NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE: AEM 303

COURSE TITLE:
AGRARIAN INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
COURSE GUIDE

COURSE CODE: AEM 303

CORSE TITLE: AGRARIAN INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

COURSE WRITER: DR. F.O. ADERETI

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND

RURAL DEVELOPMENT, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE,

OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA

COURSE EDITOR:

PROGRAMME LEADER:

PROGRAMME CO-ORDINATOR:

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA.

2
CONTENTS PAGE

INTRODUCTION

WHAT TO LEARN IN THIS COURSE

COURSE AIMS

COURSE OBJECTIVES

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

THE COURSE MATERIAL

STUDY UNITS

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

ASSESSMENT

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

SUMMARY

3
INTRODUCTION

Agrarian institutions and their management is a first semester course. It is a two

credit unit course at degree level. The course is meant for all the students offering

Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) Agricultural Extension and Management (AEM) of the

National Open University of Nigeria, Nigeria.

Agrarian institutions and their management is a special area in the field of

Agriculture. All students and practioners interested in Agriculture must be well

acquainted with the overall management of Agriculture. The essence of training people in

different field of agriculture is for them to be able to operate successfully and be a better

manager of the field that he or she chooses. It is an area that sheds light on the operation

of Agriculture around the world with the aim of applying the experience gained in

developing the field of Agriculture in Nigeria.

Relevant lessons are drawn from the management of Agriculture. In these

developed countries. The various concept of agrarian institutions, the historical

development of Agriculture coupled with the establishment of agrarian institution in the

world are well spelt out. It is also important to be familiar with the structure of the

agrarian reform as a basis of moving towards the right direction in satisfying the yearning

of the people in the area of good production.

The contributions of every stake holder in alleviating food crisis are expected to

be studied as a means of exposing the learners what operates in the field of agriculture

generally.

What the learner is expected to learn in this course

4
 The whole course comprise with which make up the modules as well as a course

guide. The course guide describes to you in a nutshell, what, you are expected to learn in

the modules developed. It also lays emphasis on the course materials you are expected to

use and the modality of making use of the specified course materials. Guidance is also

provided on the Tutor, marked Assignment, which will be shown in the assessment field.

There is going to be tutorials that are to be organized in order to have a cleared vision

about the course. The course will be of immense importance in equipping you with the

challenges you are likely to face in the field of agriculture generally.

Course Aim

The main aim of the course is not far fetched. This main goal is to provide a

broad understanding on the establishment and operations of the agrarian institutions of

the world. Each unit under the modules developed has specific objectives that are stated

at behavioural levels. In order to have a stepwise evaluation, it is of paramount

importance that you re-visit each of the specific objective in order to have an update

about the progress you are making in the course as learning progress.

You are equally specific objects by the time you finish a specific unit. This

process will allow you to follow the instructions as expected.

To this end, by the time you have successfully gone through the modules and the

units therein, you should be able to:

 Conceptualize what agrarian institution is all about;

 Trace the historical development of agriculture in the world with an emphasis

South Asia;

 Describe the rural Development Management;

5
  Discuss the agreement for the establishment of agrarian reform and rural

development;

 Explain the structure of the agrarian reform and their functions;

 Describe the social, economic agrarian structure;

 Highlight the implications of the land tenure system among developing

countries;

 Describe the relevance of green revolution to Nigerian agrarian system.

Working through the course

In order to successfully complete this course, you are expected to read and

acquaint yourself with each study unit, get the expected reading materials which you will

find at the reference section for further readings, and read other materials as may be

provided by the National Open University of Nigeria.

There are self assessment exercises at the end of each module and at a particular

point in time you may be required to submit assignment for evaluation purposes to check

the progress you are making in the course of reading these units. By the end of

completing the course, there is going to be a final examination. The duration of the

course is as specified by the National Open University of Nigeria which is traditionally a

total of 17 weeks to complete.

You are expected to avail your self opportunity of attending the tutorial classes

which will assist you greatly in coming out with flying colours. It will also assist you to

rub minds with other colleagues thereby increasing your knowledge in the new field.

The course materials

The main components of the course are;

6
 1. The course guide;

2. Study units;

3. References/further readings;

4. Self Assessment Exercise; and

5. Presentation schedule.

Study Unit:

The study unit is this course are as stated below:

Module 1 introduction

Unit 1 Title

Unit 2

Unit 3

Unit 3

Module 2

Unit 1

Unit 2

Unit 3

Unit 4

Module 3

Unit 1

Unit 2

Unit 3

Unit 4

Module 4

7
Unit 1

Unit 2

Unit 3

Unit 4

Presentation schedule

The course materials have been arranged in such a way as to give you ample

opportunity to read and grasp the specific objectives stated. You are expected to submit

your assignment as at when due. Late submission of assignment should be guided

against.

Assessment

There are three main aspects as far as the assessment, on this course is concerned.

The first is made up of the self assessment exercises while the second phase comprise

tutor-marked assignment and the last one has to do with the final written examination or

what is otherwise called out of course examination. You are expected to do all the

exercises. Applying different strategies of effective learning in tackling the expected

assignment. The assignments are to be submitted to your facilitator for formal assessment

in accordance with the deadlines stated. The assignment you are expected to submit to

your tutor for assessment will carry 30% of your total course work while the remaining

70% will be for the final examination by the end of the course or the time the National

Open University will arrange for the exercise to take place. The duration may be a

maximum of 3 hours.

Tutor marked Assignment

8
 The TMA is a continuous assessment section of your course. It accounts for 30%

of the total score. You are to be given four TMAs to do. Three of these must be

answered before you are allowed to sit for the end of course examination. The TMAs

would be given to you by your facilitator and submitted after you have done the

assignment.

You are expected to follow all the rules and regulations lined up by the university

in fulfilling the requirements for the award of the degree as far as attending to this course

is concerned.

Final Examination and Grading

The end of course examination for Agrarian institutions and their management

will be for about 3 hours and carries 80% of the total score. The examination will consist

of questions which will reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercise and tutor marked

assignment problems you have previously encountered. All the areas of the course will

be assessed.

Try as much as possible to revise the whole units again before preparing for the

examination.

Course Marking Scheme

Assignment Marks

Assignment 1 – 4 Four assignments, bet 3 marks of the four count at

10% each i.e. 30% of course marks

End of course examination 70% of overall course marks

Total 100% of course marks

9
Facilitator/Tutors and Tutorials

There are 16 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be

notified of the states, times and locations of these tutorials as well as the name and phone

number of your facilitator, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.

Your facilitator will grade and comment on your assessment, keep a close watch

on your progress and any difficulties you might face and provide assistance to you during

the course.

You are expected to mail your tutor marked assignment to your facilitator before

the schedule date (at least 2 working days are required). They will be marked by your

tutors and returned to you as soon as possible.

Do not delay to contact your facilitator by telephone or e-mail in case of any

assistance.

The following might be circumstances in which you would find assistance

necessary, hence you would have to contact your facilitator it:

i. you do not understanding any part of the unit in the module or the assigned

readings;

ii. you have difficulty with the self-tests;

iii. you have a question or problem with an assignment or with the grading of an

assignment.

In order to have a face-to-face contact with your facilitator, it is expected to attend

the tutorial so as to ask question that need urgent attention.

To gain much benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list before

attending them. You will learn a lot from participating actively in discussions.

10
Summary

Agrarian Institution and their management is a course that open the way for

thorough management of agriculture in the world. Developing countries would have a lot

of lesson to learn from the course. The basic concepts on agrarian institutions are

explored. You will also be equipped with the following; Rural Development

Management, Agrarian history, Agreement for the establishment of a regional center on

Agrarian reform and development, their structure and functions, Agrarian social and

economic structure as well as community based agriculture and rural development

programme, lessons from the green revolution. Finally, information will be provided too

on Nigeria‟s River Basin System.

