is being pictured as
being anti-religion. You have also been exposed to the attitude of
religion to science as well as the attitude of science to religion. You
have been made to see the main problem that seems to create tension
between the two, namely, methodology. While science takes the
objective approach, religion more than often takes the subjective
approach.
5.0 SUMMARY
94
• Traditionally, theology has been regarded as the ‘queen of the

sciences”.
• Scientific methodology relies on objective approach to measure,

calculate and describe the universe.
• Religion uses the subjective approach based on revelation and

intuition to do the same thing.
• The attitude of religion to science from history can be categorized

into three broad divisions: the positive (that sees no crisis), the
negative (that sees the crisis) and the moderate (that believes that a
synthesis is achievable).
1. Evaluate the attitude of religion to science.

2. Outline the broad history of the conflict between religion and science.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER STUDIES

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Transaction.

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Books.

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Brown, A. (1995) Organizational Culture. London: Pitman.

Stephen Jay Gould. (1999) Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the
Fullness of Life. New York: Ballantine Books.
Electronic Sources:
MODULE 3
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UNIT 1 SEXUALITY AND RELIGIOUS DISCOURSE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Introduction to Sexuality
3.2 Sexual Development and the Life Cycle
3.3 Sexual Activity in Adolescence
3.4 Religion and Sex
3.5 Sexuality and Religious Discourse
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last module, the focus was on religion and modernization and
issues like stratification, culture, secularization and science in
relationship to religion. In this module, you will be focusing on the
relationship between religion and the family, and how religion affects
family values. In this unit, we will be concerned with the issue of
sexuality. We will examine sexuality and the various issues arising out
of it and the view of religion on sexual discourse.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Define sexuality; and
• Discuss why religious discourse is often silent about sexuality.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Introduction to Sexuality
Microsoft Encarta 2006 defines sexuality as “all the characteristics of an

individual’s behaviour that are related to sex. It refers to people’s sexual
preferences and sexual identity, and may be described both in purely
physical terms and as an essential part of love and relationships”. Until
recent times, there has not been much talk and materials on this issue
because our thinking about sexuality has been largely informed by what
is called the "repressive hypothesis," which claims that the history of
97
sexuality over the past three hundred years has been a history of
repression. Sex, except for the purpose of reproduction is taboo.
Though some people like Foucault have faulted the repressive

hypothesis, but as indicated in the Wikipedia, in the section on sources
for sexuality, it was indicated that sexual speech - and by extension,
writing - has been subject to varying standards of decorum since the
beginning of history. The resulting self-censorship and euphemistic
forms translate today into a dearth of explicit and accurate evidence on
which to base a history. There are a number of sources that can be
collected across a wide variety of times and cultures, including the
following:
• Records of legislation indicating either encouragement or prohibition
• Religious and philosophical texts recommending, condemning or

debating the topic
• Literary sources, sometimes unpublished during their authors'

lifetimes, including diaries and personal correspondence
• Medical textbooks treating various forms as a pathological condition
• Linguistic developments, particularly in slang.
• More recently, studies of sexuality
The study of sexuality has brought to the fore the understanding of some
terms and they are as follows:
Sexual Attraction
Sexual attraction, apart from promoting the propagation of the species,

is, particularly in Western cultures, strongly linked to self-esteem in
both men and women, throughout life. The biological imperative of
sexual attraction used to permeate most aspects of many cultures. The
status of the individual within sections of society may also be related to
his or her sex appeal, and in the West there is commercial as well as
social value placed on it. All the senses are involved in the so-called
chemistry of sexual attraction. A person’s appearance as well as how he
or she behaves can be the basis of attraction. Appearance, behaviour,
emotions, mannerisms, conversation, body language, and expressed
views, among other things—as well as the circumstances of an
encounter—all play a part, but in different ways for different people.
There are no firm rules on what constitutes sexual attraction and it does
not have to depend on Western ideas of attractiveness.
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Once two people have met, their personalities become important, and to
some extent each person often fulfils the unconscious needs of his or her
partner. Attitudes and values may be similar and, in a number of
respects, like will attract like: for instance, partners may both come from
the same social class, or have the same level of education, or the same
religious and ethnic background. This, however, is often due to the lack
of opportunity or because of socially created barriers, which are now
increasingly being broken down in many societies.
The response of the individual to another person affects the individual’s

attractiveness. A series of social interactions takes place when two
people meet. Two people increase sexual attraction for each other as
they face each other, touch, prolong eye contact, and synchronize body
movements. The reaction to the sound of a person’s voice or touch
indicates attraction.
Sexual Desire
Sexual desire is influenced by the level of sex hormones in the body and
by psychological factors. Social conditioning and a person’s
circumstances strongly affect the level of sexual desire, which varies
greatly between one time and another, and from one individual to
another. The person’s sexual capacity by which is meant, the person’s
capacity to become sexually aroused and to reach orgasm (sexual
climax), depends on physical health and the effective function of the
nervous, muscular, and vascular systems. These vary markedly with age.
The actual amount of sexual activity engaged in depends not only on
physiological and psychological factors, but also on opportunity.
Sex Drive
At the beginning of the 20th century the word “drive” was a narrow
biological term used in the same sense as the term “sexual instinct”. It
described an innate force that drove animals to avoid hunger or pain and
which released physical tension through sexual activity. Sigmund Freud
extended the idea of sex drive when he described the libido as a largely
unconscious force motivating human behaviour. Current thinking uses
the terms “sex drive” and “libido” loosely in the sense of sexual
motivation, denoting the desire to engage in sexual behaviour. A
difference in sex drive may influence a relationship, for example, if one
partner is too demanding or impatient, or if one partner has less desire
for sex than the other. People who otherwise have things in common
may, in this way, be incompatible as regards their needs for sex.
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1. What is sexuality?
2. Write short notes on the following:
a. Sexual attraction
b. Sexual desire
c. Sex drive
3.2 Sexual Development and the Life Cycle
Infancy and Childhood
Infants soon become aware of the biological differences between the

sexes. However, differentiation and coordination of sexual responses
arise gradually in the course of growing up and are influenced by social
conditioning. Curiosity and imitation are powerful human qualities
enabling a person’s sexual self-exploration, as well as their exploration
of the environment to help in their development.
For an infant to thrive emotionally, trust and love in relation to its

parents is essential. This bond that is the bond between the child and the
parents provides a powerful force to shape the child’s later attitudes and
behaviour. It is thought by many therapists that the capacity of an adult
to relate well sexually, and to experience both intimacy and
independence in loving, arises from happy, loving experiences of the
first five years of life. However, unhappy experiences in teenage years
may undo all this.
Adolescence
Adolescence is a process of psychological and social maturation

occurring between puberty and adulthood. Puberty is the process of
physical maturation during which the secondary sexual characteristics
develop (such as breasts in girls and growth of the testicles in boys) and
hormonal and other changes make the individual capable of
reproduction. In adolescence, social and psychological maturation
occurs over a period of about ten years, while the biological changes of
puberty can take from two to up to seven years.
Physical Changes of Puberty
Reproductive and other hormones initiate physical maturation in girls at

about the age of ten. In boys, maturation starts about the age of twelve,
that is, two years after that of the girls. In the past few decades puberty
has been starting at earlier ages owing to improvements in diet, and
possibly because of altered social expectations. In girls, enlargement of
the breasts and the growth of pubic hair is usually followed by
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menstruation after about a year (although menstruation and increase in

