BIOLOGY (231/2) REVISION QUESTIONS (ESSAYS): EXPECTED RESPONSES

1. Explain the various ways in which a typical cell is adapted to its functions
Has a cell membrane; with pores; that regulates substances entering and
leaving the cell; cytoplasm; contain sugars and salts; for maintaining its
osmotic pressure; also has a liquid medium; for all biochemical reactions;
nucleus; contain chromosomes having hereditary material; and controls all
the activities of the cell; ribosomes; are sites for protein synthesis; golgi
bodies/apparatus; for secretion of hormones and enzymes; formation of
lysosomes; lysosomes; contain lytic enzymes for breaking down worn-out
organelles; secretory vesicles; formed from golgi apparatus for secreting
substances; smooth endoplasmic reticulum; synthesizes and transports
lipids; rough endoplasmic reticulum; transport proteins; nucleolus; controls
the activities of the nucleus; produces ribosomes; mitochondria; form sites
for energy production; centrioles; formation of cilia and flagella; forms
spindle fibres used in cell division; plant sap vacuoles; store salts and other
dissolved substances; controls osmotic pressure and turgidity of cells; food
vacuoles involved in digestion of engulfed food; chloroplasts; form sites for
photosynthesis in plant cells; Max. 20 mks
2. Explain how the various specialized cells are modified to carry out their
functions in plants and animals
Animal cells: Sperm cell; has acrosome containing lytic enzymes; that digest
the egg membranes for penetration during fertilization; has a long tail;
containing numerous mitochondria; to generate maximum energy for
propulsion/swimming in the vaginal fluid after ejaculation; Red blood cells;
are flattened, circular/spherical biconcave in shape; to increase the surface
area for packaging of haemoglobin; has haemoglobin; that combines with
respiratory gases; for transport to and from body tissues; White blood cells;
are amoeboid in shape hence able to change shape; to engulf pathogens
through phagocytosis; lymphocytes produce antibodies to fight pathogens;
Nerve cell; has extensions/dentrites; to receive and send information for
sensation; Ciliated epithelial cells; have cilia for propulsion of mucus that
traps dust and micro-organisms in the respiratory tract; Muscle cells;
elongated, striated and contractile; to bring about movement; Plant cells:
Guard cells; bean-shaped; to regulate the size of the stomata allowing
gaseous exchange; and control water loss; has chloroplasts with
chlorophyll; for photosynthesis; Root hair cell; elongated; thin-walled; with
dense cytoplasm for absorption of water and mineral salts; Epidermal cell;
thin; for protection of inner tissues from mechanical and micro-organism
attack; Palisade cell; contains numerous chloroplasts with chlorophyll; for
photosynthesis; elongated; to increase surface area for trapping maximum
amounts of light energy; Meristematic cell; thin- walled; with dense
cytoplasm; for primary and secondary growth; Max. 20 mks
3. Describe how the mammalian body protects itself against infections
 Pathogenic microbes are found on the skin, respiratory tract, mouth, vagina
and the intestinal tract; the skin; has a keratinised and waterproof cornified
outer layer; that provides a mechanical barrier to microbes/prevents entry of
microbes; sebaceous gland; produces sebum; which has antiseptic properties;
the respiratory tract; produce mucus secretions that trap dust; cilia
sweep/waft/propel the microbes to the pharynx for swallowing or to be
coughed out; reflex actions of coughing/sneezing/vomiting help remove
foreign materials from the respiratory tract/digestive tract;
lysozymes/enzymes in saliva/nasal secretions/tears; digest walls of bacteria
destroying them; gastric secretions such as hydrochloric acid lowers the pH
in the stomach killing micro-organisms; clotting of blood; prevents entry of
microbes after damage of blood vessels; phagocytosis; by phagocytes
engulf and destroy microbes and other foreign bodies;
lymphocytes are stimulated to produce antibodies; by proteins present in
microbes protecting the body; antibodies destroy/kill micro-organisms
through various ways: agglutinins; bind to pathogens making them clump
together; killing them; Lysins; bind to pathogens and make them burst or
disintegrate; opsonins; bind to pathogens making them easily recognized
hence be engulfed/destroyed by other lymphocytes; anti-toxins; bind and
neutralize toxins produced by micro-organisms; vagina is acidic; hence
making it not conducive for growth and reproduction of micro-organisms;
Max: 20 mks
4. How are the leaves of higher plants adapted to their functions?
Broad and flattened lamina; to increase surface area; for absorption of light;
thin blade; to reduce distance for diffusion of gases and penetration of light
waves; transparent epidermis and cuticle; to allow light to penetrate to
tissues; cuticle layer absent on stomata; to allow for gaseous exchange; one-
cell thick epidermal layer; to reduce the distance over which sunlight
penetrates; palisade cells have numerous chloroplasts containing
chlorophyll; to trap maximum amounts of light energy; have stomata on the
epidermis; to allow for gaseous exchange; and control of water loss through
transpiration; palisade layer have elongated cells located at right angles to
the leaf surface; for maximum absorption of light energy; spongy mesophyll;
consists of spherical and loosely-packed cells; to create air spaces; which
communicate with the atmosphere through stomata; for purposes of gaseous
exchange and control of water loss; veins have conducting tissues: xylem; for
movement of water and dissolved mineral salts; phloem; for translocation of
manufactured food; Max. 20 mks
5. Explain how the various teeth adapt mammals for nutrition
Incisor; sharp; chisel-shaped; for biting; and cutting food; one root for
support in the jaw bone; Canines; long; sharp; pointed; for holding prey;
piercing; and tearing flesh from prey; single root; for support in the jaw bone;
Premolars; large/wide; to increase surface area for grinding food; highly
cusped; to increase surface area for grinding food; two roots; for firm
 support/anchorage in the jaw bone; molars; large/wide; to increase surface
area for grinding food; highly cusped; to increase surface area for grinding
food; Max. 20 mks
6. Describe what happens to a meal of oily beans and maize from the time of
ingestion up to the time of absorption
In the mouth; starch in maize; is digested by salivary
amylase/ptyalin/diastase into maltose; food is chewed and mixed by teeth
and the tongue; rolled into boluses by peristalsis; it enters into the stomach
via the cardiac sphincter; in the stomach, gastric juice containing pepsinogen
that is activated to pepsin; digests proteins in the beans; into shorter
peptides; food is churned and allowed into the duodenum; via the pyloric
sphincter muscle; in the duodenum; bile juice secreted by the gall bladder;
emulsifies the oils in the beans into tiny oil droplets; pancreatic juice;
secreted by the pancrease; contains pancreatic amylase; that digests starch
to maltose; pancreatic lipase; that digests the oil in the beans to fatty acids
and glycerol; trypsin; digests proteins into shorter peptides; food enters into
the ileum; where succus entericus is secreted; it contains maltase enzyme;
that digests the maltose into glucose; that is absorbed; peptidase; digests
peptides into amino acids; lipase digests the remaining lipids (oil) into fatty
acids and glycerol; which is absorbed through the lacteals of the villi; Max. 20
mks
7. How are the small intestines in mammals adapted to their functions?
Small intestines consists of the duodenum and the ileum; most digestion of
food occurs in the duodenum; bile from the gall bladder of the liver is
secreted through the bile ducts; and it is used to emulsify fats/break fat
particles into tiny droplets; to increase the surface area for enzyme
action; the pancreaset secretes pancreatic juice to the duodenum; the juice
contains pancreatic amylase; that helps to breakdown the remaining starch
into maltose; trypsin; (that is secreted in its inactive form, trypsinogen, and
activated by enterokinase enzyme); hydrolyses proteins into shorter
peptides; pancreatic lipase; converts lipids into fatty acids and glycerol;
sodium hydrogen carbonate is also produced; to neutralize the acidic chyme
from the stomach; and provide a suitable alkaline medium for pancreatic and
other intestinal enzymes; the ileum is long; and narrow; to increase the
surface area for complete digestion of food; and maximum absorption of
digested food; highly-coiled; to reduce speed of food flow; for maximum
digestion; and absorption; presence of villi; and microvilli; to increase surface
area; for maximum absorption; dense network of capillaries; to transport
blood; for efficient transport of absorbed food; presence of lacteals in the
villi; for absorption of fatty acids and glycerol molecules; presence of
enzymes: Lipase; for digestion of lipids into fatty acids and glycerol; maltase;
for digestion of maltose to glucose molecules; peptidase; for breakdown of
peptides into amino acids; sucrase; for digestion of sucrose into glucose and
fructose; lactase; for digestion of lactose into glucose and galactose; goblet
cells; produce mucus; to lubricate the walls of the ileum; for smooth flow of
food; coats the walls of ileum to prevent digestion by peptidase enzyme;
Max. 20 mks
8. Outline and explain the various homeostatic functions of the liver in
mammals
Deamination; process of removal of an amino group from an amino acid
molecule; the process gets rid of excess amino acids in the body; as the body
is not able to store them; the amino group enters the ornithine cycle; where
it is combined with carbon (IV) oxide to form urea; which is excreted in urine
through the kidney; Heat production; many metabolic activities take place
in the liver; releasing heat energy; that is distributed by the blood to other
parts of the body; this helps in thermoregulation; Storage of vitamins and
mineral salts; Vitamins A, B, D, E and K; are stored in the liver; worn-out red
blood cells, are broken down to yield iron; which is stored in the liver in form
of ferritin; this is used later in case of shortage; Formation of red blood cells;
occurs in the liver of the foetus; the liver also breaks down old/exhausted red
blood cells; leading to formation of more in the bone marrow to replace the
worn-out cells; to enhance oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide distribution;
Regulation of blood sugar level; liver cells convert excess glucose into
glycogen and fats under the influence of insulin hormone; the stored
glycogen is however converted back to glucose; when glucose levels are low;
by the liver cells; under the influence of glucagon hormone; Regulation of
plasma proteins; plasma proteins such as prothrombin and fibrinogen are
manufactured in the liver using the amino acids found in the liver; they play a
major role in blood clotting; that prevents excessive blood loss and infection
at the injured area; other plasma proteins produced by the liver such as
serum and albumen; contribute to the maintenance of osmotic pressure in
the body; non-essential amino acids are also synthesized by the liver; for use
by the body; Storage of blood; the liver is highly vascularised; hence it is
capable of holding a large volume of blood when the blood vessels dilate
during hot conditions; when the temperatures are low, the blood vessels
constrict under the influence of the endocrine and nervous systems; hence
less blood is stored in the liver; this contributes to thermoregulation;
Detoxification; this is the process where harmful compounds such as drugs
and poisons; are converted to less toxic compounds in the liver; toxicity is
caused by medication, drugs and microorganisms; the toxic compounds are
later excreted in urine; detoxification prevents the accumulation of toxins in
body cells; which could lead to death or malfunctioning of the body cells;
Max. 20 mks
9. Explain why the following conditions are necessary for photosynthesis
a) Carbon (IV) Oxide