In addition to the above, you will be able to answer the following types of

questions:

 what do you understand by the concept Agrarian institutions;

 use South Asia as a case study, to trace the Agrarian history;

 explain what is meant by rural development management;

 describe the international policies on Agrarian reform as it affects Agriculture

in Nigeria;

 what are the lessons that could be learnt from the world green revolution

programme;

 explain in details the activities of IFAD in Nigeria Rural Communities.

In fact, the questions that you can attempt is not limited to the afore-listed

questions. To practically formation as a professional agriculturist, you should endeavour

11
to apply the knowledge you have gained in the course of reading through agrarian

institutions and their management.

I wish you every success in the course and the discipline you have chosen as a

whole. I am sure that you will find it both useful and interesting.

12
AEM 303: AGRARIAN INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

Module 1: Introduction

Unit 1: Definition and Basic Concept of Agrarian Institution

1.0 Introduction

Agricultural development can be seen as an indicator of determining the extent of

development of a country. To this end, agricultural development and rural development

can be viewed as a process whereby concerted efforts are made in order to facilitate

significant increases in rural resource productivity with the overall objectives of

enhancing rural incomes and increasing employment opportunities in rural communities.

This unit vividly looks into the definition of agrarian institution as well as the basic

concepts that are inevitable.

1.1 Specific Objectives

By the end of this unit 1, you should be able to:

i. define agrarian institution.

ii. List the basic component that are inevitable in the definition.

iii. Relate agricultural development with rural development

iv. Explain what an institution is

Definition of Agriculture

Agriculture can be defined as the act of cultivating crops and rearing of animals

including the keeping of other livestock for the use of man. It also includes the

processing, marketing and consumption of these products.

13
 Concept of Agrarian: it is a concept relating to or concerning the land and its uses

ownership, cultivation and tenure. It further relates to agricultural and rural matters. It is

also intended to further agricultural interest.

Institution on the other hand is defined as a collective action in restraint liberation

and expansion of individuals action. Institutions govern the economic, social and political

power relations between individuals and groups and affect directly their interdependence

as well as the achievement of reasonable order from the ever present conflicts, growing

out of these relations. Not only does collective action indicate control of individual action

from coercion, duress and discrimination but also protection of individual from unfair

competition, institutions, therefore give stability to human relations by providing security

of expectation with respect to accepted procedure of human interaction and response.

Complimentary institutions that are necessary for agricultural development include good

land tenure system credit facilities social organizations efficient marketing and

distribution arrangement (including storage and ware-housing) functional research

institution and extension services and supervision.

Unit 2: Agrarian History of the World

2.0 Introduction

Farming and agricultural institution have a cultural context that can not be

ignored. Modern mentalities may assign prayer, worship, myth, marriage and pilgrimage

to the realm of religion; genetics, hydrology, engineering, medicine, meteorology,

astrology and alchemy to the realm of science, mental working, carpentary, spinning,

weaving and pot making to the realm of manufacturing and trade, banking, war, herding,

14
migration politics, poetry, drama, adjudication administration and policing each to their

separate realms of social activity. But all these are parts of agriculture. They contain

essential, agricultural activity (Ludden, 1999).

2.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i. trace the historical perspective of Agrarian History South Asia

ii. highlight the major events in the agrarian history.

2.2 Agrarian History of South Asia

David Ludden‟s An Agrarian History of South Asia was the fourth volume in the

new Cambridge History of India. In this volume, he brought together research from

historians, economists, anthropologists geographers, political scientists and rural

sociologists to create a “comprehensive framework” for an understanding of the forces

which have created the contemporary” patch-work of agrarian regions”. Which extend

from Afghanistan to Myanmar, and Nepal to Sri Lanka. Agrarian life in this large

geographic area connecting arid West Asia to we southeast Asia as in the past and

continues today to be hugely diverse.

Territory explores the evolution of agriculture and agrarian institutions from the first

evidence of farming. 7500BC through the 13th century AD. These millennia saw the

expansion of social – not state power over the agro-pastoral people who spread east and

south from the Indian River (in modern day Pakistan) across the Gangetic plains to

Bengal/Bangladesh and shown the peninsula to its very tip at Kenya Kumari. These

centuries were ones in which (i) cultures met mixed and competed (ii) land we intensified

with new methods of mortal working and assuring water supplies and new seeds and

15
farming techniques (iii) pastoralists, nomads and forest cultivators were pushed to the

margins, up the mountains and into the jungles, away from the route of trade and

conquest that linked more sedentary agrarian territories, and (iv) both ritual and war

played central roles in the negotiation and exchange that mediated conflict and

competition.

From the middle of the 1st millennium AD Brahmanical influence increased, kings

enforced their religion duty (dharma) by upholding the right of first possession to those

who cleared the land, patriarchal authority and social rankings into caste were extended

and formed the basis of alliances and transaction networks, and conquest colonization

began.

Ludden (1999) viewed that ca 550 1250 was the formative period of South Asia‟s

agrarian history and its agrarian region. To the North, West and in the high mountains,

warrior lineages joined local leaders, pastoralists and hunters “by imitation, alliance,

genealogical invention and intermarriage to form rajput clans whose power was based on

martial might and whose dharma did not include the art of farming. In contrast, fourth of

the vindhya Mountains down the peninsula warrior lineages joined with agricultural

comities and new castes of dominant warrior-cultivators arose. These broad division were

reflected in kinship practices, women‟s land rights and agrarian alliances that continue to

the present.

Regions focused on the late medieval I early modern centuries (14th -19th) in

agrarian institutions and landscape evolved towards those that were recognized till this

moment. As world trade across Eurosis by land and see become more closely integrated

from the 14th century onwards “new technology, ideas, habits language, people and needs

16
come into farming communities; agriculture further intensified, and states through their

institutions of money and taxation encouraged the cultivation of crops for sork and

penetrated more intimately than before into agrarian life. Across the subcontinent (i)

transportation networks expanded (ii) urbanization (measured by both number and size.

Of towns and cities) speeded up. (iii) new and more intrusive accounts of people,

production and trade evolved (iv) agrarian taxation was systematized and its burden

increased and (v) entitlements to land use and power shifted from social to financial

obligations. Under the East India company discontinuities were introduced: land was no

longer the property of its clearer and user but of the state: hereditary property rights to

cultivated land were converted into use right subject to payment of land taxes:

bureaucratic regulation replaced negotiation exchange and dharma and caste rank, status,

entitlements and income were both codified and threatened.

Finally, modernity explores the role of the state in agrarian life and struggles against

the state and its interruption of old patterns of agrarian intercourse. The armed rebellions

of 1857, the partitions of British India in 1947 and of Pakistan in 1971, the post-

independence struggles for regional sovereignty, the social movements for the rights of

the rights of the marginalized, and the political power – cultivator descendants are all

shown to have historic roots in the agrarian structures and identities formed over the

previous centuries.

UNIT 3: Rural Development Management

3.0 Introduction

17
 This unit is an attempts to look into the management of rural development effort.

It looks also into the historical perspectives the conduct performance of rural

development the rural development enterprises in terms of farm activities.

3.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. examine the historical processes of rural development in Nigeria.

2. describe the conduct performance of rural development efforts.

3. explain the rural development enterprises in terms of farm activities.

3.2 Historical processes of Rural Development

In Nigeria‟s national experience the period between 1946 ant 1955 may be seen

as the genesis of development efforts. This period witnessed a situation in which the

colonial administration of the country prepared a plan based on a combination of projects

in contradiction to the need for a single-valued objective oriented plan. The second phase

was the period between 1955and 1960 when the country metamorphosed from a colonial

rule through regional self government to national political independence. During this

period, regional development plans were based on multiple projects rather than an

integrated development plan that were prepared and executed. These plans lingered on

for the periods 1960-1962 in view of the absence of planned documents.

