Farm Tools and Equipment

Introduction
 Farm tools and equipment perform specific jobs in the farm.

Care and Maintenance of Tools andEquipment

Reasons for Maintenance

 To increase durability.
 To increase efficiency.
 Reduce costs of replacement.
 For safety of the user/avoid accidents.
 Avoid damage to the tool.

Methods
 Use tools for the right work.
 Proper handling when using tools or equipment.
 Clean and oil tools after work.
 Keep tools in there right place.
 Replace and repair worn-out parts
 Sharpen cutting or digging edges
 Grease moving parts to reduce friction
 Use safety devices in the workshop to reduce accidents and breakages

Livestock Production:

(Common Breeds)

Introduction
 The term livestock is used to refer to all domesticated animals.
 These animals include cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, pigs, rabbits, camels, bees, fish
and donkeys.

The importance of keeping livestock:

 Source of food.
 Source of income.
 Cultural values.
 Source of animal power.
 Provision of raw materials for industries.
 Farmyard manure from the animals is used in maintaining soil fertility.
 Cattle dung is used in the production ofbiogas.

Cattle Breeds
  Cattle can be classified into two groups based on their origin.
These are;
 Indigenous cattle.
 Exotic cattle.
Indigenous Cattle
 Zebus –
They are small in size and with a distinct humpand include:
 Nandi,
 Bukedi
 Maasai cattle.
 The Borana
 These are the cattle kept in the Northern parts of Kenya.
 They are larger than the Zebus.
 Indigenous cattle are hardy hence able to tolerate the harsh environmental conditions
in the tropics.
 They are the major suppliers of beef in Kenya.
Exotic Cattle
 Foreign cattle from the temperate regions.
 They have distinct breed characteristics and are classified into various breeds.

General characteristics:
 They have no humps.
 They have low tolerance to high temperatures hence popular in cool climates of the
Kenya highlands ..
 They are highly susceptible to tropical diseases.
 They have fast growth rates leading to early maturity.
 They are good producers of both meat and milk.
 They cannot walk for long distances.
 They have short calving intervals of one calf per year if well managed.

Exotic cattle breeds fall under the following groups:

 Dairy cattle breeds.
 Beef cattle breeds.
 Dual purpose breeds.

Dairy Cattle Breeds

 They include;
 Friesian,
 Ayrshire,
 Guernsey
 Jersey.

Characteristics of Dairy Cattle

 Wedge or triangular in shape.
 Large stomach.
 Docile with mild temperament.
 Large, well suspended udders and teats.
 Lean bodies.
  Lean and smooth neck.
 Large and long mammary milk wells and veins.
 Cylindrical; uniform and well spaced teats.
 Wide and well set hindquarters to accommodate the udder.

Friesian-Holstein (largest of all dairy breeds)

 Origin:Holland
 Colour:Black and white
 Size: Cow weighs 550-680kgs Bull weighs 950 kg.
 Highest milk producers of all dairy breeds about 9150 kg per lactation but with least
butterfat content; 3.5%

Ayrshire
 Origin:Scotland
 Colour: White with brown markings.
 Size: Cow weighs 360-590kgs Bulls weighs 500-720kg.
Conformation:
 Straight top lines, horns are long and face upwards.
 Milk production is second to Friesian about 61OOkg per lactation with butter content
of about 4%.

Guernsey
 Origin:Guernsey Island off the coast of France.
 Colour:Yellowish brown to red with white legs, switch and girth ..
 Size:Bulls 540-770kg. Cow weighs 450- 500kgs
Conformation:
 Udders are less symmetrical.
 Average milk production is about 5185kg per lactation with a butterfat content of
4.5% hence the yellow colour of milk.

Jersey (smallest of all the dairy breeds)

 Origin:England
 Colour:Yellow brown with black muzzle and switch.
 Size:Bulls weigh 540-700kg. Cow weighs 350-450kgs

Conformation:
 Dished forehead, have straight top-line and level rumps with sharp withers.
 Have protruding black eyes.
 Average milk production 1270kg per lactation of butterfat content 5%.
 They tolerate high temperatures.

Beef Cattle
Examples:
 Aberdeen Angus,  Galloway,  charolais
 Hereford,  American  Santa Getrudis.
Brahman,
 Shorthorns,
Characteristics of Beef Cattle
 Blocky or square conformation.
 Have thick muscles or are well fleshed.
 Early maturing.
 Deep chest and girth and short legs.
 Straight top and lower lines.

AberdeenAngus
 Origin:North East Scotland.
 Colour:Black
 Shape:Cylindrical, compact and deep; It is polled.
Size:
 Mature bulls weigh 900kg.
 Mature cows weigh 840kgs.
 It is found in Timau area of Kenya
Hereford
 Origin: England.
 Colour:Deep red and white-faced.
 Size: Average weight of bulls is 1000kg.
 Cows weigh 840kgs.
 It is found in areas such as Naivasha.
Shorthorn
 Origin:England.
 Has easy fleshing ability
 Colour: Red, Roan or white
 Shape: Cylindrical, compact and deep.
 It is polled.
Size:
 Bulls weigh 700-900kg,
 cows weigh 545-630kgs.

Galloway
 Origin: Scotland.
 Colour:Black
 Kept in the highland areas like Molo in Kenya.
Charolais
 Origin:France.
 Colour:Creamy white.
 Size:Bulls weigh 1200kg, cows weigh 1000kgs.
 It is found in ranches in Laikipia District.

Dual Purpose Breeds

Examples: Sahiwal, Red Poll and Simmental.
Sahiwal
 Origin:India and Pakistan ..
  Colour: reddish brown.
 Size: Bulls weigh 650kg, andcows 400kg.
 Milk production averages 2700-3000 per lactation with a butterfat content of3.7%.
 It has a pendulous udders which does not let down milk easily.
 It is therefore said to be a difficult milker.
 It is kept in semi-arid areas such as Naivasha.
Red Poll
 Origin:England.
 Colour:Deep red with a white nose.
 Conformation: Polled-deep girth and short legs.
 Kept in semi-arid areas such as Nakuru, Mogotio.
Simmental
 Origin:Switzerland.
 Colour:Light red and white patches on the head.
Conformation:
 It has broad and straight back, with well-sprung ribs and deep girth.
 It is well fleshed at rear quarters, well suspended udders and large teats.

Sheep Breeds:
Purpose of Keeping Sheep;
 Meat (mutton).
 Wool production.
Exotic Sheep
 Wool breeds-for example merino.
 Dual purpose- for example Corriedale, Romney marsh.
 Mutton breeds-for example Hampshire Down, Dorpers.
Merino
 Origin: Spain
Characteristics:
 It has white face and its lips and nostrils are pink in colour.
 Rams have horns which are spiral in shape.
 It is susceptible to foot rot, worm and respiratory diseases.
Corriedale
 Origin:New Zealand.
 Size:Rams 85 - 90kg. Ewes 60-- 85 kg
 This is a dual-purpose breed with white open face and white spots on the legs.
 It is hornless and hardy.
Romney Marsh
 Origin:England.
 Size: Rams 100 - 115kg.
 Ewes 84- 100 kg
 It is a dual-purpose breed which s hornless with wide poll and black nostrils and lips.
 It is average in prolificacy.
 It is resistant to foot rot diseases and worm infestation.
Hampshire Down
 Origin:England.
 Size: Rams 125kg.
 Ewes 80-100 kg
 It is a mutton breed which is early maturing, hardy and prolific.
 Fleece is of poor quality because of the black fibres.
 Lambing percentage is 125-140.

Dorper
 Is a crossbreed of Dorset horn and black head Persian sheep.
 It is mutton breed.
Dorset Horn
 Dual purpose breed of sheep.
 Indigenous Breeds of Sheep
 Their bodies are covered with hair.
 Their classification is based on their tails and their names vary according to different
tribes.
Characteristics;
 Thin tailed sheep found in West Africa.
 Fat tailed such as Maasaisheep.
 Fat rumped sheep.