b) Required in the dark stage of photosynthesis; it combines with the

hydrogen ion from the light stage; to form glucose, proteins and lipids; low
concentrations reduces the rate of production of energy and food; while
 high concentrations leads to an increase in the amount of energy and
food formed; Light
It is used to break down water molecules (through photolysis); into
hydrogen ions, oxygen and energy; the energy and hydrogen ions formed are
used in the dark stage;
c) Chlorophyll
Green pigment that traps light energy from the sun; that is used in
photolysis of water molecules;
d) Suitable temperature and pH
Temperature affects the enzymes involved in photosynthesis;
suitable/optimum temperatures activate enzymes; for maximum production
of food; while extremely low temperatures inactivate enzymes; leading to
less or no production of food; high temperatures denature enzymes;
stopping the process of photosynthesis; photosynthetic enzymes work well
in low pH; so the rate is high; while higher pH reduces enzyme activity;
lowering the rate of photosynthesis;
e) Water
Forms a medium for the chemical reactions; it is split to yield hydrogen ions,
oxygen and energy for use in the dark stage; solvent for the materials used
in photosynthesis; Max. 20 mks
10. How is the ileum adapted to its functions?
Long; and narrow; to increase the surface area for complete digestion of
food; and maximum absorption of digested food; highly-coiled; to reduce
speed of food flow; for maximum digestion; and absorption; presence of
villi; and microvilli; to increase surface area; for maximum absorption;
dense network of capillaries; to transport blood; for efficient transport of
absorbed food; presence of lacteals; for absorption of fatty acids and
glycerol molecules; presence of enzymes: Lipase; for digestion of lipids into
fatty acids and glycerol; maltase; for digestion of maltose to glucose
molecules; peptidase; for breakdown of peptides into amino acids; sucrase;
for digestion of sucrose into glucose and fructose; lactase; for digestion of
lactose into glucose and galactose; goblet cells; produce mucus; to lubricate
the walls of the ileum; for smooth flow of food; coats the walls of ileum to
prevent digestion by peptidase enzyme; Max. 20 mks
11. a) What is homeostasis?
(Mechanisms of) control and maintenance of a constant internal
environment regardless of the external conditions; 2 mks
b) Name any three factors that must be maintained constant in mammalian
bodies
Temperature; Water; Salt or ion content; Carbon (IV) oxide; Glucose;
amino acids; Max. 3 mks
 c) Explain how endotherms respond to heat and cold conditions in their
environment
Heat/hot conditions: Increased sweating; to lose heat through latent heat
of vaporization; dilation of arterioles under the skin; to bring more blood
to the skin surface to lose heat to the atmosphere; decreased body
metabolism; to reduce heat generation; erector pili muscles relax; making
hair follicles to relax hence hair lies flat on skin, no air is trapped; to lose
heat; slow/reduced muscular activity due to slow metabolism; to reduce
heat production; panting to expose tongue and mouth; to release heat;
moving to shades to avoid direct heat; aestivation; to escape the extreme
heat; flapping of ears to create currents to carry away heat; Cold
conditions: stamping of feet; to generate heat; basking in the sun to gain
heat directly; less production of sweat; to reduce water loss through
latent heat of vaporization; vasoconstriction of arterioles; hence less
blood flow to the skin surface to reduce heat loss; increased metabolism
through release of more thyroxine hormone; to generate heat; erector pili
muscles contract; pulling hair follicles hence hair is raised; to trap a layer
of moist air; to prevent heat loss; shivering/rapid contraction of muscles;
to yield heat to warm body; Max. 15 mks
12. Describe the route taken by water from the soil up to the evaporating
surface of a plant
Water is drawn into the root hair cells by osmosis; due to the presence of
dissolved substances in the cell sap of root hairs, the concentration of cell
sap is greater than that of the surrounding solution in the
soil/concentration gradient; this exerts a higher osmotic pressure, thus
drawing the water molecules across the cell wall and cell membrane into
the root hair cells; more water drawn into the root hair cells dilutes the cell
sap; making it less concentrated than that in the adjacent cortex cell of the
root; due to osmotic gradient, water moves from the adjacent cells to the
next by osmosis; until it enters the xylem vessels located in the center
of the root; the xylem vessels of the root then conduct the water up into
the xylem vessels in the stem into the leaves; there is a force in the roots
which pushes water up the stem; this force is known as root pressure; and
can be considerably high in some plants; energy from the endodermal cells
of the root is responsible for driving this force; in the xylem vessels, water
would rise up by capillarity; to some extent because the vessels are
narrower and there is a high attractive force between the water molecules
and the cell walls; the cohesive; and adhesive forces are important in the
maintenance of a continuous and uninterrupted water column in the xylem
vessels up the tree to the leaves; water vaporizes from the spongy
mesophyll cells; their cell sap becomes concentrated than the adjacent
cells. This increases the osmotic pressure of the spongy mesophyll cells; as
a result of this, water flows into the cell from other surrounding cell,
which in turn takes in water from xylem vessels within the leaf veins; this
creates a pull/suction force that pulls a stream of water from xylem vessels
 in the stem and roots. This force, known as transpiration pull; helps in
maintaining a continuous column of water from the roots to the leaves;
water flows from the midrib into leaf veins from where it enters leaf cells;
from the mesophyll cells, it enters the airspaces; then the substomatal air
chambers; from where it evaporates through the stomata; to the
atmosphere; Max. 20 mks
13. How is the mammalian heart adapted to its functions?
Heart is enclosed in a pericardial membrane/pericardium; that produces a
fluid; to lubricate it; the membrane also keeps the heart in position; It is
covered in a fatty layer; that acts as a shock absorber; made up of cardiac
muscles; which are interconnected/interacted hence contract and relax
without fatigue or nervous stimulation/myogenic; for continuous pumping
of blood throughout the lifespan of the animal; the muscles are supplied by
nutrients and oxygen; by the coronary arteries; divided into 4 chambers; for
efficient double circulation/ avoid mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood/carry large volume of blood; has interventricular septum; to separate
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood; ventricles are thick/muscular; to
generate high pressure to pump blood out of the heart; left ventricle has
thick muscles/more muscular; to pump blood to all body tissues; heart has
bicuspid; and tricuspid valves; to prevent back flow of blood to left
auricle; and right auricle respectively; valves have tendinous cords/valve
tendons; to prevent them from turning inside out; semi lunar valves located
at the beginning of major arteries; prevent backflow of blood into the
ventricles; has sino-artrio node located in the muscles of the right auricle;
to initiate heart beat/contractions of heart muscles/cardiac muscles, rate of
heart beat is controlled by nerves; vagus nerve; slows down heartbeat;
while sympathetic nerve; speeds up the heartbeat; has aorta; to
transport oxygenated blood to all body parts; has pulmonary artery; that
transports deoxygenated blood from right ventricles to lungs for
oxygenation; has pulmonary vein; that transports oxygenated blood from
lungs to the left ventricles; for distribution to all body parts; has the
venacava; that receives deoxygenated blood from all body parts to right
ventricles; Max. 20 mks
14. Describe double circulation in mammals
Deoxygenated blood from body tissues (except lungs); enters the heart via
the right auricle; through the venacava; it flows to the right ventricle; via
the tricuspid valve; the right ventricle contracts; pumping blood; via the
semi lunar valves; through the pulmonary artery; to the lungs for
oxygenation; the oxygenated blood from the lungs; flow through the
pulmonary vein; to the left auricle; via the bicuspid valve; to the left
ventricle; the left ventricle contracts; pumping blood via the semi lunar
valves; through the aorta; to the rest of the body tissues; Max. 20 mks
15. Describe the process of urine formation in the mammalian kidneys
The afferent arteriole which is a branch of the renal artery supplies blood to
 the glomerulus; the afferent arteriole has a wider lumen/diameter than the
efferent arteriole; which takes away blood from the glomerulus; the
differences in the diameter of the afferent and the afferent vessels causes
high pressure; leading to ultrafiltration of blood; the walls of the blood
capillaries are one-cell thick; hence glucose, amino acids, vitamins,
hormones, salts, creatine, urea and water filter into the Bowman’s capsule;
to form glomerular filtrate; white blood cells, red blood cells, plasma
proteins such as globulin and platelets are too large to pass through the
capillary wall; hence remain in the blood capillaries; useful substances in
the human body are selectively reabsorbed; back into the blood stream
at the proximal convoluted tubule; the tubule is highly coiled; to
increase the surface area for reabsorption of the substances; the useful
substances include amino acids, glucose, vitamins, hormones, sodium
chloride and water; many mitochondria found at the proximal convoluted
tubule; provide energy for reabsorption of these substances against a
concentration gradient; the glomerular filtrate flows into the descending
and the ascending limb of the loop of Henle; blood in the capillaries and
the glomerular filtrate in the loop of Henle move in opposite
directions/counter-current flow; this provides a steep concentration
gradient that leads to maximum absorption of water through osmosis;
sodium chloride is actively absorbed from the ascending limb into the blood
capillaries; under the influence of aldosterone hormone; the glomerular
filtrate flows into the collecting tubule from where, more water is
reabsorbed into the blood stream; antidiuretic hormone influences the
amount of water to be reabsorbed depending on the osmotic pressure of
the blood; the glomerular filtrate from several collecting tubules now
referred to as urine; is emptied into the collecting duct; the urine passes
through pyramid, pelvis and ureter into the bladder; where it is stored for
some time. The sphincter on the urethra relaxes to allow urine to be
released from the body; Max. 20 mks