The period 1962-1968 constituted the third phase of national development efforts.

This period coincided with the United Nations First Development Decade (1960-1969)

which may be named “community development Decade)”. The plan document was an

amalgamation of regional plans without any efforts at integrated single-valued objective

18
and with peripheral references to rural development. The plan lingered till 1970 in view

of the interruption by (in 1967) and the prosecution of (till 1970) the civil war.

The fourth period came between 1970 and 1974 in which the plan document was

an integrated single-valued objective approach emphasizing different growth rate

objectives and developmental philosophy while the fifth phase (5th) was between 1975

and 1980‟s the plan document continued the military administrations single-value

objective oriented approach with multiple growth rates and specific developmental

philosophy (Olayide, 1996).

These two plan periods (1970-1974 and 1975-1980) coincided with the United

Nations second Development Accade which may be termed integrated Rural

Development Decade 1970 – 1979). It has to be pointed out here that in these two

development periods, rural development was seen as a distinct planning item and the

concept of integrated rural-urban development programming was regarded as an

exception rather than the rule.

The itemized rural development programming during the period 1962 to 1979 as a

whole may be said to have followed a combination of four operational patterns:

First is the sectoral strategy which is addressed to economic sectors such as regional

country planning, agriculture etc. in which specific projects were the focus of attention.

The second is the co-ordinated strategy which seemed to integrate rural development

effort in a combination of sectors such as agriculture agro-industries and rural

infrastructures in given or specified rural communities. The third is the participatory

strategy which is a community development approach whereby resident were involved in

planning based on socio-economic goals, and plan execution with governmental or state

19
support. The fourth one is the multi-purpose strategy which attempts to promote national

security through multiple programmes of reconstruction and rehabilitation designed to

stimulate growth and foster universal-popular support for the government. The concept of

rural development as a planning objective was never fully appreciated or pursued neither

was the need for significant concerted efforts in rural.

The conduct of rural development efforts and a programmes have evolved over

the last fifty years in series of strategies which may be complimentary, supportive,

antagonistic, competitive and sometimes conflicting. The first strategy employed in the

early 1950s is that of government projects, mainly agricultural in various Local

Government Council areas. The second strategy saw the growth of community projects

with the full financial and management backing of the government. There especially

agricultural projects involved in communities in donating land, whilst the selected

enterprise or project becomes the entire responsibility of appropriate government

ministries. By 1966 when the military took over and with onset of the civil war whish

lasted from 1967 until 1970, the emphasis changed. The conduct of rural development

became a bi-partisan programme jointly run and financed by the local communities and

government. Communities established self-help schemes through targeted contribution of

funds by each individual resident. On to this targeted sum, the government gives a

marketing grant and the programmes are executed either singly or bi-partisan.

The post-bellum period, 1970-1978 is the age when petroleum products

constituted more than 50 percent of the GNP. Up to 1975, the oil boom was such that the

government had the financial resources to implement all programmes of rural

development. Thus, the second National Development plan, 1970-74 and the third

20
National Development Plan, 1975-1980 adopted the strategy of whosley governmental

conduct of rural development programme.

The rural development policy of government during this period involves national

commitment to raising agricultural productivity and enhancing the quality of life of rural

communities through the provision of such amenities as health centres, pipe borne water,

irrigation water, rural electrification. With this ever ever-evolving conduct, the

performance can not be anything significant Rural-Urban migration has became worse

and an agency population is left in the country side. The tendency to dual residence,

whereby villages live part of the week in the villages and the weekends in the towns,

increase in magnitude. This tendency had an adverse, effect on rural enterprises. Also, it

generated absentee producers who contract their enterprise on revenue sharing

operations.

MODULE 2: Establishment of Agrarian Institutions

Unit 1: International Policies for agrarian reform and rural development

1.0. Introduction

Agrarian reform and rural development should be strengthened and supported by

further improvement in the present system of international economic relations in order to

overcome profectionist policies, distortions in international markets for production inputs

and technology, inadequate technical cooperation and insufficient resource flows. The

New International Economic order, designed to bring about the equitable participation of

the developing countries in world economic activity, is essential to the success of national

efforts to attain rural development.

21
1.1 Specific Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

i. Identify four major areas of concern for effective agrarian reform and rural

development.

ii. List at least four actions expected to be taken by the developing countries

iii. Explain briefly any of the actions listed in objective ii.

The four major areas to be discussed in this unit which are inevitable for agrarian

reform and rural development are:

(a) International trade

(b) Economic and Technical Cooperation among developing countries

(c) Foreign investment

(d) Development assistance

International Trade

Changes in international trading systems to improve access to industrialized

markets for raw and processed agricultural commodities particularly from developing

countries, and to ensure market stability and steadily expanding levels of trade and

earnings have an important contribution to make to the achievement of rural development

goals. International trading systems should be based on principles of equality,

sovereignty and non-interference in internal affairs. External trade policies for the

developing countries should be geared more directly to objectives of rural development

and alleviation of rural poverty.

In the light of the above, governments of developed countries should take action

to:

22
i. Undertake the early and faithful implementation of all commitments aimed at

the liberalization of trade and continue the process of negotiating jointly with

developing countries in appropriate international for a with renewed

determination to resist protectionism.

ii. Move toward the progressive reduction and designation of tariff and non-tariff

barriers to the entry of agricultural and rural products, both raw and processed

of particular interest to developing countries.

iii. Participants in and speedily conclude jointly with developing countries,

international commodity agreement or arrangements negotiated under the

integrated programme of commodities and work toward marking the common

fund fully operational at an early date in accordance with the relevance

UNCTAD resolutions.

iv. Expand the Generalized system of preferences to a wider range of processed

and semi-processed products and whatever possible agricultural products, and

adapt systems of open or concealed subsidies for competing syntactic

substitutes to meat the export needs of developing countries as well as avoid

undue restrictions under any selective enforcement of safeguard measures.

v. Recognize the important role and support of the finding and operations of the

second window of the common find, which would finance commodity

development measures aimed at improving the structural conditions in

markets and at enhancing the long-term competitiveness and prospart of

commodities.

23
 vi. Implement the recommendations of the world Employment Conference of

ILD (International Labour Organizations) which call for alternative economic

opportunities for farmers and farm workers displaced by import liberalization

measures.

vii. Ensure that small produces share equitably in the benefits from favourable

price changed in international markets and that transnational corporations,

trading companies and governments do not pre-empt such benefits.

viii. Identity opportunities for and support the promotion of local processing of

agricultural export crops to increase value added in the country and thus the

benefit accruing to rural people, particularly to small farmers

ix. Ensure that the increase in land allocated to export crops does not lead to

reduction in the availability of food supplies and deterioration in nutritional

standards.

(b) Economic and technical cooperation among developing countries

Economic and technical cooperation among developing countries in activities

affecting rural development should be expanded. Such cooperation should be promoted,

recelling the objectives and programmes of nation agreed at ministerial conferences of

developing countries and in line with the relevant resolutions of the United Nations

General Assembly, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and the

Buenos Aires Plan of Action on Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries:

For these opportunities to be further explored and exploited, government of developing

countries should consider action:

24
i. Establish cooperation among produces including small farmers and teacher

and landless labourers and their organizations in regard to research on

production, processing and end uses of agricultural products.

ii. Exchange information on future prospects for individual commodity market

and coordinate national production policies, as far as feasible, to avert future

imbalances between supply and demand in world market and improve returns

to producers.

iii. Promote among national institutions the exchange of experience and expertise

gainest in implementing progressives of aggression reform and rural

development including the establishment and strengthening of regional

institution for research and training.

iv. Promote through national research institutions and interchange of technology

for agriculture rural industry energy, construction of housing and other

elements of infrastructure, as well as other subjects related to rural

development

v. Promote inter-country rural projects such as irrigation and watershed

management and cooperate in designing, implementing and seeking financial

support for such project.

vi. Ensure equitable distribution of gains among countries and improve the

relative position of the most depressed among them by promoting every form

of specialization among manufacturing activities based on primary products,

with due regard to the desirability of overall complimentarily.

