2. Investigates the soil in biological systems.

2.1 Inquiries into characteristics of soil.

Soil
Soil is a system found on the surface of the earth which provides a dynamic substrate for
plant growth and consist of minerals organic matter various organisms air and water.

Importance of soil

1. Plant Growth Support:

o Provides essential nutrients for plant development.
o Offers a medium for root anchorage and stability.
2. Water Filtration and Storage:
o Filters rainwater and regulates its flow to prevent flooding.
o Stores water and supplies it to plants and groundwater.
3. Nutrient Cycling:
o Decomposes organic matter to release nutrients.
o Facilitates the recycling of essential elements like nitrogen and phosphorus.
4. Habitat for Organisms:
o Supports a diverse range of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, insects, and
earthworms.
o These organisms contribute to soil health and structure.
5. Carbon Storage:
o Acts as a significant carbon sink, helping to mitigate climate change by storing
carbon dioxide.
6. Foundation for Human Activities:
o Provides a base for agricultural production, which is essential for food
security.
o Supports forestry and other vegetation that contribute to the ecosystem.
o Serves as a foundation for construction and infrastructure development.
7. Regulation of Environmental Processes:
o Helps in the breakdown and detoxification of pollutants.
o Regulates the Earth's temperature and greenhouse gas emissions through its
role in carbon and nitrogen cycles.
8. Cultural and Aesthetic Value:

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 o Influences landscapes and natural beauty, contributing to tourism and
recreation.
o Holds archaeological and historical significance as it preserves artifacts and
fossils.
9. Economic Value:
o Critical for agriculture, which is a major economic activity globally.
o Essential for industries related to construction, pharmaceuticals, and more.
10. Erosion Control:
o Vegetation supported by soil helps to prevent erosion and land degradation.
o Maintains the stability and fertility of the land.

Characteristics of soil.

Soil characteristics can be broadly classified into three main categories: physical, chemical,
and biological properties. Each of these categories encompasses various specific traits that
determine the overall quality and functionality of the soil.

1. Physical Properties:

1) Soil Texture: The relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles in the soil.
2) Soil color
3) Soil Structure: The arrangement of soil particles into aggregates or clumps.
4) Soil consistency
5) Water Holding Capacity: The ability of soil to retain water for plant use.
a. Infiltration rate
6) Soil temperature
7) Soil density

2. Chemical Properties:

1) pH: The acidity or alkalinity of the soil, influencing nutrient availability and
microbial activity.
2) Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): The soil's ability to hold and exchange positively
charged ions (cations) like calcium, magnesium, and potassium.
3) Electrical conductivity (EC)

3. Biological Properties:

1) Micro
2) Meso
3) Macro

• Microbial Activity: The presence and activity of microorganisms such as bacteria,

fungi, and actinomycetes, which play a role in nutrient cycling and organic matter
decomposition.
• Organic Matter Decomposition: The breakdown of organic materials by soil
organisms, contributing to nutrient release and soil structure improvement.
• Soil Fauna: The presence of larger organisms like earthworms, insects, and other soil
fauna that aid in aeration, mixing of soil layers, and organic matter breakdown.
• Root Activity: The interaction of plant roots with the soil, affecting nutrient uptake,
soil structure, and microbial communities.

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 1. Soil texture

Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay.

These particles are classified based on their size. The combination of these particles determines the
soil's texture, which in turn affects its physical and chemical properties, as well as its suitability for
various uses.

• Sand:

• Particle Size: 0.05 to 2 millimeters in diameter.

• Characteristics: Feels gritty, has large particles, and large pore spaces.
• Water Retention: Low; drains quickly and does not retain nutrients well.

• Silt:

• Particle Size: 0.002 to 0.05 millimeters in diameter.

• Characteristics: Feels smooth or silky, has medium-sized particles.
• Water Retention: Moderate; retains more water and nutrients than sand.

• Clay:

• Particle Size: Less than 0.002 millimeters in diameter.

• Characteristics: Feels sticky when wet, has very small particles and small pore
spaces.
• Water Retention: High; retains water and nutrients very well but may drain poorly.

How to Determine Soil Texture

There are several methods to determine soil texture, ranging from simple manual techniques
to more precise laboratory analyses. Here are some common methods:

1. Hand Texturing (Feel Method)

This is a quick and practical method that involves feeling the soil and manipulating it to
gauge the proportions of sand, silt, and clay.

2. Soil Sedimentation (Jar Test)

This method involves mixing soil with water in a jar and allowing the particles to settle at
different rates.

3. Laboratory Analysis

For precise results, soil samples can be sent to a laboratory where specialized equipment and
procedures are used.

Soil Texture Triangle

The soil texture triangle is a tool used to classify soil types based on their proportions of
sand, silt, and clay. By plotting the percentages of these three components on the triangle,
you can determine the soil texture class.Once the percentages of sand, silt, and clay are

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determined, the soil texture triangle is used to classify the soil. The triangle has sides
representing the percentages of sand, silt, and clay, and the point where the three percentages
intersect determines the soil texture class.