height may occur first). In boys, enlargement of the testicles and the
growth of pubic hair is followed by the first penile ejaculation at about
the age of 13. Development of secondary sexual characteristics at
puberty varies from individual to individual, and may be a focus of self-
consciousness. Temporary problems with appearance and self-image
may occur as a result of acne, changes in fat distribution, and increases
in weight. Sexual awareness of one’s own self and others and the
tensions that accompany growing independence require parental
support-and the respect of adults and, to a certain extent, other people of
the same age (peers), such as school friends, for a greater need for
privacy.
Discuss the various changes due to sexuality in the various stages of

human development.
3.3 Sexual Activity in Adolescence
Physical arousal may occur in advance of puberty from physical activity

or from one’s own direct stimulation of the genitals, but in adolescence
exploratory sex play may become actual, intended sexual behavior with
others in the adult sense. The social expectations of parents and peers
influence to a certain extent the way that sexual relationships develop.
For boys self-masturbation (as opposed to being masturbated by
someone else) and spontaneous nocturnal ejaculations during sleep tend
to precede sexual contact with another individual.
Adulthood
Adulthood is the time of sexual maturity. A person’s sex drive is

regulated by higher centres in the brain via a surge of hormones, and is
influenced by a host of external sources. Women have a monthly cycle
with ovulation at its mid-point (when conception may occur), and with
menstruation—the loss of the lining of the uterus—marking the start of
a new cycle. Apart from periods of childbearing, women will normally
continue to ovulate monthly until their 40s or 50s when a relatively
abrupt decline in hormone levels is accompanied by the cessation of
ovulation. Men, on the other hand, maintain fairly constant levels of sex
hormone until their 50s. A gradual reduction in sexual function may
then occur, depending on social, physical, and psychological factors as
much as on lowered hormonal levels.
For the majority of young people the expression of libidinal energy and
growing up in a stable family environment may lead to stable couple
relationships. Enjoyment of sex starts to depend on feeling confident
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and happy about one’s own self-image and choice of partners, and on
how comfortable the person is with his or her sexual preference.
Sexual behaviour and attitudes continue to change throughout life in line

with changes in the individual’s circumstances and physical capacity, as
well as in response to pressures from other sources, such as the attitudes
of other people at home and at work; fashion; the media; and
advertising. Pressure also comes from diminished sexual activity
accompanying physical illness or absence of a partner, and the cultural
constraints placed, for example, on someone who “comes out” as
homosexual. External influence apart, the amount and variety of sexual
activity tends to vary greatly from individual to individual. Increasing
age is accompanied by greater variation in the level of sexual activity. It
is a widely held belief that libido tends to peak for men at about the age
of 20, and for women at about the age of 40 but this, like many
conclusions about sexual behaviour, is a popular generalization. While
the greatest intensity of sexual sensation may occur in young people, a
high degree of satisfaction in sexual contact is possible throughout life,
particularly with the benefit of experience. Levels of sexual activity are,
very broadly, related inversely to the length of a relationship: a man of
50 recently married is likely to be more active sexually than a 35-year-
old man in a relationship of 15 years’ standing.
Discuss the various sexual activities of the human developmental stages.
3.4 Religion and sex
There are religious teachings concerning the issue of sex. Although not
the case in every culture, most religious practices contain taboos or
fetishes in regard to sex, sex organs and the reproductive process.
Judaism
In Jewish law, sex is not considered intrinsically sinful or shameful

when conducted in marriage, nor is it a necessary evil for the purpose of
procreation. Sex is considered a private and holy act between a husband
and wife. Certain deviant sexual practices, enumerated below, were
considered gravely immoral “abominations” sometimes punishable by
death. The residue of sex (as with any lost bodily fluid) was considered
ritually unclean outside the body, and required ablution.
Recently, some scholars have questioned whether the Old Testament

banned all forms of homosexuality, raising issues of translation and
references to ancient cultural practices. However, rabbinic Judaism had
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unambiguously condemned homosexuality up until the reform

movements of the modern era.
The Torah, while being quite frank in its description of various sexual
acts, forbids certain relationships. Namely, adultery, some forms of
incest, male homosexuality, bestiality, and introduced the idea that one
should not have sex during the wife's period:
• You shall not lie carnally with your neighbor's wife, to become
defiled by her. (Lev. 18:20)
• Thou shall not lie with mankind, as with womankind: it is

abomination. (Lev. 18:22)
• And with no animal shall you cohabit, to become defiled by it. And a
woman shall not stand in front of an animal to cohabit with it; this is
depravity. (Lev. 18:23)
• And to a woman during the uncleanness of her separation, you shall

not come near to uncover her nakedness. (Lev. 18:19)
The above passages are, however, open to modern interpretation.
Christianity
Christianity supplemented the Jewish attitudes on sexuality with two

new concepts. First, there was the idea that marriage was absolutely
exclusive and indissoluble, thereby restricting the sphere of sexual
activity and eliminating the husband's ability to divorce at will. Second,
there was the notion of virginity as a moral ideal, rendering marital
sexuality as a sort of concession to carnal weakness and the necessity of
procreation.
The teachings of Jesus
Jesus' teachings in the Gospels generally presume knowledge and

acceptance of Jewish norms of sexual ethics. There are several
significant departures, however. Divorce and remarriage is condemned
as an aberrant departure from the divine order permitted by Moses.
Merely looking at a married woman lustfully is considered a kind of
adultery, and to look on any woman lustfully is considered a kind of
fornication.
New Testament
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The Council of Jerusalem decided that, although Jesus may have

admonished Jews to keep to their traditions and laws, these were not
required of Gentiles converting to Christianity, who did not, for
instance, need to be circumcised. The Council’s final communication to
the various Gentile churches reads thus: “That ye abstain from meats
offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from
fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well. Fare ye
well” (Acts 15:29).
It is unclear exactly which sexual practices are considered fornication

(sometimes translated as sexual immorality). Throughout the New
Testament, there are scattered injunctions against adultery, promiscuity,
homosexuality, and incest, consistent with earlier Jewish ethics
supplemented by the Christian emphasis on chastity.
Later Christian Thought
A general consensus developed in medieval Christianity that all sexual

acts were at least mildly sinful, owing to the necessary concupiscence
involved in the act. Nonetheless, marital relations were encouraged as an
antidote to temptations to promiscuity and other sexual sins. St.
Augustine opined that before Adam's fall, there was no lust in the sexual
act, but it was entirely subordinate to human reason. Later theologians
similarly concluded that the unavoidable concupiscence involved in
sexuality was a result of original sin, but nearly all agreed that this was
only a venial sin if conducted within marriage without inordinate lust.
In the modern era, many Christians have adopted the view that there is
no sin whatsoever in the uninhibited enjoyment of marital relations.
More traditional Christians will tend to limit the circumstances and
degree to which sexual pleasure is morally acceptable.
Hinduism
In India, Hinduism accepted an open attitude towards sex as an art,

science and spiritual practice. The most famous pieces of Indian
literature on sex are Kamasutra (Aphorisms on Love) and Kamashastra
(which is derived from Kama which means “pleasure” and shastra
which means “specialized knowledge” or “technique”). This collection
of explicit sexual writings, both spiritual and practical, covers most
aspects of human courtship and sexual intercourse. It was put together in
this form by the sage Vatsyayana from a 150 chapter manuscript that
had itself been distilled from 300 chapters that had in turn come from a
compilation of some 100,000 chapters of text. The Kamasutra is thought
to have been written in its final form sometime between the third and
fifth century AD.
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Also notable are the sculptures carved on temples in India, particularly

the Khajuraho temple. The frank depiction of uninhibited sex hints
towards a liberated society and times where people believed in dealing
openly with all aspects of life. On the other hand, a group of thinkers
believe that depiction of sexually implicit carvings outside the temples
indicate that one should enter the temples leaving desires (kama).
Apart from Vatsyayana's Kamashastra, which is no doubt the most

famous of all such writings, there exist a number of other books, for
example:
• The Ratirahasya, which literally means secrets (rahasya) of love

