Agr 215-Main Body 2

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
COURSE CODE:AGR 215
COURSE TITLE:AGRICULTURAL BOTANY

AGR 215 COURSE GUIDE
COURSE
GUIDE
AGR 215
AGRICULTURAL BOTANY
Course Writer/Developer Dr. Magashi Auwal Ibrahim

Kano University of Science and Technology
Wudil
Programme Leader Dr. S.I. Ogunrinde

National Open University of Nigeria
Course Coordinator Dr. Sanusi Jari

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ii

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
Printed 2009
ISBN: 978-058-103-0
All Rights Reserved
iii
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction…………………………………………………….. 1
The Course……………………………………………………… 1
Course Aims………………………………………………….…. 1
Course Objectives……………………………………………….. 2
What You Will Learn in the Course/Course Requirement……... 2
Course Materials…………………………………………….….. 2
Study Units………………………………………………………. 3
Textbooks and References…………………………………….…. 3
Assessment ………………………………………………….…… 4
Tutor-Marked Assignment……………………………………….. 4
Final Examination and Grading …………………………….……. 4
Summary ……………….…………………….…………….…….. 5
iv
Introduction
Agricultural botany is a branch of biology concerned with the study of

plants (kingdom Plantae). Plants are now defined as multicelular
organisms living on land that carry out photosynthesis. Organisms that
had sometimes previously been called plants, however, such as algae
and fungi, continue to be the province of botany, because of their
historical connection with the discipline and their superficial similarities
to true plants.
Botany is concerned with all aspects of plants, from the smallest and
simplest forms to the largest and most complex, from the study of all
aspects of an individual plant to the complex interactions of all the
different members of a complicated botanical community of plants with
their environment and with animals.
It is a core course for students of Biology and Agriculture; it is

prerequisite for attaining Bsc. degree in Biology and Agriculture. The
course consists of nine units. The materials have been developed to suit
Nigerian students by using more practical examples from indigenous
plants.
This course guide briefly explains to you what the course is about, what
course materials you will be using and how you are to use them. It
provides some general guidelines for the amount of time you might be
spending in order to successfully complete each unit of the course. It
also gives you some guidance on your tutor-marked assignments, details
of which are to be found in separate “Assignment File”. The course
involves regular tutorials and you are advised to attend the sessions.
Dates and locations of tutorials are included in the assignment file.
The Course
The study of this course will help you to know the plant world around
him and while going through the course you will learn about the pure
and applied botany classification of plant, as well as morphological
physiological function of various economic plants.
Course Aims
The aim of this course is to provide an understanding and appreciation

of varieties of plant in the context of agricultural production as an
important factor of technological progress in agriculture. This is also
geared toward the development and improvement of method of
agricultural production.
AGR 215 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY
Course Objectives
In order to achieve the said aim above, the course sets overall objectives.
Each unit also has specific objectives which are always outlined at the
beginning of each unit. You should read them before you start working
through the unit. It is also necessary to refer to them during your study
of the unit to check on your progress. Also after completing a unit, you
should glance through the unit objectives. This will enable you to be
sure that you have done what was required of you by the unit. This
course has the following objectives in order to achieve the above aims:
• Understand the basic concept in Agricultural Botany

• Know the origin of cultivated plant
• Identify and classify some selected tropical plant
• Appreciate the morphological, anatomical structure of plant and their
physiological functions
• To distinguish between pure and applied botany
• Know the relevance of botany to Agriculture
What You Will Learn In the Course/Course Requirements
The course Agricultural Botany demand enough time, to comprehend.

The content of the course material is much with lot of new terms and
nomenclatures that require an extra hard working. It is advisable to
study units, read suggested books and other materials that will help you
achieve the objectives, attend all the tutorials session and to ask
questions on anything not clearly understood. It will be of much help in
the process of learning if student try to acquaint himself or herself with a
life example or specimen of some selected available plant. Each unit
contains assessment exercise, and at intervals in the course you are
required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. There will be a
final examination at the end of the course.
Course Materials
You will be provided with the following:
1. Course guide
2. 3 modules of content of 9 units in all
3. List of recommended text books to supplement the course
materials
4. Assignment file
ii
Study Units
There are 10 units in this course. Each unit should take you 2-3 hours to
work through. The nine units are divided into 3 modules. Each unit
includes a table of contents, introduction, specific objectives, and
summary.
The following are the study units contained in this course:
Module 1
Unit 1 Basic concept in Agricultural Botany

Unit 2 Classification of Kingdom Plantae
Unit 3 Relevance of Botany to Agriculture
Module 2
Unit 1 Morphology
Unit 2 Histology
Unit 3 Plant Physiology
Module 3
Unit 1 Cereals Plants

Unit 2 Legumes/Pulses
Unit 3 Roots and Tubers
Unit 4 Sugar Crops
Unit 5 Oil Crops
Unit 6 Vegetable Crops
Unit 7 Fiber Crops
Unit 8 Beverages and Stimulant Crops
Unit 9 Medicinal Plants
Unit 10 Other Crops
Textbooks and References
Baranov, V.D. Ustimenko, G.V.( 1994). Mir Kulturnih Rasteniyi. Misl,.

P.381.
Cobley, L.S. and Steele, W.M. (1976). An Introduction to the Botany in

the Tropics, Second Edition. Longman Group Limited.
Dutta, A. C.(2000). Botany for Degree Students Oxford University Press

10th Edition.
iii
Ebukanson and Bassey: (1992). About Seed Plants. Baraka Press and
Publishers LTD.
Green, D.J., Stout, G.W.(2004). Biological Science, 3rd Edition.

Cambridge University Press
James, W.O.(1975). An Introduction to Plant Physiology Seventh

Edition, Oxford University Press. P.181
Kochhar, S. L. (2001). Economic Botany in the Tropics Second Edition,

Macmillan India LTD
Murkin, B.M. Naumova, L.G. and Muldashev, A.A. (2000). Vissheye

Rasteniye. M. Logos P.264.
Pandey, S. N. Sinha, B.K.( 2003). Plant Physiology Third Edition, Vikas

Publishing House PVT LTD. P.581
Assessment
There are two component of assessment for this course. The Tutor
Marked Assignment (TMA) and the End of Course Examination
Tutor-Marked Assignment
The TMA is the continuous assessment components of your course. It

account for 30% of the total score. You will be given 4 TMA’s to
answer. Three of these must be answer before you are allowed to sit for
the end of course examination. The TMA’s would be given to you by
your facilitator and returned after marking them. The best three scores
out of the four TMAs you have submitted would be recorded for you as
your continuous assessment. It is therefore very important that you do
and submit all the four TMAs as scheduled.
Final Examination and Grading
You are advised to revise all the areas covered in the course. Revision of
all the exercises and tutor-marked assignments before examination is
necessary in preparation for the examination. It should start after you
have finished studying the last unit. The final examination will be of
three hours duration and it has a value of only 70% of the total course
grade.
iv
Summary
AGR 215 introduces you to the basic concept in Agricultural botany,

definitions, its importance and relevance to Agricultural production and
its development. At the completion of the course you will be acquainted
with the basic knowledge about Agricultural Botany which will help you
to apply the acquired knowledge in Agricultural Production. And you
will be able to:
• Describe in detail what is Agricultural Botany? Nature, scope etc

• Classify Plant kingdom
• Describe the development of Agricultural Botany as a science
• Identify the relationship and relevance of Agricultural Botany to
Agricultural Production
• State the Origin, Nomenclature, Characteristics, and Economic
significance of some tropical crops
• Describe the physiology, anatomy and morphology of some
agricultural crops
GOOD LUCK
v
MAIN
COURSE
Course Code AGR 215
Course Title Agricultural Botany
Course Writer/Developer Dr. Magashi Auwal Ibrahim

Kano University of Science and Technology
Wudil
Programme Leader Dr. S.I. Ogunrinde

Course Coordinator Dr. Sanusi Jari

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
vi

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
Printed 2009
ISBN: 978-058-103-0
All Rights Reserved
vii
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 …………………………………………………….. 1
Unit 1 Basic Concept in Agricultural Botany……………… 1

Unit 2 Classification of Kingdom Plantae…………………. 4
Unit 3 Relevance of Botany to Agriculture………………… 13
Module 2 …………………………………………………….. 19
Unit 1 Plant Morphology…………………………………… 19

Unit 2 Histology ………………………………………….. 33
Unit 3 Plant Physiology…………………………………… 44
Module 3 …………………………………………………….. 52
Unit 1 Cereals Plants……………………………………… 52

Unit 2 Legumes/Pulses…………………………………… 62
Unit 3 Roots and Tubers………………………………….. 65
Unit 4 Sugar Crops……………………………………….. 72
Unit 5 Oil Crops………………………………………….. 76
Unit 6 Vegetable Crops…………………………………… 82
Unit 7 Fiber Crops………………………………………… 88
Unit 8 Beverages and Stimulant Crops…………………… 94
Unit 9 Medicinal Plants………………………………… 99
Unit 10 Other Crops………………………………………. 103
viii
MODULE 1
Unit 1 Basic Concepts in Agricultural Botany

Unit 2 Classification of Kingdom Plantae
Unit 3 Relevance of Botany to Agriculture
UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN AGRICULTURAL

BOTANY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 Scope
3.3 Importance of Green Plants
3.4 Branches
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Botany as a subject developed out of the study of Agriculture and

medicine. It was since 16th century that several attempts were made to
systematize knowledge of the plant kingdom by classifying plant as a
scientific life. From 18th century classification began to take a definite
shape. 19th century was noted by remarkable development of the
Science of Botany.
Botany is one of the earliest sciences since man started using plant as a
source of food and medicine. In the present industrialized world, man’s
life depends fundamentally on agriculture since it’s the backbone of his
existence. The three basic necessities of life, food, shelter and clothing
and other essentials are still derived mainly from the plant kingdom,
thus man started domesticating wild plants for that purposes. Today all
the success agriculture recorded is due to the tireless work of talented
researches that work with plant resources.
1
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• define correctly Agricultural Botany

• outline briefly the scope of Agricultural Botany
• highlight the importance of green plant to Agricultural production
• describe the branches of botany.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition
Botany: The word botany means herbs, Is the science that deals with
herb. Botany is the study of plant resources of the world.
Agriculture: Is the Science and art of producing food, industrial raw

materials and their services.
Agricultural botany: is concern with those plants that are directly used
for food production. It study internal and external structure of plant
domesticated for agricultural purposes. It also studies their physiological
characteristic in relation to nutrition, growth, movement and
reproduction as well as the Plant reaction to various environmental
conditions (Kochhar, 2001).
3.2 Scope of Agricultural Botany
It’s the scope of Agricultural botany to study the cultivated crop origin,
distribution in space and time, their life history relationship
classification, taxonomy and principles of evolution from lower and
simpler form to higher and more complex one as well as investigate
about how to put them to uses and device different method that can be
adopted to improve quantity and quality for agricultural purposes.
3.3 Importance of Green Plants
They are essential for the continuity of all kind of life including human
life. It supports life. It support life in many ways, nourish living
organism with oxygen by absorbing carbon dioxide, breaking down of
water and releasing equal volume of pure oxygen.
It also prepares food using carbon dioxide from the air and water and
inorganic salt from the soil with this manufacturing of food and
purification of atmosphere as perform by plant make animal deeply
indebted to plant for their basic needs and survival- (food and oxygen).
2
Hence Study of varietals plant in the context of agricultural production

is an important factor of technological progress in agriculture.
3.4 Branches of Botany
Botany like other Science is studied from two perspectives as Pure

Science and as Applied Science. Botany as Pure Science- it studies
plants as they form a part of nature, while applied botany it look at
economic perspective how it applied to the well being of mankind.
As Pure Science it studies morphology, histology, physiology, ecology,

plant geography, taxonomy, systematic botany, organic evolution,
Genetic and palaebotany.
Applied botany- utilization of crop product for the well being of

mankind, Agronomy, horticulture, pathology, pharmacognosy, forestry,
plant breeding etc (A.C. Dutta, 200)
4.0 CONCLUSION
The concept and scope of Agricultural botany was given in this unit and
branches of botany also where highlighted. The unit also showed the
importance of studying botany in the context of agricultural production
this is a gateway to technological progress in agriculture.
5.0 SUMMARY
• The term Agricultural Botany was clearly defined

• Concept and scope of Agricultural Botany were briefly outlined
• Importance of green plants to agricultural production was
highlighted
• Branches of botany were described.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Define the Agricultural Botany and briefly outline its scope

2. Discuss the relevance of Agricultural Botany to Agricultural
production
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Dutta, A.C. (2000). “Botany for Degree Students” Sixth Edition.
Mirkin, B. M. Naumova, L.G. and Muldashev, A.A.. “The Higher

Plants” Mocow-Logos.
3
UNIT 2 CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM PLANTAE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Taxonomy
3.2 Classifications
3.2.1 Nomenclature
3.2.2 Kingdom
3.2.3 Phylum
3.2.4 Class
3.2.5 Order
3.2.6 Family
3.2.7 Genus
3.2.8 Species
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the branch of biology concerned with

naming plants and placing them in groups i.e plant taxonomy, a science
that deals with classifying plants. Classification in botany includes
identification, naming and grouping plant into a formal system. Thus,
vast number of plant forms must be named and arrange in orderly
manner so that students can find it easy study the exact plant that is
being examine and discussed in this course. The group of plant must be
defined by selection of important characteristics or shared traits that
make the members of each group similar to one another and unlike
members of the other groups. In modern classification schemes, there is
an attempt to place groups into categories that will reflect an
understanding of the evolutionary process underlying the similarities
and differences among plants. Such categories form a kind of pyramid,
or hierarchy, in which the different levels should represent the different
degrees of evolutionary relationship. The hierarchy extends upward
from several million species, each made up of individual plants that are
closely related, to a plant kingdom, which contain assemblage of plants
many of which are only distantly related.
4
The classification scheme also is based on identification, naming, and

grouping of organisms into a formal system based on similarities such as
internal and external anatomy, physiological functions, genetic makeup,
or evolutionary history. More than 1.5 million different groups have
been identified and at least partly described, and many more remain to
be studied. In this unit the student will be exposed only to indigenous
tropical plants and few none indigene and rare plant.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• describe Plant taxonomy as a science of classifying plant into groups

• explain the pyramidal structure of the grouping
• identify various indigenous plants.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Taxonomy
Science of classifying animals and plants. Probably the first scientific

study of plants was the attempt to classify them. At first, because of the
limited knowledge of plant structures, artificial classifications,
beginning with the most ancient one into herbs, shrubs, and trees, were
necessary. These simple categories merely catalogued, in a tentative
way, the rapidly accumulating material, in preparation for a
classification based on natural relationships. Modern taxonomic
classification, based on the natural concepts and system of the Swedish
botanist Carolus Linnaeus, has progressed steadily since the 18th
century, modified by advances in knowledge of morphology, evolution,
and genetics.
3.2Classification
The identification, naming, and grouping of organisms into a formal

system. The vast numbers of living forms must be named and arranged
in an orderly manner so that biologists all over the world can be sure
they know the exact organism that is being examined and discussed.
Groups of organisms must be defined by the selection of important
characteristics, or shared traits, that make the members of each group
similar to one another and unlike members of other groups. Modern
classification schemes also attempt to place groups into categories that
will reflect an understanding of the evolutionary processes underlying
the similarities and differences among organisms. Such categories form
a kind of pyramid, or hierarchy, in which the different levels should
represent the different degrees of evolutionary relationship. The
5
hierarchy extends upwards from several million species, each made up

of individual organisms that are closely related, to a few kingdoms, each
containing large assemblages of organisms, many of which are only
distantly related.
To construct classification schemes that correspond as closely as

possible to the natural world, biologists examine and compare the
anatomy, functions, genetic systems, behaviour, ecology, and fossil
histories of as many organisms as possible. More than 1.5 million
different groups have been identified and at least partly described, and
many more remain to be studied. All branches of biology contribute to
such studies; the specialties that are immediately concerned with the
problems of classification are Taxonomy and systematic. Although the
two disciplines overlap considerably, taxonomy is more involved with
nomenclature (naming) and with constructing hierarchical systems, and
systematic with uncovering evolutionary relationships.
Each taxonomic category is called a taxon (plural-taxa). The major

taxonomic categories or taxa most normally used are:
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species
Sub-categories such as sub-kingdom, sub-class etc are some times used.
3.2.1 Nomenclature
An important aspect of the classification of organisms is the need to

identify each organism by assigning to it a specific name. The method
universally adopted for this naming exercise is called the binomial
system. The binomial system of nomenclature (naming) was devised by
Karl Linnaeus, a man regarded as the father of modern taxonomy. Under
the binomial system, each organism has two names of which one is
generic name and the other the specific name. The generic name is the
genus to which it belongs. There is generally only one kind of organism
in species, so the specific name is usually a precise indication of the
identity of an organism. As a matter of custom, the generic name always
begins with a capital letter, the specific name with a small letter. When
printed, generic and specific names are always put in italics, when
handwritten or typed they are underlined. Thus the proper name Mango
tree- Mangifera indica, Baobab is Adansonia digtata.
6
The naming of taxonomic categories is also systematize having a

common suffix attach to each category as summarized in table below
using.
Table 1.2 Classification of plant Kingdom (Plant taxonomy)

Taxonomic category suffice Example (white oak)
1 Kingdom plantae
2 Phylum -ophyta angiospermophyta
3 Class -opsida/-ae Angiospermopsida/
angiospermaeae
4 Order -ales fagales
5 Family aceae Fagaceae
6 Genus quercus
7 species alba
Source: Mirkin et. al., 2001
3.2.2 Kingdom
The kingdom mentioned above is the highest or broadest unit or

category of classification. All plant which belong to one kingdom for
example its members must have certain characteristics feature
distinguish them from members of another kingdom such as animals.
The members of each kingdom are then further classified or subdivided
into further categories in a hierarchical order, with members of each
category decreasing in diversity from the level of kingdom up to species.
Living organisms were originally divided by Linnaeus into two simple

groups: Plantae (plants) and Animalia (animals). There is still some
debate as to the method of division of organisms into kingdoms but the
system most commonly used today has five kingdoms: Plant, Animal,
Fungi and Algae and Protozoans. Plant kingdom is the highest
classificatory group and of one of the three division of living world that
comprises of a large diversity of plant ranging from lower and simpler
to the higher and complex form.
Kingdom Plantae, immobile organisms which use the Sun's light to

photosynthesize in order to obtain energy from inorganic molecules.
Plants typically have rigid, cellulose cell walls. Included in this group
are mosses, ferns, conifers, flowering plants, and horsetails.
3.2.3 Phylum
7
Phylum, in biology is a major category, or taxon, of organisms with a

common design or organization. This design is shared by all members of
the phylum, even though structural details may differ greatly because of
evolution. The assumption is made by biologists that all members of a
phylum have a common ancestry.
A phylum is part of the hierarchy of classification of organisms. It is an

arbitrary grouping; that is, it is developed from a combination of
scientific observation, theorizing, and guesswork in an attempt to find
order in the complexity of living and extinct life forms. The same is true
of all classification levels above and below it except for species, which
consist of organisms known to be capable, at least potentially, of
interbreeding (see Species and Speciation). Plant kingdom is made up of
the following major phyla (group) of the plant kingdom as shown
below:
1. Thallophyta
2. Bryophyta
3. Pteridophyta / Filicinophyta
4. Coniferophyta
5. Angiospermophyta
Table.2.2 Characteristics of plant major Phyla

Phylum Brief Description Example
1 Thallophyta Single-celled and simple Algae,
multicellular fungi,
lichens
2 Bryophyta More complex green Mosses,
plants usually with liverworts
simple leaves no
vascular tissues
3 Pteridophyta/Filicinophyta Green plants with stem, Ferns
leaves, true roots and
vascular tissues but no
flowers or seeds
4 Coniferophyta Higher plants It Conifers
produces cones on
which sporangia spores
and seeds develop.
Seeds are not enclosed
in an ovary, they lived
on the surface of
specialized leaves called
ovuliferous scales in
structures called cones,
it has no fruits.
8
5 Angiospermophyta produce flowers in Mangoes,

which sporangia, spores grasses
and seeds developed
seeds which are
enclosed in an ovary,
and after fertilization the
ovary developed into a
fruits
Source: Mirkin et. al., 2001
3.2.4 Class
Closely related orders are group together to form class.
3.2.5 Order
Order, in taxonomy, the classificatory group which is below kingdom,

phylum, and class, and above family, genus, and species. Orders may be
divided into suborders. Members of the same order usually share certain
characteristics or traits, which indicate a common evolutionary origin
and which make them markedly dissimilar from those in other orders.
For example, human beings are in the order of a primate, which groups
them together with all other mammals that have fingers with sensitive
pads and nails. The Latin names of many plant orders end in -ales.
3.2.6 Family
Closely related genera are grouped together to form a family. Family

(biology), in biological classification, group of genera with related
characteristics. The family is below the order and above the genus in
biological groupings. The names of families in modern classification are
usually derived from a genus of the family, called the type genus. The
family names of animals always end in idae, as in Equidae, the horse
family; those of plants almost always end in aceae, as in Dipsacaceae,
the teasel family.
3.2.7 Genus
Genus, is a group of species closely related in structure and

evolutionary origin, several closely related species sharing a good
number of characteristic features are grouped together in genus (plural-
genera). The position of a genus, in classification of the kingdoms of
living forms, is below family or subfamily, and above species.
Species that do not interbreed with each other but are clearly related by
important shared traits are grouped into a genus (plural, genera), and the
9
separate species are given a two-word name (binomial nomenclature).