25
 The role of the relevant organization of the UN System and other international

organizations in gathering knowledge information and experiences of developing

countries and disseminating such material among developing countries should be

strengthened.

(c) Foreign Investment

National and International action with full regard for the right of each countries to

determine its own national policies and priorities is required to maximize the contribution

of foreign investment to the goals of agrarian reform and rural development and to ensure

that the activities of foreign investment in developing countries, in particular by

transnational agro-industry corporations, are not in consistent with and do not impede the

accomplishment of overall economic and social development objectives. Strategies for

agrarian reform and rural development in this regard should:

i. reaffirm the right of each state to exercise full sovereignty over ownership,

use and disposal of all its natural and man-made resources, including the right

to nationalize property with provision for appropriate compensation consistent

with the caster of Economic Rights and Duties of States.

ii. Establish policy guideline to ensure that the activities of transnational

corporations and other foreign investors in rural enterprises are consistent with

national objectives of agrarian reform and rural development.

iii. Lend support to the efforts of the United Nations to establish an international

code of conduct for transnational corporations.

iv. Support development of the comprehensive information system within the

United Nations Centre on Transnational Corporations to ensure a continuous

26
 exchange of information regarding practices and consequences of the

activities of transnational corporations particularly in respect of agricultural

production processing and marketing, ecological protection and rural

development.

v. Accelerate the development of national expertise to evaluate proposals for

foreign investment in agriculture and other activities affecting agrarian reform

and rural development and work jointly with potential investors in formulating

investment programmes and project that are compatible with national needs,

priorities and objectives.

(d) Development Assistance

The volume, terms and conditions of development assistance through official

bilateral and multilateral channels are of great importance in supplementing national

efforts by developing countries to achieve objectives of agrarian reform and rural

development. Cooperation among developed and developing countries should include

action to:

i. Provide support in developing countries in meeting objectives and targets as

outlined in this programme of Action through provision of substantial increases in

development resources to achieve them.

ii. Take urgent steps, on the part of developed countries, to reach the official

development assistance target of 0.7 percent of gross national product

established for the second development decade.

iii. Ensure that project weight is given to the need for external financing for major

infrastructure works such as large-scale irrigation and transportation projects.

27
 iv. Carry out quickly and effectively the measures in regard to official development

assistance debts as agreed in the resolution 2 adopted by the UNCTAD Trade

and Development Board at its Ninth special session.

v. Channel an increased share of development assistance to programe and projects

which promote self reliance and give greater assurance of adequate regular

incomes for the lawless, unemployed and under-employed.

vi. Give special attention in allocating aid to those countries which have

demonstrated a strong and continuing commitment to poverty-oriented

development strategies.

UNIT 2: Agreement for the establishment of a regional centre on agrarian reform

and rural development: A case study of Latin America and the

Caribbean.

2.0 Introduction

As a concrete step in carrying out the objectives and strategies contained in the

declaration of principles and programme of action adopted by the World Conference on

Agrarian Reform and Rural Development carried by the food and Agriculture

organization of the United Nation (FAO) in July 1979 and pursuant to a resolution

adopted by the sixteenth FAO Regional Conference of plenipotentiaries with a view to

the adoption of a draft agreement for the establishment of a regional centre on Agrarian

Reform and Rural Development of Latin America and the Caribbean.

The conference was held in Caracas, Venezuela from 8th to 11th September, 1981.

2.1 Specific Objectives

By the end of the Unit, you should be able to:

28
 i. deduce reason for the establishment of agrarian reform.

ii. State at least five objectives of the centre with respect to the establishment of

the agrarian reform and rural development.

The contracting parties behaved that the promotion and success of such

programmes can be greatly facilitated through regional cooperation to reinforce the

activities of national institutions concerned with agrarian reform and rural development.

Considering that the said cooperation can best be achieved through the establishment of a

regional centre carrying out its activities through a network of national institutions and in

collaboration with other institutions whose functions are relevant to agrarian reform and

rural development or which may be able to provide financial or technical support for such

activities.

The objectives of the Centre include that following to:

i. assist national action and to stimulate and promote regional cooperation

ii. integrate rural people in the development process.

iii. Encourage their participation in social and economic life

iv. Improve the production, income and living conditions of small-scale farmers

and other needy rural groups.

v. Foster the exchange of ideas and experience and to encourage such joint or

collaborative activities as may benefit member states individually or

collectively.

For the achievement of its objectives and in accordance with the basic principles set

forth the centre decided to:

29
 (a) act as a servicing institution for its member states with respect to agrarian reform,

rural development and international financing, provide them with technical

assistance.

(b) Hold consultative conferences or other meetings enabling national decision

makers, research workers, planners and executives to exchange ideas and

experience on agrarian reform and rural development

(c) Organize training courses for peasants small and medium-sized farmers, cadres

and professionals in the planning, implementation and evaluation of programmes

for agrarian reform and rural development.

(d) Provide other forms of technical support including the various kinds of

evaluations to the liaison institutions.

(e) Serve as a clearing-house and data bank for information through publications and

the preparation of documentation on agrarian reform and rural development.

Unit 3: Structure of the regional centre on agrarian reform and rural development.

3.0 Introduction

The structure of the centre is spelt out here and the functions of each committee

are thereafter discussed.

3.1 Specific Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i. Identify the structure of the centre

ii. State at least four functions of three the structures identified.

iii. Explain briefly the functions identified

The centre has the following:

30
 (a) A Governing Council

(b) A Technical Committee

(c) A Director

(d) Sub-regional Centres and specialized centres

(a) The Governing Council shall consist of all member states and the functions of the

council are to:

i. determine the policy of the centre and approve its programmes of work and its

budget.

ii. determine the contributions of member states as provided in the Article.

iii. Lay down standards and guidelines for the management and development of the

centre.

iv. adopt its rules of procedure and the financial regulations of the centre

v. determine the condition of employment of the state.

(a) The Technical Committee

it consists of the heads of four national liaison institutions selected by the Governing

Council or the representatives of such heads, the head of the national liaison of the

host state or his representative and the director of the centre, who shall be a national

of one of the member sates.

Function

The committee shall give advice on:

i. The technical aspects and the funding of the activities and programmes of the

centre

31
ii. The inter-relation and coordination of the activities and programmes carried

out by the centre or under its auspices and.

iii. Any other technical question referred to it by the governing council or the

director of the centre.

iv. A report on the deliberations and conclusions of the technical committee

which shall be prepared by its chairman shall be transmitted, through the

director of the centre, to the governing council.

v. The Director and Staff

The director shall be a national of one of the member states

Functions

1. The director is the legal representative of the centre and directs the work of

the centre in accordance with the policy and decisions adopted by the

Governing council and make recommendations to the Governing council on

any matter relevant to its functions.

2. Shall submit a report on the work of the centre as well as the audited accounts

and the repot of the External Auditor

3. Prepares and makes the necessary arrangements for the sessions of the

Governing Council and any subsidiary bodies established by it.

4. ensures the highest standards of efficiency, professional competence and

integrity.

5. subregional centres and specialized centres:

i. The centres are expected to be dealing with specific issues.

32
 Unit 4: Resources of the Regional centre and its relations with other

organizations and Agencies

Specific objectives

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

i. identify the resources available at the centre

ii. Explain briefly the relationship that exists between the centre and other

organizations and agencies

The resources of the centre include:

(a) Any premises, equipment and other facilities owned by the centre

(b) The annual contributions of the members of the centre

(c) Donations to the centre

(d) Proceeds from the investment of liquid assets and part thereof.

The government of the host state shall provide, free of change or at a nominal rent,

such land buildings and initial furnishings as are necessary to enable the centre to being

and continue operations.