Maasai Sheep
 Found in South Western Kenya and Northern Tanzania.
 Size: Ram 38kg,
 Ewe 20-30kg.
 Colour: Red and brown.
 These are early maturing with long legs and small pointed horns.
Black Head Persian Sheep
 Origin:South Africa
 Colour:White with black head and neck.
 It is polled witha big dewlap, fat rump and a curved tail..
Goats
Goats well adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions because of the following
characteristics:
 They feed on a wide range of vegetation.
 They require very little amount of water.
 They are tolerant to high temperatures.
 They are fairly resistant to diseases.
 They can walk long distances without losing weight.

Indigenous Goat Breeds

 Galla (white in colour). Adult female can weigh 25kg.

Somali (Boran): Found in Northern Kenya (white in colour).

 Turkana/Samburu: (Long hair and bearded.
 Mubende: (Black) (40-45kg). These are small and hardy and are kept for meat and
milked by the pastoralists.

Exotic Breeds
Boer goat
 Origin:South Africa
 Colour:White
 Has long ears and long hair on their bodies.
Anglo-Nubian
 Origin:North East Africa
 Colour:Roan and White
 These have long legs, lopped ears and are polled.
 They produce 1-2 litres of milk per ,day.
Jumnapari
 Origin:India
 Colour:White, black and fawn.
 They are horned, have large lopped ears
 Produce 1-1.5_litres of milk per day.
Toggenburg
 Origin: Switzerland
 Colour: White patches on the body, white stripes on the face and neck.
 Erect forward pointing ears and polled.
 Can produce 2-3 of milk per day.
Saanen
 Origin:Switzerland.
 Colour:White
 They have erect, forward pointing ears and polled.
 Can produce 2-3 Iitres of milk per day.
Angora
 Origin:Angora in Asia.
 Colour: White
 It is kept for wool production.

French alpine. Pigs

Characteristics:
 They are sparsely haired and therefore cannot withstand cold.
 Pigs wallow when it is hot due to absence of sweat glands.
 They breathe fast when it is hot.
 They have bristles instead of hair.

Breeds
Large White
 Origin: Britain
 Kept for bacon and pork production.
  Long, large and white in  Most prolific and with good
colour. mothering ability.
 Ears straight and erect.  Fairly hardy.
 Has dished face and snout.

Landrace

 Origin:Denmark
 White and longer than large  Very prolific with good mothering
white. _ ability. _
 Ears drooping.  Requires high level of
 Good for bacon production. management.

Wessex Saddle

 Back Origin: England

 Colour:Black with white forelegs and shoulders.
 Straight snout and drooping ears. _
 Good for bacon and pork.
 Good for keeping outdoors.
 Excellent mothering instincts.
Other pig breeds include:
 Berkshire,  Middle-white  Duroc Jersey pig.
Pigs can be crossed to obtain hybrids or crosses.

Advantages of Crosses
 Increased litter size. _
 Early maturing.
 _ Increase in body length.
 _ High proportion of lean meat to fat.

Poultry Breeds
There are three types of chicken breeds:
 The light breeds kept for egg production.
 The heavy breeds kept for meat production.
 Dual purpose breeds - kept for both eggs and meat production.

Characteristics of Light Breeds

 Never go broody hence poor sitters.
 Excellent layers (over 220 eggs per year).
 Poor meat producers (hens can attain 2kg; cocks 3kgs)
 Very nervous and exhibit high degree of cannibalism.
 Hen's comb is large and bent over one eye and cock's comb is large with 5 - 6
serrations.
Examples:
 Leghorns,  Silkies,
 Anconas,  Minorcas.
Characteristics of Heavy Breeds
  Can lay few eggs and provide good meat as broilers.
 Can go broody.
 Heavier and bigger in size.
 Grow fast.
Examples:
 Light Sussex,  Cornish Dark  White.
Characteristics of Dual-Purpose Breeds
 Go broody.
 Have good meat.
 Disease resistant (do not require high standard of management).
 Rarely exhibit cannibalism.

Examples: Rhode Island Red.

Hybrids
 These are developed by crossing two different breeds.
 They are superior in performance.
 Can attain 2kg in 56 days for broilers and layover 200 eggs per year for layers.
Examples:
 Shavers,
 Thombers
 Isabrown.

Rabbits
Kept for the following reasons:
 To provide meat, fur, hair or wool.
 To provide skin for leather.
 To provide manure.
 As pet animals.
 Used for research purposes.

Breeds
 Californian white: white, very prolific black ears, nose and feet).
 New Zealand white: (white with pink eyes - good for meat).
 Flemish giant(dark grey - good for meat).
 Angora rabbit(white, kept for wool production).
 Chinchillah(greyish, kept for its fur).
 Earlops(white with droopy ears).
 Kenya white (white, smallest of breeds).

Camels
Kept for;
 Transport,
 Racing,
 To provide milk, meat and wool.
There are two species of camels.

Dromedary (Camelusdromedarius)

 Origin:Arabia and Syria

  Are single humped, have light body
 Good for racing and rapid transport.

Bacterian (Camelusbacterianus)

 Origin:Central Asia
 Has double humps, heavier and has shorter legs.
 Can live in cold regions hence its thick and long coat acts as insulation.
 Capable of shedding the coat during spring.

LIVESTOCK HEALTH I
(INTRODUCTION TO LIVESTOCK HEALTH)
Health is the state of the body in which all the organs and systems are normal and
functioning normally.
Disease is any deviation from the normal health of the animal.

Importance of Keeping Livestock Healthy:

 Healthy animals give high income due to low treatment costs.
 The productive life span of a healthy animal is longer.
 High production.
 Healthy animals can multiply regularly.
 Healthy animals give high quality products for example eggs.
 Safety of consumers of livestock products.
Signs of Good Health in Livestock
They are grouped into the following categories.
• Physical appearance.
• Physiological body functions.
• Morphological conditions of the body.

Physical Appearance.
This can be examined in terms of the following.
i. Behaviour of the animal – a healthy animal should not be over excited, aggressive or
produce abnormal sound.
ii. Movement of the animal – healthy animal should have normal walking style/gait and
should walk with ease.
iii. Posture – healthy animal should have normal posture according to the species while
standing or lying down.
iv. General appearance of the animal – healthy animal should be alert, bright and responsive
to touch.

Physiological Body Functions

This can be examined under the following;
i. Appetite and feeding. Lack of or excessive appetite

ii. Defecation. Dung containing eggs, larvae of parasites or blood stains indicates ill health.
Healthy animals defecate normally and regularly.
iii. Urination. Healthy animals should have normal and regular urination. Abnormal colour in
urine such as red or heavy yellow indicates ill health.
iv. Body temperature. Body temperature of a healthy animal should be within the normal
range.
v. Respiratory rate. Respiratory rate of a healthy animal should also be within the normal
range.
Respiratory rate is influenced by the following factors;
vi. Pulse rate. A healthy animal should have normal pulse rate. It varies from species to
species and is also influenced by factors such as;
• Degree of excitement.
• Age of the animal.
• Sex of the animal.
• Physiological status of the animal e.g. in pregnancy.

Predisposing Factors of Livestock Diseases

i. Species of the animal. Some diseases are confined to certain species e.g. Newcastle disease
in poultry and swine fever in pigs.
ii. Breed of the animal. Some diseases are confined to certain breeds such as Hereford suffer
from cancer of the eye
iii. Age of the animal. Some diseases are associated with certain age groups e.g. piglet’s
anaemia affects only piglets
iv. Sex of the animal. Some diseases affect a particular sex e.g. mastitis affects lactating
female animals.
v. Colour of the animal. Black animals suffer more to heat stress. Animals with light
pigmentation may suffer from disorders such as photosensitization when exposed to high
light intensity such as the large white breed of pigs.

Signs of ILL-Health in Livestock

 Abnormal behaviour for example separation from the rest of the herd and
restlessness.
 Abnormal posture for example limping and lameness.
 Alimentary canal disfunction such as blood stained faeces and abnormal defecation,
diarrhoea and dysentery.
 Urination: high frequency or too low and having strange colour.
 Skin: rough with scaly skin, blisters on the skin and hair loss.

