START OF PRELIM

REPORTER: Ella Mae Paradeza

CHAPTER 1
UNDERSTANDING CURRICULUM
Definitions of Curriculum
A clear understanding of what curriculum is, helps scholars and students in understanding
the curriculum as a dynamic field in education. Reid (2006) opined that people talk about, write
about, legislate for, teach courses on, and take credits in curriculum; hence, it is important to
have a concrete explanation of what curriculum is.
Many books on curriculum present various images, characterizations, and definitions of
the term curriculum. To analyze or discuss all of these definitions would be a massive endeavor
since there are more than eleven hundred books written about curriculum (Schubert, 1980).
Presented in this book are just a few definitions provided by Saylor (1981), Beauchamp (1982),
Schubert (1986), Eisner (1985), Pinar (1995), Posner (1995), Marsh (2004), Oliva (2005),
Glatthorn (2006), and Reid (2006), among others.
 Curriculum as a list of subjects. This definition suggests that curriculum is the
"permanent" or the traditional subjects offered in the school curriculum such as
Mathematics, Language, Science, Music, Arts, and others.
 Curriculum as learning experiences. This definition includes students' curricular
and co-curricular activities and the learning experiences they encounter inside or
outside the school. This definition includes the hidden curriculum or those things
learned by the students as a result of their experiences in the school with their
peers, schoolmates, teachers, school staff, or the values they learned from a school
program. In short, it includes the school culture.
 Curriculum as intended learning outcomes. This definition includes a list of
learning competencies or standards that students should learn in school.
 Curriculum as planned learning experiences. This includes documents specifying
contents, objectives, or general ideas of what students should know in schools or in
a specific discipline. should
 Curriculum as a discipline. Curriculum as a discipline has theories, and practices.
its own principles,
 Curriculum as content or subject matter. This definition views curriculum as a
series of topics under each subject area.
It is important that curriculum workers have a common understanding of what curriculum
is. Their personal definition of curriculum defines the curriculum product that they will
produce. Many curriculum projects fail, and many curriculum researches appear vague because
of an unclear understanding of the field of curriculum. Besides this, only few people of experts
in curriculum studies, especially in the Philippines, who may be consulted regarding these
projects and researches.

Different Types of Curriculum

Several curriculum scholars (see Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006; Print, 1993;
Tanner and Tanner, 2007) cited nine types of curriculum in their books depending on how
curriculum is used in various institutions.
 Ideal or Recommended Curriculum. This refers to what scholars propose as the most
appropriate curriculum for the learners. For example, different professional organizations
or various programs of study in different universities may propose curriculum
innovations or alternative curriculum content as a result of their researches.
Ideal or recommended curriculum may also develop as an alternative response to various
curricular problems and issues, Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead (2006) noted several
influences that seem to play the key roles in shaping the recommended curriculum. These
influences are the professional associations, individuals, and societal trends.
Curriculum standards recommended by professional organizations are examples of ideal or
recommended curriculum. Many of these various curriculum standards are recommended by
professional organizations as alternative to the current contents of the curriculum. Standards are
products of their latest researches on the nature of the different disciplines and the
developments in various academic fields.
 Intended, Official, or Written Curriculum. This refers to the official curriculum embodied
in approved state curriculum guides (Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006). It is the
curriculum prescribed by the government. In the Philippine context, these are the
prescribed courses from different government agencies: the Department of Education
(DepEd), the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the Technical Education
and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). Examples of this type of curriculum are:
- The Kindergarten Curriculum Standards
- The K-12 Curriculum
- CHED Curriculum for General Education (Memorandum Order No. 20 Series of 2013)
- TESDA Modules and Competencies

 Implemented Curriculum. This type of curriculum refers to the actual implementation of

the curriculum or what teachers in the school teach. In many cases, teachers modify and
improve their curriculum based on the needs of the students or whenever there are new
ideas in various disciplines that are important to teach to the students. Academic freedom
 among faculty members in college may also influence how professors plan and
implement their courses.
 Achieved Curriculum or Learned Curriculum. This refers to the result of the curriculum
or what students actually learned in school (Print, 1993). The achieved curriculum reveals
whether the students learned and whether the schools are successful in attaining their
curriculum goals and objectives.
 Tested Curriculum. This is a set of learning that is assessed in teacher-made classroom
tests, curriculum-referenced tests, and in standardized tests. (Glatthorn, Boschee, and
Whitehead, 2006)
 Entitlement Curriculum. It refers to what the people or the general society believed the
learners should expect to learn in the educational system for them to become good
members of the society.
 Supported Curriculum. This refers to the curriculum that is reflected on and shaped by
the resources allocated to support or deliver the official curriculum. (Glatthorn, Boschee,
and Whitehead, 2006)
 Null or Censored Curriculum. This refers to various curriculum contents or topics that
must not be taught to the students. (Tanner & Tanner, 2007)
 Hidden Curriculum. This refers to various skills, knowledge, and attitudes that students
learn in school as a result of their interaction with other students, staff, and faculty
members. Although the hidden curriculum is not actually taught in formal classroom
learning, it is also true that the hidden curriculum can be a product of the students'
schooling. The hidden curriculum is very powerful in developing the school culture
(Print, 1993).