(rati, the union);
• The Panchasakya, or the five (panch) arrows (sakya);
• The Ratimanjari, or the garland (manjari) of love (rati, the union)
• The Anunga Runga, or the stage of love.
The Secrets of Love was written by a poet named Kukkoka. He is

believed to have written this treatise on his work to please one
Venudutta, considered to be a king. This work was translated into Hindi
years ago and the author's name became Koka in short and the book he
wrote was called Koka Shastra. The same name crept into all the
translations into other languages in India. Koka Shastra literally means
doctrines of Koka, which is identical with the Kama Shastra, or
doctrines of love, and the names Koka Shastra and Kama Shastra are
used indiscriminately.
Discuss the various religious attitudes to sex
3.5 Sexuality and Religious Discourse
On the whole, in Africa because there is a silence on the issue of sex or

because it was considered sacred or x-rated, sex is not discussed openly.
This same attitude was carried over into the church. This attitude is also
corroborated by the Western culture of repression on sexual issues. For
example, even in China that was said to be initially open to discuss
sexual issues, the contact with the West brought in the issue of
repression on sexual issues. Writing on the issue of sexual discourse in
China (and also India by extension), the Wikipedia writes that
“Sexuality was treated in a straightforward and unembarrassed way until
105
contact with Westerners influenced Chinese to treat these behaviors as

more shameful than before”.
The culture of repression on sexual issues either due to the culture of the
people as is the case of most African society or the overt influence of the
Western culture, as in the case of China and India has so much eaten
into the fabrics of modern civilization until recent times when what is
called sex revolution occurred. However, the modern day scourge of
HIV/AIDS has drastically called the culture of repression into question,
and the world is now clamouring for proper sexuality education.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have studied the definition of sexuality, the concepts
that have risen out of sexuality like: sexual attraction, sexual desire and
sexual drive. Apart from this you have also studied the sexual
development of an individual at the various stages of development like
childhood, adolescence and adulthood. You have also been exposed to
the views of religion (Judaism, Christianity and Hinduism) on sex and
the repression of sexuality in religious discourse.
5.0 SUMMARY
The following are the summary of the major points studied in this unit:
• Sexuality is all the characteristics of an individual’s behaviour that

are related to sex.
• Sexual attraction, sexual desire and sex drive are concepts arising out
of sexuality.
• The various stages of human development has both physical and

physiological role to play in the development of human sexuality.
• Various religions have various views about sexuality.
• There has largely been a repression of sexuality studies in either

religions or fostered by Western civilization.
• Most religious discourses avoid talks on sexuality.
• The recent scourge called HIV/AIDS have forced the world to

become more open on sexuality discussions.
106
1. Discuss the position of religion on sex.

2. Write short notes on the following:
a. Sexual attraction
b. Sexual desire
c. Sex drive

Hill Companies.


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fullness of life. New York: Ballantine Books.
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UNIT 2 THE FAMILY PATTERN
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
108
3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Family and Its Concepts
3.2 Descent Patterns in the Family
3.3 Authority Patterns in the Family
3.4 Functions of the Family
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit you studied human sexuality, sexual development at the
various stages of childhood, adolescence and adulthood. The view of
Judaism, Christianity and Hinduism about sex was also examined in
terms of the relationship between religious discourse and human
sexuality. In this unit, focus is on the family pattern. We will examine
the composition of the family unit, the various types of family, the
descent pattern as well as the authority pattern in the family. Finally, we
will discuss the religious prescriptions and sanctions on the family.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Define the family;
• Discuss the types of family that exists;
• Discuss the functions of a family unit;
• Evaluate the authority patterns in the family; and
• Explain the various religious prescriptions on the family.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Family and its Concepts
In this section we are concerned mainly by the definition of the family,

the types of families that exists and the descent pattern within the
family.
109
Definition of the Family
Sociologically, the family is seen as the smallest unit of the society or

the basic social group united through bonds of kinship or marriage,
present in all societies.
Types of Families
As a result of the pressures and demands of the modern day society,

three main types of families have evolved. The first is the nuclear
family-two adults and their children-is the main unit in some societies.
In Africa however, the nuclear family is not really very independent of
the extended family as it is in the Western societies. The extended
family is the second type of family. In this second type, the nuclear
family is a subordinate part. The extended family consists of
grandparents and other relatives. A third family unit is the single-parent
family, in which children live with an unmarried, divorced, or widowed
mother or father.
In the African society however the extended family was and is still is the
most common traditional pattern of family organizations in most
African societies. The extended family sometimes constitutes a lineage
with the members’ spouses and their children who may not have
married.
3.2 Descent Patterns in the Family
Kinship is reckoned in a number of different ways around the world.

This has resulted in a variety of types of descent patterns and kinship
groups.
Unilineal Descent
This traces descent only through a single line of ancestors either male or
female. Though both male and females are members of a unilineal
family, descent links are only recognized through relatives of one
gender. The two basic forms here are patrilineal and matrilineal.
Patrilineal Descent
In patrilineal both males and females belong to their father’s kin group
but not their mother’s and only males pass on their family identity to the
children.
110
Matrilineal Descent
In matrilineal descent both males and females belong to their mother’s

kin group but not their father’s and only females pass on family identity
to the children. In matrilineal descent, the social relationship between
children and their biological father tends to be different since the father
is not a member of the matrilineal family.
Cognatic Descent
Nothing less than 40% of the world’s societies has their descent through
both their father’s and mother’s ancestors. This is what is called the non-
unilineal or cognatic descent. This can occur in four different variations:
Bilineal
This is when both patrilineal and matrilineal descent patterns are

combined.
Ambilineal
This is when the individual is permitted to use only one out of the two
lines of descent that are open to him.
Parallel
This is when descent is traced through gender. A male descent is traced

through the male lines and the woman’s descent is traced through the
females.
Bilateral
In this system the descent pattern is traced through both the male and the
female lines.
3.3 Authority Patterns in the Family
In early history, many Western thinkers believed that male dominance

was the natural or God-given order of society. That belief declined after
the 18th century, particularly with the advent of feminism. In the late
20th century, partly due to the growth of religious fundamentalism, there
has been resurgence in some parts of the world of the belief that
111
patriarchy is the natural order of society. For example, after a new