Causes of Diseases
 Pathogenic causes ; viruses, bacteria, protozoa fungi.
 Physical causes; fractures, dislocation, sprains .
 Nutritional disorders for example milk fever.
 Chemical causes for example poisoning by agrochemicals.

Categories of Diseases
 Notifiable diseases ; These are diseases which cause high economic losses.
 Tick-borne diseases - Transmitted by ticks.
 Breeding diseases - Transmitted through mating.
 Nutritional diseases for example milk fever and bloat.
 Parasitic diseases for example ascariosis.

General Methods of Disease Control

 Quarantine.
  Vaccination.
 Control of vectors by use of acaricides and rotational grazing.
 Disinfecting the equipment and buildings.
 Use of preventive drugs.
 Proper feeding of livestock.
 Culling of the animals which are carriers/slaughtering the affected animals.
 Use of artificial insemination to control breeding diseases.
 Proper selection and breeding of animals.
 Proper housing and hygiene,
 Isolating sick animals.

Appropriate Methods of Handling Livestock

Animals are handled for the following reasons:
 When inspecting the animal to ascertain any abnormality or signs of diseases.
 When administering any form of treatment such as drenching, injection and mastitis
control.
 When spraying or hand dressing the animal with chemicals to control external
parasites.
 When milking the animal.
 When performing some of the management practices such as dehorning, disbudding,
castration, hoof trimming .

LIVESTOCK HEALTH II (PARASITES)

A parasite is an organism which obtains its livelihood from another organism (host) which
suffers damage.
Parasitism is the association between a parasite and a host.

Effects of parasites on livestock

(i) Cause Anaemia -Blood sucking parasites take large volumes of blood from the host
animals leading to anaemia.
ii) Deprive the host of nutrients (food) -Internal parasites compete for food with the host
animals this result into loss of weight, emaciation and low production.
iii) Injury and damage to tissue and organs. -Biting parasites break the skin of the animal
exposing it to secondary infection.
Iv ) Disease transmission.-Some parasites act as vectors of some diseases
v) Cause irritation --This causes the animal to rub itself against solid objects destroying skin,
fur or wool.
vi) Obstruction to internal organs -Internal parasites may cause mechanical obstruction or
blockage of the internal passages.

General Symptoms of Parasites Infestation:

 Emaciation.
 Pot bellied condition.
 Swellings in the jaw or other areas.
 Rough hair or rough coat.
 Anaemia.
 Diarrhoea.
 Presence of worm segments and blood stains in the defecation.
Types of Parasites
There are two types of parasites:
 External (ecto-parasites)
 Internal (endo-parasites)

External parasites are;

ticks, tsetse flies, mites, lice, fleas keds

THE LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS

-Ticks usually pass through four main stages in their cycle i.e.
-Egg -Nymph (Eight legs)
-Larva (six legs) -Adult (Eight legs)
-Different species of ticks need different number of hosts.
-There are therefore three categories of ticks i.e.
-One host ticks. -Two host ticks. -Three host ticks.

ONE HOST TICKS

-These ticks require one host to complete their lifecycle.
-Eggs on the ground hatch into larvae.
-Larvae climb onto the host, suck blood, become engorged and moult into nymphs.
-Nymphs feed on the same host, become engorged and moult into adults.
-Adults feed on the same host, mate and the females drop off to the ground to lay eggs.

Examples of one-host ticks:

-Blue tick -The Cattle tick
-The Texas Fever tick -The Tropical Horse tick

TWO HOST TICKS

-This tick requires two hosts to complete their lifecycle.
-The larvae and nymphs pass through their stages on the first host.
-Eggs on the ground hatch into larvae, which climb on to the first host.
-A larva attaches themselves to the host, feed on blood, become engorged and moult into
nymphs.
- Nymphs feed on the same host become engorged and then drop to the ground to moult in
adults.
-Adults find a new host on which to feed.
-They feed on the second host and mate.
-Females drop off to the ground to lay eggs.

Examples of two host ticks.

-Red legged tick -The African Bont-legged tick
-The Brown tick -Large Bont-legged tick

THREE HOST TICKS

-These ticks require three different hosts to enable them to complete their lifecycle.
-Eggs hatch on the ground into larvae.
-Larvae attaches itself to the first host, feed on blood, become engorged and drop off to the
ground and moults into nymphs.
-The nymphs look for a second host, feed on blood, become engorged and drop off to the
ground and moult into adults.
-Adults seek for the third host, climb, feed become engorged and mate.
-Females drop off to the ground to lay eggs.

Example
-Brown ear tick -Yellow Dog tick
-East African Bont tick -Fowl tick
-Bont tick -Brown Dog Tick
-Gulf Coast tick

Control of Ticks
 Dipping/spraying/hand dressing with acaricides.
 Rotational grazing.
 Ploughing the land to break the life cycle.
 Hand picking and killing.
 Fencing of the grazing fields to keep off other animals including wild game.
 Burning of grass to kill them in various stages.

Endo-parasites (internal Parasites)

Endoparasites are helminths.

They can be divided into:

 Flukes
 Tapeworms.
 Roundworms.

General Symptoms of endoparasite

 Diarrhoea which foul the anal and tail region.
 Dullness.
 Anaemia.
 Big stomach (pot bellied condition).
 Presence of worm segments in faeces.
 Coughing.

Trematodes (Liver Fluke)

There are two species of flukes:
Fasciola gigantica
Fasciola hepatica.

Fasciola hepatica is more common.

It is commonly found in the liver and bile duct of cattle, sheep and goats.
Liver fluke is a problem in marshy and low lying wet areas.

Life Cycle of the Liver Fluke

 Adult fluke in the liver of the primary host lays eggs.
 Eggs pass through the bile duct into the small intestines and are passed out in faeces
onto the pasture.
 Under moist conditions, they hatch into a miracidium larva which swims about in
search of a secondary host (fresh water snails).
 In the snail, it develops through sporocyst, redia and cercaria.
 When it leaves the snail, the cercaria gets encysted on vegetation and becomes
metacercaria.
  This is swallowed by the primary host with grass.
 The young fluke migrates into the liver through blood vessels when it matures.

Control of Liver Fluke

 Keep livestock off marshy areas near the rivers/streams/lakes and dams.
 Drench affected animals.
 Drainage of swampy areas.
 Eradicate the intermediate host by use of molluscicides.
 Provide water to livestock in elevated troughs.

Tapeworms
There are many species of tapeworms
Eexample;
 Taenia solium
 Taenia saginata.

The adults live in the small intestines of man (the primary host).
The intermediate host of Taenia solium is pig .
The intermediate host of Taenia saginata is cattle.

Life Cycle of Tapeworm

 Adult tapeworms live in man's intestines where it lays eggs.
 Eggs are passed out with faeces,
 Then they develop an outer covering known as onchosphere.
 The eggs are swallowed by intermediate host.
 The outer covering is digested and the young worm emerges.
 This bores into the blood vessels and is carried to specific muscles such as the tongue,
heart, thigh muscles.
 It develops into an encysted form called bladder-worm.
 When the animal is killed and meat is eaten raw or in an inadequately cooked form,
man gets infected by the bladder-worm.
 In man, the bladder-worm evaginates and attaches itself onto the intestinal wall where
it develops into an adult.

Control of Tapeworms
 Meat should be well cooked before eating.
 Use of drugs in primary host.
 Meat inspection by meat inspectors/ veterinary officers.
 Use of pit latrines by man.

Roundworms
Common ones are;
 Ascaris suum (pig roundworms),
 Ascaris lumbricoides found in man and sheep
 Haemonchus contortus found in sheep, cattle and goats.

Nature of Damage
 Damage is done to the liver and lung tissues as they migrate in the body.
 Suck out blood.
  Deprive the host of food.