Curriculum Foundations
Curriculum development scholars like Tyler (1949), Taba (1962), Eisner (1985), Saylor,
Alexander, and Lewis (1981), Print (1993), Sowell (1996), and Tanner and Tanner (2007)
generally identified three categories of sources for curriculum foundations: (1) studies of
learners and learning theory (psychology); (2) studies of life (sociology and anthropology); and
(3) studies of the nature and value of knowledge (philosophy). These curriculum sources or
foundations influenced curriculum developers in framing different curriculum conceptions and
in developing curriculum.
Psychology as a discipline deals about understanding human behavior; hence, it is
important in curriculum development. According to Print (1993), psychology can provide
information in five important areas:
1. Educational objectives
2. Student characteristics
3. Learning processes
4. Teaching methods
 5. Evaluation procedures
Meanwhile, studies about the society and culture-sociology and anthropology,
respectively affect all curriculum processes. Sowell (1996) pointed out that knowledge about
the society and its culture is important in selecting the content of the curriculum. It provides a
clear understanding of the context in which the curriculum is developed. Studies about the
society and culture help curriculum workers in understanding several social and educational
issues that affect curriculum processes and education in general.
On the other hand, philosophy as a foundation helps curriculum workers in understanding
the nature of knowledge and what subjects or topics are worthwhile. This is very important in
making decisions about the contents of the curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins (1993) mentioned
that philosophy provides curriculum workers with a framework or base for organizing schools
and classrooms. It also provides educators with a framework for broad issues and tasks, such as
determining the goals of education, the content and its organization, and the teaching and
learning processes.

Curriculum Conceptions
Curriculum workers have different ideas about curriculum matters and curriculum
development processes. They have different points of view about curriculum concerns, goals of
what a curriculum should accomplish, and how a curriculum should be designed or constructed.
These explain the presence of various curriculum orientations or conceptions. McNeil (2006),
Eisner (1985), and Print (1993) identified six curriculum conceptions:
1. Academic Rationalist Conception - considered as the oldest among the curriculum
conceptions. It stresses the importance of different bodies of knowledge, known as disciplines
or subject areas, as the focus of the curriculum.
2. Cognitive Processes Conception - seeks to develop a repertoire of cognitive skills that are
applicable to a wide range of intellectual problems. The subject matters are instruments or tools
for developing these cognitive skills that are lasting in the lives of individuals.
3. Humanistic Conception - stresses the idea that curriculum or education is an instrument for
developing the full potential of individuals. It seeks to help individuals discover and develop
their unique identities. It stresses that curriculum should focus on the needs and interests of
individuals.
4. Social Reconstructionist Conception - views the school or schooling as an agency for social
change. Hence, it stresses that curriculum should respond to the different needs, issues,
problems, and demands of the society.
5. Technological Conception - is preoccupied with the development of means to achieve
curriculum or educational goals. It views schooling as a complex system that can be analyzed
into its constituent components.
6. Eclectic Conception - is where curriculum workers find themselves aligning their ideas with
two or more curriculum conceptions. Hence, this curriculum conception reiterates the realities
in curriculum development that each of the curriculum conceptions is to be considered and is
influential to a certain extent in designing the curriculum.

REPORTER: Beth Bugarin

Elements of a Curriculum
In general, a curriculum has four important elements. These elements must be present in
all curriculum documents or before a document can be called curriculum. These four elements
are curriculum intent, content, learning experiences, and evaluation.