The first word is the genus name and the second word is an adjective,
usually descriptive or geographic. This means of naming was
established in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus, the
founder of modern taxonomy. He used Latin names because the scholars
of his day communicated in that language. Linnaeus gave humans the
genus name Homo (man) and the species name Homo sapiens (wise
man). To construct the hierarchy of classification, one or more genera
are grouped into a family, families are grouped into orders, orders into
classes, classes into phyla, and phyla into kingdoms. The groups of
organisms within these seven major categories, at every level of the
hierarchy, are termed taxa, and each taxon has a definition that
encompasses the important traits shared by all its constituent taxa.
To allow further subdivision, the prefixes sub- and super- may be added
to any category. In addition, special intermediate categories—such as
branch (between kingdom and phylum), cohort (between class and
order), and tribe (between family and genus)—may be used in complex
classifications.
On any level, a taxon should indicate a common evolutionary

background, that is, all its members should have evolved from a
common ancestor. The taxon is then said to be monophyletic. Where an
established taxon includes two or more members that have converged so
that they have traits in common but have evolved from different
ancestral lines, the taxon is said to be polyphyletic. An attempt is then
usually made to divide and redefine the taxon so that monophyletic taxa
result.
A genus name always differs from the name used for any other genus of
living forms. An organism is named by assigning it a binomial,
consisting of a genus name followed by a species name. In the scientific
name of the tiger lily, Lilium tigrinum, for example, Lilium is the genus
name and tigrinum is the species name. In zoological nomenclature, the
genus and species names may be identical; the gorilla, for example, is
Gorilla gorilla. In botanical nomenclature, the genus name may never be
assigned as a species name. The scientific name applied to a family is
always a modification of the name of one of the genera; the genus.
3.2.8 Species
Biologists classify individual organisms at the basic level of the species,

which is the only category that can be regarded as occurring in nature.
The higher categories are abstract groupings of species. A species is
composed of organisms that resemble one another in many important
characteristics. Moreover, in organisms that have sexual reproduction, a
10
species is made up of interbreeding populations that, ideally, cannot

produce fertile offspring with members of any other species.
As mentioned earlier the specie (plural- species) is the basic or least

diversified taxonomic category Species ranks below genus and family,
and contains subspecies. A species is a group of organisms which can
interbreed freely with one another and share a great deal of similarity in
their physical and other characteristics. For example all mango fruit
belong to one species, mangifera indica. Although members of one
species are very much alike, there are some varieties among them, eg,
alponso, Julie, peter
There are many difficulties in the application of the biological species

concept. Capacity to interbreed cannot always be tested, nor can the
potential for interbreeding. It may not be possible to distinguish between
a single polytypic species and a group of similar species occupying
neighbouring areas. The museum taxonomist normally has to deal with
dead material, with no information on breeding behaviour. The
definition cannot readily be used for organisms, such as bacteria, which
reproduce asexually for long periods, or plants which reproduce
vegetatively. It cannot be applied in paleontology, where there is no
evidence concerning breeding potential. In addition, the fossil sequence
often lacks evidence of discontinuity within lineages, although different
sections differ as much as modern species.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Grouping organisms according to shared characteristics is not a simple

task, and scientists often disagree about the best way to classify
organisms. Some think that organisms should be grouped according to
differences or similarities in the way they look or act. Other scientists
argue that classification should be based on characteristics derived from
a shared evolution. Conflicting philosophies about classification have
resulted in a variety of classification methods, each with their own set of
assumptions, techniques, and results.
Scientists classify organisms using a series of hierarchical categories

called taxa (taxon, singular). This hierarchical system moves upward
from a base containing a large number of organisms with very specific
characteristics. This base taxon is part of a larger taxon, which in turn
becomes part of an even larger taxon. Each successive taxon is
distinguished by a broader set of characteristics.
The base level in the taxonomic hierarchy is the species. Broadly

speaking, a species is a group of closely related organisms that are able
to interbreed and produce fertile offspring (see Species and Speciation).
11
On the next tier of the hierarchy, similar species are grouped into a
broader taxon called a genus (genera, plural). The remaining tiers within
the hierarchy are formed by grouping genera into families, then families
into orders, and orders into classes. In the classification of animals,
bacteria, protists (unicellular organisms, such as amoebas, with
characteristics of both plants and animals), and fungi, classes are
grouped into phyla (see Phylum), while plant classes are grouped into
divisions. Both phyla and divisions are grouped into kingdoms. Some
scientists go on to group kingdoms into domains.
5.0 SUMMARY
• Plant taxonomy as a science was described in this unit

• Pyramidal structure of plant group was explained clearly
• Various indigenous plant species were identified
1. Give the pyramidal structure of grouping plant kingdom

2. Identify the class, order, family, genus and species of the
following crop -cowpea, -Sorghum, -Mango
3. Describe with example, how to name the given crop above
Green, M.P.O. and Stout, G.W. (2004). Biological Sciences Third

Edition, Cambridge University Press.
Murkin, B.M. Naumova, L.G. and Muldashev, A.A. (2001). Vissheye

Rasteniye.
12
UNIT 3 RELEVANCE OF BOTANY TO AGRICULTURE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Primitive Man used Plant as Source of his Food
3.2 Period of Empirical Botany
3.3 Period of Industrialized World
3.4 Origin of Cultivated Crops
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Because civilization depends in part on a knowledge of plants and their

cultivation, botany can be said to have originated with the first
cultivation of crops, which may date from between 9000B and 7000B
BC. Not until about 2,300 years ago, however, did people become
interested in plants for their own sake. The impetus towards increased
food production in the era following World War II was a result of a new
population explosion. A so-called green revolution, involving selective
breeding of traditional crops for high yields, new hybrids, and intensive
cultivation methods adapted to the climates and cultural conditions of
densely populated countries such as India temporarily stemmed the
pressure for more food. A worldwide shortage of petroleum in the
mid-1970s, however, reduced the supplies of nitrogen fertilizer helpful
to the success of the new varieties. Erratic weather and natural disasters
such as drought and floods continue to reduce crop levels throughout the
world.
Agriculture, art, science, and industry of managing the growth of plants

and animals for human use. In a broad sense, agriculture includes
cultivation of the soil (soil management), growing and harvesting of
crops (crop farming), breeding and raising of livestock (animal
husbandry), dairy farming, forestry, and poultry farming.
Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and

on the biological and physical sciences. Irrigation, drainage,
conservation, and sanitary engineering—each of which is important in
successful farming—are some of the fields requiring the specialized
knowledge of agricultural engineers.
13
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• discuss the relevance of botany to agriculture

• mention seven center of plant diversity without or with minimal error
• describe briefly the historical development of botany.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Primitive Man Used Plant as Source of His Food
The development of Botany as a science started since when man used

plant as his source of food. At the time of earliest and longest period of
human history –palaeolithic / Old Stone Age, farming as such did not
exist. The people of that age were living on berries, succulent herbage
and wild game they could catch by primitive methods. Presumably
agriculture began in the Mesolithic/ middle stone age (12000-6000
B.C.). Agriculture was also developed, people everywhere have
discovered the food value of wild plants and have domesticated and bred
them. The most important are cereals, such as wheat, rice, barley, corn,
and rye; sugar cane and sugar beet; nuts, and oils. Fruits, vegetables, and
olives are also major food sources for human beings. Feed grains for
animals include Soya beans, field corn, and sorghum. Separate articles
on individual plants, including grasses and silage (fodder), and animals
contain further information.
3.2 Period of Empirical Botany
Botany as a science began since when the Greeks believed that plants
derived their nourishment from the soil only. Not until the 17th century
did the Belgian scientist Jan Batista van Helmont show that, although
only water was added to a potted willow, it gained nearly 75 kg (165 lb),
whereas the soil it stood in lost only about 60 g (2 oz) over a period of
five years. This demonstrated that the soil contributes very little to the
increase in the weight of plants. In the 18th century the English chemist
Joseph Priestley demonstrated that growing plants “restore” air from
which the oxygen has been removed (by the burning of candles or the
breathing of animals), and the Dutch physiologist Jan Ingenhousz
extended this observation by showing that light is required for plants to
restore air. These and other discoveries formed the basis for modern
plant physiology, that branch of botany dealing with basic plant
functions.
The facts that water moves upward through the wood and that solutes
move downward through the stems of plants were discovered
14
independently in the 17th century by Marcello Malpighi in Italy and

Nehemiah Grew in England. These facts have now been known for
some 300 years, but only in the past few years have acceptable theories
explaining the movements of liquids in plants been developed, using a
variety of refined analytical techniques.
3.3 Period of Industrialized World
When man lived by spear, the bow and the fishing net this shift from
food gathering to food producing developed independently at different
times in different parts of the world and agriculture continue to develop
at Neolithic/ new stone age. As man’s agricultural needs demanded
increasingly better tools during the Iron Age. Now we are living in the
space age. In this industrialized world of space age, modern man’s life
depends fundamentally on agriculture. Agriculture is the back bone of
man’s existence.
Botany as a subject developed out of the study of agriculture and

medicine. It was from the 16th century that several attempts made to
systematise the knowledge of the plant kingdom by classifying plants on
scientific lines. From the 18th century, classification began to take a
definite shape. 19th century was especially remarkable for the
development of the science of Botany.
3.4 Origin of Cultivated Crops
According to carbon dating, wheat and barley were domesticated in the

Middle East in the 8th millennium BC; millet and rice in China and south-
eastern Asia by 5500 BC; and squash in Mexico about 8000 BC. Legumes
found in Thessaly and Macedonia is dated as early as 6000 BC. Flax was
grown and apparently woven into textiles early in the Neolithic period.
The farmer began, most probably, by noting which wild plants were
edible or otherwise useful and learned to save the seed and to replant it
in cleared land. Long cultivation of the most prolific and hardiest plants
yielded a stable strain.
Grapes and wine were mentioned in Egyptian records about 2900 BC,
and trade in olive oil and wine was widespread in the Mediterranean
area in the 1st millennium BC. Rye and oats were cultivated in northern
Europe about 1000 BC.
Many vegetables and fruits, including onions, melons, and cucumbers,

were grown by the 3rd millennium BC in Ur. Dates and figs were an
important source of sugar in the Near East, and apples, pomegranates,
peaches, and mulberries were grown in the Mediterranean area. Cotton
15
was grown and spun in India about 2000 BC, and linen and silk were
used extensively in 2nd-millennium China. Felt was made from the wool
of sheep in central Asia and the Russian steppes.
The cultivation of plant is one of man’s oldest occupations and probably

began when he discovered that certain seeds spilled on disturbed ground
grew in some mysterious way into new plants. For the discovery of
many of these economic plants, their migrations from one continent to
another, and knowledge of their properties and cultivation.
Alphonse De Candolle (1883) studied some species of cultivated plants

and deduced that cultivated plants originated at some time in the
remote past from wild ancestors in rather restricted areas of the world
with no communication what so ever with each other. These are: China,
southwest Asia including Egypt and inter-tropical America. In his
contribution to the development of Botany Nikolai Ivanovitch Vavilob
one of the greatest investigators in crop Geography and genetics
identified world centers of origin of cultivated plant and made his
deduction based on a variety of facts, obtained from sources different
from those of his predecessors, such as morphology, anatomy, cytology,
genetics, distribution and reaction to diseases.
At first Vavilov suggested six main geographical centers for cultivated

plants, but subsequently increased their number to 11. The main world
centers of diversity as recognized and mapped by Vavilov and his
associate are listed as follows:
Table 1.3 World centers of origin of cultivated plants as

compiled by Vavilov, N. I
S/N Centers Plant
1 Chinese Millet, buckwheat, soybean, many
legumes, bamboo, crucifers,
onion, lettuce, eggplant, cucurbita,
pear, cherry, quince, citrus,
persimmon, sugarcane, cinnamon
and tea.
2 India include Assam and Rice, sugarcane, many legumes,
Burma mango, orange and tangerine, jute,
coconut palm, oriental cotton,
black pepper, cinnamon tree,
eggplant, yam
3 Indo-Malayan include Indo- Banana, coconut, sugarcane,
china and Malay Archipelago clove, nutmeg, black pepper,
manila hemp, mangosteen
4 Central Asia includes Wheat, pea, beans, lentil, hemp,
Norwest India (Punjab, cotton, carrot, garlic, spinach,
16
northwest Frontier Provinces pistachio, apricot, almond, apple

and Kashmir), Afghanistan, and pear.
Tadjikistan and Uzbekistan
and west Tian-shan (China)
5 Near east includes the interior Cherry, pomegranate, walnut,
Asia Minor, all of quince, almond and fig, alfalfa,
Transcaucasia, Iran and the Persian clove and vetch
highlands of Turkmenistan
6 Mediterranean Garden beet, cabbage, turnips,
rhubarb, asparagus, Egyptian
clover, white clover, crimson
clover, rape, black mustard,
wheat, caraway, anise,
peppermint, sage hops
7 Abyssinian includes Eritrea Wheat, barley, sesame, castor
and part of Somalia bean coffee and okra
8 South-Mexican and Central Maize, bean, squash, chayote,
America Includes southern sweet potato, red pepper, upland
part of Mexico, Guatemala, cotton, sisal papaya guava, cacao
Honduras and Costa Rica. and tobacco
9 South America , Peruvian- Potato species, tomato, lima bean,
Ecuadorian-Bolivian pumpkins, red pepper, coca,
Egyptian cotton quinine tree and
tobacco.
10 Chile Common potato
11 Brazilian-Paraguayan Groundnut, cassava, pineapple,
rubber tree and cashew nut
Economic botany in tropics second edition, (2001)
4.0 CONCLUSION
It’s now understood fairly the problem of how, where and when
agriculture originated and developed as result of tremendous effort of
botanist. It also pertinent to note that, centers of agricultural production
of most of the important agricultural crops are far removed from the
centers of their origin. This is because in the centers of production
botany (pure science) as the major tool for agricultural development is
well developed.
5.0 SUMMARY
• The relevance of botany to agriculture was discussed

• Seven centers of plant diversity were identified
17
• The historical development of botany was outlined in this unit
1. Describe the historical development of botany

2. Explain the center of origin of the following cultivated plant with
reasons -Rice, -Tomato, -Cassava
Baranov, V.D. and Ustimenko, G.V. (1994). Mir Kulturnih Rasteniya

Misl.
Kochhar, S.L. ( 2001). Economic Botany in Tropics Second Edition.
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Plant Morphology

Unit 2 Histology
18
Unit 3 Plants Physiology
UNIT 1 PLANT MORPHOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Root
3.2 Leaf
3.3 Stem
3.4 Inflorescence
3.5 Flower
3.6 Seed
3.7 Fruit
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Botany as a pure science began in the 4th century BC with the Greek
philosopher Theophrastus, whose treatises on the classification,
morphology, and reproduction of plants heavily influenced the
discipline until the 17th century. Indeed, modern botany began to
develop only in about the 16th century, at least in part because of the
invention of the microscope (1590) and of printing with movable type
(1440).
Botany is a pure science concerned with investigating the basic nature of

plants. Many aspects of botany, however, have direct importance to
human welfare and advancement, and applied botany is an important
field. Such fields as forestry and horticulture are closely tied to basic
botanical studies, and others, such as pharmacology and agronomy,
while not as closely related, still depend on basic botanical knowledge.
In this unit various plant organs and their functions is described with the
help of a cleared drawing (illustration).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the time you finish studying this unit, you should be able to:
19
• to appreciate the various plant morphological features and know their

functions.
• to draw and label various plant parts
• to understand the function of various plant physical features.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Root System
The primary root and its branches form the tap root system of a plant,
the primary/tap root normally grows vertically downward to a shorter or
longer depth, while the branched roots (secondary roots tertiary etc)
grow obliquely downwards in many cases spread horizontally outwards.
Another root system is adventitious root system –These are roots that
grow from any part of the plant body other than the radicle it includes
fibrous root of monocotyledons, foliar roots that come directly from the
leaf petiole or vein.
Function
The tap root system is normally meant to absorb water and mineral salts
from the soil, to conduct them upward to the stem and to give proper
anchorage to the plant, but in order to perform some specialized
functions it becomes modified into distinct shape.
1. Tap root modified for storage of food
• Fusiform root - is when the root hypocotyls are swollen in the

middle and gradually tapering toward the apex and the base. e.g.-
radish.
• Napiform root - this root swollen considerably at the upper part and
become almost spherical and sharply tapering from the lower part.
e.g.- turnip.
• Conical root - is when the root is broad at the base and gradually
tapers toward the apex like a cone e.g. carrot.
• Tubercular root - is when the root is thick and fleshy but does not
take a definite shape. e.g. four o’clock plant Mirabilis.
2. Branched root modified for respiration
20
• Puematopores roots - it developed in marshy places and salt lakes,

such roots grow from the underground roots of the plant but rise
vertically upward and come out of the water like so many in comical
spikes. e.g. rhizophora, heritiera
3. Adventitious roots modified
For Storage of Food
• Tubercular root - this is a swollen root without any definite shape.

e.g. sweet potato
• Fasciculated root - it is when several tubercular roots occur in a
cluster or fascicle at the base of the stem. e.g. asparagus
• Nodulose root - when the slender root becomes suddenly swollen at
the apex. e.g mango ginger
• Moniliform roots - when there are swellings in the root at frequent
intervals. E.g. Indian spinach
• Annulated root - when the root has a series of ring-like swellings on
its body. e.g. ipecac a medicinal plant
For Mechanical Support
• Prop or stilt root - these roots are produced from the main stem and
often from branches. They grow vertically downwards and penetrate
into the soil, gradually they get stouter and act as pillars supporting
the main stem and the whole plant. e.g. Indian-rubber plant
• Climbing roots - are produced from their nodes and internodes to
ensure a foothold on neighbouring objects. E.g. black pepper
• Buttress roots - some of the stout roots in forest trees around the base
of the main trunk show prolific abnormal growth, particularly on
their upper side. They first grow obliquely downwards from the base
of the trunk and then spread horizontally outwards at the ground
level e.g. kapok tree (ceiba)
For Vital Function
• Sucking roots or Haustoria - they are parasites develop roots which

penetrate into tissue of the host plant and suck it. e.g. cuscuta
• Respiratory root - in an aquatic plant the floating branches develop
adventitious roots which are soft, light, spongy and colourless, they
develop above the level of water and serve to store up air. e.g.
Jussiaea
• Epiphytic roots – they grow perched on branches of trees, they never
suck the supporting plant as do the parasites. Instead they develop a
special kind of aerial roots which hang freely in the air. e.g. vandal
Assimilatory - roots climbing on neighbouring trees produce long,
21
slender, hanging roots which develop chlorophyll and turn green in

colour thus are assimilatory roots. e.g. tinospora.
Figure 1.1 and 1.2 root hairs