16. and the coronary veins take away wastes and carbon (IV) oxide; heart
is Explain the role of the following hormones during homeostasis
a) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Secreted by the (posterior lobe/end) pituitary gland; in response to an
increase in the osmotic pressure of blood; the hormone stimulates the
distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts; to increase their
permeability to water; this increases the reabsorption of water into the
bloodstream; concentrated and less urine is excreted; when the osmotic
pressure decreases, less or no hormone is produced; hence the tubules
become impermeable to water; less water is reabsorbed into the
bloodstream; hence more dilute urine is excreted; fluctuations in the
osmotic pressure is detected by the hypothalamus;
b) Insulin
 Secreted by the pancrease; in response to a rise in blood sugar level; it
stimulates liver cells to convert the excess glucose into glycogen and fats
for storage in the liver and muscle cells; increases the oxidation of
glucose in respiration to yield water energy and carbon
(IV) oxide/increases metabolism in the body; this leads to a fall in blood
glucose to normal level;
c) Glucagon
Secreted by the pancrease; in response to a decline in blood glucose
level; it stimulates liver cells to convert the stored glycogen and fats
back to glucose; stimulates the conversion of amino acids to glucose;
and stops the oxidation of glucose in the body cells; the glucose formed
is released to the bloodsteream causing a rise of blood glucose level to
normal; Max. 20 mks
17. a) Distinguish between Diabetes mellitus and Diabetes insipidus
Diabetes mellitus is a condition/disease caused by failure of the
pancrease to produce adequate insulin hormone; leading to excess
glucose levels in the body some of which is released in urine while
diabetes insipidus is a condition caused by failure/inability of the kidney
tubules to control the amount of water in urine as a result of a defect
in production of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) leading to production of
more dilute urine; Max. 2 mks
b) Explain how mammalian bodies regulate glucose and protein levels in
their blood
When glucose level is high (above 90mg/100cm 3), the brain sends
impulses to the (β cells of islets of Langerhans) pancrease cells; to
release insulin hormone; the hormone stimulates liver cells to convert
the excess glucose into glycogen and fats for storage in the liver and
muscle cells; increases the oxidation of glucose in respiration to yield
water energy and carbon (IV) oxide/increases metabolism in the body;
this leads to a fall in blood glucose to normal level; However, when the
glucose level falls below normal (below 90mg/100cm 3); the brain sends
impulses to the (α cells of the islets of Langerhans) pancrease cells;
which are stimulated to release glucagon hormone; the hormone
stimulates liver cells to convert the stored glycogen and fats back to
glucose; stimulates the conversion of amino acids to glucose; and stops
the oxidation of glucose in the body cells to avail more glucose; the
glucose formed is released to the bloodstream causing a rise of blood
glucose level to normal; The level of plasma proteins such as
prothrombin, globulins, albumins and fibrinogen; which play a major
role in osmoregulation and blood clotting; are controlled by the liver;
which manufactures them using the amino acids found in the liver; when
their levels reduce, more is produced; but when the level is high, less of
the proteins is produced in the liver; excess amino acids are deaminated;
as the body is not able to store them; the process involves removal of
 an amino group from an amino acid molecule; the amino group
enters the ornithine cycle; where it is combined with carbon (IV) oxide
to form urea; which is excreted in urine through the kidneys; Max. 18
mks
18. Explainhow the various abiotc factors may affect plants
Temperature; affects soil formation and distribution of plants; affect
transpiration rate as high temperatures lead to high rates of transpiration;
It also affects the rate of photosynthesis with the direct influence on
enzyme activity; Light intensity; affects the rate of photosynthesis; Wind;
increase the transpiration rates; affects dispersal of seeds and fruits; agents
of pollination; affect distribution in terms of wind storms/breakages;
Atmospheric pressure; high atmospheric pressure leads to low rates of
transpiration; high oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide concentration; high
photosynthetic rates; while low atmospheric pressure leads to high
transpiration rates; less concentration of oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide;
leading to low rates of photosynthesis; Water/Rainfall; forms a raw
material for photosynthesis; helps in support in plant tissues; affects
distribution of plants; Humidity; low humidity leads to high transpiration
rates; while high humidity leads to low rates of transpiration; pH; affects
distribution of plants; some grow in acidic soils; others in alkaline soils;
Edaphic/soil factors; affects plant distribution; in terms of being sources of
water and mineral salts; provide a substratum for anchorage of plants;
Max. 20 mks
19. Discuss the causes, effects and control measures for water pollution
Causes of water pollution are varied: industrial effluents; have heavy metals
that poison aquatic organisms; untreated organic matter has
phosphates/sulphates/nitrates/salts; that cause eutrophication; causing algal
bloom that deprives the water of nutrients; when the algae die, they lead to
an increase in putrefying bacteria whose decomposition activities lead to the
release of awful smells/odours; oil effluents clog respiratory surfaces of
aquatic organisms/death due to suffocation; domestic effluents/sewage;
form a habitat of pathogens that spread water borne diseases; decomposing
sewage promotes eutrophication leading to algal bloom; death
promotes/attracts saprophytic bacteria that use up oxygen in water; causing
suffocation/death to aquatic organisms; agrochemicals/fertilizers;
phosphates/nitrates; cause eutrophication; heavy metals in agrochemicals
(herbicides/pesticides); affect respiratory surfaces/cause breathing problems;
Hot water; raise temperature of water; killing organisms; dissolves less
oxygen; reducing its content in water; Oil spillage; in oceans from
tanks/refineries; soak feathers of marine birds preventing flight; clogs
respiratory surfaces leading to death; coats photosynthetic phytoplanktons;
reduces light penetration hampering photosynthesis; Sediments; from soil
erosion makes water dirty; making it unfit for consumption; clogs respiratory
surfaces hindering gaseous exchange; reduces light penetration hindering
photosynthesis; Control methods: Enforcement of environmental laws; Use of
unleaded fuel/petroleum products; Proper treatment and disposal of sewage
wastes; Treatment of industrial effluents before release; Public education on
correct use of inorganic fertilizers and agrochemicals; and use of alternatives
such as biological control of weeds/pests/organic manure; Use of undersea
pipelines instead of tankers to transport oil products; Cooling hot water before
release to water bodies; Max. 20 mks
20. How are xerophytes and hydrophytes adapted to their habitats?
Xerophytes: thick waxy cuticle; minimize water loss; leaves are folded and
reduced in size; to minimize stomatal transpiration; sunken stomata; to reduce
rate of transpiration; thick/succulent leaves, side branches or stems; for
water storage; shedding of leaves during the