fundamentalist Muslim regime took over in Iran in 1979, women were
segregated from men at social functions, barred from becoming judges
or senior religious leaders, forbidden to leave the country without the
permission of their husbands, and required to wear the chador, a long
black cloth that covers the head and body. This represented a
considerable blow to women in Iran who had been living in comparative
freedom. The Taliban movement, which has been the unofficial
government of Afghanistan since 1996, has imposed even stricter
limitations on women, including forbidding them from working outside
the home. This pattern has been replicated in other parts of the world
including the West. For instance, in the United States a male Christian
revival movement known as Promise Keepers maintains that men have
relinquished their authority in the family to women, and they need to
reclaim it.
In the Indian household, lines of hierarchy and authority are clearly

drawn, shaping structurally and psychologically complex family
relationships. Ideals of conduct are aimed at creating and maintaining
family harmony. All family members are socialized to accept the
authority of those ranked above them in the hierarchy. In general, elders
rank above juniors, and among people of similar age, males outrank
females. Daughters of a family command the formal respect of their
brothers’ wives, and the mother of a household is in charge of her
daughters-in-law. Among adults in a joint family, a newly arrived
daughter-in-law has the least authority. Males learn to command others
within the household but expect to accept the direction of senior males.
Ideally, even a mature adult man living in his father's household
acknowledges his father's authority on both minor and major matters.
Women are especially strongly socialized to accept a position
subservient to males, to control their sexual impulses, and to subordinate
their personal preferences to the needs of the family and kin group.
Reciprocally, those in authority accept responsibility for meeting the
needs of others in the family group. This set up in the Indian society
gives a typical description of the Yoruba ethnic group in Nigeria.
3.4 Functions of the Family
The functions of the family can be discussed under the following broad
categories:
Sexual Function
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The family serves for the institutionalization of mating and the

channelling of sexual outlets. Consequently it establishes a legal father
for a woman's children and a legal mother for a man's children.
Reproductive Function
The reproductive function of the family includes the nurture and basic
enculturation of the young in an atmosphere of intimacy. It is also
expected that the young ones will be prepared within the family for the
demands of the stage of adulthood.
Economic Function
In its economic function, the family serves as the organization of a

complementary division of labour between spouses, it does this by
allocating to each certain right in the labour of the other and in such
goods or property as they may acquire through their individual or joint
efforts.
Educational Function
Within the family the education of the young ones takes place. The
young ones are usually exposed to the family trade and are trained to
carry out the skills that are in this part of the word more of family
secrets.
Social Function
Ideally, the family provides its members with protection,

companionship, security, and socialization. The companionship is
usually done because the family provides for the linkage of each spouse
and the offspring within the wider network of kinsmen, thus establishing
relationships of descent and affinity. Also the sociological fatherhood is
determined to place the responsibility for the child on a specific adult
and the jural fatherhood is established also to regularize transference of
status from one generation to the next.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this interesting unit you have studied about the relationship between
religion and the family. You have seen the definition of the family, the
various types of family. The functions of the family in the sociological,
economical, sexual and educational realms have also been spelt out. You
have also seen the various types of family descent pattern and the
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concept of authority in the family with examples from Christianity,

Islam and Hinduism as seen in the Indian example.
5.0 SUMMARY
The following are the major points that you have learnt in this lesson:
• The family is the smallest unit of the society or the basic social
group united through bonds of kinship or marriage, present in all
societies.
• The following are the types of families: the nuclear, the extended and
the single-parent family.
• There are two main descent patterns: the unilineal and the cognatic
patterns.
• In most societies, an authority pattern in the home is usually patristic

and moves from the older to the younger members of the family.
• The functions of the family can be viewed from the following

categories: sexual, reproductive, economic, educational and social.
1. Evaluate the descent pattern through the descent pattern of your

group.
2. Discuss the types of families.

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UNIT 3 MARRIAGE AND FAMILY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
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3.1 Marriage and the Family

3.2 Mate Selection
3.3 Adoption
3.4 Divorce
3.5 Religious Influence on Marriage and Family
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit you studied the structure and the functions of the family.
In this unit, you will be focusing on marriage as it is related to the
family life. Various issues from mate selection, courtship, parenthood,
adoption, divorce and religious influence on the family will be studied.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Describe how mates are to be selected;
• Define courtship;
• Define adoption;
• Describe the legal process involved in adoption;
• Discuss the implications of adoption;
• Compare the demands of Islam and Christianity on divorce; and
• Discuss the demands of parenthood.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Marriage and the Family
Marriage can be defined as a union between a man and woman such that
any child born within the union is regarded as legitimate offspring of the
parents. In the Microsoft Encarta 2006 marriage is defined as a
“social institution (usually legally ratified) uniting a man and a woman
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in special forms of mutual dependence, often for the purpose of

founding and maintaining a family”. Marriage as a contract between a
man and a woman has existed since ancient times. As a social practice,
entered into through a public act, it reflects the purposes, character, and
customs of the society in which it is found. It is important to note that in
some cultures, the
community’s interest in the children, in the bonds between families, and
in the ownership of property established by a marriage are such that
special devices and customs are created to protect these values. The
following are some of such practices:
Child or Infant Marriage
Usually, when a child is about nine or ten years, she is sent to her
prospective husband’s house. He then looks after her until she is of
marriageable age. This is usually as a result of concern for the child’s
safety and other issues. This practice is however dying out because most
families cherish education and allow their children to go to school.
Levirate Marriage
This is the custom by which a man might marry the wife of his deceased
brother for the purpose of raising a family for the deceased. This was
practiced chiefly by the ancient Hebrews, and was designed to continue
a family connection that had already been established.
Sororate Marriage
Sororate marriage is a form of marriage that permits a man to marry one

or more of his wife's sisters, usually if she has died or cannot have
children. It is actually the opposite of levirate marriage.
Monogamy
Monogamy is the union of one man and one woman. It is thought to be

the prototype of human marriage and its most widely accepted form,
predominating also in societies in which other forms of marriage are
accepted. It has to be noted that most religions accept monogamy as the
best form of marriage though polygamy is also deemed acceptable.
Polygamy
Polygamy is the general word for many spouses and it can be broken
down to two different forms. The first is polygny, in which one man has
several wives. This is widely practiced in Africa despite the influence of
Christianity. The second form is polyandry, in which one woman has
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several husbands. This type of marriage is known to exist among the

Nayars of Malabar in India and the Lele of Kasai in Central Africa.
Discuss the various types of marriage.
3.2 MATE SELECTION
In the traditional society, the choice of a spouse was largely the

responsibility of the family. More than often, the spouses themselves
have no hand in the decision of who they are to marry. However, today
the influence of Christianity and Western civilization is changing this
and the people are now mostly the ones deciding who they are to marry.
This has now led to a major dilemma.
One of the greatest problems facing most youths today is the problem of
mate selection. They want to know the process they had to take in
deciding who God’s choice is for them as spouse. In most cases they
turn to their religious leaders for counselling and may in the end not be
fully satisfied. It has to be stated that for Christians the followings facts
are relevant in the process of making choices:
1. The spouse has to be someone from the same faith.