How to Use the Soil Texture Triangle

1. Determine Percentages:
o Calculate the percentages of sand, silt, and clay in your soil sample. Ensure
they add up to 100%.
2. Plot Points:
o Locate the percentage of sand on the bottom axis and draw a line upward
parallel to the left axis.
o Locate the percentage of silt on the right axis and draw a line downward
parallel to the left axis.
o Locate the percentage of clay on the left axis and draw a line downward
parallel to the right axis.
3. Intersection:
o The point where the three lines intersect is your soil’s texture class.
Example
Suppose your soil sample has the following composition: Sand: 60% , Silt: 30% , Clay: 10%

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Steps:
1. On the bottom axis (sand), find 60%.
2. On the right axis (silt), find 30%.
3. On the left axis (clay), find 10%.
Draw lines from these points:
• From 60% sand, draw a line upward parallel to the left axis.
• From 30% silt, draw a line downward parallel to the left axis.
• From 10% clay, draw a line downward parallel to the right axis.
The intersection of these lines falls into the "Sandy Loam" category.

Soil Texture Classes

The soil texture triangle includes 12 texture classes:

1. Sand
2. Loamy Sand
3. Sandy Loam
4. Loam
5. Silt Loam
6. Silt
7. Sandy Clay Loam
8. Clay Loam
9. Silty Clay Loam
10. Sandy Clay
11. Silty Clay
12. Clay

Importance of Soil Texture

Soil texture plays a crucial role in various environmental and agricultural aspects. Here are
some key reasons why understanding and managing soil texture is important:

1. Water Retention and Drainage:

o Water Holding Capacity: Soil texture determines how well soil can retain
water. Clay soils hold water well due to their small particle size, while sandy
soils drain quickly and do not retain much water.
o Drainage: Soils with larger sand particles have better drainage, reducing the
risk of waterlogging, whereas clay soils with poor drainage can lead to root
diseases in plants.
2. Aeration:
o Air Movement: Sandy soils, with larger pore spaces, provide better aeration
for plant roots and soil organisms. Clay soils can become compacted, limiting
air flow and affecting root respiration.
3. Nutrient Availability:
o Nutrient Holding Capacity: Clay and loam soils, with higher surface area
and smaller particles, can retain more nutrients compared to sandy soils, which
can quickly lose nutrients through leaching.
o Fertilizer Efficiency: Understanding soil texture helps in optimizing fertilizer
application. Clay soils may require different fertilization strategies compared
to sandy soils.
4. Root Penetration and Growth:

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 o Ease of Root Growth: Loamy and sandy soils are generally easier for plant
roots to penetrate, promoting healthier plant growth. Clay soils can be harder
for roots to grow through due to their dense nature.
o Anchorage: Good soil texture ensures that plants are well-anchored and less
likely to be uprooted.
5. Soil Workability:
o Ease of Cultivation: Sandy and loamy soils are easier to till and cultivate,
making them more suitable for farming. Clay soils can be heavy and hard to
work with, especially when wet.
6. Erosion Control:
o Resistance to Erosion: Soil texture influences susceptibility to erosion. Sandy
soils are more prone to wind erosion, while clay soils can resist erosion better
but may be susceptible to water erosion if structure is poor.
o Soil Conservation: Managing soil texture through practices like adding
organic matter can help in reducing erosion and preserving topsoil.
7. Plant Selection and Crop Yield:
o Suitable Crops: Different crops thrive in different soil textures. For example,
root crops like carrots prefer sandy soils, while rice grows well in clay soils.
Understanding soil texture aids in selecting appropriate crops for better yield.
o Crop Productivity: Optimizing soil texture through amendments can improve
crop productivity and sustainability.
8. Environmental Impact:
o Pollutant Filtration: Soil texture affects the soil’s ability to filter pollutants
and protect groundwater. Clay soils can better retain contaminants, preventing
them from leaching into water supplies.
o Climate Regulation: Soil texture impacts carbon sequestration and
greenhouse gas emissions. Soils with higher organic matter content and
appropriate texture can sequester more carbon, helping mitigate climate
change.
9. Land Management and Construction:
o Building Foundations: Knowing soil texture is essential for construction
projects, as different textures have different load-bearing capacities. Clay soils
may expand and contract, affecting building stability.
o Landscaping: Proper understanding of soil texture helps in landscaping
decisions, ensuring plants and structures are suited to the soil conditions.
10. Soil Health and Sustainability:
o Soil Life: Soil texture influences the habitat for soil organisms, which are
crucial for nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition. Balanced soil
texture supports a diverse and healthy soil ecosystem.
o Long-term Fertility: Maintaining optimal soil texture through sustainable
practices ensures long-term soil fertility and agricultural productivity.