WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES Processes of word-formation
There are systematic word-formation processes that
take place across human languages. Depending on the language, some of these processes might be available in particular languages, whereas others may not. But the result is the same: new words are always created and added to the lexicon of the language. Morphology
Inflection Word formation
Derivation Compounding
Affixation Other 2(+) free roots
reduplication conversion prefix suffix infix +/- class-changing Derivation The most productive process of word formation in a language is the use of derivational morphemes to form new words from already existing forms. For example, from arrange we can derive rearrange, from which we can still derive rearrangement. Can you think of other examples? Coinage Coinage is the invention of totally new words. The typical process of coinage usually involves the extension of a product’s name from a specific reference to a more general one. For example, think of Kleenex, Xerox, and Nylon. These started as names of specific products, but now they are used as generic names for different brands of these types of products Conversion Conversion is the extension of the use of one word from its original grammatical category to another category. Technically it is called a change of paradigm. For example, the word must is a verb (as in “You must attend classes regularly”), but it can also be used as a noun as in “Class attendance is a must”. Conversion from one category to another is very common in some languages, e.g. English, and is one way of enriching the lexicon of a language. Borrowing New words also enter a language through contact with other languages. English, for example, borrowed a lot of French words as a result of the Norman invasion in 1066, and that’s why the English lexicon has a Latinate flavor to it, even though English did not descend from Latin. Here are some examples of foreign words that found their way into English: (a) leak, yacht (from Dutch) (b) barbecue, cockroach (from Spanish) (c) piano, concerto (from Italian) Compounding New words are also created through the common process of compounding, i.e. combining two or more words together to form a new complex word. Here are some examples of compounding: (a) post + card → postcard (b) post + office → post office (c) book + case → bookcase (d) black + bird → blackbird We may also combine more than two words, e.g. mother-in-law, sergeant-at-arms, jack-in-the-box. Acronyms Acronyms are words created from the initial letters of several words. Typical examples are NATO, FBI, CIA, UN, UNICEF, FAQ, WYSIWYG, radar, laser. Back-formation Back-formation results when a word is formed from another word by taking off what looks like a typical affix in the language. A noun enters the language first and then a verb is “back-formed” from it. This is the case with the verbs edit and televise, for example, which entered English as back-formations from editor and television. Other examples: a) liaise (to exchange information with someone who works in another organization or department so that you can both be more effective) from liaison b) burgle from burglar Clipping Another process of word-formation is clipping, which is the shortening of a longer word. Clipping in English gave rise to words such as fax from facsimile, gym from gymnasium, and lab from laboratory. Blending Blending is another way of combining two words to form a new word. The difference between blending and compounding, however, is that in blending only parts of the words, not the whole words, are combined. Here are some examples: (a) smoke + fog → smog (b) motor + hotel → motel Extension as Metaphor Often enough extensions of meaning are metaphors , e.g. the grapes, the grapevine With frequent use the metaphoric origin can be forgotten, as in head (of the department), the chair (in a meeting), hence to chair, The more recent: virus, bug, icon, menu, to surf Identify the word-formation process involved in the production of the following words.
a) bookworm __________ j) rise (n) ________
b) Eurovision __________ c) American ___________ k) chicken burger______ d) mice _ ____________ l) televise _______ _ e) best __ ___________ f) ohm ______________ m) radar ___ _______ g) UCLA ______________ h) gas __ ___________ n) nylon ____ _______ i) arena __ __________ Answers a) COMPOUNDING b) BLENDING c) AFFIXATION d) SYMBOLISM e) SUPPLETION f) EPONYMY g) ACRONYMY h) CLIPPING i) BORROWING j) FUCTIONAL SHIFT k) MORPHOLOGICAL MISANALYSIS AND COMPOUNDING l) BACKFORMATION m) ACRONYMY n) COINAGE
On the Evolution of Language
First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 1-16
On the Evolution of Language
First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80,
Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 1-16