Control of Roundworms
 Use of drugs.
 Rotational grazing.
 Use of proper stocking rates to avoid overgrazing.
 Practicing high standards of cleanliness and hygiene such as use of latrines.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION II (NUTRITION)

Introduction
 Animals are fed for the purpose of production and body maintenance.
 The edible material given to animals is called food.
 It is digested, absorbed and· utilized in the body.
 Nutrients are organic and inorganic substances contained in the food materials.

Components of Food material

water, protein, carbohydrates, fats and oils, vitamins mineral salts.

Water
 Sources
 Free water (through drinking)
 Bound water (contained in feeds).
 Metabolic water (obtained from oxidation of food).

Functions
 Regulates body temperature.
 Transport agent in the body.
 Universal solvent in the body.
 Gives shape to the cells (turgidity).
 Acts as a lubricant.
 Acts as constituent of body fluids.

Factors Determining the Requirements of Water by Livestock

 Production level.
 Amount of dry matter eaten.
 Temperature of the surrounding area.
 Type of animal.
 Type of food eaten.

Protein
Sources:
Groundnut cakes, cotton seed cakes, fish meal, meat meal.

Functions:
 Growth of new tissues.
 Repair of worn out tissues (body building).
 Synthesis of antibodies.
  Synthesis of hormones and enzymes.
 Production of energy during starvation.

Digestion of Proteins
In non-ruminants, protein digestion takes placed in the stomach.
Food is subjected to mechanical breakdown through chewing into small particles.
Protein is acted on by enzymes to turn into amino acid which is assimilated into the
bloodstream.

In ruminants, protein digestion initially takes place in the rumen.

Food is acted on by micro-organisms into microbial protein.
Later, enzymatic action takes place in the "true stomach" or abomasum where proteins are
broken down into amino acids which are then assimilated into the bloodstream.

Carbohydrates
Sources:
Cereals, tubers,commercially mixed feeds.

Functions:
 Supply energy and heat to the body.
 Excess is stored in form of fat for insulation of the body.

Digestion of Carbohydrates
In non-ruminants;
 carbohydrate feeds are broken down by chewing into small particles.
 Then enzymatic action further breaks down carbohydrates into glucose, fructose and
galactose which are then assimilated into the bloodstream.
In ruminants;
 mechanical breakdown of carbohydrate feeds is followed by microbial activities which
break down cellulose into volatile fatty acids.
 These are absorbed through the rumen walls.
 Some carbohydrates are broken down by enzymatic action in the "true stomach" or
abomasum.

Fats and Oils

Sources: Cotton seeds, soya beans groundnuts.

Functions:
 Supply energy and heat to the body.
 Excess is stored as fat adipose tissues.
 Source of metabolic water in the body.
 Required for the development of neural system.
 Insulator in the body.

Digestion of lipids in Ruminants

 Fats are hydrolysed in the rumen into fatty acids and glycerol.
 Others are fermented into propionic acid,
 The shorter chains are passed to the true stomach where enzymatic action takes place.
Vitamins
Sources:
Green materials, dried grass, fish liver oil.

Functions:
 Protects the body against diseases.
 Regulate the functions of all parts of the body.
 It acts as a co-enzyme in the body.

Examples:
Vitamin A, vitamin B2 vitamin C, vitamin E vitamin K.

Minerals
Sources:
Salt licks, bone meal, legumes, cereals.

Functions:
 Form part of the tissues such as bones and teeth.
 Work together with the enzymes.
 Act as acid -base balances.
 Act as electrolyte in the body.
 Regulate osmotic balance in the body.

Examples:
Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, iodine, sodium chlorine.

Calcium and phosphorus -

Needed for teeth and bone formation.
Lack of these minerals leads to rickets, osteomalacia.
 Lack of iron leads to anaemia.

Classification of Animal Feeds

This is based on nutrient composition:
 Roughages.
 Concentrates.
 Feed additives.

Roughages
Are feeds of low available nutrients per unit weight and high fibre content.

Examples:
Dry roughages, succulent roughages, residues from agricultural by products and conserved
materials.

Characteristics
 Low level of available nutrients.
 Have high level of calcium especially legumes.
 Good source of vitamin A.
  Have high fibre content.

Concentrates
Are feeds of high available nutrients per unit weight.

Examples:
Maize germ and bran, malt extract, milk products, soyabeans, oil seed cakes, meat meal,
bonemeal, bloodmeal.

Characteristics
 Low fibre content.
 Feed content is consistently high.
 High digestibility of the feed.
 High in nutrient content.

Feed Additives
These are substances added to the feed to increase;
 palatability,
 medication
 hormones to make animals produce more.

There are two types:

1. Nutritive additives, such as mineral licks (maclick).

2. Non-nutritives additives, such as;  medicants (coccidiostats),  Stilboestrol (used in

beef animals)  oxytocin (to increase milk let down).

Functions
Stimulate growth and production.
Improve feed efficiency.
Prevent disease causing organisms.

Compounded Feeds
These are the feeds prepared and mixed by use of machines.
These feeds can be round, pelleted, pencils, cubes or mash.

Poultry feeds can be categorized as:

 Chick mash having 20% D.C.P. given to chicks.
 Growers mash having 16% D.C.P. given to growers.
 Layers mash having 12-15% D.C.P. given to layers.

Meaning of terms used to express feed values

Nutritive ratio (NR):
 Is the proportion of protein to carbohydrates and fats.
 In young animals 1:3:6
 In old animals 1:8.

Crude protein (C.P): Is the total amount of protein contained in a feed.

Digestible Crude Protein (D.C.P): Is the portion of crude protein which an animal is
capable of digesting.

Crude Fibre (C.F.):

 Is the total amount of fibre contained in a feed.
 It is mainly lignin and cellulose.

Digestible Fibre (D.F.): Is the portion of the total fibre contained in a feed which an animal
is capable of digesting.

Dry Matter (D.M.): Is the material left in a feed after water has been removed.

Starch equivalent (S.E.): Is the amount of pure starch which has the same energy as 100kg
of that feed.

Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.): Is the sum of all the digestible organic nutrients such as
fats, proteins, carbohydrates and fibre.

Computation of Livestock Rations

Ration:
 Is the amount of food that will provide essential nutrients to an animal in a 24 hour period
 to enable that animal to meet its maintenance and production requirements.

Balanced ration:
 Is the ration that contains all the essential nutrients in required amounts and in the right
proportion.

Maintenance ration:
 is the portion of a feed required by an animal to continue with the vital body processes with
no loss or gain in weight.

Production ration:
 Is the feed required by animals over and above maintenance ration to enable the animal to
produce;
 for example; milk, eggs, wool, grow in size, perform work, reproduce and fatten.

Steps in ration formulation

 Finding out the animal's feed requirement based on body weight.
 List all the available feeds, with their nutrient composition and their prices.
 Calculate the amount of ingredients required in the ration to meet the animals needs.

Methods used in ration formulation

 Trial and error method
 Pearson’s square method
 Graphical method
  Linear programming(use of computers)

Examples;
Mix a Pigs ration 22% protein using soya bean meal 40% DCP and maize meal containing
8%DCP.

Digestion and digestive systems

Digestion is the process through which food is broken down into small particles in the
alimentary canal ready for absorption into the blood stream.

Digestion of food in livestock takes place in three stages;

 Mechanical breakdown and chewing
 Microbial breakdown by bacteria and protozoa in the rumen of ruminants
 Chemical breakdown by enzymes.
Rumen-
 Breakdown of food by micro-organisms and also stores food.
 Synthesis of vitamin B-complex.
 Synthesis of amino acids from ammonia gas.
 Proteins are broken to peptides and amino acids.
 Carbohydrates are broken to volatile fatty acids.

Reticulum:
 Separates large food particles from the small particles.
 Retains foreign materials such as stones, hard wood and sand.

Omasum:
 Breaks up food by grinding.
 Reduction of water content from the feed stuff.