Shulefiti.co.ke 11
 dry periods; to reduce surface area exposed for transpiration; reversed
stomatal rhythm; prevent excessive loss of water; deep penetrating roots; to
absorb water from deep below the surface; superficial roots; to absorb surface
water run-off; leaves covered in scales/hairs; to trap a moist layer of air; to
reduce the rate of transpiration; drought-resistant seeds; that remain dormant
till favourable weather resumes; underground organs (corms/bulbs); for
storage of water and reproduction; most stomata located on the lower leaf
surface; to avoid exposure to direct light; to reduce evaporation; reduced
number of stomata; to reduce the rate of transpiration; Hydrophytes: stomata
on the upper surface of leaves; to provide a large surface area for gaseous
exchange; and loss of excess water; poorly-developed roots that lack root
hairs; to reduce/avoid absorption of water; aerenchyma tissue in leaves, stems
and roots; to store air; and for buoyancy; deeply-dissected leaves; to provide a
large surface area for absorption of light; highly-sensitive; and numerous
chloroplasts; for photosynthesis; greatly- reduced vascular bundle; to avoid
absorption of water; flowers raised above the water; to allow for pollination;
lack of a cuticle or very thin cuticle; for faster loss of water; Max. 20 mks
21. Outline the differences between wind and insect pollinated flowers
Flowers of wind pollinated plants are small; with no bracts, sepals or
petals; if present the petals are small, inconspicuous; often white or green in
colour; while insect pollinated flowers are large; often with brightly coloured
petals, bracts or inflorescence; to attract insects. Flowers of wind pollinated
plants have no nectaries; and no scent; while flowers of insect pollinated
plants are scented; and produce nectar; in wind pollinated flowers, the
anthers are large; and loosely attached on a flexible filament; to allow pollen
grains to be readily released when wind blows on the anthers; while anthers
of insect pollinated flowers are usually small; and firmly attached on the
filaments; this ensures that the insect rub against the anther; as they crawl
into the flower collecting pollen grains onto their bodies; in wind pollinated
flowers, the stigmas are feathery; widely spread; this acts as nets to catch
pollen as it floats through the air; while in insect pollinated flowers the
stigmas are small; smooth; and sticky; and are also enclosed; this feature
ensures that pollen grains from the body of an insect stick onto it; in wind
pollinated flowers, the flowers are simple with no particular shape; while
some flowers that are insect pollinated have petals with grooves or dark lines;
leading from the petal boarder to the nectaries; some have tubular or funnel-
shaped corolla; and landing platforms; to guide the insect to the source of the
nectar for their food; flowers of wind pollinated plants are either on long
stalks above the leaves; or develop from flower buds that open before the leaf
Shulefiti.co.ke 12
 buds; to increase the flower exposure to air currents; while flowers of insect
pollinated plants are on short stalks; often enclosed by the corolla; Max. 20
mks
22. Describe what happens in a flower from the time of pollination up to the time
of seed and fruit development
After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs nutrients from the stigma; and
develops a pollen tube; it grows down the style to the embryosac; taking along
the male nuclei; the tube nuclei initiates and maintains pollen tube growth;
while the generative nucleus divides by mitosis; to form two male gamete
nuclei; which follow behind the tube nucleus as the pollen tube grows down
the style; pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle; its tip bursts
open; while the tube nucleus disintegrates; one of the male gamete nucleus
fuses with the egg cell nucleus/oosphere/megaspore; to form the zygote;
while the other fuses with the two polar nuclei; to form a triploid nucleus;
called the primary endosperm nucleus; after fertilization, the zygote
undergoes repeated mitotic divisions; to form an embryo consisting of the
plumule, radicle and seed leaves/cotyledons; primary endosperm nucleus
divide repeatedly, become separated by membranes; to form an (semi-fluid
nutritive) endosperm; ovary walls change into the pericarp; ovary
changes/develops into a fruit; while ovules lose water and become seeds; the
integuments; change into seed coats/testa; style/filaments/petals/sepals
wither and fall off (or may persist); Max. 20 mks
23. Discuss the adaptations of the female reproductive system of humans
Elastic uterine walls; to expand so as to accommodate the growing foetus;
muscular foot of the pelvis and bladder support the weight of the growing
foetus; funnel-shaped ends of the oviduct; direct the ova released to the
uterus; muscular uterine walls; contract and relax to expel the foetus at birth;
long vaginal canal; allow sufficient entry of penis to avoid wastage of sperms;
the two ovaries maximize chances of releasing ovum after every circle (28
days); ovaries are well vascularised/have good blood supply; to ensure
nourishment of cells involved in oogenesis (primordial mother/germ cells) or
egg formation; high number of potential mother cells; ensures maximum
number of ova which develop to maturity; plenty of yolk in egg cells; which
nourish the foetus before the placenta becomes functional; the vitelline
membrane of the ovum thickens after fertilization; preventing further entry of
sperms; the oviduct wall is able to contract; in order to facilitate movement of
ovum down the oviduct; has cilia to waft the ovum forward; wall of the
vagina/vulva produce mucus; to lubricate the penis during copulation; clitoris;
Shulefiti.co.ke 13
 has many nerve endings; to provide maximum stimulation during copulation
for maximum ejaculation and faster movement of spermatozoa; Max. 20 mks
24. Describe the process of gaseous exchange in terrestrial plants
Gaseous exchange occurs in the spongy mesophyll; During the day, air diffuses
into large air spaces of the spongy mesophyll; through the stomata; the carbon
(IV) oxide in the air diffuses into photosynthetic cells; in solution form; during
photosynthesis, carbon (IV) oxide is used up; while oxygen is produced; some
of the oxygen is used in respiration; while the rest diffuses out of the leaf;
through the stomata; During the night, air diffuses into the air spaces; through
the stomata; the air dissolves into the film of moisture; oxygen in the air
diffuses into the cells; and is used for respiration; carbon (IV) oxide produced;
diffuses out through stomata; due to a concentration gradient/diffusion
gradient; At night, carbon (IV) oxide accumulates in the leaf since
photosynthesis does not occur; some gaseous exchange also takes place
through the cuticle; and through the epidermis of young leaves, roots and
stems; some plants exchange gases through breathing roots/pneumatophores;
older stems exchange gases through lenticels; Max 20 mks
25. How is the mammalian gaseous exchange system adapted to its functions?
Nasal cavity; has cells that produce mucus; that together with hairs/cilia; trap
and propel dust/microbes to the pharynx to be breathed out/swallowed;
cavity is supplied with capillaries; that warm the air for faster flow in the
channels; epiglottis; covers the trachea during swallowing; so that particles of
food and water may not enter the trachea; trachea and bronchi; have cartilage
rings; to keep the passages open/prevent them from collapsing; so that air
moves in and out freely and continuously; are also lined with mucous
membranes which have hairs/ciliated; whose movement/wafting push out
dust particles collected in the passages into the pharynx; richly-supplied with
blood vessels; to warm the air; for faster flow; lungs; have numerous alveoli;
to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange; alveoli have a thin
epithelium; to reduce the distance through which gases diffuse for easier and
faster diffusion; alveoli are moist; to dissolve oxygen for faster transport;
lungs are spongy; because of many air sacs that contain a large amount
of/volume of air; Lungs are also supplied with many blood vessels; for
transportation of gases; they are also supplied with a network system of
trachea, bronchi and bronchioles; to provide an efficient system/large
surface area for gaseous exchange; Lungs are enclosed in a pleural
membrane; which secrete pleural fluid; that protect the lung surface; lubricate
the chest cavity; allowing smooth movement of lungs as they change volumes;
Shulefiti.co.ke 14
 ribs have intercostal muscles; that moves/contracts and relaxes to allow for
inhalation and exhalation; ribs also protect the lungs; has the diaphragm
muscles whose contraction and relaxation leads to inhalation and exhalation
respectively; Max. 20 mks
26. Describe the structure and function of the mammalian skin
It has a cornified layer made up of dead cells and is tough and impermeable to
water; to protect the skin against mechanical damage; bacterial infections and
water loss; granular layer; whose cells divide to form the cornified layer;
malpighian layer; which is made up of diving cells that give rise to a new
granular layer; contains melanin; to protect skin against ultra-violet
rays/radiations; Sebaceous glands; which secrete sebum; to make the skin
supple/soft and waterproof; sebum is also antiseptic; Blood vessels; dilate
during hot weather; increasing blood flow near the skin surface;
heat loss is enhanced; constrict; in cold weather; less blood flow; minimize
heat loss; Sensory nerve endings and receptors; enable detection of external
environmental changes; Highly coiled sweat glands; secrete sweat; to control
body temperature; when hot sweat evaporates cooling the body; sweat
contains excretory products; subcutaneous fat/adipose tissue in dermis; for
insulation; hair; to regulate body temperature; in cold weather erector pili
muscles contract; hair is raised, air trapped to insulate the body; in hot
weather, erector pili muscles relax; hair lies flat reducing insulation; dense
network of blood capillaries; supply nutrients/oxygen to skin tissues; as well
as carrying away wastes and carbon
(IV) oxide away from the skin tissues; adipose tissue/sub-cutaneous layer;
serves as an insulator; helping in temperature control; helps in manufacture of
vitamin D; Max. 20 mks
27. Describe the role of the following hormones in the menstrual cycle
a) Luteinising Hormone (LH)
Produced by the pituitary gland; under the influence of oestrogen
hormone; cause the bursting of the Graafian follicle; to release a mature
egg/ovum/causes ovulation; stimulates the change/conversion of the
Graafian follicle; into the corpus luteum; stimulates the corpus luteum; to
secrete progesterone hormone;
b) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; it stimulates the
maturation of the Graafian follicle in the ovaries; stimulates the ovarian

Shulefiti.co.ke 15
 tissue/wall to secrete oestrogen;
c) Oestrogen
Brings about/stimulates the healing and repair of the uterine wall; after
menstruation; stimulates the pituitary gland; to secrete luteinising
hormone;
d) Progesterone
Secreted by the corpus luteum; it stimulates the thickening of the
endometrium/uterine wall; in preparation for implantation; inhibits
secretion of the Follicle Stimulating Hormone; therefore preventing further
development of the Graafian follicle; Max. 20 mks
28. a) What is secondary growth?
Type of growth that occurs due to cambium activity in woody plants/stems;
resulting in an increase in girth/width of plants; 2 mks
b) Describe the process of secondary thickening in a woody stem

Facilitated by meristematic cells (cambium) located between the phloem

and the xylem (intervascular cambium); it divides radially to form cambium
tissues; with xylem forming the outer ring/to the inside; while the phloem
forming the outer ring/to the outside; division of the cambium ring; form a
secondary parenchyma; hence increases/forms the medullary rays; other
xylems (secondary xylem) are formed; hence pushes the phloem and
cambium ring outwards; this creates pressure on the outer cells; resulting in
stretching and eventual rupturing of epidermal cells; a new band/volume of
cambium cells are formed in the cortex beneath the epidermis (cork
cambium cells/phellogen); to replace these ruptured cells; the phellogen
cells divide on either side; where the inner cells become the secondary
cortex; while those produced on the outside become cork cells; which are
tightly packed; and become coated with an oily/waxy water-proof
material/suberin; further multiplication of cork cells; lead to formation of the
bark; which forms a protective layer (against water loss and damage by
organisms); seasons results into annual rings; some cork cells form a loose
mass/lenticels that allow gaseous exchange through the stem; Max. 18 mks
29. discus the various mechanisms of ipenningand closing of stomata
Photosynthetic theory; during the day, guard cells carry out photosynthesis
manufacturing glucose; This increases the osmotic pressure of the sap
vacuole; which becomes higher than that of the neighbouring epidermal cells;
Shulefiti.co.ke 16
 guard cells therefore take in water by osmosis; and become turgid; the outer
thin wall stretches easily; pulling the thicker inner wall outwards; thus the
stomata opens; At night, there is no light hence no photosynthesis takes place;
plant cells respire using up more glucose; the osmotic pressure of the sap
vacuole of the guard cells reduces; becoming lower than the neighbouring
epidermal cells; the guard cells lose water by osmosis; to adjacent epidermal
cells; they then become flaccid; pulling together the thick inner walls; and
stomata closes; Enzymatic inter-conversion between starch and glucose/sugar;
At day time, plants continuously use carbon (IV) oxide for photosynthesis;
leading to an increase in the pH of the guard cells; this causes starch to be
converted to sugar/glucose; the glucose increases the osmotic pressure of the
guard cells; hence water is taken in by osmosis; the cells become turgid and
bulge outwards; causing the stomata to open; At night, no photosynthesis
occurs but respiration takes place; carbon (IV) oxide accumulates in guard
cells; lowering the pH; the low pH favours conversion of glucose into starch;
starch is osmotically inactive; this lowers the osmotic pressure of guard cells;
guard cells therefore lose water by osmosis to the adjacent epidermal cells;
become flaccid; pulling together the thick inner walls; and the stomata closes;
Active ion exudation; during the day, there’s an accumulation of potassium
and sodium ions; as a result of active pumping of the ions by the ATP formed
through photosynthesis; carbon (IV) oxide fixation occurs in the guard cells;
the guard cells become turgid; and stomata open; At night, before the stomata
close, the ions diffuse out of the guard cells into epidermal cells; the osmotic
pressure of guard cells is lowered; they lose water to epidermal cells by
osmosis; and become flaccid; thereby closing the stomata; Max. 20 mks
30. a) What is natural selection?
(Theory put forward by Charles Darwin that explains that) Nature selects for
individuals that are well adapted to a particular environment; and against
those that are less adapted; 2 mks
b) Discuss three examples of natural selection in action
Melanic forms of peppered moths; in Europe, there are two forms of
peppered moths; white and black; before industrialization, the tree trunks
were white; therefore the white peppered moths were white; hence were
camouflaged; the black varieties were easily noticed and fed upon by
predatory birds; the white form therefore reproduced and increased in
number; during industrialization, the smoke from industries coated tree
trunks black; the black variety became camouflaged; reproduced and
increased in population; the white variety were easily noticed and fed upon
Shulefiti.co.ke 17
 by predators; they reduced in population; Resistance against drugs and
antibiotics; where microorganisms are continually exposed to a certain drug;
their cells synthesise specific proteins; which counter the drug; this ability to
synthesize the protein is passed onto the offspring; Resistance to pesticides
by insects; insects such as mosquitoes when continually exposed to a
particular pesticide; synthesize a specific protein which make them resistant
to the pesticide; this is then inherited by their offspring; Max. 18 mks
31. Discuss Lamarck’s and Darwin’s theories of evolution
Larmarck’s theory states that when the environment demands the need or use
of a particular structure in the body; the body develops it in response; for
example giraffes used to have short necks; when all the grass was exhausted,
they started stretching their necks in search of leaves on trees; therefore they
developed long necks; which then were inherited by their offspring; however,
when a structure is not continually used, it reduces in size and becomes
dysfunctional; this theory fails to explain how acquired characteristics become
inherited; Darwin’s theory suggests that in nature there occur struggle for
existence; only those individuals with the desired adaptations survive; those
poorly adapted fail to compete; and become extinct; there also occurs
variation in nature; where organisms with desired adaptations pass on their
characteristics to offspring during reproduction; those poorly adapted fail to
reach maturity; and do not reproduce; therefore, nature selects for individuals
best suited to an environment; and against those poorly adapted (natural
selection); as there occurs survival of the fittest; Max. 20 mks