Curriculum Intent

Content

Learning Experiences

Evaluation

Figure 1. Curriculum Elements

1. Curriculum Intent - is the term used by Print (1993) to mean the direction that curriculum
developers wish to take as a result of participating in the curriculum. It includes the aims,
goals, and objectives found in any curriculum documents.
 Aims are the broad statements of social or educational expectations. Aims include what is
hoped to be achieved by the entire curriculum. Goals are statements more specific than
aims.
 Goals are general statements of what concepts, skills, and values should be learned in the
curriculum.
 Objectives-are specific learning outcomes. Objectives include what specific concepts,
skills, and values should be learned by the students. Usually, objectives are used in
making decisions or planning about instruction.
These topics are based on the curriculum intents. Contents may include values, concepts, or
skills that are important for the learners to learn.
 2. Learning Experiences - include all instructional strategies that are useful for the
implementation of the curriculum. These may appear in the form of activities, strategies,
methods, or approaches that are useful in implementing the curriculum or in teaching the
content.
3. Evaluation - includes the different ways and tools used for evaluating whether or not the
curriculum intents were realized. Evaluation tools are also used to evaluate the
performance of the learners after they have undergone the curriculum.
Hilda Taba (1962) observed that all curricula, no matter what design they have, are
composed of certain elements.
 A curriculum usually contains a statement of aims and specific objectives.
 It indicates some selection and organization of content.
 It either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching, whether because
the objectives demand them or because the content organization requires them.
 It includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes.
Understanding the different elements of curriculum will help curriculum workers especially
the teachers in designing curriculum and in analyzing the different curriculum materials that are
offered to schools and students.

REPORTER: Marinelle Ragadio

CHAPTER 2
CURRICULUM PLANNING

Curriculum Sources and Influences

Tyler (1949) identified three major sources of curriculum: subject matter, society, and
learners. Accordingly, these curriculum sources need to be considered and examined to identify
the four elements of curriculum: goals, content, learning experiences, and evaluation. It is
important to understand the nature of the subject matter in order to provide knowledge and
skills that are essential to the nature of the discipline. This also helps in selecting and designing
curriculum contents.
Likewise, it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of society in
developing a curriculum. This provides a more comprehensive idea of the needs, demands, and
problems of the society, and the available resources that can be utilized in the development and
implementation of the curriculum (Tyler, 1949). In short, society, as one of the curriculum
sources, provides information about the context in which the curriculum will be used. This is
important to make the curriculum more relevant and responsive.
 Understanding the nature of the learners is also important in curriculum development.
Understanding the learners includes knowing their needs, nature, and interests, learning styles,
and thinking styles. It also includes knowing the various issues and problems about them. The
learners are the direct subjects of the school curriculum. Hence, making the learners as one of
the curriculum sources is important in selecting the learning experiences for the curriculum
(Tyler, 1949).

Society as Source of Curriculum

Society is an important source of curriculum. Teachers need to understand the cultural,
socio-economic, and political conditions of the people. Understanding the context is important
in developing a relevant and responsive curriculum (Tyler, 1949; Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978). It
is useful in selecting curriculum goals and objectives, content, and learning experiences (Taba,
1962, Stark & Lattuca, 1997, Oliva, 2005).
There are many changes in the society that need to be considered in the curriculum.
Science and technology continue to influence our everyday life as new science findings, new
technology, and new information come in almost every single minute of a day. The new world
of economy also has its own issues and demands. For example, 21st century skills and new
forms of knowledge should be developed in the curriculum in order to develop a world-class
workforce.
In addition, the society is becoming multilingual and multicultural. Developing cultural
understanding and socio-cultural consciousness among the learners is becoming a necessity.
Other pressing social issues like climate change, security problems, diseases, poverty, and many
others also affect the everyday life of people.
Educators and schools face the challenge whether they will simply respond to the needs
and demands of the society or have education through its curriculum in order to develop or
create the kind of society that everyone wishes to have. There is a need to put a balance between
pursuing the utopian goals of education and its practical or economic goals.

Learners as Source of Curriculum

Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum. Although the
curriculum content is set by the Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), or the Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA),
educators and curriculure developers have tried to align the curriculum to the needs and nature
of the students. This process is done when faculty members plan their individual syllabi, unit
plans, and lesson plans as an interpretation of the intended curriculum.
As students come from different provinces, they have different cultures, languages,
learning styles, needs, and types and levels of motivation. The students are also different in
terms of socio-economic status and educational backgrounds (public or private). For these, the
students, as one major source of curriculum, are supported by several curriculum scholars and
are well-represented in their curriculum development models (Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967;
Walker, 1972; Skilbeck, 1976; Nicholls, 1978; Print, 1993; Stark & Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005).

Learners as Source of Curriculum

Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum. Although the
curriculum content is set by the Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), or the Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA),
educators and curriculure developers have tried to align the curriculum to the needs and nature
of the students. This process is done when faculty members plan their individual syllabi, unit
plans, and lesson plans as an interpretation of the intended curriculum.
As students come from different provinces, they have different cultures, languages,
learning styles, needs, and types and levels of motivation. The students are also different in
terms of socio-economic status and educational backgrounds (public or private). For these, the
students, as one major source of curriculum, are supported by several curriculum scholars and
are well-represented in their curriculum development models (Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967;
Walker, 1972; Skilbeck, 1976; Nicholls, 1978; Print, 1993; Stark & Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005).