Abomasum:
 Enzymatic digestion takes place here ..
 Contains some microbes which digest cellulose.
 Breaks up food by grinding.
 It is also found in non-ruminants

Comparison Between Digestion in Ruminant and Non-ruminants

Differences
Ruminants Non -ruminants

l. Chew the cud. l. Do not chew the cud.

2. Have four stomach chambers-thus 2. Have one stomach chamber - thus

 polygastric. monogastric.

3. Regurgitate food. 3. Cannot regurgitate food once

Functions of the Parts of Poultry

Crop:
 Storage of food.
 Softening of food by secretions from small glands in the walls.

Proventriculus: Enzymes start the breakdown of food.

Gizzard:-Crushes and grinds the coarse food (has small grit and gravel).

Comparison Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-Ruminants

Similarities Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-Ruminants

 Digestion in young ruminants is similar to that in non-ruminants as they do not have a
developed rumen-reticulum complex.
 Final protein digestion takes place in the small intestines in both cases.
 Water absorption takes place in the colon in both ruminants and non ruminants

`LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION III

(SELECTION AND BREEDING)
The performance of an animal is influenced by two major factors;
 Genetic potential
 The environment, which includes:
 Feeding,  Health,
 Care
 The ecological
conditions.
Reproduction and Reproductive Systems
 Reproduction is the process by which off-springs are produced.
 All farm animals multiply by means of sexual reproduction.
 It begins with fertilization which is the fusion of male and female gametes to form a
zygote.
 Fertilization takes place internally in the body of the female.
 The embryo(zygote) formed develops inside body of mother, fed and protected until end
of gestation period.
 In poultry, the process is different in that eggs are fertilized internally but laid and
development of the chick takes place outside during incubation.
 In both male and female, certain organs are specialized for the process of reproduction.
 Some of these organs secret fluids which are necessary for the movement and survival of
the gametes(reproductive cells.)

Reproduction in Cattle
The male reproductive organs produce the male gametes,the spermatozoans.
These are introduced into female reproductive system, where they fuse with the sperm to form
zygote.

 The testis: produces sperms

 Scrotum regulate temperature of testis for optimum production of sperms.
 Epididymis: Storage of sperms
  Sperm ducts: Conveys sperm from the testis and urine through the penis.
 Seminal vesicles produce fluid called semem. semen carries sperms out of penis in fluid
form.
 Prostate gland -produce fluid that neutralize the acidic effects of urine in the urethra
preventing death of sperms.
 Accessory glands: Include seminal vesicles cowpers gland and prostate gland.
 Urethra: Conveys urine and semen.
 Penis: It is a copulatory organ, also used for urination.

Ovaries Produce ova/eggs and hormones which control sexual cycle.

The release and movement of the ovum down to the uterus is called ovulation.

Fallopian tubes: Fertilization takes place here. Also a passage for the egg from the ovary to the
uterus.

The uterus:Embryo develops here.

The cervix: Closes the uterus.

The vagina and Vulva: It allows mating to take place so that sperms are deposited into the
vagina.

Pregnancy/ gestation period.

 Is period between fertilization of ova and the expulsion of the foetus through the vulva.
 In cattle gestation period is 270-285 days.
  During pregnancy, hormone called progesterone is produced by the placenta to maintain
the foetus in the uterus.

Parturition(giving birth)
Act of giving birth called parturition.
This time the foetus expelled through the birth canal.

When an animal is about to give birth, it shows signs;-

 Distended udder which produces thick milky fluid called colostrums.
 Swollen vulva producing thick mucus.
 Loose and slackened pelvic girdle.
 Visible pin bones.
 General restlessness.
Animal parturates within 2-3 hours after this signs.

Reproduction in Poultry
The Reproductive System of a hen

Ovary
Ova formed in ovaries. Mature ovum released via rapture of follicle. It moves into oviduct
received by the funnel.

Funnel(infundibulum)
Fertilization occurs here. Chalazae also added to yolk.

Magnum
Thick albumen is added.

Isthmus
Shell membranes added. Determines shape of egg. Water, mineral salts and vitamins added.

Uterus(shell gland)
Calcium deposited 9ie.shell added around the egg. Pigments added.
Addition of albumin finished.

Vagina
For temporal storage of egg before laying

Cloaca
Egg moves out of cloaca through the vent.
The cloaca extents out to prevent the egg from breaking.

Selection of a Breeding Stock

A breeding stock.
is a group of males and females which act as parents of future generations.
Selection
is the process of allowing certain animals to be parents of future generations while culling
others.
Culling
is the removal of animals which do not perform to the desired level, from the herd.

Selection helps improve characteristics which are highly heritable.

Heritability means the likelihood of a particular trait to be transmitted to the offspring and they
are strongly inherited.

The degree to which selection affects a character depends on the following factors;
 The heritability of the character
 The intensity with which the selection is done
 The interval between generations and kind of selection being practiced.

Factors To Consider When Selecting A Breeding Stock.

 Age  Body Conformation
 Level of performance  Temperament or Behaviour
 Physical Fitness  Quality of products
 Health  Mothering Ability
  Adaptability  Proliferation

i. Age
Young animals, they have a longer productive life.

ii. Level of performance

Animals with highest production level selected.

Good performance of animal indicated by;

 High milk, wool and egg production,
 Good mothering ability
 High prepotency which is the ability of a parent to pass good qualities to their offsprings.
 The animals with poor performance should be culled.
 Good records kept and used by the farmer for this purpose.

iii. Physical Fitness

Animals selected should be free from any physical defect

iv. Health
Animals that are resistant to diseases pass these characteristics to their offsprings

v. Body Conformation
Animals for breeding to be selected according to proper body conformation. A dairy cow should
be wedge-shaped with a large udder, thin legs, long neck.

vi. Temperament or Behaviour

Animals with bad behaviors should be culled.eg Cannibalism, egg eating, aggressiveness,
kicking

vii. Quality of products

Select animals that give products of high quality.

viii. Mothering Ability

Animals selected should have a good mothering ability,

ix. Adaptability
Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing climatic condition in the area.
x. Prolificacy
Animals selected should be highly prolific. That is, animals with the ability to give birth to many
offsprings at a time(larger litter).

Method of Selection
These include:
1. Mass selection - Animals with superior characteristics are selected from a herd and then
allowed to mate among each other.
 2. Progeny testing - assessing on the breeding value of an animal on the basis of
performance of its offsprings.

3. Contemporary comparison -comparison of performance between heifers of the same

age and sexual maturity.

4. Breeding
Process of mating selected males and females to produce offspring with the desired
characteristics.

Reasons:
 To expand the inherited potential of the animal.
 To improve production.
 To overcome production problems created by the environment.
 To satisfy consumers taste.
 For economic reasons.

Terms Used in Breeding

Inheritance
Genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offsprings.
Hybrid and Hybrid Vigour
A hybrid is an animal which is the product of crossing animals of two different breeds.

Hybrid vigour or heterosis is increased vigour and performance resulting from crossing two
superior breeds.

Epistasis
This is the masking of the effect of one gene by another gene which is non-allelic, that is situated
on different locus.

Breeding Systems

1. Inbreeding
Mating of animals which are related.

Reasons for inbreeding

 To increase genetic uniformity in a herd.
 Used to fix the required characteristics in new breeds.
 To increase phenotypic uniformity.
 To get proven sires.

Limitations of inbreeding
 It can bring about loss of hybrid vigour.
 It may lead to decline in fertility.
 It may lead to high rate of pre-natal mortality.
Systems of Inbreeding
Close Breeding: mating between very closely related animals, for example sib-mating and
parents sib-mating.

Line Breeding: mating of distantly related animals that had a common ancestor for example
cousins.

2. Outbreeding
Mating of animals which are not related.

Reasons:
 To introduce new genes in an existing breeding herd.
 To exploit heterosis resulting from a cross between two breeds.
 To develop a new breed or a grade animal.

Limitations
 Lack of uniformity in animals that result from outbreeding.
 Desirable characteristics may be lost due to variation.

Systems of Outbreeding
Cross-breeding Mating of animals from two different pure breeds.

Out-Crossing Mating of unrelated animals from the same breed.