32. a) Explain how the following blood cells are adapted to their functions
i) Red Blood Cell
Presence of haemoglobin molecules; with a high affinity to combine with
oxygen as/to form oxyhaemoglobin; bi-concave shape; to increase the
surface area for packaging of haemoglobin; absence of nucleus; to
accommodate maximum/more haemoglobin molecules; thin membrane;
for faster diffusion of gases; Max. 6 mks
ii) White blood cell
Irregular in shape/amoeboid; which changes to enable the cell to squeeze
through the capillaries; lymphocytes produce antibodies; which help to
prevent diseases; phagocytes are amoeboid-shaped; to change shape and
engulf bacteria cells; Max. 6 mks

Shulefiti.co.ke 18
 b) Explain the different ways in which Carbon (IV) Oxide is transported by blood
Carbon (IV) oxide diffuses out of the tissues into the red blood cells where it
reacts with water; in the presence of carbonic anhydrase enzyme; to produce
carbonic acid; The acid dissociates into hydrogen and hydrogen carbonate
ions; the hydrogen carbonate ions then diffuse out of the red blood cells into
the plasma; where it further dissociates to produce carbon (IV) oxide on
reaching the alveolar cavities of the lungs and diffuses into the alveoli; some
carbon (IV) oxide combines with the amine group in the haemoglobin
molecule forming carbaminohaemoglobin; which dissociates in the lungs
producing carbon (IV) oxide; some carbon (IV) oxide dissolves in the blood
plasma forming carbonic acid, which dissociates to carbon (IV) oxide on
reaching the lungs; Max. 8 mks
33. Describe how the following vertebrae are adapted to their functions

a) Atlas
Has a wide neural canal; to accommodate the large spinal cord at the neck
region; has large/broad wing-like cervical ribs; to increase the surface area for
attachment of the neck muscles; has facets on the anterior side; for
articulation with the occipital condyles of the skull; allowing up and down
movement/nodding of the head; has posterior facets for articulation with the
anterior facets of the axis; forming a joint that allows sideways movement of
the head;
b) Axis
Has a broad centrum; that projects to form the odontoid process; for
articulation with the neural canal of the atlas; a joint that allows turning of the
head; has a large and broad/flattened neural spine; and flat cervical ribs; to
increase the surface area for attachment of neck muscles;
c) Lumbar
Has many transverse processes; and additional projections (metapophyses,
hypapophyses, anapophyses); to offer a large surface area for attachment of
abdominal muscles; broad neural canal; to allow passage of the large spinal
cord at the upper abdominal area; large/thick centrum; to support the weight
of the body; and withstand strains/upthrust force due to movement;
d) Thoracic
Long/elongated neural spine; to offer a large surface area for attachment of
the large back muscles; have a large centrum and neural canal; to offer
support to the thoracic cage; has tubercular facet on the transverse processes;
Shulefiti.co.ke 19
 to articulate with the tuberculum of the ribs; while the capitular demifacets on
the centrum; articulates with the capitula of the ribs; together with the ribs
and the sternum form the thoracic/rib cage; for protection of heart and lungs;
and for breathing process; Max. 20 mks
34. a) Why is locomotion necessary in higher animals?
Animals move in order to look for food; mates; escape danger/predators;
look for shelter/ suitable environmental conditions; 4 mks
b) Explain how bony fish are adapted to their habitats
Have streamlined bodies; to reduce friction; body is covered with scales;
which overlap backwards; to reduce friction; skin produces mucus; which
covers the body making it slippery; reducing friction; have swim bladder;
which stores air; for buoyancy hence make the fish float; myotomes/muscle
blocks; that contract alternately; for forward thrust in water; lateral line
system; on either side of the body which is sensitive to pressure and water
currents; possess fins; that are used for locomotion: tail/caudal fins; for
propulsion; dorsal; and anal fins; prevent rolling; pectoral fin; used for
breaking/steering; prevents yawing/side to side movement; controls
pitching; pelvic fins; for steering/pitching; Max. 16 mks
35. Describe how the various supportive tissues in plants adapt them to their
habitats
Sclerenchyma tissue; long, slender cells with tapering ends; with walls
thickened with lignin; provide support and protection to the more delicate
tissues; and resistance to storms and strong winds; main constituent of wood;
Xylem vessels; longitudinally-elongated cells; with perforated end walls; with
heavily lignified walls; to increase rigidity and strength to the plant; a main
constituent of wood; Tracheids; mainly found in angiosperms; made up of long
tapering dead cells; cell walls are highly lignified; and pitted; cells lie in large
overlapping groups; to offer extra support; Collenchyma tissue; longitudinally
elongated living cells; located beneath the epidermis and mid rib of leaf veins;
thickened at the corners by cellulose and pectin compounds; to provide
support in leaves, herbaceous plants and young woody plants; Parenchyma
tissue; large; spherical cells; with thin cellulose walls; forming the bulk of
cortex and pith of most plants; become tightly packed and rigid when turgid;
to attain and maintain an erect posture of plants; main support structures in
herbaceous stems/plants; Max. 20 mks
36. a) What is a reflex action?

Shulefiti.co.ke 20
 Rapid and automatic; response to a particular stimulus; 2 mks
b) Outline the activities that occur in the body when one touches a hot object
When the hot object is touched, the pain receptors; in the skin of the finger
are stimulated; nerve impulses are initiated and transmitted through the
sensory neurone; to the grey matter; of the spinal cord to the brain; for
interpretation; the impulses are then transmitted through the relay neurone;
via a synapse; the impulses from the relay neurone are transmitted via the
motor neurone; through another synapse; to the effector; which are the
biceps muscles of the upper arm; making the muscles to contract;
straightening the arm; and the arm is withdrawn from the hot object; Max.
18 mks
37. Describe the nitrogen cycle
This is the cycling of nitrogen and its compounds in nature; plants absorb
nitrogen in form of nitrates and then assimilate it into plant proteins; animals
obtain this nitrogen in plant proteins through feeding on plants; when the
animals die and decompose, they release the nitrogen in form of ammonia to
the soil; free atmospheric nitrogen is converted into nitrates through a process
known as nitrogen fixation; the process occurs in two ways: biological and non-
biological; biological fixation of nitrogen is done by nitrogen-fixing bacteria;
which are either free-living or symbiotic; symbiotic bacteria are of the genus
Rhizobium; and are found in root nodules of legumes (such as pea, clover and
alfalfa); the bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia; that is used
directly by the leguminous plants to form nitrogen containing organic
compounds (amino acids, nucleic acids, proteins); when plants die, the nodules
release ammonium compounds into the soil; which are then converted to
nitrites; by nitrifying bacteria of genus Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus (nitrite
bacteria) and then to nitrates by Nitrobacter (nitrate) bacteria; free-living
micro-organisms that fix nitrogen include putrefying/saprophytic bacteria;
(such as Azobacter spp, Clostridium and some algae such as Anabaena,
Chlorella and Nostoc); the organisms fix nitrogen into ammonia by break down
of protein material in dead organisms; the ammonia is converted to nitrites;
then to nitrates; However, denitrifying bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas
denitrificans and Thiobacillus denitrificans); break down/reduce nitrates to
nitrites, ammonium compounds and even gaseous nitrogen; a process known
as denitrification; the process helps to release free nitrogen into the air for
recycling; non- biological nitrogen fixing is carried out by lightning during
thunderstorms; the lightning

Shulefiti.co.ke 21
 energy, causes atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen to combine forming oxides of
nitrogen; which dissolve in rain water to form nitrous acid/nitric acid; that is
washed down into the soil; the nitric acid formed reacts with other chemical
compounds dissolved in soil water; to form nitrates; the nitrates are then
utilized by plants; Max. 20 mks
38. Discuss how the various tropisms adapt plants to their habitats
Phototropism; growth curvature in response to direction of light; enables
plant shoots to grow and get light for maximum photosynthesis; allows for
leaf mosaic; Thigmotropism; growth curvature in response to contact/hard
surface; makes plants with weak stems to get support on large plant/trees;
this makes them to reach and get light for maximum photosynthesis;
Geotropism; growth curvature in response to gravity; enables plant roots to
grow deep into the soil for maximum support/anchorage; Hydrotropism;
growth curvature in response to moisture/water; water is then used as a raw
material during photolysis stage of photosynthesis; Chemotropism; growth
curvature in response to chemical concentration gradient; enables pollen
tubes to grow down the style and into the ovary for fertilization to occur in
plant flowers; Thermotropism; growth curvature in response to temperature
changes; enables plants to grow to where they can acquire optimum
temperature for effective plant process (e.g. sunflower orientates towards the
direction of the sun); Max. 20 mks
39. Discuss the various evidences of organic evolution
Comparative anatomy/taxonomy; members of a phylum/group show
similarities; organs have similar structure/organs performing the same
function such as the digestive system, urinary system, vertebrate heart;
homologous structures are structures with the same embryonic origin but
have been modified to perform different and specific functions; show a form
of divergent evolution; e.g. the pentadactyl limb in vertebrates which has
been modified for racing; swimming and flight or beaks of finches and birds;
while analogous structures are those with different embryonic origin but have
been modified to perform the same function e.g. wings of insects, bats and
birds; eyes in octopuses and humans; show a form of convergent evolution;
vestigial structures; have been reduced in size and become functionless; in the
course of evolution; e.g. limbs in snakes, human hair and tail; Cell
biology/cytology; occurrence of similar organelles such as the mitochondria
and the endoplasmic reticula point to common ancestry; Fossil
records/Paleontology; remains of organisms preserved in naturally-occurring
materials for many years; fossil records show morphological changes of
organisms over a long period of time e.g. skull of humans and horse;
Shulefiti.co.ke 22 they
 provide a direct evidence of existence of organisms at a particular ecological
era; however, since only hard parts are preserved, no evidence is available for
existence of soft-bodied organisms; and there are many missing links; since
remains are accidentally preserved in rudimentary rocks and resins;
Comparative embryology; vertebrate embryos are morphologically similar
during the early stages of development; suggesting that the organisms had a
common ancestry/origin e.g. larvae of mollusks/annelids, embryos of chicken,
humans, sheep; the closer the semblance between embryos, the closer their
ancestral backgrounds; Geographical distribution; present continents are
thought to have been a large land mass joined together; as a result of
continental drift; isolation occurred bringing about different patterns of
evolution; where plants and animals from different continents yet with
common ancestry can no longer interbreed; because they evolved into
different species; examples of animals that moved to different areas are the
jaguars and Llamas in south America, lions in Africa, Tigers in Asia, marsupials
in Australia; Comparative serology/physiology; semblance in blood
components such as blood proteins, antigen-antibody reactions, structure of
haemoglobin in all vertebrates; reveal some phylogenic relationship among
organisms/show common ancestry; Max. 20 mks
40. Describe the structure and functions of the various parts of the mammalian ear
Pinna; is wide/funnel-shaped to collect/gather sound waves; and direct them
to the auditory canal into the ear; Eardrum/tympanic membrane is thin and
light; to convert sound waves into vibrations; Ear ossicles/maleus, incus and
stapes are of high density; to magnify/amplify sound waves; Oval window is
smaller than eardrum; to magnify the sound waves; and direct them to the
inner ear; Cochlea is long and coiled; to increase surface area; for attachment
of receptor cells/sensory hairs; cochlea has many sensory hairs; which receive
sound vibrations andgenerate impulses; Liquid or fluid/endolymph in cochlea;
transmit sound vibrations; auditory nerve; transmit impulses to the brain for
interpretation; Eustachian tube; link the mouth and middle ear to equalise
pressure; between middle and outer ear to prevent damage to delicate
eardrum; Round window; lose excess vibrations; to avoid continuous
stimulation; Semi- circular canals; contain receptors for body balance and
posture; External auditory canal cells produce/secrete wax; to trap dust
particles/solid/micro-organisms that can damage eardrum; Max. 20 mks
41. Discuss the various ways employed by preys to avoid the predators
Some preys resemble inedible inanimate and animate objects; this is called
mimicry; e.g. walking stick insect resembles dry twigs of plants, some moths
look like bees or flowers of some plants; this prevents birds from easily
Shulefiti.co.ke 23
notifying and eating them; many have the ability to run very fast; because of
 having muscular bodies; and long legs;