Discipline or Subject Matter as Source of Curriculum

Tyler (1949) identified the nature of the discipline or subject matter as one of the main
sources of curriculum. Different subjects are unique in terms of design and content. There are
specific skills and contents that should be emphasized in each of the disciplines. In some cases,
there are similarities in skills, concepts, and strands in different subjects that may be possible
points for integration.
Understanding the nature of the discipline or subject matter requires educators to closely
analyze the contents prescribed by the Department of Education especially the K-12
Curriculum. The curriculum framework, curriculum goals, descriptions, standards, and
competencies in different subjects will help educators understand what should be taught and
how to teach the different subjects.
The Commission on Higher Education also prescribes guidelines in different courses.
Several curricular innovations and changes set by the government were considered and strictly
followed in designing the official curriculum of a particular school, college, or university. The
curricular requirements that include course title, course credit, and course descriptions are based
on the CHED Memorandum Orders (CMOS) which CHED issued for different courses. For
example CMO No. 20 Series of 2013 included the general education program for all
undergraduate courses or programs in the Philippines.
 Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) also prescribes different
contents of the modules offered for each particular subject for vocational or technical courses.
The skills that should be learned including the materials needed and the time that is required for
training are clearly specified in each module.

Curriculum Influences
Aside from the major curriculum sources, Stark and Lattuca (1997) identified three major
factors that influence curriculum development: external, internal, and organizational influences
(see Figure 2). Stark and Lattuca used the term curriculum influences to refer to these three
factors that are very influential in curriculum development. According to them, these curriculum
influences affect the whole academic plan that incorporates a total blueprint for action,
including the purposes, activities, and ways of measuring success.

Figure 2. Factors Affecting Academic Planning (Stark & Lattuca, 1997)

Understanding the different curriculum influences is useful in knowing the different
factors that are needed to be considered in developing a curriculum. It provides the sources of
data and information for developing curriculum. Knowing these curriculum influences is useful
in making the curriculum more relevant and responsive to the educational system of the
Philippines.
REPORTER: Janna Escala

A research on curriculum influences conducted by Pawilen (2011) shows the results of

the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with the faculty members and administrators who identified
several curriculum influences that they always consider whenever they plan, design, develop,
revise, and evaluate the curriculum. These identified curriculure influences are shown in Table
1. They affect curriculum processes in the school level
Table 1. Curriculum Influences

 Students/Learners
 College Philosophy, Vision, and Mission
 K-12 Basic Education Curriculum
 Admission and Retention Policies, and School Rules
 Faculty Members
 School Administrators
 Requirements from Government Agencies
 Licensure Examinations (for Higher Education)
 Accreditation Standards
 Market Demands
 Alumni and Funding Sources
 Media and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
 Church and Church-related Agencies (for religious schools)
 School Facilities and Other Resources
 Other Disciplines or Courses and Programs offered by the School
 Student Services

Students
The students are considered as the most influential among the different curriculum
influences especially in designing the implemented curriculum. Learners have different
interests, needs, talents, abilities, learning styles, and thinking preferences. All these are
important in course planning. Teachers believe that the students could learn more if their
interest and learning styles are considered when planning their courses. Many students want a
variety of learning experiences in their classes and practical application of their lessons in real-
life situations.
They came from different families with different cultures, religious affiliations, beliefs,
language, and socio-economic status. When teachers plan their courses, they always keep these
in mind. They recognize that their previous experiences with the students, including the
students' performance in class, are sources of valuable information about the students'
capabilities. Many teachers observe during their classes that students' backgrounds, especially
their demographic characteristics, influence their attitude and performance toward learning.
Thus, students bring with them their culture in the school.
 For college, the academic background of the students is influential in curriculum
planning. As students took up their basic education in either public or private schools in their
provinces, their academic skills and learning habits differ from those of the city. For instance,
some students have poor communication skills because of poor background in English
education in their basic education.

School's Vision, Mission, and Core Values

The school vision, mission, and core values are very influential factors in developing the
curriculum. They are the fundamental bases in developing the four elements of curriculum goals
and objectives, conterit, learning experiences, and evaluation. These three factors are included
in all the lesson plans or course syllabi to ensure that the core values of the institution are
included in the syllabi.
The vision, mission, and core values of the school are also reflected in the planned,
implemented, and hidden curriculum of the school. All faculty members are required to reflect
this type of education in their teaching, lesson plans, and in the syllabus. The vision, mission,
and core values of the school are reflections of what the institution can contribute to the society
and to the development of individuals. Students and alumni are expected to possess the core
values of their schools.