Upgrading/Grading up Mating where the female of a cow grade stock (locals) is mated with a
pure breed sire.

Mating in Livestock
Mating in Cattle
Heat signs occur every 21 days.
The heat period last for 18-30 hours on average 24 hours.
Cow should be served 12-18 hours after showing the first heat signs.

Heat Signs in cattle

 Restlessness.
 Mounting on others and when mounted on she stands still.
 Rise in body temperature.
 Drop in milk production in lactating cows.
 Vulva swells and becomes reddish.
 Clear or slimy mucus from the vulva.
 Bellowing or mooing frequently.

Mating in Pigs
 Heat signs in pigs occur after every 21 days.
 The heat lasts about 72 hours.
  Sows or gilts should be served in 18- 36 hours of the heat period.

Signs of Heat in pigs

 Restlessness.
 Frequent urination.
 Swelling and reddening of the vulva.
 Clear or slimy discharge from the vulva.
 Frequent mounting on others.
 It responds very well to the 'riding test'.

Mating in Rabbits
 Does are ready for mating 6-7 months of age.
 Heat signs occur every 14 days.
 The doe should be taken to the buck and not vice versa.

Signs of Heat in rabbits

 Restlessness.
 Frequent urination.
 Swollen vulva.
 The doe throws herself on the side.
 The doe rubs herself against the wall or any other solid object.
 The doe tries to contact other rabbits in the next hutch by peeping.

Methods of Service in Livestock

Natural Mating
Advantages:
 It is more accurate.
 It is less laborious.
 Useful when heat signs of females cannot be easily detected.

Disadvantages
 Inbreeding is not easily controlled.
 Transmission of breeding diseases.
 Extra feed for the male is required.
 Large males can injure small females.
 Wastage of semen.
 It is cumbersome and expensive to transport a bull to remote areas.

Artificial insemination
Introduction of semen into the female reproductive tract by artificial means.

Advantages
 There is economical use of semen.
 It controls transmission of breeding diseases.
  Sires that are unable to serve cows due to heavy weight or injury can produce semen to
serve cows.
 It prevents large bulls from injuring small cows.
 It reduces the expenses of keeping a male animal.
 A small scale farmer who cannot afford to buy a superior bull can have the cows served
at a low cost.
 Semen can be stored for long.
 It helps to control inbreeding.
 It eliminates the threat of keeping dangerous bulls from the farm.
 It makes research work easier.

Disadvantages
 Harmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to the offsprings.
 It requires skilled labour.
 Low chance of conception due to death of semen during storage.
 It is laborious

Embryo Transplant
It is the implantation of an embryo (fertilized ova) from a high quality female (donor) in the
uterus of a low grade female (recipient).

Advantages
 Faster multiplication of an animal with superior characteristics .
 It is easier to transport embryos than the whole animal.
 Embryos can be stored for a long period awaiting the availability by recipient females.
 It stimulates milk production in a female (recipient) that was not ready to produce milk.
 Low grade animals can be used in production and rearing of high quality animals.
 Offsprings of a superior female can spread quickly in an area.

Disadvantages
 It is expensive.
 It requires skilled personnel.
 It requires special equipment for fertilization and storage of embryos.

Signs of Parturition in Livestock

Parturition is the act of giving birth in female animals.

Parturition in Cattle
The gestation period in cattle is 270-285 days averaging 280days.

Signs of Parturition in cattle

 Restlessness  Slackening of the pelvic muscles.
 Enlarged or swollen vulva.  Full and distended udder.
 Clear mucus discharge from the  Thick milky fluid from the teats.
vulva.
  A water bag appears and bursts just
before calving.

Parturition in Pigs
The gestation period in pigs is about 4 months or 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days.

Signs of Parturition in pigs

 Restlessness.
 The vulva turns red and swells.
 The udder becomes full with a milky fluid the sow starts to prepare a nest by collecting
some beddings at one comer of the pen.

Parturition in Rabbits
The gestation period in rabbits is 28-32 days.

Signs of Parturition in rabbits

 Preparing a nest by plucking off hair from her belly.
 Goes off feeding
 Restlessness.
 The udder distends.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IV
(LIVESTOCK REARING PRACTICE)

Specific management also important in bee and fish farming.

Routing livestock rearing practices.

A routine is a fixed/regular way of doing something.
i. Feeding Practice
Animals are fed to cater for both maintenance and production requirements.
These are special types of feeding carried out on certain animals to cater for specific needs.
These include:
a) Flushing
The practice of giving extra quality feed to an animal around service time.

Importance of Flushing
 It increases conception rates.
 It enhances implantation of the zygote.
 In sheep it increases twinning percentage by 15-20%.

b) Steaming Up
Giving extra quality feed to an animal during the last weeks of gestation.
In cattle it is done 6-8 weeks before calving.
Importance Steaming Up
 It provides nutrients for maximum foetal growth.
 It helps in the build up of energy for parturition.
 It ensures the birth of a healthy animal.
 It promotes good health of the mother.
 It increases and maintains high milk yield after birth.

c) Creep Feeding
Feeding of young animals from birth to weaning.

Piglets
10 days old - introduced to creep pellets.
5 weeks old - creep pellets mixed with sow and weaner meals.
8 weeks old - weaning.

Lambs
Run with their mothers for natural suckling.
Bucks - introduced to succulent feeds and concentrates.

Kids
Meat goats kids suckle naturally.
Dairy goats, fed on milk artificially,
Given 0.5-1.25 litres up to the third week.
Introduced to concentrates at 3-4 months.
Weaned at 6-8 weeks of age.

Parasite and Disease Control Practices

i. Vaccination
Introducing active disease organsms which are reduced in strength or virulent into the animals'
body to induce immunity.

Administration of Vaccination done through:

 By injection.  By inhalation
 Orally through the through the nose.
mouth.  Eye drops.

ii. Deworming
Practice of killing/removing internal parasites by administering drugs known as dewormers /
antihelmitics.

iii. Hoof Trimming

Cutting back overgrown hooves with the help of a hoof trimming knife, a hoof cutter or a hoof
rasp.

Importance
 Facilitate easy movement.
  Control of foot rot disease.
 Facilitate mating - prevent the ram from injuring the ewe during tupping.

iv. Docking /tailing

This is the removal (cutting oft) of tails in sheep during the first week after birth.

Importance
 Even distribution of body fat.
 Facilitate easy mating in adult life.
 Minimise fouling of the wool with faeces.
 Reduce incidences of blowfly infestation.

Methods of Docking /tailing

 Cutting with sharp knife or scalpel.
 Use of elastrator and rubber ring.

v. Dipping and Spraying

These are methods of applying acaricides on the animals to control external parasites.

vi. Dusting
It is the application of chemical powders on the animal body or on the walls of the animal house
to control external parasites.
It is used to control stick-fast parasites and fleas in poultry.

BREEDING PRACTICES
These are practices carried out to enhance successful breeding.

i. Crutching and Ringing

 Crutching - cutting of wool around the external reproductive organs of female sheep.
 Ringing - trimming wool around the sheath of the penis of the rams to facilitate mating.

ii. Tupping and Serving

 Tupping refers to mating in sheep and goats.
 Serving refers to mating in cattle and pigs.

iii. Raddling
This is the practice of fitting the rams with breeding chutes which are painted in different colours
during mating to identify mated ewes and to indicate the active rams hence help in culling of the
weak rams.

iv. Identification
The practice of putting identification marks on animal.
 Branding - burning marks on the animals skin.
 Ear tagging - placing marked plastic or metallic tags on the animals ears.
 Ear notching - cutting different shapes bearing different values on the ear lobes.
 Tattooing - use of permanent ink or dye to mark animals with light skin.
  Neck strap or chain - Fixing of tags round the animals neck with a chain or a strap.

v. Debeaking
Cutting about 1/3 of the upper beak with a knife, scissors or hot iron.