The member states undertake to pay annual contribution in freely convertible

currencies to the budget of the centre. The centre may also accept gifts, legacies, grants

and any other form of donation, provided that acceptance of such donations is compatible

with the policies and objectives of the centre.

Relations with other organizations and Agencies.

The centre may cooperate with other intergovernmental organizations and

governmental and non-governmental organizations or agencies whose interests and

activities are compatible with its objectives. To this end the Director acting under the

33
authority of the Governing council, may establish working relationships with such

organizations or agencies and make any arrangements that may be necessary to ensure

effective cooperation. Any formal arrangements entered into with such organizations and

agencies shall be submitted for the consideration and, where appropriate, approval of the

Governing Council.

As part of the management strategies adopted, withdrawal and termination of

membership procedures were also stated. At any line after the expiration of four years

from the date when it became a party to the agreement afore-described, any member state

may give notice of its withdrawal from the centre to the Director General of Food and

Agricultural organization such withdrawal shall take effect one year after the date when

notice there of was given or at any later date specified in the notice. The financial

obligations the entire year in which the withdrawal takes effect. Also, where withdrawal

by a member state results in there being less than five member states, the governing

council shall proceed to the liquidation of the centre and notify the depository

accordingly.

For the purpose of the aforesaid liquidation, the Governing council shall order the

transfer to the host state order the transfer to the host state of the land provided by it and

of buildings and fixtures there on. The return to the respective donors of any unused

balance of donated funds and the sale of any remaining assets. The proceeds of the sale

and any other funds of the centre shall, after all obligations, including liquidation costs,

have been met be distributed among the states that were members of the centre at the time

when notice was given of the withdrawal in proportion to the contributions that they had

made for the year during which the said notice was given.

34
Privileges immunities and facilities accorded to the centre

(a) immunity from every form of legal process except insofar as in any particular

case to the centre has expressly waived immunity.

(b) Freedom to hold funds or currency of any kind to operate accounts in any

currency, to transfer funds or foreign currency within the host state or abroad and

to convert any foreign currency into any other currency:

(1) The host state shall exercise due diligence to ensure that the security and

tranquility of the premises of the centre are not in any way impaired and shall at

the request of the Director of the centre, provide adequate protection where

necessary.

(2) The centre shall enjoy for its official communications treatment not less

favourable than that accorded to any other organization or government including

the diplomatic mission of such other government, in the host state in the matter of

priorities and rates for mail, cables, telephone and other communications.

Module 3: Agrarian Structure

Unit 1: Social Agrarian Structure

3.0. Introduction

Agrarian structure takes into account every condusive factor that is responsible for

the sustained growth in the agricultural sector. Agrarian structure involves the social,

economic and technical elements that affect production in the agricultural sector. There

factors are used to measure the productivity level of farmers, the distribution of their

income and the social position of the rural population. The agrarian structure also

35
includes the process of land management and land tenure system. The integral part of the

social agrarian structure that will be discussed in this unit will be the land ownership and

the labour organization system.

3.1 Specific Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

i. List the elements that affect production in the agricultural sector.

ii. Explain fully the social agrarian structure.

iii. Briefly explain the component parts of the social agrarian structure.

The social agrarian structure the land ownership and the labour organization form

a part of the social agrarian system.

1. land Tenure System

There is the existence of different types of land tenure system in the world as per the

existing social conditions. A number of factors determine the land tenure system social

economic and natural conditions have a grave impart on the agricultural production. The

topography of the land, its climate and soil all constitute the natural condition whereas

the socio-economic factors include alternations in the price of goods, technological

progress political ideology and growth of population.

Problems of land tenure System

The system of land tenure has faced many problems in large countries, the most

common problem is that the population is more than the percentage of arable land. The

cultivable lands are often accumulated in the hands of a few powerful people who are not

involved in farming themselves and hire labours. Often, these owners only appear in the

36
time of rent collection with the rise in population, the demand for employment also

increases and hence the small land holders lease out their land and survive on the rent.

Another form of the tenure is share cropping but this is also a flawed system since

no dead is drawn while he deal is closed. It is only a verbal deal which implies that the

tenant does not have any security. Moreover, its only on a one year contractual basis on

which the share croppers are allowed to plough the field. The landowner often demands

50 percent of the produce even if he does not share the cost of production. There is a

class of people who act as the intermediaries who often distort the relation between the

landowner and the tenant. This form often leads to less investment in agriculture,

indebtedness and poverty. The population growth often leads to segmentation of land.

More and more people are becoming jobless and migrate to towns in search of work.

The social agrarian structure only enhances poverty and unemployment. The

landlords who earn profits do not invest in agriculture instead they use the money for

buying material comforts. Majority of the population live under the poverty his and are

unable to pay the rigid taxes the structure actually hindered progress in the agricultural

sector. It is difficult to change the land tenure system with the changing time. These

systems are institutionally set up, hence it is not a good idea to alter the system time and

again neither is it easy to do. The cultural interest, the ethnic interests, the power structure

everything must be taken into account before any amendments are made.

ii. System of labour organization

This system governs the relationship between the labours and the landowners. The

landowners pay wages to the labours against their works. The rate of wage is determined

by the landowner himself. There could be different types of labour organizations. There

37
could be family labour organization hired labour organization or collective labour

organization.

The system of labour organization also governs the relationship between the division of

labour and the wages among the farmer. The relationship differs based on the kind of

labour involved in the field.

1. Family Labour Organization: This structure is the one in which the family itself

works on the field and enjoys the fruits of labour. The working capacity of the

family is the determinant factor on how much profit the family earns. They

always endeavor to bear the loss incurred if there is any. In this type of system

there could be problems, one of these is the size of the farmland. If its is small,

then all the members of the family would not have the opportunity to be engaged

on the farm at the same time which may eventually lead to underemployment and

as a result the standard of living deteriorates.

2. Wage Labour Organization: There is a large number of wage labour found in

the rural regions of the developing countires. The wage labours owe their

existence to the poor mechanization in the rural areas of the developing nations.

Due to population explosion and declining job opportunities the ordinary people

have no other option but to offer their labour against wages.

The different types of wage labour available are:

i. Permanent wage Labours: there are usually found in the large farms which

can afford to keep permanent labour. They sign a bound for the entire life.

They are paid annually. This relationship extends from a professional one to a

personal one.

38
ii. Casual Labours: These labours are time bound. They usually find work

during the peak season of harvest. They may take up other paid work during

the off season. This happens because of population explosion.

iii. Agricultural Labour Owning small farms: This is another type of tenancy

since the labours in this category lose their own land due to several reasons

and are forced to find work in other fields. They work on their own farms as

well as take up other paid work to sustain themselves.

iv. Colony: In Latin America People practice this type of farming which enables

the farmers to work in fields which are given to them by the owners.

v. Migratory Workers: People belonging to minority groups often become

migratory labours. They travel from distant places in search of work and are

employed by the owners of land as wage labours.

vi. Plantation Labours: They are the most organized form of labour more like

the industrial workers. These workers sometimes practice subsistence farming.

The conditions in which they live are poor with very little hope of

advancement.

vii. Bonded Labour: This is a form of slavery and this happens due to any kind

of debt or obligations. They therefore decide to work in return to offset the

debt. The wages paid to them are very low and the interest rate is very high

this form of bond is illegal out the farmers are not in a position to do anything

against it.

39
 It has to be noted however that every labour organization has characteristic features

which are commission to family and wage labour class in that they can not be united and

because of this they suffer.

Land management system

The land management system covers the factors on which the cultivation of land is

possible. These factors include the following: land, labour and capital.

The land is the most important factor since without it crop production is not possible.

This is closely followed by labour. Capital is another important factor without which it is

not possible for the farmers to buy the necessary inputs. However, it finally depends on

the farmer how well he can manage all these aspects to have a bumper harvest.