Admission and Retention Policies

The third influential factor is the admission and retention policies. These policies set the
standard of what kind of students are admitted and what are the things they need to do as
students of the institution until they graduate. This is an important part of the intended and
implemented curriculum. School rules are set to give order and provide smooth implementation
of the curriculum. Rules also develop the hidden curriculum of the school.

Faculty Members
The influence of faculty members is also considered important. Faculty members bring
with them their educational background, experiences, expertise, and personal, professional, and
political views on the institution. They also have different interests, teaching styles, and
philosophies, which influence the way they plan, develop, and implement the curriculum.
In basic education, teachers take the role of a second parent to their students. Many
students believe in what they say and teach. They are not only seen as models of high ethical
life-students and other people also see them as intellectuals in various subject areas.
In the college level, teachers are seen as experts in their fjelds. They are expected to
know more about their subjects. The academic freedom enjoyed by faculty members also allows
them to modify and plan their syllabi based on their expertise and researches. The behaviors of
the faculty members also influence the hidden curriculum in college. Sometimes their students
take their professional and personal views on certain issues seriously as a principle.
Teachers, as recognized by Stark and Latucca (1997), are a major influence in curriculum
development. They are the key implementers of the curriculum. The success of any curriculum
and instruction highly depends on them. They need to be empowered to make curricular and
instructional innovations in their own schools. Teachers are expected to be experts in the
content of the subjects they teach. They should also be experts in pedagogy,

School Administrators and Board of Trustees

The influence of school officials and the school bureaucracy in curriculum processes
were recognized by several curriculum scholars like Wiles and Bondi (2006), and Stark and
Latucca (1997), among others. School administrators, including the board of trustees, play an
important role in providing curriculum leadership in school, colleges, and universities. Apart
from setting and approving rules for the school, they administer the planning, implementation,
and evaluation of the curriculum. The administrators then serve as the curriculum and
instructional leaders. They provide administrative and leadership support for the
implementation of the curriculum. Their abilities and skills as curriculum leaders and managers
are essential in curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation (Wiles & Bondi,
2006). Oliva (2005) considered them as part of the entire team of curriculum workers in an
institution, The academic preparation and previous experiences of the administrators can also be
noted to influence the development of the curriculum.

Accrediting Agencies
Accrediting agencies are equally influential in basic education and in higher education.
Like the DepEd and CHED, the accrediting agencies set the necessary standards for curriculum,
instruction, faculty, and facilities, and influence how the curricular programs are governed.
Accrediting agencies determine the quality of the courses being offered in an institution. As
such, many schools especially private schools try their best to improve the governance and
implementation of their various curricular and co-curricular programs.
Some accrediting agencies in the Philippines are the Association of Christian Schools,
Colleges, and Universities Accrediting Agency Incorporation (ACSCU-AAI), Philippine
Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges, and Universities (PAASCU), and the Accrediting
Agency for Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP). These
accrediting bodies are in charge of evaluating the quality of education for each member
institution based on criteria set by the accrediting agency.
Government Policies and Agencies
 The respondents identified government policies and agencies as most influential in
curriculum planning and development. In basic education, the Department of Education issues
Department Orders (DOs) and memoranda that serve as guide for all public and private schools
in the country. The Department of Education also prescribes the official curriculum for basic
education and issues the guidelines for operations for private schools.
For tertiary education, the CHED, through its series of memorandum orders, prescribes
the minimum general education and professional courses, course credits, and course
descriptions to be taken by the students. The CHED also prescribes the faculty qualifications,
facilities, and other requirements for the implementation and administration of the courses.
Market Demands (General)
Market demands or the needs of the society are very influential in planning and
developing curriculum. it is imperative that students are prepared in terms of knowledge,
values, and skills to meet the needs and demands of different institutions in the society. For
example, graduates are expected to develop or possess 21st century skills. They are expected to
be technologically literate. They are also expected to develop various literacies including
functional literacy. Schools are expected to develop graduates that can be assets and good
citizens of the society.
Alumni
The alumni are also considered as one of the external influences on curriculum
development. The alumni are very helpful in terms of donating money to support programs for
students, faculty scholarships, professorial chairs, facilities, and financing students' activities.
Besides financial help, their comments or their evaluation feedback based on their previous
experiences as students are very useful information for improving the implemented curriculum
of the school. The alumni are the living testimony of the curriculum or the quality of education
offered by a particular school.
Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT)
Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are two of the external
curriculum influences. The presence of technology, especially the Internet, enables students and
teachers to access almost all the information they need for teaching and learning. This allows
students and faculty members to access online journals, papers, and other information from the
internet to be used for teaching and learning. Technology connects the school to the global
community.
In as much as ICT is changing the landscape of schooling, it is also changing how the
courses are planned and implemented, especially how the content of the curriculum will be put
together. Although it is expensive to have full ICT integration in schools, school administrators
try their best to achieve this goal. Computers, LCD projectors, Internet facilities, and other
forms of technology are made available for instructional purposes in the school.
The Church and Church-related Agencies
For religious schools, the different religious orders and the church play an important role
in school. Many religious institutions serve as extension programs or mission programs of the
churches and religious orders that established them. The schools also offer institutional
requirements such as Bible subjects, theology, and Christian Living subjects. These subjects are
required to all students. Religious schools also offer retreats, chapel services, and other religious
activities to their students.
School Facilities and Other Resources
School facilities and other resources are very important in the implementation of the
curriculum. The respondents explained that school facilities like classrooms, libraries,
laboratories, ICT equipment, dormitories, school clinics, counseling office, canteen, chapel for
sectarian schools, and laboratories are very useful in providing quality education, especially in
implementing the curriculum.
Student Services
The last among the influences are the existing student services or existing student support
system institutionalized by the schools. Among these services are the following:
 Campus Ministry - helps in the spiritual nourishment of the students in sectarian schools
 Guidance and Counseling Services - provides professional help to students with various
personal and psychological concerns
 Health Services responds to various health-related concerns of the students through a
clinic with full-time health workers
 Financial Assistance and Scholarships provides financial assistance to deserving students
 Student Affairs Office guides the students in organizing activities and provides all forms
of support for academic and personal development of the students in the school
These curriculum influences and sources are very important in curriculum development.
Responding to these curriculum sources and influences helps curriculum workers and
developers in planning, developing, and implementing a relevant and responsive curriculum for
different learners and schools. They help everyone involved in and affected by a curriculum
understand the context in which one is developed. Moreover, when evaluating a curriculum,
these curriculum sources and influences are the ones that are looked into and reviewed.
REPORTER: Raiza Egaran
CHAPTER 3
CURRICULUM DESIGN