Importance
 Control egg eating.
 Control cannibalism.

vi. Tooth Clipping

The removal (clipping) of the needle (canine) teeth in piglets 24 hours after birth.

vii. Culling
Removal of undesirable animals from a herd.

viii. Dehorning
Removal of horns or horn buds from an animal.

Importance
 It prevents animals from injuring each other.
 It makes the animal docile and therefore easy to handle.
 For easy transportation and feeding.
 Prevents destruction of farm structures.

ix. Shearing
The practice of cutting wool from all over the body of a sheep.
It starts at the age of 8 months and then done once a year.
Should be done during the dry season.
Tools used: wool shears.
Care must be taken not to cut the skin, testicles, udder, vulva and penis.

x. Castration
It is the rendering unserviceable the testicles of a male animal.

Importance
 To control breeding diseases.
 To control breeding.
 For faster growth rates.
 Increase quality of meat by removing unpleasant smell especially in goats.

Methods Used of castration:

Closed/bloodless method; involves use of burdizzo or rubber ring and elastrator.
Open method; surgical method used for castrating cocks, piglets and rabbits whose testes are
internal.
Caponisation
It is the practice of making male birds lose their male characteristics by use of hormones.

Bee Keeping (Apiculture)

Bees are insects which live in very well organised colonies.

Each colony consists of:

 Queens - fertile females that breed to ensure the continuity of the species.
 Drones - fertile males that mate with the queen for reproduction process.
 Workers - non-fertile or sterile females that maintain the colony.

Duties of Workers
 They rear and nurse the brood (eggs, larvae and pupae), queen and drones.
 They collect nectar and make honey.
 They make the honey combs.
 They protect the hives.
 They clean the hive.

Importance of Bees
 Collect nectar from flowers.
 Make honey - a nutritious product used by man as food.
 Helps in crops pollination of plants.
 Bees produce wax used to make candles.
 They make propolis - a bee product which is medicinal.

Routine Management Siting/locating of beehive

Factors to consider;
 Nearness or accessibility to nectar or flower-producing vegetation.
 Areas with shade. Bees are sensitive to the sun's heat and require some shade to protect
them.
 Safe distance from human residence and other livestock.
 Bees are stinging insects and can be a hazard to humans or other animals.
 Nearness to a source of water for use in their nutrition.
 A good distance from source of noise and other disturbances.
 Safety from predators for example honey badgers, ants (safari ants), birds and other
parasites such as wax moths.

Feeding
Normally bees are self-sufficient in providing their food from the honey they make.
Parasites
 Ants  Bee louse
 Wax moths  Honey badger

Control of Parasites
  Use of physical barriers such as Vaseline/grease to control ants.
 Smoke the hive to control bee louse.
 Suspend the hive to control honey badgers.
 Burn infected combs to control wax moths.

Diseases and Control

African bees are seldom attacked by diseases.

Harvesting Honey
Factors to consider;
Stage of ripening: Honey must be harvested when it is fully mature.
Season of the year: Harvested at the end of the rainy season.

Procedure
 Blow light smoke through the hole.
 This makes bees suck honey and become engorged and docile.
 Lower the hive to the ground.
 Open the hive to expose honey combs.
 Brush the bees off the honey combs.
 Cut the honey combs, leaving a small margin on the bars and keep them in a closed
container.

Honey Processing
 Using heat in a water bath to melt the honey.
 Crushing and straining.
 Using a centrifugal extractor.

Precautions When Handling Bees

 Avoid excessive smoking.
 This kills the brood and lowers quality of the honey.
 Use protective clothing to avoid sting.
 Protect the hive from rain water.
 Use clean equipment and containers to avoid contamination of the honey.
 Use recommended method of extracting honey.
 Use recommended type of hive such as Kenya top bar hive.

Fish Keeping (Aquaculture)

The rearing or keeping of fish is called fish farming and is normally carried out in specially
prepared ponds.

A good fish-pond should have the following features:

 Site should be on a fairly level ground with a permanent supply or source of water.
 The area should have clayey soil to avoid loss of water through seepage.
 Water must be free from any pollutants such as chemicals and other wastes.
Construction for fish-pond should provide:
 an inlet for fresh supply of water,
 a spill way channel to take off overflow or excess water,
 an outlet to drain off the water when it is necessary to replace pond water,
 a fence to keep off predators and other intruders.

Feeding Fish
Fish naturally feed on worms, insects and algae in the ponds.

These sources of food must be supplemented by throwing in the pond ;

kitchen wastes, chopped vegetable materials such as cabbage leaves,
cereal brans brewers' grain .
Management Practices to Ensure Maximum Harvest of Fish
 Control of stocking rate, that is to, have the recommended population of fish in a pond at
anytime.
 Harvest at the correct maturity stage.
 This is done by using the fishing net with correct mesh sizes to avoid catching the
fingerlings.
 Avoid water pollution in the ponds which may poison fish.
 Ensure adequate supply of food in the pond.
 Water in the ponds should be kept in motion to facilitate aeration.
 Maintain appropriate depth (level) of water.
 Control predators and/or thieves.
 Drain and refill ponds with fresh water as necessary.

Harvesting Fish
Harvesting or extracting fish from the fish ponds for consumption

Two main methods:

Hook-and-line method:
This is slow, injures small fish and is inefficient.
It is only suitable for small-scale fishing.

Use of fishing nets: This is the most efficient method as long as a net with the correct mesh sizes
is used.

Maintenance of the Fish Pond

 Repairing the dyke or any structure on it.
 Cleaning the pond and removing foreign materials.
 Planting grass where necessary.
 Removing un desirable vegetation.
 Removing the silt.

Fish Preservation
Practices before preservation:
  Clean the fish to remove mud and any worms.
 Removing scales and slime.
 Opening the fish on the side to remove the gut and the intestines referred to as gutting. .
 Cleaning the abdominal cavity thoroughly.
 Keeping fish in open containers.

Methods of Preservation
Freezing, Salting, Sun drying, Smoking

Appropriate Handling of Livestock During Management

 Physical beating should be avoided.
 Structures which help in restraining animals should be used whenever applicable.
 The correct methods of securing and casting animals should be used.
 Use as little force as possible.
 Equipment such as ropes, halters, lead stick and bull rings are used to handle animals
appropriately.

FARM STRUCTURES
Introduction
Farm structures are physical constructions on the farm used to increase efficiency in production.

Construction of Farm Structures

Involves:
Planning for farm structures ;
Consider;
 Farm activities  Accessibility.
 Size of the enterprise.  Soil type.
 Future of the enterprise.

Siting farm structures;

Consider:
 The location of the homestead.  Wind direction.
 Accessibility.  Relationship between the structures.
 Security.  Proximity to social amenities.
 Drainage/topography.  Farmer's taste and preference.

Materials for Construction

Structural Materials and Use
Factors which determine the type of materials to use are;
 durability,  availability,  cost
 strength,  workability,  sanitation.
 labour,  serviceability,
Stones and Bricks
Advantages
Stones and bricks are durable, easy to disinfect, resistant to weather and insects decay and are
easily available.

Disadvantages
They are bulky and require skilled labour to make them.

Plastic and Synthetic Materials

These include; glass, asbestos fibre, polythene materials.

Advantages
 Light,  are durable,
 cheep depending on quality,  cannot be destroyed by insects and
 easy to disinfect, fungus
 can be moulded into any shape,  are water-proof.

Disadvantages
 Are easily destroyed,  very expensive
 fragile,  require skilled labour.

Wood (Timber)
Advantages
 They are workable,  can be re-used
 cheap,  are fairly strong.

Disadvantages
 They can catch fire easily,
 decay if exposed to water
 are affected by fungus and insects.
Concrete
Is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water
e.g. in making blocks the ratio is 1:2:3; one part cement, two parts sand and three parts
aggregate.

Uses
 Making posts for fencing.
 Making walls and floor of buildings.
 Making gabions and water channels to prevent erosion.
 Making water troughs.