Source: Dutta A.C. (2000) and Ebukason and Bassey(1992)
Root structure
It’s made up of the following structures:
• root-cap- Each root is covered over at the apex by sort of cap or

thimble known as the root cap, which protects the tender apex of the
root as it makes its way through the soil. Due to the impact of the
hard soil particles the outer part of the root-cap wears away and
newer cells formed by these underlying growing tissues are added to
it. The root-cap is usually absent in some aquatic plant.
• Region of cell division – This is the growing apex of the root lying
within and a little beyond the root - cap and extends to a length of
one to a few millimeters.
• Region of elongation – This lies above the meristematic region and
extends to a length of a few millimeters
• Region of maturation – This region lies above the region of
elongation and extends upwards.
Characteristic of Root
Root possesses some distinctive characteristic that distinguish it from

the stem as follows:
• Is not normally green and is the descending portion of the axis of the
plant
22
• It does not commonly bear buds except in sweet potato, wood apple
• Root bears unicellular hairs while the stem or shoot bears mostly
multicellular hairs
• Lateral roots always develop from an inner layer (pericycle) while
branches on the other hand develop from a few outer layers
• Nodes and internodes are absent in root unlike stem that are often
present.
3.2 Stem
This is ascending portion of the axis of the plant, developing directly

from the plumule, and bears leaves, branches and flowers. Stems are
green at young stage and protected at the apex by a number of tiny
leaves which arch over it.
Characteristics of the Stem
• It bears multicellular hairs of different kinds

• It branches exogenously and is provided with nodes and internodes
• Leaves and branches normally develop from the nodes. The space
between two successive nodes is called internodes
• When the stem or branch end in a vegetative bud it continues to
grow upwards or sideward
• If stem or branch ends in floral bud the growth ceases.
• A bud is a young undeveloped shoot consisting of a short stem and
number of tender leaves arching over the growing apex.
Forms of stems
Varieties of stem structure
adapted to perform diverse
functions, they may be aerial
or underground.
1. Erect or strong stems
23
– They are unbranched erect, cylindrical and stout stems marked with
scars of fallen leaves, this is called caudex e.g. Palms
Fig. 1.3 Stem and bud

Source: Ebukason and Bassey(1992)
2. Weak stems – They are of three kinds; i) trailers, ii)creepers and

iii)climbers:
i. trailers - those plant whose thin and long or short branches trail
on the ground with or without rooting at the nodes e.g. oralis,
tridax, boerhaavia
ii. Creepers – weak-stemmed plants with their long or short
branches creeing along the ground and rooting at the nodes. e.g.
runner, stolon, offset sucker
iii. Climbers - those plant that attach themselves to any neighbouring
object, often by means of some special devices and climb it to a
long or short distance. e.g. pea, passion-flower, Vine.
Figure 1.4 Tendril climber

Source: Dutta A.C. (2000)
Modification of stem
Modified stems in plant perform mainly the following functions:
1. perennation - surviving from year to year through bad seasons by

certain underground stems e.g.
• rhizome (ginger, water lily, lotus)

• tuber (potato, artichoke)
• bulb (onion)
• corn (taro, meadow saffron)
24
2. Vegetative propagation - by certain horizontal sub-aerial branches

spreading out in different direction e.g.
• runner (strawberry)
• stolon (peppermint)
• offset(water lettuce)
• sucker (banana, bamboo, raspberry)
3. Specialized functions - by certain metamorphosed aerial organs. e.g.
• stem-tendril (vine, passion-flower),

• thorn (lemon),
• phylloclade (cacti, cocoloba),
• cladode (butcher’s broom),
• bulbil (oxalis repens, onion)
Figure.1.5 Bulb of onion

3.3 Leaf
This is flattened, lateral outgrowth of the stem or branch, developing

exogenously (From superficial tissues) from a node and having a bud in
its axil. This is the most important vegetative organ of the plant since
food material is prepared in it.
Parts of a Leaf
A typical leaf consists of the following parts each with its function:
• Leaf-base – This is the part attached to the stem
25
• Petiole – It is the stalk of the leaf. A long petiole pushes out the leaf-
blade and thus helps it to secure more sunlight.
• Leaf-blade/Lamina – Is the green, expanded portion. A strong vein,
known as the mid-rib, runs centrally through the leaf-blade from its
base to the apex. Lamina is the seat of food-manufacture for the
entire plant.
Figure.1.6 a typical dicot leaf structure

Type of Leaves
1. Foliage leaves – these are ordinary green, flat, lateral appendages of

the stem or the branch borne at the node.
2. Cotyledone leaves – are attached to the axis of the embryo of the
seed.
3. Cataphylls or scale leaves – are reduced forms of leaves, stalkness
and often brownish.
4. Stipules – are the lateral appendages of the leaf born at its base.
5. Ligules – are minute, scaly fewer outgrowths born at the upper end
of the leaf sheath, as in Gramineae.
6. Hypsophylls or bract leaves
7. Floral leaves – are members of a flower, forming into two accessory
whorls (calyx and corolla) and two essential whorls (androcium and
gynacium)
8. Sporophylls – are the spore-bearing leaves concerned in asexual
reproduction of plants.
Leaf Venation
This is a linear structure which arises from the petiole and the mid-rib
and traverses the leaf-lamina in different directions. They are really
26
vascular ramifications made of conducting and mechanical tissues for

distribution of water and dissolved mineral salts through the lamina and
to carry away the prepared food from it and also give the necessary
amount of strength and rigidity to the thin, flat leaf-lamina.
Modification of leaves
Leaves of many plants are to perform specialized functions, become

modified or metamorphosed into distinct forms as follows:
1. Leaf-tendrils – it modified into slender, wiry, often closely coiled

structures. Tendrils are always climbing organs and are sensitive to
contact with a foreign body. Whenever they come in contact with a
neighbouring object, they coil round it and help the plant to climb.
e.g. pea, Venus flower
2. Leaf-Spines – It modified for defensive purposes into sharp, pointed
structure known as spines. e.g Indian aloe, date palm
3. Scale-leave – These are thin, dry, stalkless, membranous structures,
usually brownish in colour or sometimes colourless. Their function is
to protect the axillary bud that they bear in their axil. e.g onion, ficus
4. Phyllode – When the petiole or any part of the rachis becomes
flattened or winged, taking the shape of the leaf and turning green in
colour. e.g acacia
5. Pitcher – The leaf becomes modified into a pitcher. There is a sort of
slender stalk which often coils like tendril, holding the pitcher
vertical, and the basal portion is flattened like leaf. e.g pitcher plant
(Nepenthes)
6. Bladder – A rootless free-floating or slightly sub merged weed
common in many tanks, the leaf is very much segmented. Some of
these segments are modified to form bladder-like structure, with a
trap-door entrance which allows aquatic animalcules to pass in, but
never to come out.
Function of the Leaf
Leaves perform 3 normal functions:
1. manufacture of food by chloroplast in the presence of sunlight out of

carbon dioxide and water obtained from the air and the soil
respectively.
2. Interchange of gases, carbon dioxide and oxygen between the
atmosphere and the plant body, the former for manufacture of food
by green cells,
3. evaporation of water mainly through the lower surface of the leaf.
3.4 Inflorescence
27
This is the reproductive shoot bearing commonly number of flowers, or

sometimes only single flower. It can be terminal or axillary and may be
branched in various ways.
Depending on the mode of branching there exist different kinds of

Inflorescence:
1. Racemose inflorescence. Inflorescence doesn’t terminate in flower,

but continues to grow and give off flowers laterally in acropetal
succession e.g:-Raceme, spike, spikelets, catkin, spandex, corrymb,
umbel, head,
2. Cymose inflorescence. Inflorescence which growth of the main axis
is soon checked by the development of flower at its apex and the
lateral axis which develops below the terminal flower also ends in
flower and therefore, its growth is also checked. The flower may be
with or without stalks. eg:- uniparous, biporous, multiporous,
compound and
3. Special types. This is a special kind of found in Euphorbia eg:-
cyathium, verticilaster and hypanthodium.
3.5 Flower
This is a specialized shoot of limited growth, bearing reproductive

organs- microsporophylls (Stamen) and megasporophylls (carpels or
only one with accessory whorls- calyx and corolla, sometimes only one
or even none at all. The flower serves s a means of sexual reproduction.
A typical flower consists of four whorls- two lower accessory whorls-
calyx and corolla, and two upper essential or reproductive whorls-
androcium and gynoecium or pistil. The individual units of a calyx are
sepals, of a corolla, petal’ of an androecium, stamen or microporophylls
and of a gynoecium is collectively used for undifferentiated calyx and
corolla and its members are called tepals. The four whorls develop in an
ascending order from the swollen, suppressed end (thalamus) of floral
axis or stalk (pedicel). The androcoecium is the male whorl and each of
its stamen differentiated into filament, anther and connective.
Gynoecium or pistil is the female whorl differentiated into the ovary,
style and stigma.
Flowers have the following characteristics:
1. Bisexual or hermaphrodite - Flower that has both androecium

2. Gynoecium - Flower having only one of them unisexual either
staminate (male or pistilete female).
3. Monoecious - Plant bearing both male and female flowers e.g. gourd
4. Dioecious – Plant bearing either male flowers or female flowers e.g.
mulberry, pawpaw, palmyra-palm, etc.
28
5. Polygomum - A plant bearing bisexual, unisexual and even neuter

flowers is said to be polygomum e.g.mango and wild mangosteen
(Diospyros; B, Gab; H. kendu).
6. Achmydeous or naked - Flower without calyx and corolla as in
betel.
7. Monochlamydeous - A flower with only one whorl is as in
Polygonum
8. Dichlamydeous - flower with both whorls.
9. Cyclic - When a flower has its sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
arranged in circles or whorls around the thalamus, as in most
flowers.
10. Acyclic - when flowers are spirally arranged, as in water lily,
Magnolia.
11. Hemicyclic - when some parts are cyclic and others acyclic as in
rose.
3.6 Seed
Seed is matured developed fertilized ovule. Which undergo series of

changes as a result the seed is formed. The fertilized egg cell or ovum
grows and gives rise to the embryo, and the definitive nucleus to the
endosperm. Other changes also take place in the ovule. Seed is made up
of the following:
1. Embryo: After fertilization, the egg cell secretes a cellulose wall

around itself and becomes the oospore, which finally gives rise to the
embryo. The oospore normally divides by transvers wall into two
cells. This two-celled stages is called the proembryo. Sometimes, the
oospore may be divided by an obliquely placed vertical wall. The
upper cell of proembryo (lying away from the micropyle), called the
embryonal cell, developed into the embryo. The lower cell of the
proembryo (lying towards the micropyle) forms the suspensor, which
acts as a feeding organ for the developing embryo. Embryo
development is divided into different type as follows:
• piperad type (peperomia, balanophora)

• crucifer type(cruciferae, ranunculaceae, liliaceae)
• Asterad type (compositae)
• Caryophyllad type(caryophyllaceae)
• Soland type(solonaceae, Papavaraceae)
• Chenopodil type(Chenopodiaceae)
2. Endosperm: This is the definitive nucleus which tends to grow

into a food storage tissue, usually triploid (3n) and sometimes
tetraploid (4n). There are two main type of endosperm
development:
29
• Nuclear type. It immediately after double fertilization, endosperm

nucleus divides repeatedly without corresponding wall formation.
• Cellular type. As the endosperm nucleus divides there is
corresponding formation of a cell wall around each nucleus.
3. Seed-coat the two integuments develop into two seed coats, of

which the outer one is called the testa and the inner one the
tegmen.
3.7 Fruit
This is a matured ripened ovary, and a fruit consist of two portions viz.
1. Pericarp (developed from the wall of ovary and the pericarp may be
thick or thin, thus consisting of epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp
when thick). Fruit can be of two types as follows:
• True fruit - When only ovary of the flower grows into the fruit
• False fruit - when other floral parts such as the thalamus, receptacle
or calyx may grow and form a part of the fruit (cashew)
2. Seed (developed from the ovule).
Classification of Fruits
Fruits whether true or spurious, may be broadly classified into three

groups
1. Simple- when the fruit develops from the single ovary (either of
simple pistil or of syncarpous pistil) of a flower, with or without
accessory parts. It can be:
• Dry – Dehiscent (Legume or Pod, Follicle, Siliqua, Capsule)
- Indehiscent (Caryopsis, Achene, Cypsela, Samra, Nut)

- Schizocarpic (Lomentum, Cremocarp, Double Samara, Regma,
Carcerule)
• Fleshy – Drupe (mango, peach, coconut palm)
- Bacca or Berry (tomato, guava, grapes, banana, pawpaw)
30
- Pepo (gourd, cucumber, melon, squash)

- Pome (apple, pear)
- Hesperidium (orange, lemon)
- Balausta (Pomegranate)
2. Aggregate – Is collection of simpe fruits developing from the

apocarpous pistil or flower. An aggregate of simple fruits born by a
single flower is otherwise known as an entaerio and common forms
of etaerios are:
- Etario of follicle (Daemia extens, periwinkle)

- Etario of achenes (Clematis, Naravelia, ranunculus, strawberry,
rose and lotus)
- Etario of drupe (raspberry)
- Etario of berries (custard-apple, bullock’s heart)
3. Multiple – A is that which develops from a number of flowers

juxtaposed together, or in other words, from an inflorescence. Such a
fruits is otherwise known as an infructescence.
- Sorosis(Pineapple, screpine and jack-fruit)

- Syconus (Ficus, banyan, peepul)
4.0 CONCLUSION
Study of plant morphology is very essential to understand the true nature
of plant. In this unit a plant physical feature is described with simple and
cleared illustration to enable you appreciate plant morphological
structure.
5.0 SUMMARY
• Various morphological features and their functions were described in

this unit
• Well labelled diagram of various plant organs were presented
1. Describe the function of the following:

-Root, -Leaves, -Stem, -Flowers
2. Draw and labeled the following structure:
-Fibrous root, -Adventitious root, -Bulb of onion, -Rhizome,

-Bisexual flower -Aggregate fruits
31
Cobley, L.S. and Steele, W.M: (1970). An Introduction to Subtropica

Crop. Longman Group LTM.
Ebunkanson and Bassey: ( 1992). About Seed Plant. Baraka Press and
Publishers.
Green, M.P.O. Stout, G.W. (2003). Biological Science Third Edition.
32
UNIT 2 HISTOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meristematic Tissues
3.2 Permanent Tissues
3.3 Complex Tissues
3.4 Mechanical Systems
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is a Microscopic study of plant tissue—groups of similar cells

interrelated for cooperative performance of a particular biological
function. Cells grow and assume distinct shapes to perform definite
functions. Cell of the same shape grow together and combine into a
group for the discharge of a common function. Each group of such cells
gives rise to tissue. A tissue is thus a group of cells of the same type or
of mixed type, having a common origin and performing an identical
function. Tissues may primarily be classified into:
1. Meristematic tissues
2. Permanent tissue
2.0OBJECTIVES
• to identify different plant’s tissues

• to know the function of various plant’s tissues
• to be able to draw and labeled correctly vascular bundles of mono
and dicotyledonous plant.
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meristematic Tissues
These are composed of cells that are in a stage of division or retain the
power of dividing. These cells are essentially alike and isodiametric.
They are of different shape: spherical, oval or polygonal and their walls
thin and homogenous. They contain abundant protoplasm and the
33
protoplasm are active with large nuclei, and with small vacuoles or
none. The meristem can be classified into the following on the basis of
certain factors:
According to their origin
1. Promeristem or Primordial meristem –It consists of a group of

meristematic cells representing the earliest or youngest stage of
growing organ it occupies a small area at the tip of the stem and
the root. Promeristem gives rise to theprimary meristem by cell
division.
2. Primary meristem – It is derived from the promeristem, and still

fully retains its meristematic activity. As a matter of fact, its cells
divide rapidly and become differentiated into distinct tissues the
primary permanent tissues which make up the fundamental
structure of the plant body. It is primarily the growing apical
region of the root and the stem.
3. Secondary meristem – It appears later at a certain stage of the

development of an organ of a plant. It is always lateral, lying
along the side of the stem and the root. All lateral meristem
(primary and secondary) give rise to the secondary permanent
tissues, and are responsible for growth in the thickness of the
plant body.
According to their position
1. Apical – Lies at the apex of the stem and the root, representing their
growing region, and is of varying lengths. It includes the
promeristem and primary meristem, gives rise to the primary
permanent tissues and is responsible for growth in the length of the
plant body.
2. Intercalary- Lies between masses of permanent tissues, either at the

base of the leaf, as in pine, or at the base of the internode, as in some
grasses and horsetail (Equisetum) or sometimes below the node, as
in mint (Mentha). It is a detached portion of the apical meristem,
separated from the latter due to growth of the organ. It generally
short-lived, either disappearing soon or becoming transformed into
permanent tissues.
3. Lateral – Lies laterally in strips of elongated cells, extending from

the apical meristem, as in the stem of dicotyledons and gymnosperm.
It divides mainly in the tangential direction, giving rise to secondary
permanent tissues to the inside and outside of it, and is responsible
for growth and the thickness of the plant body.
34
According to their function
1. Protoderm
2. Procambium
3. Ground or Fundamental meristem..….
Figure.2.1 Young pine stem

Source: Ebukanson and Bassey (1992)
3.2Permanent Tissues
They are composed of cells that have lost the power of dividing, having
attained their definite form and size. They may be living or dead and
thin-walled or thick-walled. These permanent tissues are formed by
differentiation of the cells of the meristem, and may be primary or
secondary. The primary permanent tissues are derived from the apical
meristems of the stem and the root, and the secondary permanent tissues
from the lateral meristems, i.e. cambial layers. Cambium is present in
dicotyledons and gymnosperms, and due to activity, secondary growth
takes place in these cases, while in monocotyledons, there is no
cambium and hence no secondary growth.
Classification of permanent tissues
As division of labour increases during growth, cells gradually assume

various forms and give rise to permanent tissues. They may be classified
into:
1. Simple Tissues
a) Parenchyma - This consist of collection cells which are more or less

isodiametric, that is equally expanded on all sides. Typically they are
oval, spherical or polygonal. Their walls are thin and made of
cellulose. They are usually living. Its main function is storage of
35
food material. And when parenchymatous tissue contains

chloroplast, it is called- chlorenchyma if air is store in some aquatic
plant is often called aerenchyma.
b) Collenchyma - It consists of elongated, parenchymatous cells with

oblique, slightly rounded or tapering end. The cells are much
thickened at the corners against the intercellular spaces. They look
circular, oval or polygonal in a transverse section of the stem.
Although thickened the cells are never lignified. Simple pit can be
found here and there in their walls. Collenchyma is found under the
skin (epidermis) of herbaceous dicotyledons e.g. sunflower, gourd,
etc. It is absent from the root and monocotyledon, except in special
cases. The cells are living and often contain a few chloroplasts.
Being flexible in nature, collenchyma gives tensile strength to the
growing organs, and being extensible, it readily adapts its to rapid
elongation of the stem.
c) Sclerenchyma - Consists of very long, narrow, thick and lignified

cells, usually pointed at both ends. They are fibre-like in appearance
and hence, they are also called sclerenchymatous fibres, or simply
fibres. Their walls often become so greatly thickened that the cell
cavity is nearly obliterated. They have simple, often oblique, pits in
their walls
Figure.2.2 Parenchyma
Figure.2.3 Scleried of endocarp of coconut
36
Figure.2.4 collenchyma
37
Figure.2.5 Xylem a conducting tissue

Figure.2.6 Sieve tubes

3.3Complex Tissues
38
(A) Xylem or wood - is a conducting tissue and is composed of

elements of different kinds, viz. (i) tracheids, (ii) bassels or
tracheae (sin, trachea), (iii) wood fibres, and (iv) wood
parenchyma. Xylem, as a whole, is meant to conduct water and
minerals salts upward from the root to the leaf, and to give
mechanical strength to the plant body.
(i) Tracheids. These are elongated, tube-cells with hard, thick and
lignified walls and large cell-cavities. Their ends are tapering,
either rounded or chisel-like, and less frequently, pointed. They
are dead, empty cells and their walls are provided with one or
more rows or bordered pits. Traheids may be annular, spiral,
scalariform or pitted
(ii) Vessels or tracheae. They are cylindrical, tube-like structures.