Definition of Curriculum Design

 Curriculum design refers to the arrangement of the elements of a curriculum. These four
elements are intent (aims, goals, and objectives); subject matter or content; learning
experiences; and evaluation. In many books, curriculum design is used interchangeably with
curriculum organization. Posner (1997) provided an enlightening idea on how to differentiate
these two related terms in curriculum as he classified the activity of arranging curriculum
elements or contents into two. According to him, there is a macro and a micro level of
organizing curriculum contents.
The macro level deals with arranging or organizing the total curriculum from the
philosophy down to the contents of different subjects. The micro level on the other hand, deals
with organizing the content of a specific subject or discipline. The macro level of arranging the
elements and contents of the curriculum can be referred to as function of curriculum design
while the micro level is a function of curriculum organization. However, it is important to note
that curriculum organization is based on the curriculum design. Curriculum design provides a
philosophical way of organizing the contents and elements for the curriculum.

Different Curriculum Designs

Print (1988) classified the different curriculum designs in four groups. According to him,
all curriculum designs can be classified as subject-centered, learner-centered, problem-centered,
or core learning designs:
1. Subject-centered Designs. Majority of the curricula used in schools are arranged or
organized in terms of subjects. Thus the subject-centered design is the most popular
among the four types of curriculum designs. The subject-centered design is classified into
three specific designs.
a. Subject Design. The curriculum is organized in terms of subjects like Mathematics,
Science, Filipino, English, and other subjects. Most of these subjects are offered in the
elementary level. The subjects are organized in a fragmented manner. Connections
between and among these subjects are ligt emphasized in the subject design. Instead,
the nature of the subject is highlighted in this design to provide students with a general
knowledge of each subject.

b. Academic Disciplines Design.

Math Like the subject
Science design, this typeEnglish
Filipino of design organizes
the curriculum in terms of disciplines like Algebra, Physics, Chemistry, Literature,
Economics, Philippine History, and other disciplines. This type of design is mostly
used in high school or in college. The contents are highly specialized particularly in
the college level.

Biology Algebra Earth Science Economics

 c. Integrated Design. This curriculum design is based on the principle that learners learn
in an integrated manner. Thus, this type of curriculum design tries to merge two or
more related subjects. Basically, there are three types of integration:

c.1. Interdisciplinary includes the merging of two related disciplines or subjects. An example is
the integration of Science and Health. Educators believe these two are naturally integrated. One
needs science knowledge in order to understand health concepts.

Science Health

c.2. Multidisciplinary or broad fields - includes the integration of three or more related
disciplines. An example is the Social Studies curriculum. This subject integrates civics, history,
culture, and economics.