2. The process of choice has to be accompanied by prayer for
guidance.
3. The spouse as to be someone of excellent character.
All these steps are important to avoid wrong choices and to prepare the
ground for a solid marriage.
This process is not too different from that of Islam except for the
introduction of parental influence. Mohammad Mazhar Hussain in his
book "Marriage and Family in Islam that was quoted by
SoundVisioin.com has the following to say on the guideline for mate
selection in Islam:
Normally the criteria for selecting matrimonial mates are

many: wealth, beauty, rank, character, congeniality,
compatibility, religion, etc. The Quran enjoins Muslims to
select partners who are good and pure (tayyib). Prophet
Muhammad recommended Muslims to select those
partners who are best in religion (din) and character.
Islam according to him encourages the freedom of choice for the would-
be-spouses under the consideration and the influence and consent of
their parents or guardians.
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Courtship
Courtship is normally understood as the period of romantic relationship

that serves as a prelude to marriage. Most religions are concerned about
how the would-be-spouses conduct themselves in this period so that they
do not commit unwarranted sin. It has to be noted that some people
confuse dating with courtship and use them synonymously. The truth
however is that courtship indicates a more serious commitment than
dating. Dating can lead to courtship but most importantly courtship is
expected to lead to marriage.
For Christians, though this period of courtship is encouraged so that the

would-be-spouses will be able to know each other better, it is always
counselled that they do not do things that could lead to fornication or
sexual immorality. It is to this end that some denominations would not
allow courting people to spend time together all on their own. This also
applies to Islam. M. M. Hussain also has this to say:
The would-be-spouses are allowed to see each other for

matrimonial purposes under the direct supervision of their
mahram relatives. This provision is expected to be
conceived and executed with piety and modesty. Prophet
Muhammad instructed: “No man has the right to be in the
privacy with a woman who is not lawful for him. Satan is
their third party unless there is a mahram”.
In the traditional African societies too, the period of courtship is one that
is also guided so as to avoid sexual immorality. Most religions counsel
that people get married as virgins and frown at pre-marital sex.
What are the influences of religion on mate selection?
3.3 ADOPTION
After marriage, childlessness or barrenness is one of the common

problems that face couples especially in the African society that places a
high value on children. One of the ways by which couples have dealt
with the problem is adoption. Adoption is the legal act of permanently
placing a child with a parent or parents other than the birth parents. In
other countries apart from barrenness, the following are other reasons
for adoption:
Reasons for Adoption
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Inability of the Biological Parents to Cater for their Children
There are times when parents for one reason or the other, for example,
poverty may feel highly inadequate to cater for their children and so
seek adoption for them within families that would be able to cater for
them.
Single Parenthood
In some countries, where single motherhood may be considered

scandalous and unacceptable, some women in this situation make an
adoption plan for their infants. In some cases, they abandon their
children at or near an orphanage, so that they can be adopted.
Gender Preference
In some cases and some cultures, a parent or parents prefer one gender
over another and place any baby who is not the preferred gender for
adoption.
Involuntary Loss of Parental Rights
Some biological parents involuntarily lose their parental rights. This

usually occurs when the children are placed in foster care because they
were abused, neglected or abandoned. Eventually, if the parents cannot
resolve the problems that caused or contributed to the harm caused to
their children (such as alcohol or drug abuse), a court may terminate
their parental rights and the children may then be adopted. There are
times also that parent loose their parental rights due to illness like poor
mental health that can be considered dangerous to the upbringing of the
child.
Death of Parents
Though not usually the case in Africa because of the extended family
system, some children are adopted because of the death of their
biological parents.
Types of Adoption
There are two types of adoption based on the assumption that the
biological parents are still alive. These are open and closed adoption.
Closed also known as confidential adoption is that type of adoption
where further contact between the biological parents and the foster
parents are foreclosed or prevented. Open adoption accepts varying
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degrees of future contact between the parties, though such openness can
be closed at any time.
Problems of Adoption
Though it is a good concept and serves as a safeguard to the future of

the society through the protection of the young ones that may not have
or suffer rough upbringing, adoption results in the severing of the
parental responsibilities and rights of the biological parents and the
placing of those responsibilities and rights onto the adoptive parents.
The severance of the parental responsibility from the biological parents

usually leads to a kind of apathy from the foster parents. Though, after
the finalization of adoption process, there ought to be no legal difference
between biological and adopted children, it is usually psychologically
traumatic to maintain equal love between adoptive and biological
children.
What are the factors that can lead to adoption?
3.4 DIVORCE
Though one of the most devastating and traumatic events of life is love
turned sour, the reality of divorce has become more graphic than ever.
Describing the dangerous trend of divorce in the West, John Stott
quoting the Office of Population Censuses and Survey says that:
In 1980 in Britain there were 409,000 marriages (35% of

which were remarriages) and 159,000 divorces. The
previous years it was calculated that a marriage took place
every 85 seconds and a divorce every 180. The total
number of divorced people is now over 2 million, and
there is an alarming number of one-parent families. The
British divorce rate, which has increased by 60% during
the last twenty-five years, is now one of the highest in the
Western world. In the UK one in every three marriages
breaks up; in the USA it is more than one in every two.
Though this figure seems to picture the state of things in the UK and the
USA, the African situation may not be any different but the absence of
reliable statistics may not give us an accurate picture. Apart from this,
many who wish to avoid the social stigma that divorce carries with it are
contended to live as separated people or continue to live together in the
pain of a broken home.
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Causes of Divorce
Causes for divorce can be said to be under two broad categories:

sociological and religious (spiritual). Sociological causes of divorce
include the following: Extra-marital affairs, Family strains,
Emotional/physical abuse, Mid-life crisis, Addictions, such as
alcoholism and gambling as well as Workaholism. Religiously, the rise
in divorce rate has to do with more disenchantment with the things of
God and man’s carefree attitude to the demands of his faith.
Divorce in Religion
The fact is that most religions actually forbid divorce. Let us have a
brief overview of some religions:
Islam
In Islam, divorce is allowed, although discouraged. A commonly

mentioned Islamic ruling is that divorce is the least liked of all
permissible acts. Islam considers marriage to be a legal contract; and the
act of obtaining a divorce is essentially the act of legally dissolving the
contract. According to Shariah (Islamic Law), there is a required waiting
period before a divorce is considered valid. After three divorces, the
man and the women are not allowed to remarry, unless under specific
circumstances. It is important to note that in Islam a woman may never
sue for divorce on any ground except by the permission of her husband
to do so.
Judaism
Judaism recognized the concept of "no-fault" divorce thousands of years

ago. Judaism has always accepted divorce as a fact of life as reflected in
the Mosaic injunctions of Deuteronomy chapters 22 and 24, albeit an
unfortunate one. Judaism generally maintains that it is better for a
couple to divorce than to remain together in a state of constant bitterness
and strife.
Christianity
Within Christianity, divorce has become almost commonplace, and the

interpretation of the Holy Scripture on divorce widely varies among
Christian denominations. However, the first 400 years of the Early
Church, the church maintained a unanimous voice opposing divorce.
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Bible commentary on divorce comes primarily from the gospels of