They are formed from a row of cells placed end to end, from
which the transverse partition walls break down. It is very much
like a series of water pipes forming a pipe-line. Their walls are
thickened in various ways, and vessels can be annular, spiral,
scariform, reticulate, or pitted, according to the mode of
thickening. Vessels and tracheids form the main elements of the
wood or xylem of the vascular bundles. They serve to conduct
water and mineral salts from the roots to leaves. They are dead,
thick-walled and lignified and as such they also serve the
mechanical function of strengthening the plant body.
(iii) Wood fibres – Sclerenchymatous cells associated with wood or

xylem are known as wood fibres. They occur abundantly in
woody dicotyledons and add to the mechanical strength of the
xylem and of the plant body as a whole.
(iv) Wood parenchyma – Parenchymatous cells are frequent

occurrence in the xylem, and are known as wood parenchyma.
The cells are alive and generally thin-walled. The wood
parenchyma assists, directly or indirectly, in the conduction of
water, upwards, through the vessels and the tracheids. It also
serves to store food.
(B) Phloem - The phloem or bast in another conducting tissue, and is

composed of the following elements: (i) sieve-tubes (ii)
companion cells (iii) phloem parenchyma, and (iv) bast fibres
(rarely). Phloem, as a whole, is meant to conduct prepared food
materials from the leaf to the storage organs and growing regions.
39
(i) Sieve-tube – They are slender, tube-like structures, composed of

elongated cells which are placed end to end. Their walls are thin
and made of cellulose. The transverse partition walls are
however, perforated by a number pores. The transverse wall
looks very much like a sieve and is called the sieve-plate.
(ii) Companion cells – When associated with each sieve-tube and

connected with it by pores is a thin-walled, elongated cell known
as the companion cell. It is living and contains protoplasm and an
elongated nucleus. The companion cell is present only in
angiosperms (both dicotyledons and monocotyledons). It assists
the sieve-tube in the conducting of food.
(iii) Phloem parenchyma – There are always some parenchymateous

cells forming a part of the phloem in all dicotyledons,
gymnosperms and ferns. The cells are living, and often
cylindrical. They stored up food materials and help conduct it.
Phloem parenchyma is, however, absent in most
monocotyledons.
(iv) Bast fibres – Sclerenchymatous cells occurring in the phloem or
bast are known as bast fibres. These are generally absent in the
primary phloem, but occur frequently in the secondary phloem.
c) Secretory tissues -They are of the following types:
(i) Laticiferous tissue - This consists of thin-walled, greatly

elongated and greatly branched ducts and contains a milky juice
known as latex. Lactiferous ducks are of two kinds: latex vessels
and latex cells. They contain numerous nuclei which lie
embedded in the thin layer of protoplasm lining the cell-wall
which is usually thin and made of cellulose. They are irregular
distributed in the mass of parenchymatous cells, and their
function is not clearly understood. They may act as food storage
organs or as reservoirs of waste products. They may also act as
translocatory tissues. E.g. Latex vessels are found in poppy
(papaver), e.g. opium poppy, garden poppy and prickly poppy,
and also in some species of the sunflower family or compositae,
e.g. sonchus. Latex cells are found in madar (colotropis), spurges
(Euphorbia), oleander (Thevetia) periwinkles (vinca), ficus (e.g
banyan fig, peepul), e.t.c
(ii) Glandular tissue - This tissue is made of glands, which are

special structures containing some secretary products or
excretory products. Glands may consist of single, isolated cells or
small groups of cells, with or without a central cavity. They are
of various kinds and may occur as external gland on the
epidermis, or as internal glands lying embedded in other issues in
40
the interior of the plant large nuclei and contains abundant

protoplasm. They contain different substances and have manifold
functions.
Internal glands are:
1. oil-glands secreting essential oils, as in the fruits and leaves of

orange, lemon, pummelo, etc
2. Mucilage secreting glands, as in the betel leaf
3. Glands secreting gum, resin, tannin, etc.
4. Digestive glands secreting enzymes
5. Water-secreting glands known as hydathodes. They are special
structure through which exudation of water takes place in liquid
form. They are found mainly in aquatic plants and in some
herbaceous plants growing in moist place. They occur at the
apices of the veins at the tips of leaves or on their margins.
Hydathodes are community seen in water lettuce (piustia), water
hyacinth ((Eichharnia), garden nasturaroids, many grasses, e.t.c
3.4 Mechanical System
The existence and stability of a plant depend on mechanical or

strengthening tissues. They help the plant to not only maintain a
particular shape but also to withstand the various kinds of mechanical
strain and stress that they are often subjected to under the prevailing or
changing environmental conditions.
Kind of mechanical tissues:
1. Sclerenchyma –widely distributed in plants for specific purpose of

mechanical strength
2. Collenchyma – it has the power of growth, offers no resistance to the
growing organs and is flexible.
3. Vessels or tracheids – Gives mechanical strength to the plant body
4. Scleroid – Often meet local strain
Tissue System
Tissues are arranged in three systems, each playing a definite role in the
life of the plant. Each system may consist of only one tissue or a
combination of tissues which may structurally be of similar or different
nature, but perform a common function and have the same origin. There
are three systems as follows:
41
1. Epidermal tissue system – This is derived from the dermatogen of

apical meristem and forms the epidermis (epi, upon; derma, skin) or
outermost skin layer, which extends over the entire surface of the
plant body.
2. Ground or fundamental tissue system – It forms the main bulk of the

plant’s body and extends from below the epidermis to the centre
(excluding the vascular bundles). It is partly derived from the
periblem and partly from the plerome. Its primary functions are
manufacture and storage of food materials and it also has a
mechanical function. It contains of various kind of tissues e.g.
parenchyma, sclerenchyma and collenchyma and sometimes
laticiferous tissue and glandular tissue. It is differentiated into the
following zones:
a) Cortex – Is the zone that lies between the epidermis and pericycle,
varying in thickness from few to many layers it has the following
sub-zones in dicotyledonous stem: hypodermis, general cortex or
cortical parenchyma, and endodermis.
b) Pericycle – This forms a multi-layered zone between the endodermis
and the vascular bundles and occurs as a cylinder encircling the
vascular bundle and the pith, as in dicotyledonous stem.
c) Pith and pith rays – The pith or medulla forms the central core of the
stem and the root and is usually made of large-celled parenchyma
with abundant intercellular spaces. In dicotyledonous stem, the pith
is often large and well developed, while in the monocoteledonous
stem it is not distinguishable wing to the scatted distribution of
vascular bundles
3. Vascular tissue system- This system consists of a number of vascular

bundles which are distributed in the stele. This is the central cylinder
of the stem and the root. Each bundle is made up of xylem and
phloem, with cambium in dicotyledonous stems, or without a
cambium in monocotyledonous stems, or of only one kind of tissue
xylem or phloem as in roots. The function of this system is to
conduct water and raw food materials from the roots to the leaves,
and prepared food materials from leaves to the storage organs and
the growing region
4.0CONCLUSION
Histology as Study of plant tissues investigates structure, forms and

functions of various plant tissues and tissue system. Cells of the same
structure clustered to form a tissue and when various tissues are
42
arranged together to perform a particular function this makes a tissues

system. Each system may consist of only one tissue or a combination of
tissues which may structurally be of similar or different nature, but
perform a common function and have the same origin. There are three
tissue systems in plant, each playing a definite role in the life of the
plant.
5.0SUMMARY
• Different plants tissues were identified in this unit

• Functions of various tissues were explained
• Well labeled diagrams of vascular bundles mono and dicotyledonous
plant were given
1. What is a tissue? Give examples

2. Describe different tissue found in plant
3. Draw and label vascular bundles of a monocotyledon.
Cobley, L.S. and Steele, W.M. (1970). An Introduction to Subtropica

Ebunkanson and Bassey: (1992). About Seed Plant. Baraka Press and
Publishers.
Green, M.P.O. Stout, G.W. ( 2003). Biological Science Third Edition.
43
UNIT 3 PLANTS PHYSIOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Plant Water Relation
3.1.1 Mechanism of Water Absorption
3.1.2 Mechanism of Salt Absorption
3.2 Transpiration
3.3 Photosynthesis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Physiology, study of the physical and chemical processes that take place
in living organisms during the performance of life functions. It is
concerned with such basic activities as reproduction, growth,
metabolism, respiration, excitation, and contraction as they are carried
out within the fine structure, the cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems
of the body.
Its emphasis on investigating biological mechanisms with the tools of

physics and chemistry made physiology a distinct discipline in the 19th
century; the tendency today, however, is towards a fragmentation and
merging with the many specialized branches of the life sciences. This
chapter deals plant physiology, which include Plant water relation,
photosynthesis, growth, seed germination and physiological aspect of
crop yield.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• to comprehend the plant water relation

• to understand the mechanism of water and salt absorption
• to be able to observe the process of transpiration and determine its
function to growing plant.
44
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Plant Water Relation
This is some of the movement of water from cell to cell in a plant which
is brought about by diffusion. Diffusion is a basic phenomenon of
osmosis.
Diffusion- is the movement of molecules or ions of a solute or solvent

or gas from a region of its higher concentration to that of its lower
concentration. It can occur only when the concentrations of the diffusing
substance are not uniform throughout the system and the process can
continue until equilibrium is reached.
Osmosis - It involves the movement of solvent molecules, not a solution

across a membrane permeable only to the solvent molecules but
impermeable to the solutes, i.e. a semi permeable or differentially
permeable membrane.
Water movement from cell to cell and in and out of the cells occurs
along Diffusion Pressure Gradient instead of along gradients of osmotic
pressure. Water is absorbed by the root hair due to its Diffusion Pressure
Deficit. DPD is the difference between the diffusion pressure of pure
water and that of water in solution at the same temperature. If this deficit
is greater,, larger quantity of water will diffuse and greater amount of
water will enter into cell. The force per unit area of entrance of water is
termed suction pressure SP, the potentiality of which depends upon the
DPD. The suction pressure of the cell is directly related to the DPD
existing between the cell and the environment. The water that enters the
root hair cell affects it in two ways including:
1. It brings down the concentration of the cell sap

2. It stretches the elastic wall of the cell.
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, i.e. a solution

having a higher concentration than that of the cell sap, exosmosis occurs
and water comes out from within the protoplasm, as a result of which
the protoplasm shrinks and leaves the cell wall this is what is called
Palsmolysis.
3.1.1 Mechanism of Water Absorption
Kramer (1949) reported that changes in osmotic concentration

responsible for water absorption are due to the results of two
mechanisms that include:
45
1. Passive absorption: In this mechanism the forces responsible for

water absorption into the roots are governed by other cells and the
governing forces originate in the cells of transpiring shoots rather
than in roots themselves. These forces originate from transpiration
and the rate of water in-take is controlled basically by the rate of
water loss. With the occurrence of transpiration, the DPD of leaf
cells increases which results in the movement of water from the
xylem cells to adjacent mesophyll cells.
2. Active absorption: Water is absorbed as a result of activities in the

root itself and does not concern the shoot. Water is absorbed due to
osmotic differences between soil water and that of root hair cell sap.
The osmotic pressure of soil water is below one atmospheric
pressure while that cell sap generally is from two atmospheres up to
8 atmospheres. Because of this difference, absorption directly
requires no expenditure of metabolic energy and higher DPD of cell
sap cause endosmosis of soil water across the semi permeable
plasma membrane. There are other opinions which suggested that the
absorption of water occurs due to non-osmotic reasons and against
diffusion pressure deficit gradient or at accelerated rates. This
process requires an expenditure of energy obtained as a result of
respiration.
3.1.2 Mechanism of Salt Absorption
There are two methods of salts absorption by plant:
1. Passive uptake occurs when the driving force for salt uptake
through the membrane is from the environment or outside the
cell, e.g. diffusion dependent on concentration gradient. During
this process ions move by diffusion through the cellulose wall
which is permeable.
2. Active uptake occurs when the driving force for salts uptake
originates from within the cell, i.e. energy from tissue respiration.
Since the plasma membrane is semi permeable, it has the ability
to selectively permit the entrance into the cell sap of some ions.
This selective entrance of ions across the plasma membrane into
cell sap is by active uptake. The energy required for active uptake
of ions across the plasma membrane is released during tissue
respiration in roots.
46
3.2 Transpiration
This is an evaporation process which refers to the loss of water vapour

by plants. It occurs mainly from leaves and differs from simple
evaporation in that it takes place from the living tissues of plant.
Transpiration takes place chiefly through the stomata and to a much less
extent through the cuticle and lenticel as stomatal, cuticular and
lenticular transpiration respectively.
Transpiration mechanism is diffusion process through a few percent of

the total leaf occupied by the area of opened stomata. When the
diffusion in the leaf through stomata I compared to that from a free
surface, it is found that diffusion from relatively large and free surface
into still air tends to follow parallel path. If the total surface area is
broken-up into small areas, as is the case in leaf with stomatal openings,
then as the water molecules leaves the pores, they will spread out
fanwise with evaporation into dry air outside. Transpiration is regulated
by the help of stomatal pores, sometimes they open and sometimes they
close. The degree of stomatal opening is not directly linked with
transpiration rate as shown by many years experiment. However, it is
proved that transpiration has been greatly influenced by the water
vapour in the intercellular spaces and substomatal cavities.
Factors affecting transpiration:
1. Water - turgidity and flaccidity of the guard cells as caused by water

presence in guard cells lead to the opening and closing of stomata
respectively.
2. Light and darkness – Guard cells with chlorophyll use light to
photosynthesize sugar which raises the osmotic concentration of
guard cells thus making them turgid in the light with stomatal pores
widely open. While in the dark, sugars are converted and stored as
starch with a lowering of stomatic concentration, thus effecting
flaccidity of guard cells and the closer of the stomata
3. Humidity of air – Rate of transpiration increase in dry and decreases
in moist or humid air.
4. Air temperature – Transpiration is higher in high temperature with
water evaporating more freely
5. Wind – high wind readily blows-off water vapour from transpiring
surfaces with such surfaces not allowed to be saturated/wet in light
with sugars formed that
47
Importance of Transpiration
In spite of its possible harmfulness to the plant when excessive, resulting

in wilting, transpiration has some advantages to plants.
1. An upward moving current of water transpiration stream is affected

and this facilitates water absorption by roots.
2. It facilitates upward transport of solute in the xylem/translocation
whence reach the leaf cells.
3. Evaporation of water from the transpiring surfaces helps to prevent
excessive heating and at the same time leave the salts in the cells for
use by the plants.
4. It aids the plants in getting rid of excess water.
5. It may help in salt absorption.
3.3 Photosynthesis
All living organisms are composed, among other things of organic

compounds. These organic compounds are derived from simple
inorganic substances present in the physical environment of living
things. Only plant out of all the living things that which have a green
pigment called chlorophyll, are capable of carrying out this
transformation of inorganic substances (Carbon dioxide and water into
organic compound)e.g. carbohydrates. Carbon dioxide which is present
in the air, and in water in dissolved form, diffuses into the cells of land
and water plants and where these cells contain chlorophyll the CO2 is
transformed to carbohydrates. This transformation occurs in the
presence of and with the participation of water and light.
CO2 + 2H2O --------------------(CH2O) + O2 + H2O

Carbon dioxide + water---------------- Carbohydrate + Oxygen + Water
The overall reaction is represented by the general equation above.

Oxygen is evolved during the process and water is also a product. Light
is the source of energy utilized in photosynthesis. A fundamental
principle of photochemistry requires that for light to be active in
chemical reaction, it must first be absorbed. In green plants, the
pigments that serve for the absorption of light for photosynthetic
purposes are the chlorophylls. The physical radiant energy that is
trapped by the chlorophylls is converted to chemical energy, and stored
in the organic compounds synthesized. Chlorophylls are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents and is of three types a, b and c.
Chlorophylls a is the major and essential photosynthetic and is coloured
bluish green while chlorophyll b is olive/yellow green. These pigments
are contained in specialized structures called chloroplasts in algae and
higher plants. Also present in the photosynthetic apparatus is another
48
group of pigments called caratenoids which include carotenes and

xanthophylls and are brightly coloured. The carotene is coloured orange
while the xanthophylls are yellow in colour. These pigments may absorb
light energy but this has to be passed to chlorophyll a before it can be
used in photosynthesis and so these pigments are called – accessory
pigments. The kind of light absorbed by carotenoids is such as may
damage the chlorophyll pigment. Carotenoids therefore protect
chlorophylls from photo destruction. Approximately 10% of the
photosynthetic activity that occurs on earth is carried out by land plants.
The remaining 90% occurs in phytoplankton, i.e. marine and fresh water
algae. The process of photosynthesis consist of two phases.
a) a light dependent phase or light reaction

b) the light independent phase or dark reaction
Light Reaction: Adenosine triphosphate- ATP is formed in the light by

the photosynthetic apparatus. This activity is called
photophosphorylation and is a major activity of light reaction. The
electron generated as a result of photolysis of water or ware split in light
has to reach chlorophyll through several electron carriers. Water
photolysis occurs thus:
H2O-------------H+ +OH
40H---------------2H2O + O2 + 4e
Water photolysis is one of light reaction activities with Oxygen evolved

and water produced. Since the electrons from chlorophyll are initially
excited and energized on the absorption of light, they posses high
energy. They lose this energy in little bits as inorganic phosphate (pi)
during their transport. An enzyme, ATPase, takes advantage of this
energy loss by the electrons, using the energy Pi to drive ATP formation
ADP + Pi --------------------ATP
Where ADP = adenosine diphosphate and Pi – inorganic phosphate.