Geograph
y

History

Civics
and
culture

Economics

c.3. Core-requires that all subjects or disciplines in the school curriculum be put together using
a single theme. Usually, this type of integrated curriculum design is used in preschool where
subjects are combined using curriculum themes.

Communit
y
 Famil
y

Self

2. Learner-centered Designs. Learner-centered designs focus on the needs, nature, and

interests of the learners in the curriculum. The aim of these designs is to develop the
potentials and abilities of the learners and making the curriculum relevant and responsive
to them.
a. Activity/Experience Design. This concentrates on activities that meaningful and
interesting to the learners. In doing these activities, learners will develop various skills
like process skills, communication skills, problem solving, critical thinking, and
creativity that are important for the learners.
b. Humanistic Design. The curriculum is composed of topics and learning experiences
that focus on the holistic development of an individual. It also addresses the needs and
nature of the learners. The goal of this design is the development of a well-rounded
individual.
3. Problem-centered Designs. These curriculum designs focus on understanding and finding
solutions to individual and social issues and problems. They require students to use their
skills and knowledge of different subjects and disciplines as they engage themselves in
meaningful learning of various social and individual problems like poverty, climate
change, peace and order or terrorism, diseases, traffic, and economic recession, among
others.
a. Thematic Design. This design suggests the thematic approach to integration. Almost
all models advocate this approach. The only thing that is different is the main focus of
the theme. Some models give emphasis on human activities as the themes of study
while others use different topics that are interesting to students. Themes can either be
concepts, guided questions, activities, or standards and skills but the purposes and
goals are all intended to provide an education that is holistic, meaningful, and relevant
to the life of the learner.
b. Problem Design. The learners are exposed to different lessons in problem solving
involving real-life problems. By doing problem-solving activities, the learners are
exposed to some practical situations or issues that are important to them and to their
community.
4. Core Learning Designs. These curriculum designs focus on learning a set of common
subjects, disciplines, courses, skills, or knowledge that is necessary for students to master.
It aims to provide a uniform type of education based on a certain philosophy or
educational theory. The core curriculum began in the early part of the 20th century in the
 United States as an experiment on liberal higher education and it remains vibrant until
now. The central theme of this curriculum design is not just to provide common learning
to students. It also aims to provide an education that is transformative and relevant to all
types of learners. Furthermore, it aims to develop a habit of mind or cultivate the critical
and creative thinking of students that they can employ in their everyday life.
a. Core Design. This is a set of common subjects, disciplines, or courses that are
required for students to study before they graduate or move to a different level.
b. National Core Curriculum Design. This is a set of subjects or courses that are required
to be taught to all students across the country. The national core curriculum is
prescribed by the state through the Department of Education or the Commission on
Higher Education. Examples of national core curriculum designs are the General
Education Curriculum for undergraduate courses and the K-12 Curriculum for basic
education.

Things to Consider in Designing Curriculum

There are two major forces considered in designing curriculum. These are the horizontal
and vertical organizations.
a. Horizontal Organization is often referred to as the scope and horizontal integration that is
concerned with the arrangement of curriculum components at any point in time (Print,
1993). For example, it asks about the relationship between Geography, History,
Economics, and Civics in elementary Social Studies curriculum. It focuses on
establishing relationships and integration among subject areas in elementary or secondary
curriculum.
b. Vertical Organization focuses on the spiral progression of curriculum contents. For
example, what skills, concepts, and values should be taught in Science from Grade I to
Grade VI. It focuses on the distribution of curriculum contents from Kindergarten to
Grade 12 (K-12). Looking at the spiral progression of curriculum content enables
teachers to focus on developing students' mastery of the content by examining
prerequisite knowledge and skills in learning different subjects.
Tomlimson et al. (2002) identified these important features for a good design. Accordingly, a
good curriculum design must be mentally and engaging, allows meaningful collaboration,
develops in-depth connects with students' lives and worlds, focuses on product, deals with
profound ideas, and must be real, purposeful, and useful to students.

Sequencing Curriculum Content

Sequencing curriculum content is essential in curriculum design. Sequence is defined as
the order in which contents are presented to the learners (Print, 1993). Traditionally, contents
are sequenced based on the nature of the subjects and disciplines they belong. They are also
organized according to a specific curriculum design principle or philosophy.
Print (1993) identified the following design principles that are most commonly used to
sequence the curriculum contents:
a. Simple to Complex - this is traditionally applied to disciplines like Math, Language,
Science, or Music. The topics are arranged in a progressive- spiral sequence.
b. Prerequisite Learning - this principle is followed in subjects and courses that largely
consist of laws and principles like Geometry, Algebra, and Physics. To understand the
laws and principles, students should learn the basic prerequisite knowledge and concepts.
c. Chronology-this design principle suggests sequencing of content according to chronology
of events. History is an example.
d. Whole-to-Part Learning this is a deductive approach to designing contents. One must see
the big picture of ideas to understand the specific concepts and skills.
e. Increasing Abstraction - content can be sequenced according to the idea or principle that a
student can learn most effectively if the concept or skill is related or relevant to own
personal experiences.