Shulefiti.co.ke 24
 enabling them to escape predators e.g. antelopes, zebras; some have a body
colour that resembles the surrounding; which helps them to camouflage or
conceal in the background environment; e.g. zebras, giraffes; some graze in large
herds; this enables them to fight off predators; e.g. wildebeests and buffaloes;
some have evolved tough skin or coverings like shells; which can not be broken by
some predators e.g. snails, tortoises, armadillo; production of foul smell e.g. in
skunks; that discourages the predators; confrontational display that can scare
away the predator e.g. porcupine; large eyes on both sides of the head give
animals such as zebra a wide field of vision; enabling them to keep track of their
enemies from far; and take precautions; Max. 20 mks
42. a) What is meant by the term symbiosis?
Nutritional association of two different organisms (2 plants or between an
animal and plant); for mutual benefit; the relationship enables the composite
organism to survive where neither can live on its own; Max. 2 mks
b) Describe five types of symbiotic relationships in a natural ecosystem
Lichens; these are composite plants consisting of blue-green algae; within a
mycelial mass of a fungus; algal cells are provided with support, obtain water,
carbon (IV) oxide and minerals and protection from fungus; while the fungus
obtains oxygen and the carbohydrates made by algae; this enables the plants to
survive on hard bare rocks in high attitudes and polar regions; Leguminous
plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria; the bacteria multiply and fix nitrogen from
air into nitrates for the benefit of the plant; bacteria are protected and obtain
nutrients from the plants; Ruminants and bacteria; the rumen has bacteria that
secrete cellulose; that digests cellulose in the food/vegetation consumed by the
animal to glucose for the animal; while the bacteria get shelter and use part of
digested food; Mycorrhizal fungi and higher plants; the fungi found on forest
trees gain photosynthetic organic products made by the trees; while the trees
get nutrients/minerals absorbed by the fungus from the soil; Tryconympha and
termites; the former is a protozoan living in gut of termites; and produce
cellulase enzyme; that digests cellulose from the plant into digestible products
for the benefit of the termite; the termite on the other hand provides shelter
and protection; and absorbs some of the food for its use; Max. 18 mks
43. a) Describe the adaptations of Schistosoma spp to their parasitic mode of life
The parasite utilizes two hosts; the snail and humans; to increase chances of
transfer of the parasite from one place to another; have suckers for attachment
to host walls; to prevent them from being dislodged; the parasite produces
many larval forms (e.g. miracidia, cercariae and redia) in snails; to increase
chances of transmission and survival; as this feature poses barriers/difficulties in
efforts aimed at eradicating the parasite; cercariae larvae and 25
Shulefiti.co.ke eggs of the
parasite have glands that secrete lytic enzymes; which soften the tissues of
 humans/snails;

Shulefiti.co.ke 26
 to allow for penetration; chemical substances produced by the adult worm;
protects the parasite from the action of the hosts’ defense mechanisms; they
exist as separate sexes; with the male carrying the female; this ensures that eggs
produced by the female are fertilized before being shed into the blood stream;
Max. 15 mks
b) Outline five measures that can be employed to prevent and control the spread
of the parasite
Proper disposal of human waste; urine and faecal material should not be
disposed in water bodies to avoid contamination by the eggs or adult worms;
drainage of stagnant water pools and use of molluscides to kill the intermediate
hosts (snails); avoid swimming/bathing in snail-infested water bodies; wearing
protective clothing such as gloves and gumboots when working or walking in
swampy areas; personal hygiene that includes washing hands after visiting the
toilet and drinking of boiled or chemically treated water to kill the eggs and the
larval forms in the water; proper treatment of infected persons; Max. 5 mks
44. Describe the process of mitosis
Occurs in somatic/body cells; through five main stages/phases: Interphase/Resting
stage; intense internal activities occur in the cell at this stage in preparation for the
division; the activities include; replication of each chromosome to multiply genetic
material to retain chromosomal number in daughter cells; chromosomes appear as
a diffuse tangle of threads (chromatin); synthesis of new cellular organelles; build-
up of energy stores (ATP) to drive the entire cell division process; Prophase;
chromosomes become visible; as they shorten and thicken appearing as discrete
strands (chromatids) lying parallel to each other; in animal cells, centrioles
separate and move to opposite ends (poles) of the cell; they radiate from each of
the ends forming spindle fibres; nuclear membrane begins to breakdown;
nucleolus disappear; Metaphase; chromosomes migrate/move to the centre of
the cell; and align themselves along the equatorial plane of the spindle; they get
attached to the chromosomes, by their centromeres; nuclear membrane breaks
down and disappears; spindle fibres lengthen; and attach to the centrioles at both
poles forming asters; Anaphase; chromatids separate at the centromere;
shortening of the spindle fibres occurs; resulting in the chromatids migrating to
opposite poles of the cell; spindle apparatus begins to disappear; Telophase; final
stage where chromatids reach the poles; become densely packed together and
uncoil; a nuclear membrane forms around each mass/set of chromatids (now
referred to as chromosomes); cytoplasm divides into two (cytokinesis); in animal
cells, the cytoplasm divides by constriction of the cell membrane; while in plant
cells, a cell plate forms within the cytoplasm and grows to separate the cell into
two; spindle fibres disappear within the cytoplasm; and nucleoli reappear in the
Shulefiti.co.ke
nuclei; of the two daughter cells formed at the end of telophase; Max. 20 27 mks
45. Discuss the various mechanisms that hinder self-pollination and self-fertilisation in
plants
Protandry and protogyny; these are mechanisms where either the male or female
parts of the reproductive organs ripen at different times in some flowers;
Protandry is a case where stamens ripen earlier; and anthers release their pollen
grains before the stigma is mature; while protogyny refers to a case where the
stigma matures earlier; and hence becomes ready to receive pollen grains before
the anthers are ready/ripe to shed the pollen grains; common in plants of the
grass family; Self-sterility or incompatibility; is a case where pollen grains cannot
germinate on stigma of the same plant; but only germinate on a different plant of
the same species; hindering self-pollination; Heterostyly; condition of having
different arrangements of style and stigma; for instance flowers could have shorter
stamens than pistils; hence becomes impossible for the pollen to land, germinate
and fertilise the ovules of the same flower; pistils on some flowers could also be
shorter than the stamens therefore other mechanisms that hinder self-pollination
are utilized; Dioecius and monoecius plants; dioecius plants have reproductive
parts located separately on different plants of the same species; discouraging self-
pollination; while monoecius plants have the parts located at different parts of the
same plant body; encouraging cross-pollination; Max. 20 mks
46. How are seeds and fruits of plants adapted to their mode of dispersal?
Water; Fruit mesocarp/seed testa has air spaces; thus light/buoyant to float;
carried away by water; fruits/seeds protected from soaking by waterproof
pericarp/testa; Animal; have hooks for attachment to animals; thus carried to
other places; fruits are brightly coloured; succulent/fleshy; aromatic/scented; to
attract animals; which feed on them; the seed coats/hard seeds are resistant to
digestive enzymes; thus are unaffected; seeds dropped away from parent in
faeces/droppings; Wind; have hairs/wing-like structures/floss/extensions; which
increase surface area/for buoyancy; making it easy to be blown away; fruits/seeds
are light due to small size; therefore easily carried away by wind; censor
mechanism; perforated/open/split/capsule; usually loosely attached to the
stalk/long stalk; is swayed by wind; scattering seeds; Self- dispersal/Explosive
mechanism; tension/pressure is created inside a dry pod; pod opens (violently)
along lines of weaknesses; the two halves curl outwards; scattering the seeds;
Max. 20 mks
47. a) Distinguish between mutations, mutants and mutagens
Mutations are sudden, spontaneous and permanent changes; in an individual’s
genetic material; Mutants are individuals who develop and exhibit unusual
characteristics that were not previously present in the population; due to
mutations; while mutagens are factors in the environment; that cause mutations
Shulefiti.co.ke 28
to occur; 6 mks
b) Give two causes of mutations
Irradiations such as gamma rays and ultra violet rays; chemical substances such
as mustard gas and other heavy metals (mercury, lead, asbestos); sudden
extreme (high or low) temperatures; Max. 2 mks
c) Describe the causes and effects of chromosomal mutations
Deletion; refers to the absence of a portion of a chromosome; it results from
breakage and falling off of a portion of a chromosome; leading to loss of a group of
genes that may have a disastrous effect on the development of an organism;
Inversion; refers to reversal of normal sequence of genes in portion of a
chromosome; occurs when a middle portion of a chromosome breaks, turns or
rotates (inverts) through 180o and joins up again; this does not change the genetic
constitution of the organism; but may bring into close proximity genes whose
combined effects to an organism produce a beneficial effect to an organism; or
cause disadvantages to the organism; Translocation; attachment of a portion of a
chromosome to a non-homologous chromosome; occurs when a chromosome
breaks and the portion joins another non-homologous chromosome; this may lead
to serious consequences, even death depending on what genes are missing;
Duplication; situation where a set of genes is represented twice in a
chromosome; a part of a chromatid formed during cell division may replicate
further to form an extra piece;which may attach onto the same or another
chromatid; resulting to traits controlled by some genes being excessively expressed;
Non-disjunction; this is failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate
during the first stage of meiosis; resulting in one of the daughter cells formed after
division of the cell having two of one kind of a chromosome; while the other cell
has less or none; diseases or disorders known as syndromes are known to result
from this aberration e.g. Down’s Syndrome (Mongolism),Turner’s Syndrome,
Klinefelter’s Syndrome; Polyploidy; this is the presence of more than two sets of
chromosomes in a cell; occurs due to a failure of a cell to divide after the first stage
of meiosis or after the chromosomes have replicated in mitosis; common in plants
than animals; in plants, it causes some improvements such as resistance to drought,
certain diseases and pests, improved yields and early maturity; Max. 20 mks