Unit 2: Economic Agrarian Structure:

3.2. Economic agrarian structure:

Economic agrarian structure is also referred to as the land management system. It is very

important for a firm to be able to manage his resources to reap a good harvest. Man has

been cultivating land since time immemorial with the use of labour and capital. The three

elements that are land, labour and capital are the resources that man has to manage

properly to be able to produce a large quantity of crops both to feed his family and also to

fulfill his needs.

3.3 Specific Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to;

i. Explain the meaning of economic agrarian structure;

40
 ii. Describe the modern agricultural scenario.

The modern agricultural scenario

In modern times, agriculture is considered to be an economic activity. In the past,

man used to cultivate land only to feed himself and his family but in late times an

economic value has also been attached to agriculture where man produces not only for his

immediate needs but also to sell it in the market and receive some money so that he can

utilize that money to invest in his agricultural activity.

Modern day farming is well integrated with the industrial sector. It has became

market oriented. It is considered to be an economic enterprise which is well planned and

executed. Agriculture now is not only the interplay of land, labour and capital but also a

blend of number of other factors that are generalized outside the field. The farmer has to

get into business with the supplying and buying and it becomes his responsibility to fulfill

their wants.

The agrarian structure should be developed in such a way that it could help the

farmer to increase productivity. This is not possible for an individual farmer, hence, the

other factors which are not directing involved in cultivation of land should also be well

developed like the credit providing institutions. A farmer would be able to manage and

optimize his resources only when he receives the required aid from the society and

government.

Unit 3: Technical Cooperation

3.1 Introduction

Technical and cooperation among developing countries in activities affecting

rural development should be expanded. Joint measures should be taken to expand among

41
developing countries as well as to improve conditions of trade for agricultural products in

international markets.

4.2 Specific Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to

i. list the opportunities to be explored and exploited in agricultural development;

ii. explain briefly each of the opportunities listed in (i) above.

4.3 Technical Cooperation

In order for these opportunities to be explored and exploited, government of

developing countries should consider action to:

a. establish cooperation among producers, including small scale farmers and

tenants and landless labourers and their organizations in regard to research on

production processing and end users of agricultural products.

b. Exchange information on future prospects for individual commodity markets

and coordinate national production policies, as far as feasible, to avert future

imbalances between supply and stem and in world markets and improve

returns to producers.

c. Promote among national institution the exchange of experience and expertise

gained in implementing programmes of agrarian reform and rural

development including the establishment and strengthening of regional

institutions for research and training.

d. Promote through national research institutions and interchange of technology

for agriculture, rural industry, energy construction of housing and other

42
 elements of infrastructure as well as other subjects related to rural

development.

e. Establish a more effective capacity for exchanging technologies among

developing countries where-similarities of natural conditions and social

systems may offer techniques and solutions that are more appropriate than that

can be imported from the developed countries.

f. Ensure equitable distribution of gains among countries and improve the

relative position of the most depressed among them by promoting every forms

of specialization among producer countries to processing and manufacturing

activities based on primary product with due regard to the desirability of

overall complimentarily.

The role of the relevant organizations of the UN system and other international

organizations in gathering knowledge, information and experiences of developing

countries and disseminating such material among developing countries and disseminating

such material among developing countries should be strengthened.

Unit 4: monitoring agrarian

4.1 Introduction

In order to have effective management strategies, and help implement the agrarian

programmes develop around d the world, appropriate international organizations with

FAD a leading agency consider the adoption of the following specific measures in the

field of agrarian reform and rural development.

5.2 Specific objective

43
 By the end of this unit, you should be able to explain in detail the measures that

were adopted by the international organizations in monitoring agrarian reform and rural

development.

5.3 Monitoring Agrarian Reform

i. The organizations of the UN system assist in sensitizing the populations of

member countries, through information campaigns organized by government or non-

governmental agencies to the realities of rural poverty and to the need for global

commitment for transfer of resources from the developed countries for the benefit of the

rural poor in the developing countries.

ii. FAD and other organizations of the UN system in cooperation with the member

nations develop indications of agrarian reform and rural development and help collect

and analyse pertinent data in order to monitor progress toward respective national targets

of rural development as laid down in the programme of action.

iii. FAO and other organizations of the UN system through appropriate inter-

secretarial machinery, develop criteria and methods for monitoring and

evaluating rural development and assist government on request in introducing

systematic monitoring and evaluating procedures.

iv. The United Nations Environmental programme in cooperation with FAO and

other organization of the UN system, make timely review and evaluations of

the environmental impact of rural development programme, project and

technology and incorporate considerations of ecological balance and

environmental preservation in their design.

44
v. FAO in concert with other organizations of the UN system, monitor and

analyse the levels and terms of flows of resources, both domestic and foreign

for rural development and make reports as requested by the appropriate

governing bodies of international organizations.

vi. FAO through appropriate UN inter-secretariat machinery and at the specific

request of the country concerned, under periodic reviews with each country in

respect of its policies, programmes and resources devoted to the achievement

of the objectives and targets outlines in this programme of Action and of the

support provided to these efforts by the relevant international organizations.

vii. The organizations collaborate with member Government and other

international institutions in socio-economic and technical area including

alternative systems of organizations of production such as shifting cultivation;

appropriate technology for small producers and for crops grow and consumed

by the poor and problems of rainfed agriculture.

viii. FAO act as a catalystic agent for the stimulation of development projects and

of public and private investment in rural development with special regard to

projects and programmes which have a significant impact on poverty

alleviation.

ix. International financing institution in cooperation with FAO and on request

from member countries assist in organizing donor-recipient consultation for

countries wishing significantly to expand investment programmes for rural

development.

45
 x. FAOI and other organizations of the UN system facilitate economic

cooperation among developing countries in order to promote inter-country

rural development projects.

Module 4: Nigerian Agrarian institution

Unit 1: Community based Agrarian culture and rural development programme.

4.0 Introduction

Nigeria covers 924,000km2 inhabited by about 140 million people composed of

about 250 ethnic groups, with diverse languages and religions faiths. The largest ethnic

groups are the Hausa-Fulani in the North and Igbo in the southeast and the Yoruba in the

southwest. The federation currently comprises the Federal Capital Territory, 36 states

and 774 local governments.

4.1 Specific objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i. identify the basic areas responsible for the failure of traditional approach to

poverty alleviation;

ii. list and explain the programme objectives of the community-based agriculture

and rural development;

iii. identify the components of the community based agriculture and rural

development.

Community-based Agriculture and rural development programme

Declining basic indicators of poverty and experience from different previous

project in the country and field observations indicate that poverty in rural areas in the

Northern regions of Nigeria is becoming more widely entrenched. Traditional

46
approaches to poverty alleviation through rural development, including projects focusing

on a small area can not have a major impact on poverty because of the following reasons:

i. they could not mobilize sufficient external resources to assist a large target

group.

ii. They did not ensure a high proportion of funds reach the target groups;

iii. They did not make use of existing government programmes and resources;

iv. They have not been set up outside government processes so that even

successful models have difficulty continuity operating once project funding is

finished.

In order to address this current decline, a new approach is required to mobilize and

redirect existing resources at community, local and state government levels to improve

the effectiveness of rural development in northern Nigeria. It is against this background

the community based agriculture and rural development using the community driven

development approach was formulated.

Project objectives

The development goal was to improve the livelihood and living conditions of

rural communities, with emphasis on women and other vulnerable groups focusing on the

eight northern states. The goal is pursued by using federal, state and local government

community and IFAD resources in at least 207 villages areas across the seven

participating states to;

i. empower poor rural women and men critically analyse their constraints

opportunities and support requirements and to increasingly effectively manage

their own development;

47
 ii. support institutionalization of the policies and processes, create awareness and

develop the capacity of public and private sector services provider to become

more relevant and responsible to the rural poor women and men and

iii. support balanced sustainable social agricultural and economic development

interventions for appropriate village women‟s and men‟s groups and

individuals.