Matthew, Mark and Paul. Although Jesus touched on the subject of
divorce in three of the Gospels, Paul gives a rather extensive treatment
of the subject in his First Epistle to the Corinthians chapter 7: "Now, for
those who are married I have a command that comes not from me, but
from the Lord. A wife must not leave her husband. But if she does leave
him, let her remain single or else go back to him. And the husband must
not leave his wife." (1 Corinthians 7:10-11), but he also includes the
Pauline privilege. He again alludes to his position on divorce in his
Epistle to the Romans, albeit an allegory, when he states "Let me
illustrate. When a woman marries, the law binds her to her husband as
long as he is alive. But if he dies, the laws of marriage no longer apply
to her. So while her husband is alive, she would be committing adultery
if she married another man. But if her husband dies, she is free from that
law and does not commit adultery when she remarries." (Romans 7:2-3).
Recent research, however, interprets the words of Jesus and Paul

through the eyes of first century readers who knew about the ‘Any
Cause’ divorce, which Jesus was asked about ("Is it lawful to divorce for
‘Any Cause’" (Matthew 19:3). This suggests that Christians in the
generations following Jesus forgot about the ‘Any Cause’ divorce and
misunderstood Jesus.
The 'Any Cause' divorce was invented by some Pharisees who divided
up the phrase "a cause of indecency" (Deuteronomy 24.1) into two
grounds for divorce: "indecency" (porneia which is usually interpreted
as ‘Adultery’) and "a cause" (that is ‘Any Cause’). Jesus said the phrase
could not be split up and that it meant "nothing except porneia".
Although almost everyone was using this new type of divorce, Jesus told
them that it was invalid, so remarriage was adulterous because they were
still married. The Old Testament allowed divorce for the breaking of
marriage vows, including neglect and abuse, based on Exod.21.10f.
Jesus was not asked about these Biblical grounds for divorce, though
Paul alluded to them in 1 Corinthians 7 as the basis of marriage
obligations.
This new research emphasizes that Jesus and Paul never repealed these
Biblical grounds based on marriage vows. They were exemplified by
Christ and they became the basis of Christian marriage vows (love,
honor, and keep).
Dharmic religions do not have a concept of divorce. However, the

Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 applicable to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and
Jains in India do have provisions for divorce under some circumstances.
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Discuss the influence of religion on divorce
3.5 RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE ON MARRIAGE AND

FAMILY
On the whole, the religion of a man does not only affect his concept of
the family (that is whether his family will be polygamous or
monogamous), but also affects his relationship with the other members
of the family, that is the wife or husband and the children. In fact, most
religions have duties prescribed for all the parties involved in the family.
For example, Islam, Christianity, Judaism and other Oriental religions
have duties prescribed for the husband, the wife and the children.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have studied how religion affects the family from the
period the people involved begins the search for a mate. You have been
exposed to the religious guidelines for the selection of a spouse, what
the courtship period ought to be and how religions ensure that the
would-be-couples remain chaste during the period of courtship. The case
of adoption in case of barrenness was also discussed as well as divorce
which is examined from various angles and the position of religions on
divorce.
5.0 SUMMARY
The following are the major points that have been studied in this unit:
• Types of marriage include child/infant marriage, levirate marriage,

sororate marriage, monogamy and polygamy.
• The three criteria for mate selection that can be identified are: faith,
prayer for guidance and personality/character of the spouse.
• Sociological causes of divorce include the following: extra-marital

affairs, family strains, emotional/physical abuse, mid-life crisis,
addictions such as alcoholism, gambling and workaholism.
• Religious causes of divorce have to do with man’s disenchantment

with the things of God and carefree attitude to the demands of his
faith.
1. What are the religious views of divorce?
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2. Discuss the legal and the psychological implications of adoption.

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UNIT 4 RELIGION AND HEALTH
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Religion and Medicine
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3.2 The Role of Religion in Medicine

3.3 Religion and HIV/AIDS
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you studied marriage and family. The issues of mate
selection, courtship, adoption of children as well as the issue of divorce
were examined. Finally, it was stated that religion affects a people’s
concept of the family and consequently their relationship to the family.
In this unit, you will also be studying another interesting concept:
religion and health. Areas of concentration in this study will be the
relationship between medicine and religion and the last section will be
dealing with the relationship between religion and HIV/AIDS.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Define medicine;
• Discuss the history of medicine; and
• Evaluate the initial close relationship between medicine and

religion.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Religion and Medicine
Across the ages there had been a very great relationship between
religion and medicine as would be made glaring in the history of
medicine. This might be because the early people see health as
belonging intrinsically to the realm of the divine. P. J. Julius says that
“In the beginning, religion and healing were inseparable. In some
societies, the priest and physician was one and the same person,
administering spiritual and physical healing with divine sanction”. This
association between religion and medicine dates back to the pre-biblical
times. For example, in the African society the diviner who is the
representative of the gods is also the one that is consulted with the
healing of the sick.
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Herbalism
The actual history of healing starts from the use of herbs. There is no
actual record of when the use of plants for medicinal purposes first
started, although the first generally accepted use of plants as healing
agents were depicted in the cave paintings discovered in the Lascaux
caves in France, which have been dated through the Radiocarbon
method to between 13,000 - 25,000 BCE. Over time and with trial and
error, a small base of knowledge was acquired within early tribal
communities. As this knowledge base expanded over the generations,
tribal culture developed into specialized areas. These 'specialized jobs'
became what are now known as healers or shamans.
Egyptian medicine
Medical information was contained in the Edwin Smith Papyrus dated as

early as 3000 BC. The earliest known surgery was performed in Egypt
around 2750 BC). Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is credited as the founder
of ancient Egyptian medicine and as the original author of the Edwin
Smith papyrus, detailing cures, ailments and anatomical observations.
The Edwin Smith papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works
and was written circa 1600 BC. It is an ancient textbook on surgery and
describes in exquisite detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and
prognosis of numerous ailments. Additionally, the Ebers papyrus of
around 1550 BC) is full of incantations and foul applications meant to
turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, in it there is
evidence of a long tradition of empirical practice and observation. The
Ebers papyrus also provides our earliest documentation of a prehistoric
awareness of tumors.
Medical institutions are known to have been established in ancient

Egypt since as early as the 1st Dynasty. The earliest known physician is
also credited to ancient Egypt: Hesyre, “Chief of Dentists and
Physicians” for King Djoser in the 27th century BC [4]. Also, the
earliest known woman physician, Peseshet, practiced in Ancient Egypt
at the time of the 4th dynasty. Her title was “Lady Overseer of the Lady
Physicians.” In addition to her supervisory role, Peseshet graduated
midwives at an ancient Egyptian medical school in Sais.
Indian medicine
Ayurveda (the science of living), the Vedic system of medicine

originating over 3000 years ago, views health as harmony between
body, mind and spirit. Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of
Charaka and Sushruta. According to Charaka, health and disease are not
predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort. Sushruta
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defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, protect
the healthy, and to prolong life.
Āyurveda speaks of eight branches: kāyāchikitsā (internal medicine),

shalyachikitsā (surgery including anatomy), shālākyachikitsā (eye, ear,
nose, and throat diseases), kaumārabhritya (pediatrics), bhūtavidyā
(psychiatry, or demonology), and agada tantra (toxicology), rasāyana
(science of rejuvenation), and vājīkarana (the science of fertility).
Chinese medicine
China also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Much of the

philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from empirical
observations of disease and illness by Taoist physicians and reflects the
classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express
causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. These
causative principles, whether material, essential, or mystical, correlate as
the expression of the natural order of the universe.
During the golden age of his reign from 2696 to 2598 B.C, as a result of
a dialogue with his minister Ch'i Pai, the Yellow Emperor is supposed
by Chinese tradition to have composed his Neijing, Suwen or Basic
Questions of Internal Medicine.
Hebrew medicine
Most of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the 1st