It should be noted that during light reactions, two assimilatory products
ATP and reduced NADPH2 are formed for use in the Dark Reaction of
photosynthesis.
Dark Reaction: The dark reaction of photosynthesis refers to the

fixation / reduction / assimilation of carbon dioxide to yield organic
compound and carbohydrates. For substance to be fixed there must be an
acceptor molecule. In the cycle, as proposed by Calvin (1950) the
acceptor molecule is Ribulose diphosphate (RuDP) generated in light
from Ribulose (5PO4) with ATP used. The Calvin cycle suggested that
RuDP accepts a molecule of CO2 under the influence of RUDP-
49
carboxylase enzyme to form an unstable C6 intermediate (Ribulose

diphosphoric acid) which immediately splits to form two molecules of
3-phosphoglyceric acid (3C-PGA). PGA is the first detectable stable
organic compound formed during the fixation of CO2 by the mechanism.
PGA is then reduced under the influences of Triose phosphate
dehyrogenase and light to form 3-phosphoglyceraldehydrade and
Dihydraxyacetone phosphate, both of which triose phosphates. This
reduction requires reduced NADPH2 and ATP as assimilatory products.
The two trioses formed condense under the influence of an Adolase
enzyme to form Fructose-1, 6-diphosphate which is further catalysed by
a phosphate enzyme to form Fructose-6-phosphate sugar. To form
molecule of fructose hexose sugar, the above cycle must go through
thrice. Some of the PGA molecules are regenerated in light with ATP
used to form Ribolose diphosphate (RuDP) for further CO2 fixation. In
this Calvin cycle, light intervenes twice and the first stable compound
formed is a C3 compound hence the reference C3 pathway. There is also
a C4 pathway.
C4 Pathway in C4-Plants: It was discovered by Hatch and Slack (1966)

that during photosynthesis CO2 fixation in certain tropical monocots, the
first stable compound formed were C4 organic acids like Oxaloacetate,
aspartate and malate rather than phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) which is a
C3 compound.
It was discovered that tropical monocots contain an enzyme system that

can catalyse CO2 fixation at much lower concentrations of the gas than
in Calvin (C3) cycle. The CO2 acceptor molecule here is phosphoenol
Pyruvate (PEP). It is carboxylated under the influence of phosphoenol
pyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) to form Oxaloacetate (OA) is mesophyll
chlorophyll chroplasts.
Oxaloacetate is then reduced to Malate or Asparatae under the influence

of Malate dehydrogenase. Malate is transported to bundle sheath
chloroplasts and there undergoes decarboxylation and dehydrogenation
reactions to form pyruvate. Pyruvate is then transported back to
mesophyll chloroplasts and under the influence of Pyruvate
Orthophosphate dikinase (PODK) is energized with the use of ATP to
form/regerate phosphoenol Pyruvate (PEP). CO2 in bundle sheath
chloroplasts is fixed by Calvin C3 enzymes to form carbohydrate. The
importance of this pathway is that CO2 at very low concentrations, i.e.
0-10ppm is fixed to form Oxaloacetate, Malate or Asparatate at much
higher concentration in mesophyll chloroplasts. The C4 pathway has
also been detected in such dicots as Amaranthus, Euphorbia, Portulaca
and Atriplex Ebukanson and Bassey (1992)
50
4.0 CONCLUSION
The study of life process of plants is called plant physiology. In this unit
the question of how water, gasses and solutes enter plants, substances
pass out of plants and how plants used these absorbed substances
(inorganic) under the influenced of other environmental conditions to
transform them into organic compound were discussed in detail.
5.0SUMMARY
• Plant water relation was explained in this unit

• The mechanism of water salt absorption was described
• The process of transpiration and photosynthesis were discussed
1. Explain the following terms:

-Diffusion, -Osmosis -Transpiration
2. Describe step by step the mechanism of water and salt absorption

in a living plant

Ebunkanson and Bassey: (1992). About Seed Plant. Baraka Press and
Publishers.
Green, M.P.O. Stout, G.W. (2003). Biological Science Third Edition.
51
MODULE 3 AGRICULTURAL CROPS
This Module focuses on only representative group of economic crops

and has dealt with such in details to give impetus to beginners in
economic botany. The representative enumerated are not by a means but
to show the commonest that can be best comprehended by students in
terms of familiarities and cultivation.
Unit 1 Cereals Plants

Unit 2 Legumes/Pulses
Unit 3 Roots and Tuber Crops
Unit 4 Sugar Crops
Unit 5 Oil Crops
Unit 6 Vegetable Crops
Unit 7 Fiber Crops
Unit 8 Beverages and Stimulant Crops
Unit 9 Medicinal Plants
Unit 10 Other Crops
UNIT 1 CEREALS PLANTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sorghum
3.2 Maize
3.3 Wheat
3.4 Rice
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cereals are grains producing plant that belong to the family poaceae and
have species with seeds that are edible and mostly grasses. These groups
of plants are highly adaptable to different environmental and climatic
conditions. They are tillering plants that are easy to culture and grow
because they produce shoots, especially when they are pruned. The
cereals are compact and usually dry grains when they are harvested on
time stored properly and can be transported elsewhere with ease. Cereals
have very good nutritional values and thus called the ‘stuff of life’ e.g
wheat, maize, sorghum, millet and barley.
52
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• to identify the following crops: Sorghum, Maize, Rice, and Wheat

• to know the origin, distribution, spread and taxonomy of the above
listed crops
• to be able to describe morphological feature
• to know the economic importance of the listed crops.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Guinea corn (Sorghum bicolor), Family Poaceae
Origin: Sorghum was probably domesticated from the wild diploid

species S. arundinacem in Africa 5,000-7,000 years ago, perhaps by the
Cushite people in what is now Ethiopia, though an alternative
interpretation suggests that it was domesticated independently in several
parts of Africa. During its subsequent evolution in Africa natural
hybridization between cultivars and their putative wild progenitor
(which is still a weed of some sorghum crops in Africa) has given rise to
diverse forms.It originated in Africa.
Taxonomy: Genera Sorghum belongs to the family Gramineae or

Poaceae (cereals). Sorghum cultivars are classified into several group
depending to a large extent upon the size and shape of their panicles,
their grain type and plant size.
• Milo -
• Durra
• Guinea-corn -
• Kafir - very compact panicles
• Kaoliang - Lax panicles and small, brown grain,
• Shallus - common in India
• Dwarf cultivars - with compact heads have been bred for mechanical
harvest in America and India,
53
Morphology: The mature sorghum plant resembles maize, varying in

height from 45 cm – 4 m. It is an annual grass with erect solid stems up
to 3 cm in diameter at the base, and a profusely branching adventitious
root system in the top meter of the soil, with a few roots which go much
deeper. The single seminal root may function throughout the life of the
plant. Supporting ‘prop’ roots burst through the sheathing leaf bases in
whorls from a ring of extra-axillary buds at the base of each internodes
low on stem. They are stiff and light-green, with anatomy intermediate
between stem and root.
Figure
3.1 Different types of sorgum
Source: Baranov, V.D. Ustimenko, G.V. (1994)
The main stem in some cultivars is solitary; in others many tillers arise
from the basal nodes, and sometimes there are branches from axillary
buds higher up, but the primary, main stem usually predominates and its
inflorescence is first to mature. The number of tillers produced varies
between cultivars and is influenced by density of sowing; it is greatest
when plants are widely spaced and on fertile soil. Each tiller has its own
adventitious roots system and is independent of the main stem for its
nutrition. The stem nodes are slightly thickened. The internodes are
shortest near the bottom of the stem, but their length also varies between
cultivars and its least in some dwarf types. Other early maturing types
are dwarf because they have few leaves, and the shortest, earliest
sorghum are those with short internodes and as few as 7 leaves on the
main stem compared with as many as 24 in tall, late cultivars. The
sheathing leaf bases closely slaps and protect the stem, they have
membranous margins and usually exceed the length of the internode
above their insertion. They also secret wax which forms a white,
powdery covering on it. A short membranous ligule and auricles are
usually present at the junction of the sheath and the lamina which is
30-35 cm long, bluish-green, glabrous and waxy with a prominent
midrib. The upper leaf is called the flag and its sheath enfolds and
protects the developing panicle. The phase of crop development during
which the lamina of the flag leaf is visible at the top of the plant, but
54
before the panicle extracts from the sheath, it is called the ‘boot’ stage in
all cereals.
The large panicle may be 20-40 cm or more long. It is carried on a stout

peduncle which may be erect, pendent or recurved. Its main axis is
deeply furrowed, variable in length and bears numerous primary
branches in loose whorls at the hairy nodes, or in a loose spiral. From
these arise secondary and tertiary branches. Whether the panicle is dense
and compact (as in Milo or Kafir sorghums) or lax (as in West African
Guinea corn or Shallu) depends upon the length of the main axis and its
branches. The ultimate branches of the panicle bear the spikelets which
are of two kinds, occurring in pairs; one is sessile and hermaphrodite,
the other is pedicelled and either male or sterile. This arrangement is
characteristic of the tribe Andropogoneae and the male inflorescence of
maize in the tribe Maydeae. At the ends of the ultimate branches
spikelets occur in groups of three, one sessile and two pedicelled.
The sessile spiklets of sorghum is broad and relatively large (3-10 mm

long), with two glumes of about the same size enclosing the immature
floret completely. The glumes persist with the fruit, though they are only
one-half to two-thirds of its length. The lower, outer glume of the sessile
spikelets is the firmer of the two; it is often stiff and coloured with
several prominent nerves. The lower glume overlaps the base of the
upper, inner glume which has fewer nerves and tends to be keeled and
slightly pointed. The sessile spikelets contains two florets, the upper one
perfect, the lower sterile and represented only by lemma. The fertile
florets have a thin, small palea and a narrow hairy lemma which is
usually divided at the tip and sometimes has a twisted, kneed awn.
These two bracts enclose three stamens, two lodicules and the ovary
with its long styles and hairy stigmas.
The pedicelled spikelet is longer and narrower than the sessile spikelet.
It is often deciduous. Its two glumes enclosed two florets, neither of
which has a palea; the lower floret is represented only by its lemma,
while the upper has a lemma and three stamens. Or even more rarely, it
may contain an upper perfect floret which produces a fruit. (S.L.
KOCHHAR, 2001)
3.2 Maize (Zea mays L.), Family Poaceae
Origin: It is generally agreed that the centers of origin are in Central

America. Primarily Mexico and the Caribbean and that maize hence
spread first through North and South America and after Columbus
discovery of America, to Europe and other area where it is now grown.
55
Taxonomy: Zea mays L. is annual monocotyledonous diploid (2n =20)

belonging to the Poaceae family and the Maydeae tribe of which eight
different genera have been recognized by taxonomists. Three of these
are found in the Americas and the remaining five are Asiatic in
distribution.
The three American genera, Zea, Euchlaena and Tripsacum are much
closest relative is the annual weed teosinte (Euchlaena Mexicana) with
which it crosses freely; the hybrids are normally completely fertile.
Evidence available appears convincing that maize was derived from E.
mexicana through mutation.
Morphology: The maize stalk is herbaceous and subdivided into nodes.

The number of internodes ranges from 6-20. The stalks height varies
from 1.0-3.5m. Most maize types form only one stalk, but there are
types that form a number of side-stalks or tillers. The leaves arise from
the nodes, alternately on opposite sides on the stalk.
The root system is fibrous, spreading in all direction. Primary roots

develop from the seed at germination and supply most nutrition during
the first week. Permanent roots arise from the crown just below the soil
surface once the seedling is growing well. Later on, more adventitious
roots develop from above-ground nodes and grow into the soil, their
function being to anchor the plant and support its upright position.
Maize is monoecious grass with the male and female flowers separated
on the same plant. Although it is self-fertile, the plant’s monoecious
character and protandry (pollen is matured before the stigma is
receptive) ensure a cross-pollination (by wind) of 90-95%. The tassel or
male inflorescence is terminal pennicle, which stretches out from the
enclosing leaves at the top of the stalk. While the female inflorescence,
called the ear, develops on a short side-branch, which emerges from the
axil of any of the middle leaves. Normally 1-2 buds develop into ears.
An ear is a modified spike which the central axis or cob bear paired
spikelets with one fertile flower each.
56
Fig.3.2
Maize plant with cob
3.3 Wheat (Triticum aestivum), Family Poaceae
Origin: The tetraploid and hexaploid wheat are believed to have

originated from ancient diploid wheat and related wild grasses by
natural hybridization. Wild einkorn is probably one of the ancestors of
all other cultivated wheat and is believed to be native to the Middle East
and Southeastern Europe, while eikorn seems to have been domesticated
in southeastern Turkey or Southwestern Caucasus and spread to Europe
from Spain to Scandinavia by the New Stone Age and is still grown in
hilly areas in some parts of Europe and the Middle East.
Taxonomy: Genus Triticum belongs to the family Poacea it has

following species:
1. Diploid - T. aegiloides (wild eikorn, n = 7, grains = hulled)

T. monococcum (eikorn, n = 7, grains = hulled)
2. Teteraploid – T. dicoccoides (wild emmer, n = 14, grains =

hulled)
T. dicoccum (Emmer, n = 14 grains = hulled)
T. durum (Macaroni wheat, n = 14, grains = naked)
T. persicum (Persian wheat, n = 14, grains = naked)
T. turgidum (Rivet wheat, n = 14, grains = naked)
T. polonicum (Polish wheat wild eikorn, n = 14,
grains = naked)
T. timopheevi (n = 14, grains = hulled)
3. Hexaploid: – T. aestivum (bread wheat, 2n =21, and

has naked grain)
T. sphaerococcum (short wheat, 2n =21, and has
naked grain)
57
T. compactum (club wheat, 2n =21, and has naked

grains)
T. spelta, (spelt, 2n =21, and has hulled grain)
T. macha (2n =21, and hulled grain)
Morphology: The wheat stem (culms) is erect and cylindrical (0.6-1.5

m in height), the nodes being solid whereas the internodes are hollow.
There are two sets of roots, three to six seminal or seedling roots
developing from the embryo and the adventitious roots (Coronal),
arising later from the basal underground nodes of axis, representing the
permanent root system. Secondary shoots or tillers arise from the
axillary buds present on the underground portion of the stem and bear a
similar series of coronal roots. Like other cereals, each leaf consists of
four parts:
1. The blade or lamina which is narrowly linear to linear lanceolate,

about 20-37 cm long and nearly 1-2 cm wide.
2. The leaf-sheath, which encircles the stem tightly
3. A membranous ligules with margins fringed by hairs (also known as
rain-guard) growing at the junction of the blade and the leaf sheath
4. The auricles which are two claw-like appendages at the base of the
blade.
The wheat inflorescence is terminal distichous spike, i.e. with spikelets

borne singly at the nodes on alternate sides of the zig-zag rachis.
Figure 3.3 Wheat plant

Each spikelet consists of two to five florets attached alternatively on

opposite sides of a short central axis called the ‘rachilla’ and is
subtended by two sterile or empty glumes. Each floret has its own
lemma and a thin two-nerved palea investing the essential organs (three
stamens and single pistil with two feathery stigmas) and two lodicules
representing the perianth – structure that regulates the opening of the
flower. The lamaller midrib is often extended in the form of an awn.
58
Depending on its presence the spikes are referred to as awned (bearded)

or awnless (beardless).
The wheat grain is dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, known as a

caryopsis. The grain may be either hard or soft in texture with a creamy
white, amber, red or purple colour depending upon the variety. The
dorsal convex surface of the kernel is smooth save for the base where
the fruit-coat is wrinkled, indicating the position of the embryo. The
ventral surface is flat and characterized by deep furrow or groove
(crease). The tip of the grain has a tuft of persistent stiff hairs known as
the ‘brush’.
3.4 Rice (Oryza sativa 2n = 24 some are 48), Family Poaceae
Origin: Rice is thought to have been domesticated in India more than

4,000 years ago from the wild species O. perennis. The only other
cultivated species in genus is O. glaberrima, African rice which
probably originated around the swampy headwaters of Niger River in
West Africa. According to the most recent authority O. barbii was the
wild progenitor of African rice; previously O. barbii and O. perennis
were considered synonymous.
Taxonomy: Three sub-species are recognized in O. sativa, and they

correspond with geographical races of the crop. Genus Oryza belongs to
the tribe Orazeae and family Poaceae, and subfamily Pooideae. About
23 species were recognized, they are distributed in the tropical and
subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, Australia and South America. The
African continent, having the largest number of species, is usually
considered to be the center of origin of the genus Oryza.
subsp. Indica is ‘Indica’ rice, which consist of a large group of

reproductively photosensitive, short-day cultivars of the tropical
monsoon region of South-east Asia. While subsp. Japonica is ‘japonica’
rice which is both sensitive and insensitive to photoperiod according to
the cultivar. With insensitive cultivars, flowering date, and consequently
the time of harvest, are determined by sowing date so that a single
cultivar may be, at least physiologically, suitable for cultivation in more
than one environment. While O. glaberrima Steud is confined to tropical
West Africa.
Morphology: The rice plant is a semi-aquatic, free tillering annual grass

with a cylindrical jointed stem (culm), about 50-150 cm tall, but may go
up to 5 m in floating rice. The internodes are shortest at the base,
becoming progressively longer. Above each node, there is a pronounced
thickening ‘pulvinus’ with an intercalary meristem. Generally speaking,
rice has a shallow root system, its extent being controlled by the nature
59
of the soil and the water supply. The first leaf at the base of main culm
and each tiller is rudimentary, consisting of a bladeless ‘prophyllum’.
The leaves are born alternatively on the stem in two ranks – one at each
node, each consisting of leaf sheath, leaf blade, ligule and auricles, the
former encircling the whole or part of the internodes. At the junction of
the leaf sheath and leaf blade, there is a triangular membranous, usually
colourless ligule that tends to split with age and is flanked on either side
by small sickle-like appendages, fringed with long hairs (auricles). The
leaf blade is long, narrow, 30-50 cm or more in length AND 1-2 CM
BROAD and some what pubescent having spiny hairs on the margins.
The lamina of the uppermost leaf below the panicle (‘flag’ or ‘boot’) is
wider and shorter than the others.
Figure 3.4 Rice plant

Source: Baranov, V.D. Ustimenko, G.V.( 1994)
The rice inflorescence is a loose terminal panicle, 7.5-38.0 cm long. The

spikelets are usually borne singly, but clustered forms with two to seven
spikelets together are known. Each spikelets is laterally compressed and
one-flowered, born on a short pedicel and is subtended by two
diminutive sterile glumes that are lanceolate, leathery, shiny structures
ranging in colour from white, yellow to red or black. The flower is
usually self-pollinated and is surrounded by lemma and palea that make
up the hull or husk and remains attached to the grains in threshing. The
lemma is tough, papery and may be fully awned, partially awned or
awnless, while the palea is somewhat smaller, sometimes awned.
60
Enclosed within the lemma and palea are two broad, thick, fleshy
lodicules, six stamens in two alternating whorls, and a pistil with two
plumose stigmas on two styles.
The mature rice grain is a caryopsis. Rice invested in the hull is called
‘rough rice’ or ‘paddy’, while that with the hull removed is known as
‘brown’, ‘husked’ or ‘cleaned’ rice. Rough rice consists of about 20%
hull. The grain coat is often pigmented and is differentiated into epicarp,
mesocarp, cross cells, tube cells and spermoderm or integument. The
remnants of the nucellar tissue are present just underneath the
integument. The endosperm consists of a single aleurone layer of
polygonal cells with a central mass of thin walled parenchymatous tissue
containing mostly starch. The embryo is located near the base towards
the lemma or ventral side of the grain and consists of strongly
differentiated scutellum, plumule and radicle. The plumule is ensheathed
by the coleoptile and the radicle by the coleorhiza.
The pericarp, nucellus, aleurone layer and the embryo (germ)

collectively consititute the ‘bran’ which is quite rich in oils, proteins,
mineral salts and vitamins; but most of the nutritional parts are lost
during the milling operation. `
4.0 CONCLUSION
Origin, taxonomy morphological features and economic values of some
common cereals were discussed in this unit. The representative
enumerated is to show the commonest that can be better comprehended
by students in terms of familiarities and cultivation.
5.0 SUMMARY
• The following crop were identified: Sorghum, maize wheat and rice
• Origin, distribution, spread and taxonomy of the above listed were
described
• Morphological features were also described
• Economic importance of the listed crop was given

1. State the origin, spread and taxonomy of the following crops:
Maize, Rice, wheat and sorghum
2. Describe the morphological features of the crop listed above
3. Outline the economic importance of the crop listed above

61
Dutta, T.C. (2000). Botany for Degree Students, Oxford University

Press 6th Edition 10th Impressionp701.
Kochhar, S.L. (1998). Economic Botany in the Tropics 2nd Edition Rajiv
Beri Macmillan India Limited P. 604.
UNIT 2 LEGUMES/PULSES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cowpea
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Grain legumes are important in human nutrition in the less humid parts
of the tropics, where they contribute substantially to total protein intake.
In addition to their food value, the legumes are widely grown in Tropics
as green manures. The grain legumes are made up of large number of
species, this unit will only look at the most common legumes.
2.0OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• to identify the following crops: Cowpea