Shulefiti.co.ke 29
 48. a) What is transpiration?
Process by which plants lose water to the atmosphere; in form of vapour
(through lenticels, stomata and cuticle); 2 mks
49. b) Explain how the various environmental factors affect the rate of
transpiration
Temperature; an increase in temperature increase the water vapour holding
capacity of air in the spaces between mesophyll cells due to increased evaporation;
therefore more water diffuses from the cells increasing the water vapour pressure;
this causes an increase in the diffusion gradient between the intercellular spaces
and the atmosphere; hence increasing the rate of transpiration; low temperature
decreases water vapour pressure and the diffusion gradient hence; lowering the
rate of transpiration; Light intensity; high light intensity increases the rate of
photosynthesis in the guard cells; causing the opening of stomata; leading to
increased water loss; it also increases the internal temperature of the leaf; that
increases the evaporation rate in the intercellular spaces; leading to a higher rate
of transpiration; low light intensity; reduces the rate of water loss; Humidity; a
humid atmosphere lowers the water vapour diffusion gradient; hence lowering the
rate of water loss; in a less humid/dry atmosphere, water diffusion gradient is
high/steep; hence the rate of transpiration increases; Availability of water in the
soil; more water will diffuse to the atmosphere when there is adequate or excess
water; as more will be absorbed; increasing the rate of water loss; the guard cell
will also remain turgid; hence stomata are open; leading to more water loss;
however, less water in the soil leads to a reduced diffusion gradient between the
mesophyll cells and the atmosphere; thereby reducing the rate of transpiration;
Wind/air currents; wind blowing over a leaf surface carries pockets of moisture
away from the leaf; creating a steep diffusion gradient between the atmosphere
and the leaf; increasing the rate of water loss; in still air/on a calm day however,
water vapour at the leaf area becomes saturated; and the diffusion gradient is
lowered; reducing the rate of transpiration; Atmospheric pressure; low
atmospheric pressure leads to a high rate of diffusion of water vapour; since air
molecules move at a faster rate; and this increases the rate of water loss; in high
atmospheric pressure conditions however, there is low rate of diffusion of water
vapour; hence the rate of water loss is lowered; Max. 20 mks
50. How is the mammalian eye adapted to its functions?
Sclera/sclerotic layer; white fibrous layer; made up of thick connective tissue;
protects the eye; maintains shape of eyeball; Cornea; transparent; disc-shaped
layer; that allows light to enter the eye; refracts light towards the retina;
Conjunctiva; delicate membrane; lining the inside of the eyelid; protects the
cornea/eye; Eyelids and eye lashes; thin muscle with hairs; protects the
cornea/eye from mechanical/chemical damage/protects the eye from entry of
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foreign particles;

Shulefiti.co.ke 31
 protects retina from bright light; Choroid; dark pigmented and membranous
layer; that prevents light reflection within the eye/absorbs light; to prevent
distortion of the image; has blood vessels; that nourish eye/retina/supply
oxygen/remove carbon (IV) oxide and wastes; extends to form the ciliary
body and iris; Ciliary muscles; have elastic muscles that contract and relax; to
alter shape/curvature of lens during accommodation; Ciliary body; thickened
front edge of the choroids layer; that produces aqueous humour; Suspensory
ligaments; made up of elastic connective tissue whose contraction and
relaxation helps to adjust the shape of lens during accommodation/holds lens
in position; Lens; transparent; biconvex; balloon-like; it refracts light
rays/focus light onto the retina; Vitreous humour; nourishes cornea/lens;
refraction of light; maintains eyeball shape; Iris; thin circular ring; with circular
and radial muscles; it gives eye colour/absorbs light; controls the amount of
light entering the eye/adjusts size of pupil; Pupil; an aperture through which
light enters the eye; Retina; has photoreceptor cells/rods/cones for image
formation; generates impulses to the brain for interpretation; Fovea/Yellow
spot; with only cones; for high visual acuity/most sensitive part of the retina
Blind spot; point where nerve fibres emerge from the optic nerve/where optic
nerve leaves eye/point where nerve fibres and blood vessels enter the eye;
Optic nerve; transmits impulses to the brain; Muscles; inferior and superior
oblique muscles; move eye from left to right; superior and inferior rectus
muscles; move the eye up and down; external and internal rectus muscles
steady the eye in its up and down movement; Tear/Lachrymal glands; secrete
a watery and saline fluid containing lysozymes/lytic enzymes/is antiseptic
(tears); that moisten the conjunctiva and cornea; washes away dust and other
foreign objects; kills microorganisms entering the eye; Max. 20 mks
50. Discuss the role of the various hormones in plant growth and development
Indole Acetic Acid/Auxins; influences/promotes cell division/elongation (in
cambium causing secondary thickening); induces tropisms; promotes fruit
formation/parthenocarpy; promotes formation of abscission layer/leaf fall;
promotes cell differentiation (of vascular tissue); causes apical
dominance/inhibits lateral bud formation; promotes growth of adventitious
roots; in conjunction with cytokinins, it induces callous tissue formation;
Gibberellins/Gibberellic acid; promotes cell division/elongation in dwarf
plants; promotes parthenocarpy; setting of fruit after fertilization initiating
formation of fruits; formation of side branches of stems/ends apical bud
dormancy; inhibits adventitious root growth; activates hydrolytic enzymes in
germination/promotes germination of seeds/breaks seed dormancy; affects
leaf expansion and shape/retards leaf abscission; Cytokinins (e.g. Zeatin or
Kinetin); promotes flowering in some plant species; breaks dormancy in some
Shulefiti.co.ke 32
 plant species; promotes cell division in presence of auxins; stabilizes protein
and chlorophyll; promotes root formation on a shoot; low concentration
encourages leaf senescence/increases cell enlargement in leaves; stimulates
lateral bud formation; Ethylene/Ethene; promotes ripening of fruits; induces
thickening of stem/inhibits stem elongation; promotes flower
morphogenesis/formation or flowering in pineapples; causes abscission of
leaves/fruit/leaf fall; Abscissic acid; high concentration causes stomatal
closure; inhibits stem elongation/growth; inhibits sprouting of buds/induces
bud dormancy; inhibits seed germination/growth/causes/promotes seed
dormancy; causes abscission of leaves/fruits/leaf fall; Traumatin; heals
wounds by promoting callous formation; Florigen; promotes flowering; Max.
20 mks
51. Explain how the process of evolution may result to the formation of a new
species
For a new species to be formed, a population of organisms must become
completely isolated or separated from others; over long periods of time so
that any new variations that arise will not therefore flow to the other
population; there are various isolation mechanisms: Geographical isolation;
this is due to physical barriers such as oceans/seas/deserts; Ecological
isolation; a barrier resulting from the occupation of different types of habitats
from the original type; it may be due to isolation for reasons of
feeding/predation/breeding; as well as environmental changes such as climate
and vegetation; which may result in a population living in different habitats; to
become ecologically separated from one another; Behavioural isolation;
alteration of behaviour proceeding mating; which include courtship
behaviour/lack of attraction between males and females in different
populations; due to production of different chemicals or pheromones or
colouration/songs; Reproduction isolation; a barrier to successful mating
between individuals of a population; due to structural differences in
reproductive organs; as well as failure in fertilization/incompatibility; Genetic
isolation; even if fertilization takes place; the zygote may be inferior/fails to
develop; however if the zygote develops, the offspring may be inferior or
infertile/sterile; Max. 20 mks
52. Discuss the various ways in which anaerobic respiration is utilized in
industries and homes
Bread making; yeast is used to ferment sugar in wheat flour into carbon (IV) o
xide and energy; the carbon (IV) oxide is produced in form of bubbles that c
auses the dough to rise and become porous; Beer making; yeast is used to
ferment sugars in malt/grapes/fruits; to form beer, wines and spirits; Sewage
treatment; anaerobes break down raw sewage and harmful industrial effluents;
Shulefiti.co.ke 33
 to harmless products of water, energy/heat and carbon (IV) oxide; Silage
formation; vegetation is fermented by bacteria to produce nutritious and good-
scented/flavoured animal feed that increases production/yields; Production of
acids and strong liquors; special bacteria and fungi ferment food products; to
produce acids such as citric acid, oxalic acid and vinegar; the products are used
as food preservatives and flavouring agents; Manufacture of dairy products;
under controlled environments; anaerobes help in fermentation hence
manufacture of milk products such as butter, cheese, ghee and yorghurt;
Production of fuels such as biogas; and gasohol; cane sugar is fermented by
yeast; to produce gasohol for running engines or operating machinery; animal
wastes such as guano and cow dung; can be used to produce a mixture of
methane and carbon (IV) oxide gas; by exposing it to fermentation agents;
methane is used to run simple machines such as water pumps and for cooking;
Production of fermented porridge and milk; maize or wheat flour and milk is
exposed to microbes in the air which ferment it; to produce sour and sweet
tasting porridge or milk; Max. 20 mks
53. a) What is digestion?
Digestion is (mechanical and chemical) the process by which large complex
food molecules; are broken down into soluble molecules (for absorption
across intestinal wall to bloodstream); 2 mks
b) What is the importance of a balance diet in human nutrition?
A balanced diet consists of all the food types in their right proportions; it
includes proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, lipids, water, vitamins and
roughage; Proteins; used for growth and repair of worn out tissues; provide
energy incase of acute shortage of carbohydrates/starvation; bind and
transport specific molecules from one part of the body to another;
structural proteins support tissues in the body e.g. bone and cartilage
tissues; act as metabolic regulators such as enzymes and hormones;
Carbohydrates; used to produce energy/store energy; Lipids produce
energy; form of storage of energy; insulate the body; major structural
components of the cell membrane; when oxidised, it provides metabolic
water; Vitamins; defense against infections; form coenzymes which
activate enzymes; Water; a universal solvent; medium for chemical
reactions; used as coolant because of its high specific heat capacity;
maintains the shape of cells; hydrolysis of many substances; transport
medium in the body; Mineral salts; formation of teeth and bones;
formation of hormones (e.g. thyroxine); formation of blood; maintenance
of osmotic pressure of body fluid; transmission of nerve impulses;
Roughage; makes food to be bulk; promotes peristalsis; and absorption of
water in the large intestines; induces mucus production; Max. 18 mks
Shulefiti.co.ke 34
54. Explain the factors that affect enzyme activity
Temperature; enzymes are protein in nature; and hence sensitive to
temperature changes; as temperature increases, enzyme activity also
increases until optimum/maximum; above this optimum the reaction
decreases sharply; due to the destruction of the enzyme structure/become
denatured; making the enzyme ineffective/non-functional; most enzymes
have optimum temperature of between 35oC and 40oC; when temperature
decreases, the rate of enzyme reaction decreases as the enzyme becomes
inactivated; pH/acidity or alkalinity; most enzymes have optimum pH of close
to 7/neutral which is the intracellular pH; however some enzymes work best in
an alkaline medium while others work best in an acidic medium/condition; as
the pH exceeds optimum, the enzyme activity decreases; extreme acidity or
alkalinity denatures most enzymes; Substrate concentration and enzyme
concentration; enzyme reaction increases with increase in substrate
concentration; up to a certain level where further increase in substrate
concentration does not increase the rate of enzyme reaction; this is because
when substrate concentration is increased, all the active sites of the enzyme
are occupied; however, when the enzyme molecules are increased, there is a
proportional increase in the maximum rate of enzyme action; enzymes are
however required in small amounts hence; they speed up the rate of
biochemical reactions without altering the equilibrium; Enzyme
cofactors/coenzymes; these are non-proteinous substances which activate the
enzymes; most enzymes will not work without them; examples of cofactors
are metallic ions such as iron, magnesium, zinc, copper and also vitamins as
enzyme coenzymes; these substances are required in small amounts and are
used repeatedly/can be recycled; Enzyme inhibitors; these are substances that
inhibit enzyme action by competing with the normal substrate for the active
sites; there are two types: competitive and non-competitive; competitive
inhibitors have no permanent effect on the enzyme action; while non-
competitive inhibitors combine permanently with the enzyme molecules thus
distorting or blocking the active sites permanently; examples of these
inhibitors include cyanides, mercury, silver; inhibition can be reduced by
reducing the concentration of the inhibitors; or by increasing the substrate
concentration; Max. 20 mks
55. Discuss the adaptations of the male reproductive system of humans
Consists of two oval-shaped testes; lying outside the abdominal cavity in a
special sac known as the scrotal sac/scrotum; for protection; the testes are
located outside the body to provide a relatively cooler environment/lower