millennium BC comes from the Old Testament of the Bible which
contain various health related laws and rituals, such as isolating infected
people (Leviticus 13:45-46), washing after handling a dead body
(Numbers 19:11-19) and burying excrement away from camp
(Deuteronomy 23:12-13). Max Neuberger, writing in his “History of
Medicine” says:
The commands concern prophylaxis and suppression of

epidemics, suppression of venereal disease and
prostitution, care of the skin, baths , food, housing and
clothing, regulation of labour , sexual life , discipline of
the people , etc. Many of these commands, such as
Sabbath rest, circumcision, laws concerning food
(interdiction of blood and pork), measures concerning
menstruating and lying-in women and those suffering from
gonorrhoea, isolation of lepers, and hygiene of the camp,
are, in view of the conditions of the climate, surprisingly
rational.
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Early European medicine
As societies developed in Europe and Asia, belief systems were replaced

with a different natural system. The Greeks, from Hippocrates,
developed a humoral medicine system where treatment was to restore
the balance of humours within the body. Ancient Medicine is a treatise
on medicine, written roughly 400 BC by Hippocrates. Similar views
were espoused in China and in India. (See Medicine in Ancient Greece
for more details.) In Greece, through Galen until the Renaissance the
main thrust of medicine was the maintenance of health by control of diet
and hygiene. Anatomical knowledge was limited and there were few
surgical or other cures, doctors relied on a good relation with patients
and dealt with minor ailments and soothing chronic conditions and could
do little when epidemic diseases, growing out of urbanization and the
domestication of animals, then raged across the world.
Medieval medicine was an evolving mixture of the scientific and the

spiritual. In the early Middle Ages, following the fall of the Roman
Empire, standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving
Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere. Ideas
about the origin and cure of disease were not, however, purely secular,
but were also based on a spiritual world view, in which factors such as
destiny, sin, and astral influences played as great a part as any physical
cause.
In this era, there was no clear tradition of scientific medicine, and

accurate observations went hand-in-hand with spiritual beliefs as part of
the practice of medicine.
Islamic medicine
The Islamic World rose to primacy in medical science with such

thinkers as Ibn Sina, Ibn Nafis, and Rhazes. The first generation of
Persian physicians was trained at the Academy of Gundishapur, where
the teaching hospital was first invented. Rhazes, for example, became
the first physician to systematically use alcohol in his practice as a
physician.
The Comprehensive Book of Medicine was written by the Iranian

chemist Rhazes. It was the most sought after of all his compositions. In
it, Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided
very useful recordings of various diseases. The "Kitab fi al-jadari wa-
al-hasbah" by Rhazes, with its introduction on measles and smallpox
was also very influential in Europe.
130
The Mutazilite philosopher and doctor Ibn Sina was another influential
figure. His The Canon of Medicine, sometimes considered the most
famous book in the history of medicine, remained a standard text in
Europe up until its Age of Enlightenment and the renewal of the Islamic
tradition of scientific medicine.
Maimonides, although a Jew himself, made various contributions to

Arabic medicine in the 12th century. Ibn Nafis described human blood
circulation. This discovery would be rediscovered, or perhaps merely
demonstrated, by William Harvey in 1628, who generally receives the
credit in Western history. There was a persistent pattern of Europeans
repeating Arabian research in medicine and astronomy, and some say
physics, and claiming credit for it.
European Renaissance and Enlightenment medicine
This idea of personalized medicine was challenged in Europe by the rise

of experimental investigation, principally in dissection, examining
bodies in a manner alien to other cultures. The work of individuals like
Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey challenged accepted folklore
with scientific evidence. Understanding and diagnosis improved but
with little direct benefit to health. Few effective drugs existed, beyond
opium and quinine, folklore cures and almost or actually poisonous
metal-based compounds were popular, if useless, treatments.
Modern medicine
Medicine was revolutionized in the 18th century and beyond by

advances in chemistry and laboratory techniques and equipment, old
ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were replaced with
bacteriology.
Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865) in 1847 dramatically reduced the death

rate of new mothers from childbed fever by the simple experiment of
requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in
childbirth. His discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However,
his discoveries were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came
into use only with discoveries of British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in
1865 proved the principles of antisepsis; However, medical
conservatism on new breakthroughs in pre-existing science was most of
the times taken with a dubious acknowledgement during the 19th
century.
After Charles Darwin's 1859 publication of The Origin of Species,

Gregor Mendel published in 1865 his books on pea plants, which would
be later known as Mendel's laws. Re-discovered at the turn of the
131
century, they would form the basis of classical genetics. The 1953
discovery of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick would open the
door to molecular biology and modern genetics. During the late 19th
century and the first part of the 20th century, several physicians, such as
Nobel Alexis Carrel, supported eugenics, a theory first formulated in
1865 by Francis Galton. Eugenics were discredited after the Nazis'
experiments; however, compulsory sterilization programs have been
used in modern countries (including the US, Sweden or Peru) until much
later.
Semmelweis work was based on the discoveries made by Louis Pasteur,

who produced in 1880 the vaccine against rabies. Linking
microorganisms with disease, Pasteur brought a revolution in medicine.
He also invented with Claude Bernard the process of pasteurization still
in use today. His experiments confirmed the germ theory. Claude
Bernard aimed at establishing scientific method in medicine; he
published An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine in
1865. Beside this, Pasteur, along with Robert Koch (who was awarded
the Nobel Prize in 1905), founded bacteriology. Koch was also famous
for the discovery of the tubercle bacillus (1882) and the cholera bacillus
(1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates.
The role of women, was increasingly founded by the likes of Elizabeth

Blackwell, Elizabeth Garrett, and Florence Nightingale. They showed a
previously male dominated profession the elemental role of nursing in
order to lessen the aggravation of patient mortality, resulting from lack
of hygiene and nutrition. Nightingale set up the St Thomas hospital,
post-Crimea, in 1852.
For the first time actual cures were developed for certain endemic
infectious diseases. However the decline in the most lethal diseases was
more due to improvements in public health and nutrition than to
medicine. It was not until the 20th century that there was a true
breakthrough in medicine, with great advances in pharmacology and
surgery.
During the First World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed
the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with sutures, which prior to
the development of widespread antibiotics, was a major medical
progress. The antibiotic prevented the deaths of thousands during the
conquest of Vichy France in 1944. The great war spurred the usage of
Rontgen's X-ray, and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of
internal bodily problems, However, this was overshadowed by the
remarkable mass production of penicillium antibiotic; Which was a
result of government and public pressure.
132
Lunatic asylums began to appear in the Industrial Era. Emil Kraepelin

(1856-1926) introduced new medical categories of mental illness, which
eventually came into psychiatric usage despite their basis in behavior
rather than pathology or etiology. In the 1920s surrealist opposition to
psychiatry was expressed in a number of surrealist publications. In the
1930s several controversial medical practices were introduced including
inducing seizures (by electroshock, insulin or other drugs) or cutting
parts of the brain apart (leucotomy or lobotomy).
The 20th century witnessed a shift from a master-apprentice paradigm of

teaching of clinical medicine to a more "democratic" system of medical
schools. With the advent of the evidence-based medicine and great
advances of information technology the process of change is likely to
evolve further, the collation of ideas resulted in international global
projects, such as the Human genome project.
Evidence-based medicine, the application of modern scientific method

to ask and answer clinical questions, has had a great impact on practice
of medicine throughout the world of modern medicine, for speculation
of the unknown was elemental to progress. Modern, western medicine
has proven uniquely effective and widespread compared with all other
medical forms, but has fallen far short of what once seemed a realistic
goal of conquering all disease and bringing health to even the poorest of
nations. It is notably secular and material, indifferent to ideas of the
supernatural or the spirit, and concentrating on the body to determine
causes and cures - an emphasis that has provoked something of a
backlash in recent years.
3.2 The Role of Religion in Medicine
Religion may help people cope with stress
Religion may act as an analgesic to reduce physical and mental pain.