• to know the origin, distribution and taxonomy of the above listed
crops
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cowpea (Vigna ungiculata L. (n =11)), Family Fabaceae
Origin: The cultivated cowpea originated in central Africa from where

it spread in early times through Egypt or Arabia to Asia and the
Mediterranean. It was brought to the West Indies in the sixteenth
62
century by the Spaniards and was introduced to America in about 1700

A.D.
Taxonomy: The genus Vigna Family Fabaceae is represented by about

150 species, with the greatest number in the Old World, particularly the
African Continent. There three major varieties of Vigna unguiculata:
• var. unguiculata- The pods are 80-130mm long, erect or ascending
when mature and are not flabby or inflated. The seeds are 5-6 mm
long and are oblong or cylindrical
• var. sinensis – common cowpea. The fruits are 200-300 mm in
length, are not flabby and are pendant when mature. The seeds are
between 6-9 mm in length and are subreinform to subglobose.
• var. sesquipedalis is a yard-long bean or asparagus bean and is most
widely grown in the Far East, mostly for its immature pods. The fruit
is30-100 cm long, fleshy and inflated when green but shrivels on
drying. The seeds are elongate, kidney-shape and 8-12 mm long.
Morphology: Cowpeas are low-growing, vigorously bushy or trailing,

annual herbs attaining a height of about 0.9-1.5 m. The leaves are
trifoliate with a long petiole. The leaflets are large, hairy, dark green,
cordate and subtended by inconspicuous stipels. The few flowers, often
occurring in alternate pairs on thickened nodes, are crowded together
near the tip of the long axillary peduncle. The flowers are white, light
pink or purple or light ble in colour, with their keel incurved and arched
upward (bent at right angle), not spirally coiled as in phaseolus spp. The
pods are long (variables in size), smooth, cylindrical and somewhat
constricted between the seeds. The seeds are globular to kidney-shape,
5-12 mm long, smooth or wrinkled and are of many colours, ranging
from white, cream, yellow, red, brown to black, sometimes speckled or
blotched. The seeds are characteristic in having a marked white hilum
surrounded by a dark ring. The most commonly grown are the white
types or those with a black mark around the hilum, the latter being
called ‘black-eyed’. Black-eyed cowpeas are widely grown in
Callifornia.
63
Fig.3.2.1 Cow pea

4.0 CONCLUSION
Origin, taxonomy, morphological features and economic values of

Cowpea and Soya bean were discussed in this unit. These
representatives are the commonest that can be better comprehended by
students in terms of familiarities and cultivation.
5.0 SUMMARY
• Origin, distribution, spread and taxonomy of a cow pea plant was

given in this unit
• Economic importance of cow pea was given

Cowpea and Soya bean


64
UNIT 3 ROOTS AND TUBER CROPS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cassava
3.2 Yam
3.3 Potato
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Root crop or earth vegetable are forms in which food is stored in the
swollen underground parts such as true roots, and modified stems like
tubers, corms, bulbs, and rhizomes that are particularly adapted to
storage because of their protected positions. Root crops such as potato,
sweet potato, yam and cassava, provide about 8 percent of the total
human energy intake. Most root crops contain about 25 percent starch
and other forms of carbohydrate.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• to identify the following crops: Cassava, yam and Potato

crops
• to be able to describe the crop morphological features
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), Family

Euphorbiaceae
Origin: Manihot esculenta originated from the north of South America.

The cultivated species no longer exists in the wild state. It spread
rapidly, mainly to West Africa central Africa and to the countries
bordering the Gulf of Guinea, from where it penetrated further inland
via the basin of the River Congo.
65
Most of the species belong to two centers of diversities; first center is

said to be North-eastern Brazil and stretching south as far as Paraguay
and the second center is southern and western parts of Mexico.
Taxonomy: M. esculenta Crantz (2n = 36) is belong to the family

Euphorbiaceae. Cassava is tetraploid according to some authors. The
Genus Manihot comprises numerous species, all of them occurring in
the wild state in South America.
Morphology: It is a shubby, semi-woody plant, cassava may grow to a

height of 2-3m. It is a perennial but usually grown as an annual or
biennial. Like all the Euphorbiaceae the plant parts contain latex.
The root system of cassava is well developed and this gives the crop a
good tolerance. The effectiveness of its root hairs is accentuated by the
presence of endomycorrhizas (symbiotic association between the root
and lower fungi growing in the external root tissue). The main root tends
to tuberize; they are rich in starch, arranged in bundles and measure
30-80 cm length and 5-10 cm diameter. Their weight usually varies from
1 to 4 kg under certain circumstances they may grow to a length 1m and
weight 20-25 kg. They have brownish or reddish peel and the fibre
content rises as the plant gets older.
The stem, whose diameter is not more than 2-4 cm are for the most part,
filled with pith and because of this are very fragile until lignifications is
complete. The leaves are spirally arranged to phyllotaxy of 2\5 and have
multiple lobes (usually five sometimes three or seven lobes) of variable
shape. A single plant may have two or three different leaf shapes. This is
called folial polymorphism. The colour of leaves, some times crimsom
when young, is light to dark green.
Figure 3.3.1 Cassava plant

66
The leaves are born on petioles. Which are longer than the leaf blade
and measure 5-30 cm in length? The petioles, like the leaf veins, are
green, red to crimson and, more rarely whitish.
Cassava is monocious plants. The inflorescence is terminal raceme

consisting of unisexual flowers. The female flowers are located at the
base of the raceme and are pink, crimson, yellowish or greenish in
colour. They have no corolla. The male flowers are located at the top of
the inflorescence. Within the same raceme, the male flowers bloom a
week later than the female ones. (protogeny) a situation that favours
cross pollination by insects.
The fruit is dehiscent, three-lobed capsule that burst noisily at maturity

when it releases three seeds. The cells of tuberized roots contain a
cyanogenic glycoside, linamarin, formally known as manihottoxin. This
substance, when exposed to the air or water it decomposed into glucose
and hydrocyanic acid (HCN) by the action of the enzyme linamarase
present in the latex. HCN is volatile and evaporates rapidly at
temperature above 280C. Exposure to the sun or boiling will speed up
this decomposition.
3.2 Yam (Dioscorea spp), Family Dioscoreaceae
Origin: Domesticated yam comes mainly from the transitional regions

between forest and savanna and to a lesser extent from forest zones.
Dioscorea alata (water yam, greater yam) is thought to have originated
in Southeast Asia (northern Burma) and D. esculenta (lesser yam) is
believed to have the same origin. A center of diversity subsists today for
both species in Papua New Guinea. Both species were transferred to
Madagascar at the time of ancient Malaysian migrations. While D.
cayenensis (yellow yam) originated in the forest zones of West Africa,
where it is widely grown. D. rotundata (white yam) is botanically very
similar to D. cayenensis, but it has certain characteristics of some of the
savanna Dioscoreaceae. At present, most authors agree that D.
cayenensis and D. rotundata can be considered as belonging to the same
complex D. cayenensis-rotundata.
In Africa the main yam species under cultivation are the complex D.
cayenensis-rotundata of which D. rutundata is grown the most and, D.
alata, which possibly has a higher yield potential. All over Africa, yam
tends to be replaced by sweet potato and above all by cassava.
Taxonomy: Yam comprises several species of different origin:
1. Dioscorea alata (water yam, greater yam)

2. D. esculenta (lesser yam)
67
3. D. cayenensis (yellow yam)

4 D. dumetorum (bitter yam)
5. D. trifida (cush-cush yam)
6. D. bulbifera (aerial yam, potato yam, air-potato yam)
Morphology: It is a monocotyledon plant with edible tubers, belongs to

the family Dioscoreaceae. These are climbing plants with glabrous
leaves and twining stems, which coil readily around a stake. They are
perennial through the root system but are grown as annual.
Yam is dioecious (male and female flowers on separated plants) with

inflorescence (rare in some species) in the leaf axils. Bulbils form
frequently in this leaf axil. The fruit is 1-3 cm long capsule with three
locules. When seeds are produced, they are winged, pollination is
entomophous. Yam produces mealy tubers with white or slightly
coloured flesh (yellow for example). Depending on the species or the
variety. Some old varieties have anthocyanin spots. Almost all
Dioscorea spp. contain a bitter alkaloid called dioscorein or
dihydrodioscorein, which gradually diminishes and disappears at full
maturity in most cultivated varieties. Tuberization only begins towards
the end of the fourth month after planting. (Aliyu Y., 2007).
Figure.3.3.2 Yam tuber

3.3 Potato (Solanum tuberrosum), Family Solonaceae
Origin: It came from the highland of Peru and Bolivia, probably in the
high plateau in the neighbourhood of Lake Titica which is about 3,512m
above the sea level. Potato was introduced into Europe from the
Northern areas by the Spanish in the later half of the 16th century. It was
introduced independently to England in 1586 and Sister Walter was
accredited with its introduction in Ireland from England. From Europe it
spread to other parts of the world including Nigeria and African
continent.
68
Taxonomy: Majority of cultivars of Salanum tuberosum is tetraploids

with 2n = 48, but diploid and triploid forms are also in occurrence and
existence. Genus Solanum belong to the family solonaceae
Morphology: Solanum tuberosum is a tuber bearing herbaceous

perennial but is treated as an annual under cultivation. The aerial part of
the stem is erect in the early stage of growth but later it becomes more
spreading. Except for the nodes, the aerial stem is hollow. The
underground portion of the stem is more or less rounded and solid,
sending forth horizontal branches (stolons) that arise from the axillary
buds. Adventitious roots are produced in groups of three or four at the
nodes of the main underground stem as well as the stolon.
The first few leaves developing from the ‘seed’ piece are usually simple
but subsequent ones are compound, being irregularly imparipinnate.
The leaves are 0.3 – 0.6 m long, each consisting of one terminal leaflets
with entire or serrate margins and small secondary leaflets (folioles)
interspersed between the primary leaflets. The leaflets are more or less
opposite and are densely hairy when young but at maturity the hairs are
confined to the midribs and lateral veins. The leaves are spirally
arranged on the main stem with two small basal leaf-like stipules
clasping the main stem.
The tuber is the short, greatly enlarged apical portion of the stolon, full
of stored food. Morphologically, it is a shortened thickened stem bearing
a group of buds or ‘eyes’ protected by scale-like leaves which are soon
shed, leaving a rudimentary leaf scars (eyebrow) or ridge. The eyes may
be shallow, medium or deep, the ‘eyebrow’ being well marked (semi
circular) towards the heel or attachment end where the tuber is attached
to the stolon. Each eye consists of a rudimentary leaf scar and a cluster
of at least three buds lying in a slight depression, representing a lateral
branch with under-developed internodes. The eyes are arranged spirally
around the tuber and are more crowded towards the apical or rose end of
the tuber than towards the heel or basal end. The size, shape and colour
of the tubers vary greatly, the most common colours being white, red or
purplish and yellow. The skin may be smooth or rough.
69
Figure 3.3.3
Potato
Anatomically, the potato tuber is a typical stem consisting of the

following principal regions; the periderm, the cortex, the vascular
cylinder (consisting of patches of external phloem and a ring of distinct
xylem bundles), the outer medulla representing the internal phloem and
the inner medulla or pith with only a narrow parenchyma zone in the
interior and without phloem elements. The phloem elements, both
internal and external, are in numerous groups. The internal phloem is
rich in parenchyma and appears to be the principal storage tissue of the
tuber. The inner medulla is the central axis of the tuber, forming a
continuous connection from the stem end to the apical eye and to the
buds in each eye. It is not as rich in starch as the outer medulla or the
cortex. The starch is normally most dense in the tissue surrounding the
vascular ring. The periderm and xylem bundles contain little storage
parenchyma. The thin corky periderm forms the outer protective layer
(the skin) which can be easily peeled off. The skin is pitted with
lenticels or ‘breathing pores.’ The greater part of the proteins, minerals,
tannins, crystal and pigment (in coloured varieties) is localized in the
outer layers of the cortex. Deep peeling of the potatoes should always be
avoided as it removes the valuable nutritional ingredients.
Flowers may or may not be produced, depending upon the variety;

flowering may or may not result in formation of berries. The flowers
when present are born in terminal clusters. The flower structure is
typically solanaceous, consisting of five fused sepals, five epipetalous
stamens and a bicarpellate gynoecium. The fruits (seed or potato ball)
are spherical and 1.2-2.5 cm in diameter. They are green when immature
and yellow, purple or black at maturity. Each berry may contain as many
as 200 seed. (Aliyu, 2007 and S.L. Kochhar)
4.0 CONCLUSION
70
Origin, taxonomy morphological features and economic values of

Cassava, Yam and Potato were discussed in this unit. These
representatives are the commonest that can be better comprehended by
students in terms of familiarities and cultivation.
5.0 SUMMARY
• The following crop were identified: Cassava, Yam and Potato

described

Cassava, Yam and Potato


UNIT 4 SUGAR CROPS
71
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sugar Cane
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Sugar is not only an essential food but also used as raw materials in
various industries, for the manufacturing alcoholic beverages, soft
drinks, ice-cream and confectionery. The common sugar producing crop
is sugar cane, this unit will give descriptive information about the origin,
taxonomy, morphology and economic value of sugar cane.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• to identify the following a sugar cane

• to know the origin, distribution and taxonomy of a sugar cane
• to know the economic importance of a sugar cane.
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Sugar Cane (Saccharum officinarum L.), Family Poaceae
Origin: Sugar cane was reportedly domesticated as early as 8,000 B.C

in Melanesia, probably New Guinea, from where it said to have
progressed westwards. Meanwhile, natural hybridization occurred
between S. officinarum and S. spontaneum, producing 2 hardy species S.
sinensis (in China) and S. barberi in India.
Taxonomy: Sugar cane Saccharum officinarum L. (2n = 80) family

Poaceae is a monocotyledonous perennial belonging to the family
Poaceae (Gramineae) and the tribe Andropogoneae. Besides S. barberi
and S. sinensis Rox, which are no longer cultivated, the same genus also
includes the wild species S. spontaneum L. and S. robustum Brandes
which are disease resistant and renowned for their excellent vigour and
hardiness.
72
Morphology
Sugar cane is grown as a perennial plant and can be cut to times in

succession depending upon the fertility of the site and the care with
which it is grown. Two to three weeks after harvesting the stumps shoot
again, producing the ratoon crop. The growth cycle, which stretches
from the time of planting to the harvest or from the preceding harvest to
the next, is called the annual cycle or harvest cycle and usually extends
over a period which varies from year (in environments where sugar cane
flowers) to two years (in areas where flowering inhibited on account of
altitude and or latitude). The cycle in between two successive plantings
called the crop cycle, may last up to four years (in highly intensive,
mechanized growing) or to even twelve years (in more extensive
agriculture or smallholder farming). The first vegetation produced after
planting is called virgin cane.
The cylindrical or slightly flattened stalk of the sugar cane plant reaches
a height of 2-4m with a diameter of 3-5cm. The cane has more or less
protruding nodes and slightly bulging internodes. It is yellow, green,
yellowish-green, red, purple or brown in colour; sometimes it is striped
(striped cane). By harvest, 20 to 30 internodes, each 10-20cm long, can
be expected.
The internode is usually glabrous and, for the most part, covered with a
waxy coating. It is filled with sugary pith, which in relation to its total
weight contains 11-16% sugar. The alternate leaves are 1-2 m long and
5-7 cm wide. The leaves grow from the stalk at node level. Thanks to its
total leaf surface, which may be up to seven times the soil surface area
covered, sugar cane is one of those plants that can capture a maximum
of solar energy per hectare and per month it is a C4 plant.
At each node there is a leaf scar, a bud (or eye) and a band of root
primodia. The buds alternate and are protected at their base by the leaf
sheath. Above ground, the buds and roots remain dormant while below
ground the roots grow and the buds may produce new stalks (or tillers),
which themselves have nodes, internodes and bud. A well-tillering sugar
cane plant may form a tuft of 5 to 20 canes.
The terminal meristem may turn into an inflorescence (or arrow) during
short-day periods, but sugar cane rarely flowers. However, flowering
stalks use up sucrose and the quality of the cane deteriorates as a result.
After producing, the cane dies.
The inflorescence is 0.5-1m long pyramidal panicles, the terminal

ramifications of which are thin and have uniflorous spikelets.
73
The flower is bisexual, with only ovule. Fructification is rarely

observed. However, it cannot be ruled out. The small seed is a caryopsis
as in other grasses.
Figure 3.3 Sugar cane

In young cane, sugar occurs mainly in the form of glucose and fructose,
whereas during ripening it is stored in the form of sucrose. Sugar cane
can be distinguished from other plants by a metabolism that favours
most accumulation of sucrose in stalks. (Aliyu Y., 2007).
4.0CONCLUSION
Origin, taxonomy morphological features and economic values of sugar

cane were discussed in this unit. Sugar cane is the commonest sugar
producing crop that can be better comprehended by students in terms of
familiarities and cultivation.
5.0SUMMARY
• The Sugar crop was identified.

• Origin, distribution, spread and taxonomy of sugar cane was
described
• Morphological features was also described
• Economic importance of the sugar cane crop was given
6.0TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. State the origin, spread and taxonomy of a sugar cane

2. Describe the morphological features of a sugar cane
3. Outline the economic importance of a sugar cane
74


UNIT 5 OIL CROPS
75
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Ground Nut
3.2 Oil Palm
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Vegetable Fats and oil are located in the form of small insoluble droplets
within the plants’ cells. They occur predominantly in seeds’ endosperms
and cotyledons. There are many plants yielding oils that are edible and
used for industrial purpose in high percentages. Examples of oil-yielding
plants are oil-palm tree, coconut palm tree, groundnut plant, mustard oil,
castor oil and gingerly plants.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• to identify the following crops: Ground nut and Oil palm

crops
• to be able to describe morphological features
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Ground nut (Arachis hypogaea L.), Family Fabaceae

(n =20)
Origin: All species of Arachis are geocarpic, ripening their fruits

underground. A native of Brazil, it became widely distributed
throughout South America at an early date. In the sixteenth century, the
Portuguese brought them from Brazil to West Africa and the Spaniards
took tree across the Pacific to the Philippines from where they were
introduced to China, Japan, Malaysia, India and Malagasy Republic.
Taxonomy: Arachis hypogaea L. belong to the Family Fabaceae

(n =20) has two commonly varieties.
76
1. Bunch or erect - are short duration, maturing in three to four months.