Shulefiti.co.ke 35
 temperature; suitable for sperm production; the inside of the testis is divided
into seminiferous tubules; these are three coiled and twisted tubules;
having rapidly/actively dividing cells that produce sperms; interstitial cells;
found between these tubules produce the male sex hormones/androgens
(mainly testosterone); important in promoting the development of secondary
sexual characteristics; and maintaining masculinity in males; the tubules join
together to form the epididymis; which are smaller ducts; that convey sperms
out of the testes; they also form a temporary storage area for sperms; the
epididymis is connected to the sperm duct/vas deferens; which has thick
muscular walls; that contracts to propel sperms to the urethra; the sperm duct
is joined by a duct from the seminal vesicle; a blindly ending sac; that produces
an alkaline fluid containing nutrients for the spermatozoa/sperm cells; to
provide energy; at the junction of the two sperm ducts (one from each testis)
and urinary bladder there is the prostate gland; that secretes an alkaline fluid
that neutralizes the acidic vaginal fluids; and also activates the sperms; by
addition of enzymes and diluting the sperms; below the prostate gland is the
cowper’s gland; which secretes an alkaline fluid which neutralizes the acidity
caused by urine; along the urethra. The urethra; is a long tube running the
length of the penis; used for conduction and expulsion of urine; as well as
passage of sperms during copulation; the urethra follows the penis; that
projects from the body saprophytic bacteria such as E. coli/Bacillus
spp/Pseudomonas spp are used in the production of methane/biogas;
Rhizobium spp of bacteria helps in nitrogen fixation making soils fertile; Max.
20 mks
56. Describe the adaptations of the nervous system to its functions (20 mks)
The central nervous system consists of the brain; and the spinal cord; and
nerve fibres; that serve the sensory organs ; and the effector organs and
glands; the brain is a collection of millions/billions/109 neurones; that form the
biggest ganglion; it is highly convoluted; to provide a large surface area for
impulse reception, processing and transmission; the brain and the spinal cord
are protected by the meninges; the brain and the spinal cord have
spaces/canals and ventricles; filled with a cerebrospinal fluid; which acts as a
bridge/supply medium for oxygen and nutrients; and the removal of metabolic
waste; the brain has centres for the storage; retrieval and processing of
impulses; the cerebrum processes and stores information; the cerebellum;
sends impulses to joints and muscles; to correct balance; the medulla
oblongata sends impulses to the cardiovascular; and breathing/ventilation
systems; to regulate them; the brain has the hypothalamus that secretes a
neurosecretion to influence a pituitary gland that secretes hormones; involved
Shulefiti.co.ke 36
 in reproduction; and homeostatic functions; the hypothalamus; detects
changes in temperature; and osmotic pressure; and sends impulses to relevant
effector organs for their regulation; the thalamus; receives majority of the
impulses and channels them to the relevant areas of the brain; both the brain
and the spinal cord have regions of the grey matter; that enable very rapid
processing/transmission of impulses; the nervous system has neurones
(relay/intermediate, motor and sensory); that transmit impulses at a very
rapid note/speed (100 ms-1) to and from the central nervous system to effect
suitable responses; there exists in the central nervous system an
electrochemical gradient/concentration gradient; that allows for the
generation of electrical impulses; they have numerous mitochondria; for
generating energy for the function of the sodium pump; which enables
polarization and repolarisation; during impulse transmission and
refractory/recovery periods; the spinal cord has no integration/association
functions and is therefore suited for reflex actions; needed in emergencies;
the spinal cord is long; and connects nerve fibres of the peripheral nerves
with the brain for storage of information; the spinal cord has a dorsal root for
sensory fibres/neurones; and a ventral root; for motor neurones/fibres;
Accept any other correct Max. 20 mks
57. Discuss the composition and functions of mammalian blood (20 mks)
Mammalian blood consists of two main components: Blood plasma; and the
blood cells; (Red blood cells/Erythrocytes, White blood cells/Leucocytes and
Platelets/Thrombocytes); Blood plasma transport nutrients (glucose, amino
acids, vitamins, fatty acids and glycerol, dissolved oxygen) to tissues; transports
hormones, enzymes/metabolic regulators to target organs and tissues;
Transport excretory substances/wastes from the cells; to excretory organs for
elimination from the body; Distribute heat energy; helping in
thermoregulation; transports/contains water, plasma proteins and dissolved
mineral salts; important in osmoregulation; Suspends blood cells; Red blood
cells transport oxygen; and dissolved carbon
(IV) oxide; helps in regulation of pH; White blood cells help in
protection/immunity; by engulfing or producing antibodies to kill/destroy
invading micro-organisms/pathogens; Platelets help in blood clotting;
preventing excessive blood loss; entry of pathogens; and promotes healing of
wounds; Acc. Adaptive features Max. 20 mks
58. Describe the defects that affect the mammalian eye and how they could be
corrected
Short-sightedness (myopia); a condition where light rays from a distant object
Shulefiti.co.ke 37
 are focused in front of the retina; while those from a near object are clearly
focused on the retina; it is caused by an abnormally elongated eyeball; or too
much refractive power of the eye lens; it is corrected by wearing
concave/diverging lenses; which help to diverge light rays; or reduce the
refractive power of the eye before they reach the eye lens; Long-sightedness
(Hypermetropia); light rays from a near object are not 444retina; while the
rays from a distant object are sharply focused; the defect is caused by an
eyeball that is too short; or a weak lens system (distance between lens and the
retina is short); corrected by wearing a convex/converging lens; which refracts
light rays before reaching the eye lens; this enhances refraction resulting in
rays being sharply focused onto the retina; Astigmatism; rays from an object
are brought to focus on different planes; due to unequal curvature of the
cornea/lens; causing unequal refraction of light entering the eye; this defect is
corrected by wearing special cylindrical lens in front of the eye; the lens
corrects the focus in the defective planes; Colour-blindness; a genetic defect;
in which an animal is unable to distinguish between colours particularly within
the red-green spectrum; the retina lacks cones; pigments that respond to
colour vision; Squintedness; an eye defect in which extrinsic muscles of the eye;
that controls the turning of the eyeball do not co-ordinate accordingly on
stimulation; it affects the paired rectus muscles that move the eyeball up and
down; and the lateral rectus muscles that move the eyeball left to right; the
eyeballs therefore face different directions; making focusing and
accommodation difficult to achieve; corrected by specialized surgery; Old sight
(Presbyopia); caused by old age; when supplies of nutrients and oxygen to the
lens is far much reduced; hence the cells of the lens die; the lens’ elasticity is
reduced; and hence cannot change shape; and becomes fixed into a shape that
is not suitable for distant vision; managed by use of ‘reading glasses’ that have
converging lenses; to give the eyes an extra power to manage close work;
Cataracts; associated with old age; but may also be caused by an eye injury due
to a blow; or complications of diabetes mellitus; the eye lens become cloudy;
blocking transmission of light rays; protein fibres become denatured; and
clump together making the lens opaque; corrected by surgery; to replace the
defective lens with a normal one from a donor; or use of artificial lens; Max. 20
mks

END

Shulefiti.co.ke 38