Religious commitment may protect against depression and suicide.
Religion may promote health by adding social or psychological support
(or both) to people's lives, by providing a perspective on stress that
reduces its negative impact, or by encouraging people to avoid risky
behaviours, such as drinking alcohol to excess.
Religion may help people cope with disabilities and rehabilitation
Religiosity and spirituality may also be beneficial in medical

rehabilitation and in the lives of persons with disabilities.
Religion may help improve people’s Quality of Life
133
Religion and spirituality can improve the quality of life by enhancing a

patient's subjective well-being through social support and stress and
coping strategies, promoting a salubrious personal lifestyle, by
providing systems of meaning and existential coherence, by establishing
personal relationships with one's deity, and by ensuring social support
and integration within a community.
Current Trends in Religion and Medicine
Though there is the tendency for atheists and others without reverence
for religion to want to separate religion from the medicine as it had
occurred in the wake of scientific approach to healing, it is becoming
more of a scientifically proved fact that religion has a great role to play
in the healing of people. For example, A study by the National Institute
for Healthcare Research in Maryland of more than 91,000 individuals
documented a 50% reduction in coronary disease, 55% decrease in
Chronic Pulmonary disease, 74% reduction in cirrhosis and 53%
decrease in suicide risk among patients who attended a church or
synagogue at least one or more times weekly compared with those who
did not. As a result of the increasing awareness of the role of religion in
healing, the following rules are being advocated:
Physician attention must be devoted to the spiritual and religious
dimensions of patients’ experiences of illness. Physicians must respect
their patients’ requests for pastoral care and religious services.
The priest and the physician are no longer one and the same person as
they were in biblical times. However, the services each provides should
complement and supplement each other for the benefit of the patient and
the patient's total physical and mental well-being during health and
illness and at the end of life. Note that in some major hospitals in the
Western world, priests are becoming part of the medical team that does
ward round in the morning.
It is also to be noted that today, major conferences on spirituality and

healing in medicine are being held to bring “acknowledgement of
patients' spirituality to the mainstream of medical education, research
and clinical care, and to provide opportunities for students and
physicians to learn how to assess, respect and incorporate patients'
spiritual perspectives”.
What is the role of religion in contemporary religion?
3.3 Religion and HIV/AIDS
134
The current reaction of religion and religious leaders to the HIV/AIDS

pandemic is far from being realistic. Most religious leaders, especially
Christians, view HIV/AIDS as God’s punishment on man’s sexual
immorality and so treat the People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) as
outcasts from the household of faith. This is more devastating to these
people than the other stigmas that they have to pass through. As a result
of this, most religions have no programme that incorporate the anti-HIV/
AIDS campaign or rehabilitation programme for people living with
HIV/AIDS.
What is your church doing on HIV/AIDS problem?
4.0 CONCLUSION
This is the last unit of this module as well as of this course. In thus unit,
you have studied about the history of medicine from the early period to
the contemporary times. You have been made to see that from the
earliest times there has been a very close relationship between religion
and medicine. You would have seen that in the early period the priest of
religion also doubles as the medicine man. By the time of renaissance
and reformation, the separation between religion and medicine became
sharp and acute. Today, however, there has arisen the clamour for a
return to the close relationship between medicine and religion as it has
become clearer that there are times religious dimensions to physical
illnesses.
5.0 SUMMARY
The following are the major points you have learnt in this lesson:
• The history of medicine from the Egyptian times to the

contemporary times.
• The fusion of religion and religion as the priest of religion

doubling as the medicine man.
• The role that religion can play in healing as had been

demonstrated in some modern researches.
• The current reaction of religion and religious leaders to People

Living with HIV/AIDS is not wholesome.
135
1. What are the roles of religion in healing?

2. What do you think that the church can do to curtail the devastating
effects of HIV/AIDS?

Hill Companies.


Transaction.

Publishing



Books.



Preuss J.Julius Preuss (1993). Biblical and Talmudic Medicine, Rosner

F, trans. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc.
136
Porter, R. (1997). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History

of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Harper
Collins.
Rousseau, George S. (2003). Framing and Imagining Disease in

Cultural History, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Walsh, James J. (2003). The Popes and Science; the History of the
Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to
Our Own Time. Kessinger Publishing.
Max Neuburger, (1910) History of Medicine, Vol. 1 London: Oxford
University Press.
Electronic Sources:
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CTH 001 COURSE GUIDE

Course Developer: Dr. A. R. Williams

Course Writers: Dr. A. R. Williams

Dr. Olubiyi A. Adewale

Course Editor: Dr. Mrs. M. Atere

Programme Leader: Dr. Olubiyi A. Adewale

Course Coordinator: Dr. Awoju. J. Owolabi

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria 2006

First Printed 2006

All Rights Reserved

The course consists of 14 study units and it introduces you to the

• Studying the nature of society;

On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:

• Differentiate between the various types of societies;

• Identify the role of religion in the society;

• Describe the different religious behaviour;

• Explain the influence of modernity on religion and vice versa;

• Differentiate between culture and religion;

• Outline the role of religion in politics;

• Identify the impact of religion on the family; and

• Explain the role of religion on health care and HIV/AIDS.

Working through this course

Module 1: THE STUDY OF SOCIETY AND RELIGIOUS

Unit 1: The Concept of Society

Unit 3: Function of Religion

Module 2: RELIGION AND MODERNITY

Unit 1: Religion and Stratification

Module 3: RELIGION AND THE FAMILY

Unit 1: Sexuality and Religious Discourse

In Module 1, you will study the meaning, nature and development of

Each unit contains a number of Self Assessment Exercises (SAEs). In

Schaefer R. T. (2001) Sociology, seventh edition. New York, McGraw

Schaefer R. T & Lamm R. P. (1997) Sociology: A Brief Introduction,

Swatos Williams H. (1993) Gender and Religion, Brunkswick N. J.

Mckee J. B. (1981) The Study of Society, New York CBS College

Peter Berger (1967) The Sacred Canopy: Elements of Sociological

Emile Durkheim (1948) The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. New

Bryan Wilson (1969) Religion in Secular-Society, Baltimore, Penguin

James W and Vander Z (1990). The Social Experience: An Introduction

Zellner W. W. & Marc P. (1999) Some Cults and Spiritual

information, knowledge and experience gathered during the course. The

Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)

Final Examination and Grading

Course Weighted Scores

TABLE 1: Course Weighted Score

TABLE 2: Course Organizer

UNIT TITLE WEEKLY ASSESSMENT

How to get the Most from this Course

The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

2. Organize a Study Schedule. Refer to the ‘Course Overview’ for

3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need

7. Keep in touch with your study centre as up-to-date course

11. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

Tutors and Tutorials

There are 8 hours of tutorials (eight 1-hour sessions) provided in support