The small or medium-sized pods are born in clusters near the base of
plant. One to two small round seeds are produced within each thin-
shelled fruit.
2. Runner or spreading – Runner types produce medium-sized pods
born all along the length of the branches and contain one to three
oval seeds in a comparatively thicker shell. This variety takes about
four to six months to ripen.
Morphology: Groundnut is a low-growing annual herb, 0.3-0.6m tall

with moderately hairy compound leaves, each having two pairs of
opposite leaflets. The flowers are 5-7cm long, yellow and sessile and
develop singly or in clusters of two to four. The five fused sepals form a
long calyx tube, often mistaken for a pedicel. The papilionaceous corolla
and the staminal column (consisting of ten monadelphous stamens) are
adnate at the base and inserted on the rim of the calyx tube. The
monocarpellary ovary is surmounted by a long filiform style. Self-
pollination is usual.
After fertilization, the ovaries are pushed downward to the soil due to
the formation of a positively geotropic stipe or gynophore (peg)
resulting from the active division of the meristem just underneath the
receptacle. Little change occurs in the ovary until it is buried, save for
the development of lignified tissue which forms a protective cap at the
anterior end. After penetrating the soil to a depth of 2-5cm, the peg loses
its geotropic characters, growing horizontally, and the ovary develops
rapidly into a fruit. In some cases, fruits are actually produced from
underground flowers.
The fruit is an elongated oblong, indehiscent pod, containing one to

three seeds (occasionally up to six), constricted slightly between the
seeds. The dry pericarp (shell or hull) of the mature fruit is fairly
fibrous, characterized by reticulate markings. It constitutes about
20-30% of the weight of the whole fruit. The mature seeds vary in size
and shape, often ovoid or cylindrical, 1-2 x0.5-1.0 cm. The seed coat is
represented by a papery covering (skin), the colour ranging from white
to pink, purple shades of brown or red. The embryo consists of a large
radicle, a leafy plumule and two massive white fleshy cotyledons. The
seeds are non-endospermic.
77
Figure 3.3.1 Ground nut

3.2 Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq), Family Palmae
Origin: Oil palm originated in West Africa. Its extensive natural stands,
which have been tapped and harvested for years, can still, be seen
between latitudes 16oN and 10oS. The tree is not one of the characteristic
species of the dense forest, where it cannot grow due to a lack of light.
It’s found, instead, in the gallery forests bordering the major rivers of
West and central Africa, where it is often associate with raffia palm
(Raphia spp.).
Introduction into South America coincided with the migratory

movements of African slaves shipped to the colonizers of the New
World. Once there it grew and spread alongside the related American
species, Elaeis melanococca Gaetner. Its Introduction into Southeast
Asia dates back to around 1850. The first plantations were established in
Sumatra in 1911.
Taxonomy: Elaeis Jacq (2n = 32) is monocotyledon of the order

Palmales, Family Palmae, subfamily Cocoideae and tribe Cocoineae.
The genus Elaeis includes two other species besides E. guineensis,
manely E. odora (syn. Barcella odora), The American oil palm, and E.
oleifera (syn. E. malanococa) –distinguished by its procumbent stipe-
that occurs in the tropical regions of Central and South America. E.
guineensis goes by many common names in the various countries where
it is found, e.g. coquito and home palm in Nicaragua, Coroza noli in
Colombia, palmiche in Costa Rica and calane or dende do para in Brazil.
E. madagascariensis Becc., the Madagascar oil palm, is thought to be
merely a distinct variety of E. guineensis, despite its morphological
differences. E. guineensis subsp. Poissonii is known as diwakawaka or
ear palm because of its ear shaped fruits which are due to the presence
of flower organs that have evolved into oil producing tissue.
Morphology
78
E. guineensis can grow to a height of 30m in tall forest but elsewhere its
height does not usually exceed 15-18m. Its life span, which is difficult to
determine, may exceed 200 years in the wild.
The branchless trunk or stripe is 60-80 cm in diameter. It remains

covered by old bases of fallen or cut leaves (or fronds) for the first 12 to
14 years. Thereafter a suberized protective layer replaces the petiole
bases, which gradually disappear. The age of 18-20 years, the palm’s
trunk is smooth over almost its entire length, except at the base and
close to the crown. Each year 20-25 new leaves are formed. The crown
of the adult palm comprises, on average, 40-50 pinnate leaves, each
5-6.5m long. Each pinnate leaf consists of 1-1.7m long petiole that is
extended by the midrib, which carries the 0.70 – 1.20m long leaflets.
The petiole, which is much wider at the base, is studded with spines that
are modifications of the lower leaflets. The terminal bud or palm
cabbage composed of soft, ivory-coloured tissue is located at the heart
of the bouquet of leaves that crown the stripe.
The root system consists at every early age of a main axis. This is soon
replaced by dense mat of adventitious roots that can grow to great
lengths. These roots have two types of remification. Respiratory roots
with pneumathodes and lateral feeder roots. The primary roots are
constantly renewed from the base of the stripe or bole.
Figure
3.5.2 Palm oil
From which they branch out into a thick mat extending in all directions.
The size of the root network depends mainly on the level of nutrients in
the soil and, above all, on its moisture content. The depth to which the
root system extends depends on the depth of the water table. Thus,
lambourne reports that its development is limited to a depth of 45 cm in
a soil where the water table in the dry season is at less than 1m from the
79
surface. Similarly the roots can extend horizontally for several meters.
Under normal growing conditions most of the roots are found at depth of
20-60 cm and within a 3.5-4.5m radius.
Oil palm is monoecious, but the inflorescences are normally unisexual.

It bears male and female inflorescences simultaneously, but the flower
buds most frequently give rise to alternating series, more or less long of
female and male inflorescence in response to various factors. Mixed
inflorescences, which are relatively rare, appear when the tree switches
from the male to the female-cycle or vice versa.
The flower buds develop in the leaf axils, except during the first two
years of growth. Oil palm normally starts flowering in its third year. The
male inflorescence is composed of thick, central axis carrying some 200
spikes, on each of which develop some 700-800 tightly packed flowers.
The entire male inflorescence is surrounded by two shealth or spathes
that open before the flowering proper. The female inflorescence has and
almost identical composition. The somewhat shorter peduncle extends
into a thick main axis, the rechis, which bears the spikes with flowers.
Each female flower developing in the axil of spiny bract is flanked by
two accompanying no- functional male flowers.
Oil palm is considered to be allogamous female and male flowers rarely

bloom together. Consequently, oil palm is considered to be allogamous.
Dry weather favours the development of female inflorescence.
Pollination is mainly entomophilous. Elaeis sp. (curculionidae) is the
main pollinator in Africa, whereas the Hawaiian flowers thrips (Thrips
hawaiiensis) pollinates the majority of the palms in Malaysia.
The fruit ripen about six month after fertilization. A fully developed
bunch weights 1-70 kg or more and contains 1,000-4,000 fruit,
depending on the tree’s age and vigour. On a mature plantation the
average bunch weight is usually within the 15-25 kg range. Depending
on the type of palm, a ripe bunch consists of 50-75% fruit and 25-50%
stalks by weight. Normally, a palm produces 5-15 bunches a year. The
number of bunches decreases with age. In contrast, their weights
increase. On plantations established, with selected seeds, the mature
palms mean annual yields exceed 100 kg of bunches/palm, or more than
14t\ha.
The pericarp, which makes up 60% of the fruit’s weight consist of a

waxy outer envelope (epicarp) and an oleiferous pulp (mesocarp) with a
50-55% oil content. This pulp surrounds a woody shell (endocarp) that
varies in thickness from 0-7mm and accounts for some 32% of the
fruit’s weight. The endocarp contains one or more oleaginous kernels
which make up 8% of the fruit’s weight and contain about 50% palm
80
kernel oil. The endocarp and kernels together are commonly known as
the oil palm seed, whereas the entire fruit is called oil palm nut. The
oval fruit is 3-6 cm long. 2-4cm wide and weight 4-20g. The bunches
have an oval shape, but are broader at the base and more pointed at the
tip. They are protected by spiny bracts.
4.0CONCLUSION
Origin, taxonomy morphological features and economic values of

Ground nut and Oil palm were discussed in this unit. The representative
5.0SUMMARY
• The following oil crops were identified: Ground nut and palm oil
• Origin, distribution, spread and taxonomy of Ground nut and palm
oil were described
• Economic importances of the oil crops were given.

Ground nut, oil palm


UNIT 6 VEGETABLE CROPS
CONTENTS
81
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Tomato
3.2 Pepper
3.3 Onion
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
These are the groups of economic plants that have attracted least
attention even though they are used on daily basis. They are classified
into the following:
• Vegetable fruits plants: okro, tomato, cucumber etc

• Leafy plant e.g: lotus.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• to identify the following crops: Tomato, pepper and onion

crops
• to be able to describe morphological feature of the above mentioned
crops
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum.), Family Solonaceae
Origin: Is a native to tropical, central and South America of Peru and

Ecuador, the tomato had spread in pre-Columbian times as far as
Mexico. It was introduced into Europe from Mexico and to Africa by
Spanish in 1523. Cherry Tomato was the wild progenital stock of tomato
that was found growing in the wild around the equator. The modern
tomatoes are more complex due to the process of hybridization with
several other lycopersicum species.
Taxonomy: The genus Lycopersicum belongs to the Family Solonaceae.

On the basis of its reaction to light response to day light, the cultivars
82
are categorized into many types which can be cultivated throughout the
year in temperate and tropical countries. Therefore, there are
determinate and indeterminate cultivars, and berry-fleshy cultivar.
The following five main varieties are sometimes recognized:
1. cherry tomato L. esculentum var. cerasiforme (Dune)

2. pear tomato L.e. var. pyriform Alef
3. common tomato, L.e var. Bailey
4. upright tomato L.e var. validum Bailey
5. potato-leaved tomato, L.e var. grandifolium Bailey
Morphology: The tomato is a weak-stemmed, trailing, much branched,

short-lived perennial but treated as an annual under cultivation.
Branching at the base of the stem is often monopodial, becoming
sympodial higher up. Small glistening reddish-yellow glandular hairs as
well as long pointed non-glandulartrichomes clothe the stem, petiole and
peduncle. The leaves are spirally arranged, unevenly imparipinnate
compound (15-30 x10-25 cm) with variously indented or lobed margins.
The flowers are borne in clusters on the main axis and on lateral
branches. Inflorescences which develop from the apical bud appear to be
opposite to the leaves because vegetable growth is continued by the
development of the auxillary bud of a leaf just below the apex.
Figure 3.6.1 Tomato

Source: Baranov, V.D. Ustimenko, G.V.( 1994
The fruits are fleshy berries and are hairy when young but becoming
smooth, juicy and shiny when ripe. They are smooth or furrowed,
usually globose with a hollow at the calyx end. The ovary becomes six
to twenty loculed due to the formation of false septa and the numerous
ovules are borne on the fleshy placenta. Tomato cultivars differ a great
deal in size, shape and colour. The range is from small cocktail or cherry
to large, beefy table tomatoes weighing up to 0.5kg. Tomatoes are
known with yellow, orange, pink and green fruits besides the familiar
red types. The red colouration of the fruit is due to the presence of two
83
pigments carotene and lycopersicin (lycopene); the latter being absent in

yellow-fruited varieties. The seeds are flat and raniform, embedded in a
jelly-like mass of tissues containing large quantities of phosphorus.
3.2 Chillies, sweet or bell Pepper (Capsicum ssp.), Family

Solonaceae (x =12)
Origin: A number of species of capsicum were domesticated for their

pungent fruits in tropical America. These have long been used as a
condiment as well as for food.
Taxonomy: Capsicum ssp. Is belong to the family solonaceae. There are

about five cultivated species of Capsicum:
• C. annum L. – is widely grown all over the world and almost all the
varieties cultivated in the United State of America and Europe
belong to it. The fruit of C. annum are much less pungent than those
of C. frutescens.
Figure 3.6.2 Peppy

It includes nearly all the large sweet or bell peppers as well as the small-
fruited stronger tasting types producing paprika.
• C. frutescens L. – Is cultivated mainly in the tropics and in the

warmer regions of the U.S.A. On the whole, it is much more
pungent, some of the types being extremely fiery.
• C. pendulum Willd – are found only in southern Peru, Bolivia and
southern Brazil.
• C. pubescens Ruiz – They are from the highlands of South America.
84
Morphology: C. annum produces both pungent and sweet fruits which

vary in length from 1-30cm, and in colour when ripe from green through
yellow, orange and red to brown or purple. The plants are small, bushy
annuals 30cm to 1.5m tall. They are sometimes woody. The angular
stems bear alternate, simple leaves which are very variable in size and
shape. They are commonly lanceolate to ovate with a pointed tip, and
around 6cm long, though rarely as long as 12cm. The petioles are about
2cm long, and there are no stipules. The regular floweres are born singly
in the axils of the leaves, not in clusters of two or more as they are in C.
frutescens. Each flowere has a cup-shaped calyx of five fused sepals
which swell and persist with the fruit. The corolla has five or six white
or greenish-white petals which are fused together at their bases, but
expanded above into lobes. The five to six stamens are inserted at the
base of the corolla and have dark-blue anthers which dehisce
longitudinally (not by apical pores, as in many other genera of the
Solanaceae). The superior ovary has two locules or sometimes more due
to the intrusive growth of false septa, with many ovules in axile
placentation.
3.3 Onion (Allium cepa.), Family Alliaceae (n =8)
Origin: It is believed to have come from the eastern Mediterranean

region, including Iran, Pakistan and the mountainous countries to the
north where onions have been cultivated as a food crop since the earliest
times.
Taxonomy: A. cepa known for great number of botanical varieties and

cultivars is cultivated throughout the world. The Plant is belongs to the
genus Allium, and species cepa family Alliaceae. Prominent among
genus Allium are:
1. Shallots - A. ascalonicum L.
2. Garlic - A. sativum L.
3. Chives – A. schoenoprasum L.
4. Welsh onion, ciboule or Japanese bunching onion – A. fistulosum L.
5. Chinese
6. Onion or rakkyo – A. chinensis G.
7. Don and Leek – A. porrum L.
Morphology: Onion is a biennial crop, storing food in the bulb during
the first season and flowering in the second season when the days
become long and warm enough. The root system of onion is shallow and
fibrous. Each leaf consist of two main parts; a sheathing leaf base and a
hollow, linear, cylindrical or flattened blade, both being separated by a
short plate-like stem surrounded by a number of concentric layers of
fleshy leaf bases. The outer leaf bases are thin, fibrous and dry, forming
a protective covering or tunic around the inner fleshy ones, which are
85
laden with food. The innermost leaves also have thickened leaf bases but
with aborted lamina.
Towards the end of the first season’s growth, the apical meristem or
shoot apex grows to produces a leafless flowering stalk the scape,
0.6-0.9m tall, which pushes up through the centre of the pseudo stem
formed by the sheathing leaf bases. The scape is hallowed, cylindrical,
swollen near the middle and tapering towards the ends. The developing
inflorescence is protected by a membranous spathe which at maturity
splits to form two to three persistent bracts. Numerous greenish-white
flowers are arranged in an umbellate cymose manner. Each flower has
six free, greenish-white tepals which open widely, six stamens and a
tricarpellate gynoecium. The fruit is a globular capsule.
Figure 3.6.3 Onion

4.0CONCLUSION

common vegetable crops were discussed in this unit. The representative
5.0SUMMARY
• The following crop were identified: Tomato, peppy and onion

described
86

Tomato, pepper and onion.
2. Describe the morphological features of the crop listed above.
3. Outline the economic importance of the crop listed above.


UNIT 7 FIBER CROPS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cotton
87
3.2 Jute
3.3 Kenaf
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Fibre may be defined as the unit of matter that has hair like dimension
and length may be 200 times greater than the width. Fibres botanically
consist of very long narrow cells that are many times longer than they
are broad. The long cells can be between 1-3 mm and can be up to 55
mm in Rammie. These sheets of tissues occurring either singly or in
groups can be overlapping lignified or elastic substances in plants which
are potential sources of raw materials to industries.
There are many schemes for classifying fibres. They can be classified
based on structural properties, functions and sources and morphology:
Bast or soft fibres eg: fibres from flax, jute and hemp.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• to identify the following crops: Cotton, Jute and Kenaf

crops
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cotton (Gossypium spp x = 13), Family - Malvaceae
It is the world most important non-food agricultural commodity. It was

one of the first vegetable fibres used for textile purposes.
88
Origin: About 20 species were recognized taking into consideration the

cytological, genetical geographical and archaeological evidences
available at that time. The 16 wild Gossypium species are found in
Australia, Asia Africa and America where they occur as perennial
drought enduring shrubs or small trees growing on the fringes of deserts
dry river beds and rocky hillsides. G. hirsutum and G. barbadense are
commonly two species in cultural practice. It gives an average yield in
Africa 0.94t/ha, Europe and Australia 3.71 t/ha 2.52 t/ha
Morphology: Te plant is shrubby, reaching a height of 1-1.3 m. The

leaves are divide into three to five lobes (rarely seven), the incisions
extending up to half of the length of the lamina. The boll is three celled,
rounded, beaked, smooth surfaced and rarely with prominent pits or
shoulders. Glands are fewer in number and inconspicuous. The fruit
open slightly at maturity into three or four loculi, each containing up to
11 seeds, the seeds usually bear two coats of hairs, long lint hair (staple
of floss) and short fuzz hairs (linter). The staple is short (9.5-19mm) and
grey in colour.
The two species are further divided into five geographic races.
Gossypium barbadense L. (n = 26) is a native of South America and is
highly esteemed for the length and finness of its lint. The plants are tall,
annual shrubs, reaching up to three meters in height, bearing a few many
strong ascending vegetative branches. The leaves are three to five lobed.
Corolla is bright yellow in colour with red or purple spots near base. The
bolls are usually large (3.5 to 6cm long), dark green, prominently pitted
with plenty of oil glands. Fruits may be three or four-valved, each
containing five to eight or more seeds that are fuzzy at the ends.
89
Figure 3.7.1 Cotton

Gossipium hirssutum L. (n =26) Native of Mexico and Central America.

These plants are usually small shrubs or trees with few vegetative
branches. The leaves are large codate, hairy and three or five lobed. The
flowers are white or pale yellow in colour, usually without purplish spot
at the base, turning pink or red on the second day of blooming The boll
are large and rounded but unlike. Gossipium Barbadense they are
usually green and smooth with few oil glands. The seed are covered all
over with a white fuzzy coating.
3.2 Jute (Corchorus spp x =7), family Tiliaceae
Origin: The primary center of origin of C. olitoris is Africa with a

secondary center in India or indo-Burma. C. capsularis is, however, not
found in Africa and Australia its center of origin is thought to be Indo-
Burma.
Jute is the least expensive, but most important of all bast fibres and
comes second in production only to cotton among all the natural fibres.
The fibre is obtained from the stems of two cultivated species of
Cochurus, namely C. capsularis L. (white jute) and C. olitoris L. (tossa
jute). It occupies an important place in Indian economy, being the
largest earner of foreign exchange.
Table.1.7 Area, production and yield per hectare of jute + jute like fibers
(1993-94)
Continent Area (ha) Production (t) Yield (kg\ha)
Africa 21000 15000 725
North and central 11000 11000 1034
America
South America 24000 30000 1248
Asia 1808000 2951000 1632
World total 1864000 3053000 1638
Source: FAO production yearbook, 1994. Volume 48
Morphology: Both the cultivated species are woody, little branched
annual having simple, ovate, serrate margined leaves with peculiar
curved bristles (auricles) near the base. Flowers are solitary or arranged
in few flowered cymes. The two species are quite similar botanically,
but differ in number of ways.
90
C. capsularis is a tall, little branched annual (3-3.7m tall) with ovate

glabrous leaves containing a bitter glycoside corchorin. Hence it is often
referred to as tita or bitter pat. Small yellow flowers at maturity give rise
to small, more or less globular, much wrinkled capsules, flattened at the
top, and enclosing chocolate brown seeds. Although the fibers of C.
capsularis are normally whitish, they are considered inferior to C.
olitorius and sell at a low price. The plant can withstand water logging
in the later stages of growth.
C. olitorius is a much taller species having leaves with a shining upper

and a rough undersurface and with no bitter taste.
Figure 3.7.2 Jute

The leaves are almost tasteless when chewed (known as mitha or sweet
pat) the yellowish flowers are larger in size than C. capsularis, each
developing into a long, cylindrical, ridged capsule with an elongated
beak. Seeds are small (500 to 1 g).
3.3 Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.), Family Malvaceae
Origin: Kenaf is found in the wild state in tropical and subtropical

Africa. It is also a wild plant in India, which is regarded as a second
centre of origin. The cultivated forms are mainly grown for fiber
production. It has wide range adaptation and is grown in Africa, Asia
Cuba, Florida and the southern region of Russia.
Taxonomy: The genus Hibiscus, which belongs to the Malvaceae
family. Comprises many herbaceous species known for the production
of fibre, food, and decoration:
• Fibre = H. cannabinus, H. sabdariffa

• Edible plant parts = H. esculentus, H. sabdariffa
• Ornamental plants = H. rosa-sinensis
91
Morphology: Kenaf (H. cannabinus L.) (2n =36) is generally grown an

annual plants, but can become perennial in certain environments. The
stem is erect rigid 1.5-3m or more in height, with lateral branches. It can
be glabrous or prickly. Usually is green in colour, but it can also be red
or purple. The bark contains relatively long fibres and its root has a well
– developed tap-root.
Figure 3.3.3 Potato