There are based on the guiding principles adopted during the programme planning phase.

The programme however had two major components. These are:

i. Awareness and capacity building;

ii. Community development

The programme started in 2003 and the expected to end by the 2010.

The total amount of the project work when it was started was 29900000 USD.

Unit 2: IFAD in Nigeria

4.2 Introduction

IFAD has financed nine programme and projects in Nigeria since 1985 with a

total loan commitment in US$187.5 million. The country of the financial resources that

the organization allocate to western and central Africa. All programmes and projects

have addressed the livelihood needs of poor rural people including small holders, women,

small business owners, poor fishing communities, young people and landless people.

Specific objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i. list and explain the objectives of the IFAD in Nigeria

ii. discuss the contributions of IFAD in Nigeria.

48
IFAD‟s support to the Nigerian governments poverty reduction programme in rural areas

targets large numbers of small holder farmers and is essential people centred. IFAD

supports programme and projects that work with communities and in which small holders

farmers are the main target group. The organization also promotes community-based

international that provide technical and financial support along several value chains such

as livestock products, rice and other cereals, roots and tubers, vegetables and agroforestry

products.

OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAMME

The objectives are to empower poor rural people, especially women, by

increasing access to resources, infrastructures and services and to promote the

management of land, water and common properly by local communities to help

overcome environmental degradation. IFAD direct assistance towards:

i. empowering small-scale farmers, landless people and rural women to

generate sustainable incomes from farming and other activities.

ii. Supporting pro-poor reforms and local governance to expand access to

information, effective transport systems, village infrastructures and

technologies.

iii. Improving access by poor rural communities to financial services and

social services.

At government level, IFAD helps build capacity and strengthen institutions that

provide services to poor rural people, assisting with necessary policy changes,

developing local organizations to enhance their effective participation and

49
 promoting initiatives to foster rapist private sector – led poverty reduction and

economic growth.

UNIT 3: Lessons from the Green Revolution

3.0 Introduction

The whole world is faced with an estimated 786 million hungry people. However,

the original green revolution promised to end hunger through miracle seeds but this was

not achieved and then called for Green Revolution II. This second Green Revolution

would save the world from hunger and starvation if various companies search as

Monsato, Novarhi AgriEVO, DuPont and other chemical companies who are reinventing

themselves as biotechnology companies are allowed to perform their magic.

Specific Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i. Explain the trends of the first Green Revolution.

ii. Draw lessons from the Green Revolution and how the lessons could be

useful in Nigeria.

The Green Revolution

The Green Revolution myth goes like this, the miracle seeds of the Green

Revolution increase grain yield and therefore are a key to ending world hunger. The

Green Revolution buys the time Third World Countries desperately need to deal with the

underlying social causes of poverty and to cut birth rates. The Scientifics and policy

50
advisers behind the Green Revolution could not tell a poor country to reform its

economic and political system, but they could contribute invaluable expertise in food

production while the first Green Revolution may have missed poorer areas with more

marginal lands, Nigeria could learn valuable lessons from that experience to help launch

a second Green Revolution to defeat hunger once and for all.

Improving seeds through experimentation is what people have been up to since

the beginning of agriculture, but the term „Green Revolution was coined in the 1960s to

highlight a particularly striking breakthrough. In test plots in northwest Mexico,

improved varieties of what dramatically increased yields with a big boost from the

international Agricultural Research Centres created by the Rockfeller and Ford

foundations, the miracle seeds quickly spread to Asia and soon new strains of rice and

corn were developed as well.

By the 1970s, the term r3evolutions was well deserved, for the new seeds

accompanied by chemical fertilizers pesticides and for the most parts, irrigation had

replaced the traditional farming practices of millions of third world farmers by the 1990s,

almost 75 percent of Asian rice areas were sown with these new varieties. The same was

true for almost half of the wheat planted in Africa and more than half of that in Latin

America and Asia and about 70 percent of the world‟s corn as well. Overall, it was

estimated that 40 percent of all farmers in the Third World were using Green Revolution

seeds with the greatest use found in Asia, followed by Latin America.

The remarkable difference in china where the number of hungry dropped from

40% millions to 189 million, almost begs the question: which has been more effective at

51
reducing hunger the Green Revolution on the Chinese Revolution where broad-based

changes in access to land paved the way for rising living standards.

The poor pay more and get legs. Poor farmers can‟t afford to buy fertilizer and

other inputs in volume: poor farmers can‟t hold out for the best price for their crops as

can larger farmers whose circumstances are far less desperate. With the Green Revolution

farming becomes petro – dependent.

Some of the more recently developed seeds may produce higher yields even

without manufactured inputs but the best results require the right amounts of chemical

fertilizer, pesticides and water in India, adoption of the new seeds has been accompanied

by a sixfold rise in fertilizer use per care.

Green Revolution proponents claim increases in net incomes from farms of all

sizes once farmers adopt the more responsive seeds.

There is also growing evidence that Green Revolution style farming is not

ecologically sustainable, even for large farms. In 1990s, Green Revolution researchers

themselves sounded the alarm about a disturbing trend that had only just come to light.

Having seen food production advance while hunger widens, then a question at this

juncture is necessary under what conditions are greater harvests doomed to failure in

eliminating hunger?

The answers to this question are not far fetched:

First, where farm land is bought and sold like any other commonly and society

allows the unlimited accumulation of farmland by a few. Superfarms replace family

farms and all of society suffers.

52
 Secondly where the main producers of food-small farmers and firm workers lack

bargaining power relative to suppliers of farm inputs and food markets, producers get a

shrinking share of the rewards from farming.

Thirdly, where dominant technology destroys the very basis for future production

by degrading the soil and generating pest and weed problems, it becomes increasingly

difficult and costly to sustain yields.

Under there three conditions, mountains of additional food could not eliminate

hunger, as hunger in America should not let us forget. The alternative is to create a

variable and productive small farm agriculture using the principle of agroecology. That is

the only moltel with the potential to end rural poverty, food for everyone, and protest the

environment and the productivity of the land for future generations.

In the final note, if the history of Green Revolution has taught Nigeria one thing,

it is that increased food production can and often does go hand in hand with greater

hunger. If the very basis of staying competitive in farming is buying expensive inputs,

then was this farmers will inexorably win out over, the poor, who are unlikely to find

adequate employment to compensate for the loss of farming livelihoods. Hunger us not

caused by a shortage of food, and cannot be stimulated by producing more. If agriculture

can play any role in allerating hunger, it will only be to the extent that the bias towards

weather and larger farmers is reversed through pro-poor alternatives like land reform and

sustainable agriculture, which reduce inequality and make small farmers the centre of an

economically vibrant rural economy.

53
UNIT 4: NIGERIA’S RIVER BASIN SYSTEM

4.0 INTRODUCTION

The principle of river basin is as old as the settlement of early man along fertile

river valleys. The role of River Basin Development Authority is examined in this unit.

Nigeria‟s involvement with the concept of river basin system began with the

establishment of the Lakes Chad Basin commission in 1964. This organ for the socio-

economic development of the lake area comprises such bordering countries as Niger,

Chad, Republic of Benin and Nigeria.

4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

i. Trace the historical development of Nigeria‟s river basin system.

ii. Identify the Programmes embarked upon by the River Basin Authority in

Nigeria.

iii. Discuss the relevance of River Basin Authority in Nigeria.

4.2 NIGERIA’S RIVER BASIN SYSTEM

River Basin Authority sponsored Programmes of resource inventory – mapping

water resources survey as a basis for comprehensive agricultural development and road

development to link participating countries.