REPORTER: Maria Elizabeth Elefane

CHAPTER 4
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Different Curriculum Development Models

Curriculum development models are based on a clear and consistent understanding of
various scholars of the nature of curriculum as a discipline and as a field of study. Different
models are described based on the different views and processes of curriculum development
they offer. In this context, well-known models that are found in major curriculum books are
analyzed. These models have been recognized and accepted by curriculum scholars as effective
and appropriate for developing curriculum in any level. In this chapter, the analysis points out
various strengths and weaknesses of different models. A brief background and description of the
processes involved in each model is presented. The models are treated as inimitable since each
represents various ideas or theories on how to develop curriculum.

Linear Models of Curriculum Development

The linear models of curriculum development prescribe a rational step-by-step procedure
for curriculum development starting with objectives.
 A. Tyler's Rational Linear Model
Ralph Tyler at the University of Chicago developed the first model of curriculum
development. This model was presented in his book Principles of Curriculum and Instruction
published in 1949. Tyler argued that curriculum development should be logical and systematic.
His model, as shown in Figure 3, presents a process of curriculum development that follows
a sequential pattern starting from objectives to content, learning experiences, and evaluation.

Tyler argued that to develop any curriculum, curriculum workers should respond to four basic
questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives?
3. How can these educational experiences be organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
Aside from these four questions, Tyler also identified three curriculum sources: society,
students, and subject matter. Accordingly, curriculum workers need to study these sources
carefully in order to develop a curriculum. Tyler also pointed out the importance of philosophy
of education and psychology of learning to screen the objectives that are included in the
curriculum.

B. Taba's Grassroots Rational Model

A follower of Tyler is another curriculum scholar, Hilda Taba. Taba presented her model
in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice in 1962. Her model is a modified
version of Tyler's Model. Taba argued that curriculum development should follow a sequential
and logical process, and she suggested for more information input in all phases of curriculum
development. Taba also claimed that all curricula are composed of fundamental elements. In her
model, Taba outlined seven steps that should be followed when developing a curriculum:
1. Diagnosis of needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of content
4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning experiences
7. Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it
Taba also suggested that curriculum development could be made successful if there was a
diagnosis of needs. This would help curriculum workers in understanding the needs of the
learners. It would also help in the selection of the goals and objectives and in the selection of
contents. Taba pointed out that the nature of the objectives determines what learning is to
follow.

C. Standards-based Curriculum Development Model

Allan Glatthorn developed the standards-based curriculum de velopment mode The
model was intended for developing curriculum standards, fot any discipline from basic
education to higher education. As shown in Table 2, Glatthorn identified from basic education
to higher developing a standards-based curriculum. This model is an example of a linear model.
It includes a prescribed sequence of curriculum development activities to develop standards.
Table 2. Standards-based Curriculum Development Model
Phase 1. Develop standards.
1. Develop a comprehensive set of content standards, using multiple sources.
2. Refine the comprehensive list by eliminating and combining.
3. Secure teacher input to identify teacher priorities.
4. Use data to develop final draft of standards, divided into Essential Standards and Enrichment
Standards.
Phase 2. Develop benchmarks.
1. Review decisions about content emphases.
 Glatthorn's model is an example of a linear and rationale curriculum development model.
The model is rational and descriptive, stressing the development of standards as the first activity
in curriculum development. The model recognizes the importance of using multiple sources in
developing curriculum standards. This model also recognizes teachers' inputs in the
development of standards, which are often neglected in curriculum projects in the Philippines
because of the top-down approach to curriculum development and implementation.
The use of benchmarks to improve, to refine, and to validate curriculum standards is
equally a good practice in curriculum development. The model extends itself up to the
development of scope and sequence, which is important for planning instruction, and for
deciding on specific contents and objectives. Another important feature of Glatthorn's model is
its relevance and applicability in any educational institution in developing curriculum standards
for various courses. This model can be very useful in the development of curriculum standards
that is one of the major purposes of this book. The linear nature of Glatthorn's model is also one
of its weaknesses.
Roberts (2003) stressed that in curriculum studies, as in many other domains of human
activity, one of the few constants is change. Roberts further explained his idea that as a field of
inquiry, curriculum should allow new theories to emerge and new insights to flourish to make
the curriculum field more vibrant and dynamic.