4.0CONCLUSION
Origin, taxonomy morphological features and economic values of cotton

Jute and kenaf were discussed in this unit. These crops are the
commonest that can be better comprehended by students in terms of
familiarities and cultivation.
5.0SUMMARY
• The following crop were identified: Cotton, Jute and Kenaf

described

cotton, jute and kenaf
92


UNIT 8 BEVERAGES AND STIMULANT CROPS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
93
3.1 Cacao
3.2 Tea
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
These are plant for refreshing and stimulating, they are mild, agreeable
and stimulating liquors meant for drinking. The tea, coffee and cocoa
plants are few examples of non-alcoholic beverages.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• to identify the following crops: Cacao and Tea

crops
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), Family Sterculiaceae
Origin: Cacao originated in South America. On the edges of the

Amazon and Orinoco basins, in the equatorial regions of the Americas
and on the eastern slope of Andes Cordillera. The name Theobroma
given by Linnaeus in 1720 recalls show its divine origin that seed had
been brought from paradise by prophet Quetzalcoatl, this name is drives
from the Greek “food of gods” The word cacao originates from the
Aztec terms cacahualt (cacao beans), cacahuatzintle (cacao pod and
cacahuaquahultl (cacao tree))
Taxonomy: The genus Theobroma of the family Sterculiaceae, includes

about twenty species of which only T. cacao L. (2n = 20) is of economic
interest’
Cheesman (1944) classified all cultivated cacao into a single species, T.
cacao. He suggested subdividing cacao into certain well-defined groups,
to which the various local populations are related. The three main
recognized groups are Criollo, Amazonian Forastero and Trinitario.
94
Morphology: The cacao tree is small 8-10 m tall in the wild, but rarely
exceeding 4-6 m when cultivated. The trunk is straight, relatively short
and covered by a grayish-brown bark.
Cacao has tap-root that can reach a depth of 1-1.5 m and secondary
vertical roots often develop from there downwards. The lateral roots
generally clustered in whorls are located in the top fifty centimeter of
soil. The majority of the fibrous rootless extending from these are in the
superficial humus-containing soil layers.
Towards the age of 12 to 18 months, the stem, which has by then

reached 1-1.5 m in height, stop developing vertically and grows out into
a whorl of three to five branches, called the crown or ‘jorquette’. The
suckers called chupons have an orthotropic growth habit, as the stem
does, whereas the branches have a clear plagiotropic habit.
The leaves, which are simple, alternate and lanceolate, are 20-30 cm
long and 7-12 cm wide. They are coriaceous and shiny, with a drooping
habit initially light green to mauvish in colour, they turn green when
they mature.
The flowers appear on the trunk (cauliflory) and framework branches

(ramiflory), in the axils of old leaf scars, which have developed into
flower cushions. They are hermaphroditic, solitary or clustered into
small groups whitish or yellowish in colour and hanging downwards.
Protogyny occurs i.e. the stigmas are receptive approximately 12 hours
before the pollen matures.
Flowering is usually abundant
and each cacao tree produces
several thousand flowers.
Cacao may be autogamous, but

there are many cases of self-
incompatibility.
Figure 3.8.1 Cacao

This phenomenon must be borne in mind when dealing with the Upper
Amazonian and hybrid (Trinitario) populations. However, the Upper
Amazonians are intercompatible, unlike the Trinitarios, which will often
accept pollen only from self-compatible trees. The lower Amazonian
Forestero types and in particular, Amelonado, are normally self-
compatible.
95
Pollination is essentially entomophilous the main agent beign a small fly

Forcipomyia sp. Only the females are able to carry out the process.
Thrips and ants (Crematogaster sp.) would also seem to be able to assist
in natural pollination. However, the percentage of pollinated flowers is
low 5-20% depending on fluctuation in these insects’ populations and
their activity levels. Due to incompatibility factors, satisfactory
fertilization of the ovules will only occur in small percentages of
pollinated flowers. Only about 1.5% of the flowers produced are
fertilized. Not more than 10-30% of the young fruits reach maturity
because of the spontaneous abortion of young fruits (cherelles) during
the first eight weeks after fruit-setting. This phenomenon of abortion
called wilt would appear to be due to mineral or hormonal deficiency or
to a moisture deficit. Thus about 0.15% of all flowers produced develop
pods through to maturity.
The fruit, called a pod is kind of berry and is elongated to spherical in

shape. The pod, which may be smooth or warty depending on the
variety, has ten furrows, five of which are superficial and five more or
less deep. Colration varieties from green to dark red. Depending o the
initial shade, it turns yellow orange or scarlet on ripening. The inside of
the pod, which is protected by a hard thick covering (pericarp or cortex)
is made up of fives loculi whose walls disintegrate on ripening to form a
sweet, mushy, whitish and slightly acidic pulp, surrounding around
30-40 seeds or beans. These are usually arranged in five longitudinal
rows. The kernel, contained in a papery integument called a shell is
made up of the embryo and two thick cotyledons. Depending on the
variety the colour of the cotyledons varies from a more or less pure
white to dark violet. In cacao hybrids, a single pod may contain both
white and violet kernels.
3.2 Camellia sinensis (L.) n=15 syn. Thea (Thea sinensis L.),
Family Theaceae
Origin: Tea is believed to have originated from India or China or even

both. Although there is no doubt that tea was being cultivated in China
as early as 2700 B.C. it has never been found to grow there in truly wild
state.
Taxonomy: The genus Thea of the family Theaceae includes about four
principal varieties:
• Camellia sinensis
• Bohea Pierre
• Cantoniensis Pierre
• Viridid Pierre
96
• Assamica Pierre
For practical purposes the cultivated forms are generally grouped into
two types, namely the Chinese teas (var. sinensis) and Assam teas
(Camellia sinensis var. assamica mast)
Morphology: The tea for commercial purposes consists of the

processed tender leaves and the leaf buds of Camellia sinensis. It was
once designated as a species of the genus Thea (T. sinensis L.) but was
later shifted to Camellia tea Link (now named C. sinensis).
Under natural conditions, the tea plant is an evergreen or semi-evergreen

woody shrub, attaining a height of 9.1-15.2 m, but under cultivation it is
never allowed to grow beyond plucking height. The bushes are often
pruned back to encourage maximum leaf production. The leaves are
alternate, generally elliptic to lanceolate with toothed margins. The older
leaves are leathery, bright green in colour and 5-30 cm long. The
undersurface of young tender leaves is densely covered with soft hairs
that vanish as they age. The characteristic fragrance and aroma of the
leaves is due to the presence of numerous oil glands. Yellow-centered
white or pinkish fragrant flowers are born in leaf axils either singly or in
groups of two to four and produce at maturity three-celled woody
capsules, each compartment of which contains a brown seed, about 1.25
cm in diameter. S.L. Kochhar (1998).
4.0CONCLUSION

common Beverage and Stimulant crops were discussed in this unit. The
representative enumerated is to show the commonest that can be better
comprehended by students in terms of familiarities and cultivation.
5.0SUMMARY
• The following crop were identified: Cacao and Tea

described
97

Cacao and tea


UNIT 9 MEDICINAL PLANTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
98
3.1 Cinchona
3.2 Bellodonia
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
These are plant used for curing various human ailments. In the last two
decades there had been more interest to obtain active ingredients from
vegetable sources than at any time in the history of mankind and plants.
The active ingredients of plants drugs are more commonly concentrated
in storage organs. Such storage organs are the roots, seeds and fruits,
bark and leaves. Flowers are less commonly used for drugs purposes.
The roots and woody parts of herbaceous plants are usually relatively
inert in nature. E.g: Bellodonia, cinchona.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• to identify the following crops: Cinchona and Bellodonia

crops
• to be able to describe morphological features
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cinchona-Fever Bark Tree (Cinchona ledgeriana Moens)

Family Rubiacea
Origin: Cinchona is native to India, Ireland, Indonesia, highland of

South America.
The anti-malarial property of cinchona bark was discovered since early

times. The bulk of the commercial supply of drugs is derived from the
bark of several species of cinchona.
Taxonomy: The genus Cinchona is otherwise called quinine tree. It

belongs to the family rubiaceae. It has some thirty-five well-known
species, but C. ledgeriana Moens is the most widely cultivated for the
production of cinchona-derived alkaloids
Table. 1.9 Taxonomy of Cinchona ledgeriana
99
S/N Common Native Botanical name variety

name name
1 Yellow bark calisaya Cinchona calisaya wedd
2 Ledger bark ledger Cinchona moens
ledgeriana
3 Ledger bark calisaya Cinchona calisaya edgeriana
4 Pale bark of loxa Cinchona ;
commerce officinalis
5 Red bark of calisaya Cinchona Pav.
commerce succrirubra
6 ; ledger Cinchona pruiz
micrantha
7 ; cinchona Cinchona nitida Pav.
8 ; calisaya Cinchona ;
pitayensis
Source: Kochhar, S.L. (1998)
Morphology: Cinchona ledgeriana is a small tree that can reach a

height of 10 m. It has a pyramidal crown that is often split into several
central axes. The leaves have short petioles and are opposite, single
narrow, approximately 20 cm long and dark green. Domatia (small
cavities) occur at the origins of the secondary veins on the underside of
the leaves. The small, creamy-white, heterostyled flowers are arranged
in custers of cymes. They are cross-fertilized by insects. The fruits are
ovoid capasules containing numerous small, winged seeds. The bark of
the trunk, branches and roots is the useful part of the plant. It contains a
series of alkaloids such as quinine, quinidine, cinchonidine and various
minor alkaloids.
The red cinchona, C. pubescens Vahl (syn. C. succirubra pavon) is used

primarily as rootstock. It produces so-called pharmaceutical bark.
Hybrids are also grown. They are of interest because of their great
hardiness. As a rule their bark contains relatively little quinine.
3.2 Belladonna (Atropia belladosia) (n = 36) is Called Deadly

Night Shade Tree
Origin: it has been extensively used in European medicine since the

earliest time and is still one of the most important drugs of plant origin.
Taxonomy: The genus Atropia belongs to the family solanaceae
Morphology: Herbaceous perennial plant with creeping root stock

growing from a height of 90cm to 120cm. It posses alternately arranged
100
ovat leaves and bell-shaped puplish flowers. It bears shining brownish

or black berries.
All parts of the plant including leaves, roots and stem contain alkaloids
which are abundant I the physiologically active cells. The alkaloids that
are isolated or extracted are collectively called belladonna alkaloids.
However there are variations like Atropine and Hyseyamine and
scopolamine. These three are the most commonly used in medicine.
Others such as Apoatropine, belladonnine, noratropine, norhyseyamine,
tropacocaine and metaloidine are relatively unimportant therapeutically.
4.0CONCLUSION

common Medicinal crops were discussed in this unit. The representative
5.0SUMMARY
• The following crop were identified: Cinchona and Bellodonia

described

Bellodonia and cinchona


101
UNIT 10 OTHER CROPS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Paper and Paper-Making Plants
3.2 Plants for Gums and Resins
3.3 Rubber Plants and Rubber Product
3.4 Fumitory and Masticatory Plants
102
3.5 Forest and Forest Products

3.6 Ornamental Plants
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit treats those plants that are useful to man that are not
necessarily cultivated but grows wild in the forest. Paper making plants,
gum and resins, rubber yielding plants, Fumitory and Masticatory Plants
and ornamental plants where highlighted.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify those plants that are used by man making papers, gum, resin,
rubber, fumitory and ornamentals.
• describe forest trees that are used as timber
• identify and differentiate the different ornamental plants.
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Paper and Paper-Making Plants
Anciently paper-making plant was associated with plant Cyperrus

papyrus which grew around 2,400 BC. Paper is made from any fibre but
the paper making quality or value depends on the amount, nature,
softness and pliability of the cellulose that is present in the cells wall of
fibres.
3.2 Plants for Gums and Resins
Gums and resins are plant products human being used on daily basis for
binding works, and used as stiffening agents in ice cream, stablizers and
builders in medicinal pills and tablets. Resins are obtainable from plant
familie eg: Fabiaceae e.g. Congo copd, copaiba balsam.
3.3 Rubber Plants and Rubber Product
Rubber plants include: Hevea brasilliensis, Manihot glaziovii, Castilloa

elastica and Ficus elastica.
103
3.4 Fumitory and Masticatory Plants
They are type of plant men smoked or chewed for pleasure or

exhilaration in order to escape harsh realities of life. They consist of
ingredients which are stimulatory or digressive to the Central Nervous
system. Examples of these plants are tobacco, cocoa and beverages.
3.5 Forest and Forest Products
This is a vegetation covers on the earth. Vegetation may be natural or

artificial and latter is represented by afforestation programme in Nigeria.
A good percentage of the earth comprises of forest which are
represented I region where rain is distributed throughout the year.
Type of wood and wood items are used in various form either a
coniferous types of forest wood or non-coniferous forest wood.
Woods are made up of xylem tissue. Once the stem is cut from the plant
it becomes a log, which is an unprocessed cut stem of the tree. The log
is processed to become timber, this wood is the major product of any
forest.
The commercial wood is grown mainly for timber purpose is mainly are
3.6 Ornamental Plants
Ornamental plants are confined to plants grown for aesthetic values.

They are used for decorative purposes and to beautify landscape in
homes, parks, and offices. Horticulturally a plant is classified as
ornamental when it is used to decorate a landscape or when it is grown
to satisfy a desire for beauty. The purpose for growing a plant depends
on whether it is classified as ornamental or as agricultural crops. For
example people grow mango and citrus as vegetable fruits for aesthetic
values.
The production of ornamental plants is known as floriculture or
landscape horticulture. Floriculture is the art of growing and selling,
dressing and arranging flowers and foliage plants. There are many habits
of horticultural trees, shrubs and over important ornaments for homes,
parks, public buildings and even recreational centers. Turf grasses
receive considerable attention as ornamental plants. The vast number of
football fields, play grounds, highways, cemeteries and many homes has
considerable demands for turf grasses.
Ornamental plants are classified into the following:
104
1. Ornamental woody eg:- flowering trees, foliage trees, palm trees

and conifer trees/ they provide shade absorb noise pollution and
provide shelter for both human and animals.
2. Ornamental herbaceous plants. They are present in the home and
home ground and they contribute with colour interest to the
scene. Eg:- palms, azola and hyacinth
3. Ornamental vine. This is for making walls and fences, English
Ivy is commonly used.
4. Ornamental roses. E.g.:- rugosa, florigunda
5. Ground covers and lawns. They are of reducing maintenance cost
in yards and homes, absorbing heat and radiation and for
protecting soil against erosion e.g.:- wild spinach (Amaranthus
spinasus), gamba grass (Andropogon gayemus), carpet grass
(Anexopus species)
6. Hedges. They make uniform growth within any season from
dense to the top. They give formal appearance to landscape. Eg:-
acalypha species, Ageve sisalina Aloe barteri, camphor plant
4.0CONCLUSION
Most of today’s important economic plants are known to the early

agriculturist and modern man’s contribution to agricultural development
have been more in terms of yield improvement than in discovering new
species with economic potentials. The primary needs of mankind are
three folds:
1. Food, obtainable from plants

2. Clothing obtainable from plants
3. Shelter, obtainable from plants
Apart from the three primary functions of plants to man, they provide us
with many secondary products such as dyes, tannins, waxes, resins,
flavourings agents, medicine and drugs, rubber, latex and a host of
others. The Literature behind the present distribution of economic
plants, many of which are now cultivated on the continents far from
where they originated, are fascinating studies in themselves. Thus, the
study of economic botany is recognised as human wealth, riches and
health.
5.0SUMMARY
Botany as a science has contributed a lot toward the present

development level in agricultural production. We also understand that
plant will continue to provide the tree basic necessities of life as well as
other useful items. Nevertheless, the problem of food production is acute
and will become more critical with each passing years. Therefore the
105
world’s food supply will more or less depend on improvement of crop

plant and animals through plant sciences i.e.:- Botany.
Economic botany covers vast variety of subjects and topics. Is branch of

biology as well as botany, which covers the following:
1. Forest and forest products, the usefulness of specific plants

and plant product, consumable varieties of plant effects of
weeds on cultivated plants and its economic losses.
2. it deals with the use of plants and their products for improved
human health drugs and medicinal plants and their active
ingredient or composition of:
• ornamental plants
• Fiber producing plants and textile raw materials
• Root and tubers crop
• Gum and resins
• oil and fat producing plants
• Stimulants and beverages
• Fumitory and masticatory materials
• Cereals
1. Outline the economic importance of the (A) Gum and Resin B)

Rubber (C) Paper making plants (D) Fumitory plants
2. Classify ornamental plants
Cobley, L.S. and Steele, W. M. (1976). An Introduction to the Botany of

Tropical Crop 2nd Edition English Language Book Society and
Longman Group Limited P.371
Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2005 © 1993-2004 Microsoft

Corporation. All Rights Reserved

press 6th Edition 10th Impression p701
106
Ebukanson and Bassey Baraka; (1992). About Seed Plants Press and
Publishers Ltd, P.150
Beri Macmillan India Limited P. 604
107

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF

COURSE CODE:AGR 215

COURSE TITLE:AGRICULTURAL BOTANY

Course Writer/Developer Dr. Magashi Auwal Ibrahim

Programme Leader Dr. S.I. Ogunrinde

Course Coordinator Dr. Sanusi Jari

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

Agricultural botany is a branch of biology concerned with the study of

It is a core course for students of Biology and Agriculture; it is

The aim of this course is to provide an understanding and appreciation

• Understand the basic concept in Agricultural Botany

What You Will Learn In the Course/Course Requirements

The course Agricultural Botany demand enough time, to comprehend.

You will be provided with the following:

The following are the study units contained in this course:

Unit 1 Basic concept in Agricultural Botany

Unit 1 Cereals Plants

Textbooks and References

Baranov, V.D. Ustimenko, G.V.( 1994). Mir Kulturnih Rasteniyi. Misl,.

Cobley, L.S. and Steele, W.M. (1976). An Introduction to the Botany in

Dutta, A. C.(2000). Botany for Degree Students Oxford University Press

Green, D.J., Stout, G.W.(2004). Biological Science, 3rd Edition.

James, W.O.(1975). An Introduction to Plant Physiology Seventh

Kochhar, S. L. (2001). Economic Botany in the Tropics Second Edition,

Murkin, B.M. Naumova, L.G. and Muldashev, A.A. (2000). Vissheye

Pandey, S. N. Sinha, B.K.( 2003). Plant Physiology Third Edition, Vikas

The TMA is the continuous assessment components of your course. It

Final Examination and Grading

AGR 215 introduces you to the basic concept in Agricultural botany,

• Describe in detail what is Agricultural Botany? Nature, scope etc

Course Title Agricultural Botany

Course Writer/Developer Dr. Magashi Auwal Ibrahim

Programme Leader Dr. S.I. Ogunrinde

Course Coordinator Dr. Sanusi Jari

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

Unit 1 Basic Concept in Agricultural Botany……………… 1

Unit 1 Plant Morphology…………………………………… 19

Unit 1 Cereals Plants……………………………………… 52

Unit 1 Basic Concepts in Agricultural Botany

UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN AGRICULTURAL

Botany as a subject developed out of the study of Agriculture and

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define correctly Agricultural Botany

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

Agriculture: Is the Science and art of producing food, industrial raw

3.2 Scope of Agricultural Botany

3.3 Importance of Green Plants

Hence Study of varietals plant in the context of agricultural production

3.4 Branches of Botany

Botany like other Science is studied from two perspectives as Pure

As Pure Science it studies morphology, histology, physiology, ecology,

Applied botany- utilization of crop product for the well being of

• The term Agricultural Botany was clearly defined

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define the Agricultural Botany and briefly outline its scope