Specific projects undertaken to date include cattle ranch near Maiduguri

rehabilitation of water bore holes, ground water investigations of 4046.94 hectares on the

Yobe River Basin, South Chad irrigation project, geological mapping of sedimentary

54
areas around the lake , locust control, fisheries research, pulp and paper extraction from

the basins abundant papyrus growth and contour mapping of the basin area.

The River Nigeria Basin Commission comprising 9 riparian nations. The

commission has been very active in the task of promoting and co-ordinating studies,

regulations and programmes for the optimum utilization of the land – water resources of

the basin, in terms of irrigation, hydropower and navigation.

The specific functions of RBDAs among others include to:

i. undertake comprehensive development of both surface and underground

water resources for multipurpose use.

ii. Undertake schemes for the control of floods and erosion and for water

shed management.

iii. Construct and maintain dams, dykes, pollens, wells, bore-holes,

irrigation and drainage systems and other works necessary for the

achievement of the Authority‟s function under this section.

iv. Develop irrigation schemes for the production of crops and livestock

and to lease the irrigated land to farmers or recognized associations in

the locality of the area concerned, for a fee to be determined by the

authority concerned with the approval of the commissioner.

v. Provide water for reservoirs, wells and bore-holes, under the control of

the Authority concerned for Urban and rural water supply schemes on

request by the state governments and when directed to do so by the

commissioner.

55
 vi. Develop fisheries and improve navigation of the rivers, lakes and

reservoirs and lagoons in the Authority‟s area.

vii. Process crops and livestock produced

viii. Control pollution in rivers and lakes in the Authority‟s area in

accordance with nationally laid down standards.

RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES.

The programme involves a comprehensive land and water resources mapping with

a view to planning and implementing feasible projects. The potentials of the basin in

terms of existing enterprises, labour resources and water resources, mineral resources,

land resources, forest resources, wild life resources and fishery resources are carefully

assessed to project development objectives, goals and targets.

i. Water development programmes: The range of water-based requirement for

Nigeria‟s growing population is very broad the needs for water include

agriculture, industry, domestic – municipal energy, fisheries, transportation,

flood control and recreation.

ii. Land Development Programme: The effective utilization of water in a basis

for agriculture will depend on the level and pattern of land development

programmes pursued by RBDAs. The specific land programme of interest in

Nigeria are land use classification, land use management water shed

management, forest range management, underground storage etc.

iii. Crop Livestock Development Programmes: These programmes involve

water requirements of crops in terms of irrigation and livestock enterprices in

terms of stock water the four major programmes of relevance in Nigeria are

56
 irrigation agriculture, stock water development, soiling water crops and fishes

and drought resistant crops.

iv. Fishery Programmes: The programmes here include, river fisheries, resort-

canal fisheries aquaculture fisheries, swampland fishers, shrimp farming and

crab farming.

v. Settlement Development Programmes

RBDAs planned for orderly development of settlements. They advocated for the

principle of homes steady which include the development of villages, resettlement of

villages, and production on enterprise villages.

BENIN – OWENA RIVER BASIN

The population of the communities in the country has continued to be on the

increase and based on this population explosion, the following conclusions appear very

relevant. Firstly, the fairly large population of farmers will need to be mobilized for

farmers will need to be mobilized for increased food production and productivity.

Secondly, there is need to find rural employment opportunities for the increasing number

of rural labour or workforce. Thirdly, the average hectare cultivated by the farming

population has to be substantially raised to about 5.00 hectares per farmer, through a

scheme of participation and registered operation feed the Nation and NAFPP farmers will

cost much less and yield higher returns in food output than large scale farm enterprises.

Lastly, the organisation of such a scheme within the context of the village will tend to

ensure better cooperation and efficient management of farm enterprises.

57
 IMPLICATION OF AGRARIAN INSTITUTIONS FOR NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

The village development projects strategy has effect on national development

policy hitherto, the national development policy has been oriented to a macro framework

of national needs and this geared to handing down policy instruments which presentably

unrelated to the structural problems of the national economy.

It also has effect on the mechanism for implementing national development

programmes and programmes which hitherto involves planned governmental public

projects approaches that allow the private sector proceed almost neglected. Also, it has

impact on planning and development programming which task has been regarded as a

handing down by government planning agencies of programmes. The fourth is the effect

on resource mobilization which has hitherto been considered in isolation of national

endowments and out of context of resource – use problems and efficiency.

There are implications for food management also. The first is the implication for

the structure of the farm and the food production problems. The second one is on the

production inputs management which up to now, has been generally in a state of flux or

constant changes. The need for the effective management of primary production inputs

and the evolvement of systems for efficiently servicing produces becomes very real under

the village development projects.

On the part of the government policy, it is essential that food development policy

formulation should begin at the grassroots problems isolation level. The aggregation of

such isolated food production problems for all villages in a region is converted into a set

of manageable commitments which form the body of food production policies for that

58
region there is also the need to integrate food research activities with information

dissemination and with food production systems in a two way flow system.

Aside from the OFN, Government of Nigeria had embarked on other agricultural

strategies and bodies to ensure adequate food production for the entire populace both at

National and state levels. Some of these include the following:

1. The Green Revolution.

2. Back to Land.

3. NDE to empower the youth in various capacities including agriculture.

4. ADP – Agricultural Development projects being supported by the World

Bank

In the final analysis, if the history of the Green Revolution has taught us one

thing, it is that increased food production can and often does go hand in hand with greater

hunger. If the very basis of staying competitive in farming is buying expensive inputs,

then wealthier farmers will inexorably win out over the poor, who are unlikely to find

adequate employment to compensate for the loss of farming livelihoods. Hunger is not

caused by a shortage of food and cannot be eliminated by producing more. This is why

one must be skeptical when Monsanto DuPont, Novartis and other chemical cum-

biotechnology companies were of the opinion that genetic engineering would boost crop

yields and feed the hungry. The technologies they push have dubious benefits and well

documented risks, and this second Green Revolution they promise is more likely to end

hunger than the fiat.

Far too many people do not have access to the food that is already available

because of deep and growing inequality, if agriculture can play any role, in alleviating

59
hunger, it will only be to the extent that the bias toward wealthier and larger farmers is

reversed through pro-poor alternatives like land reform and sustainable agriculture, which

reduce inequality and make small farmers the centre of an economically vibrant rural

economy.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES:

What do you understand by the following terms:

1(a) Agriculture

(b) Institutions

(c) Agrarian institution

(d) Management

2. Discuss briefly on the agrarian history of South Asia.

3. Enumerate the basic policies for agrarian reform and rural development.

4. Highlight the lessons that Nigerian can learn from the Green Revolution

programme.

5. What are the basic activities of IFAD in Nigeria?

6. Enumerate the programme objectives of IFAD.

7. Categorize Agrarian structure into three basic categories that you are familiar

with.

8. What are the functions of the following in the agreement for the establishment of

a regional centre on agrarian reform and rural development?

(a) Governing Council

(b) Technical committee (c) Director

60
REFERENCES

Ludden David (2000). An Agrarian History of South Asia, Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

File: // E:\all on agrarian\ An Agrarian AGRARIAN 5.htm 8/25/2009

File: // E:\a//on agrarian\ An Agrarian\establishment of agrarian institutions 6.htm.

File: // E:\all on agrarian\ An Agrarian\FIDAFRIQUE Community – based Agriculture

and rural development. 8/25/2009

File: // E:\all on agrarian\ An Agrarian//International Policies for agrarian reform and

rural development 8/25/2009

File: // E:\all on agrarian\ An Agrarian\\Lessons from Green Revolution 11htm.

8/25/2009

File: // E:\all on agrarian\ An Agrarian\Systems – labor-organisation html 8/25/2009

File: // E:\all on agrarian\ An Agrarian/Agrarian structure. htm 8/25/2009

Eweka J.A., Bello – Osagie V.E., Olayide S.O. (1979). Village Development: Food

Basket Management Strategy Nigeria Centre for Agricultural and Rural

Development University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

61