Advantages
These materials are;
 durable, workable,  cheap to maintain,
 easy to disinfect,  fire resistant
Disadvantages
These materials are ;
 expensive,  bulky,
 require skilled labour,  cannot be reused

Animal handling structures

used when doing following activities;
Spraying livestock to control ticks,
milking,
examining sick animals,
artificial insemination,
treating animals, eg drenching, vaccination,
dong routine jobs such as dehorning, identification marks,

Farm Buildings
Factors to be considered in site selection;
 Security  Personal whims/tastes and
 Nearness to a source of water preference
 Topography  Nearness to means of
 Direction of the prevailing wind communication.
 Direction of the sun

Types of farm buildings

 Houses for farm animals.  Buildings for growing crops e.g
 Stores for farm produce. green house.
 Stores for equipment, tools and  Building for processing plant e.g
supplies. milk plant.

Parts of a building
 The foundation,
 The walls,
 The roof
Parts of the roof Include; kingpost, rafters, struts, tie beam, rafter batten
Parts of the foundations Include; concrete floor, foundation wall, PVC sheet, the compacted fill.

Fences
Importance of Fence in a Farm
 Keep out intruders to the farm,
 Define the boundary lines of the farm.
 Paddocking of fields to make rotational grazing possible.
 Live fences serve as windbreaks.
 Fences are used in mixed farming to protect crops from. damage by livestock.
 Fences add aesthetic values to the farm.
 It is easy to control breeding.
 It is easy to isolate sick animals from the rest of the herd.

Types of Fences
 Dead fences.  Chicken wire fence (mesh wire
 Barbed wire fences. fence).
 Electric fence.  Woven wire fence (chain link).
 Concrete fence.  Wooden fence.

Fencing Practice
Materials include; wires, staples, nails, posts, droppers, concrete materials.

Steps in Fencing
 Locate the corners
 Clear the fencing area.
 Mark gates, straina|ers, pass places and standards by pegging.
 Dig holes to proper depths.
 Fix the standard posts.
 Firm around posts or apply concrete.
 Fix wires on posts.
  Fix the droppers.

LIVESTOCK HEALTH III: (DISEASES)

Livestock diseases are classified according to causative agents as follows:
 Protozoan diseases -caused by protozoans.
 Bacterial diseases - caused by bacteria:
 VIral diseases - cause by virus.
 Nutritional diseases - brought about by nutritional disorders.

Protozoan Diseases
 East coast Fever (ECF).  Coccidiosis
 Anaplasmosis (gall sickness)  Trypanosomiasis (Nagana)

i. East coast Fever

 Animals attacked: Cattle
 Cause: Protozoan. (Theileria parva)
 It is a tick-borne disease transmitted by red-legged tick and brown ear tick.

Symptoms
 Rise in body temperature.  Difficulties in breathing.
 Swelling of lymph glands below the  Dullness.
ear.

Control and Prevention

 Control of vectors through dipping and fencing.
 Treatment by use of clexon in the early stages.

ii. Anaplasmosis (gall sickness)

Animals attacked:
Cattle between 2 months and 2 years. Poultry. Lambs and kids. Rabbits.

 Cause: Protozoan (Anaplasma marginale)

 Transmitted by the blue tick
 contaminated surgical instruments and hypodermic needles.

Symptoms
 Fever/rise in body  Paleness in the gums, eyes
temperature. and lips.
 Constipation or hard dung.  Drop in milk production.

Control
Tick control.
Intramuscular injection of antibiotics and iron giving injections.
Coccidiosis

iii. Coccidiosis of Poultry

Cause: Protozoan (Eimeria spp.)

Symptoms
 Sudden death of chicks.
 Whitish, yellow and blood stained diarrhoea.
 Ruffled feathers.
 Chicks become paralysed before dying.
 Chicks become anaemic and dull.

Control
 Disinfection of chick house.
 Prevention of contamination of food and water with droppings.
 Use of prophylatic drugs for example, Coccidiostats.

iv. Trypanosomiasis (Nagana)

Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats.
Cause: Protozoan of the trypanosome species,
Vector-tsetse flies.

Symptoms
 Fever.  Rough coat and sometimes without hair
 Dullness. and may be cracked.
 Anorexia/loss of appetite.  Swelling in parts of the belly.
 Loss of body condition/emaciation.  Drop in milk production in lactating
cows.
 Swollen lymph nodes.
 Loss of hair at tail end.
 Lachrimation which leads to blindness.  Anaemia.
 Diarrhoea  Abortion may occur in pregnant females.

Control
 Treating animals with trypanocidal drugs.
 Effective vector (Tsetse flies)control
 Confinement of wild animals in game parks.

Bacterial Diseases
 Fowl typhoid  Blackquarter.
 Foot rot.  Mastitis.
 Contagious abortion.  Anthrax.
 Scours.  Pneumonia.

i. Fowl Typhoid
Animals attacked: All domestic birds which include chicken, turkey and ducks.
Causes: Bacteria (Salmonella gallinarum}

Symptoms
 Depression/appearing very sick.  Sleepy eyes.
 Respiratory distress.  Anaemia resulting in pale and
 Dullness. shrunken
 Drooping wings.  combs and wattles.
 Greenish yellow diarrhoea.

Control
 Killing all affected birds and proper disposal of the carcasses.
 Maintaining hygiene in the poultry house.
 Ensuring that the house is dry and well ventilated.
 Obtaining chicks from reliable sources.
 Treatment using sulphur drugs which are mixed in drinking water or mash.

ii. Foot Rot

It is also referred to as foul-in-the foot.
Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats.
However, it is most serious in sheep.
Cause: Bacteria (Fusiformis necrophorus and Fusiformis nodosus).

Symptoms
 Animal's foot becomes swollen.
 Lameness is observed.
 Pus and rotten smell come out of the hoof.
 Sheep are found kneeling while grazing when the front feet are affected.
 Animals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affected.
 Emaciation due to lack of feeding.

Control
 Hygiene in the living places.
 Regular foot examination and hoof trimming.
 Use of a foot bath of copper sulphate solution
 Treating wounds on the feet with antiseptics.
 Affected animals should be given antibiotic injections.
 Isolation of sick animals from healthy ones.
 Avoid dampness and muddy conditions.

iii. Contagious Abortion (Brucellosis/ Bang's Disease)

Animals attacked: cattle, sheep, goats and pigs.
It also affects man.
Cause: Bacteria
Brucella abortus in cattle,
Brucella suis in pigs
Brucella malitensis in goats and sheep.

Symptoms
 Spontaneous abortion or premature birth.
 Retained placenta if abortion occurs during the later stages of pregnancy.
 Infertility in cows while bulls have low libido and inflamed testis also known as orchitis.
 A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after the
abortion.

Control
 Use of artificial insemination.
 Slaughtering affected animals followed by proper disposal of their carcasses.
 The attendant to the animals should avoid contact with the aborted foetus.
 A blood test should be carried out for all breeding animals to detect the infected ones.
 Hygiene in the animals' houses.

iv. Scours (white Scours)

Animals atacked: calves, piglets, lambs and kids.
Cause: A bacterium which attacks young animals in the first week of life.

Symptoms
 White or yellowish diarrhoea.  Sunken eyes.
 Pungent smelling faeces.  Undigested milk and mucus with blood
 Fever. spots observed in the faeces.
 Anorexia/loss of appetite.  Faecal matter sticks to the hind quarters.
 Listlessness.  Sudden death if no treatment is given.

Control
 Maintaining hygiene in the young animal housing units.
 Avoiding dampness on the floor of the house.
 Fingers of the attendant training calves to drink milk from a bucket must be disinfected.
 Calving should be carried out in a clean area.
 Have separate attendants for the infected calves to prevent disease spread.
 Replacing milk with warm water mixture.
 Treating affected animals with antibiotics.

v. Black Quarter
It is also known as black leg.
Animals attacked: All ruminants aged between 8 - 18 months.
Cause: Bacteria (Clostridium chauvei and Chauvei septicum)

Symptoms
 Lameness.  Cracking on the swollen parts if touched.
 Fever.
 Fast and heavy breathing.
 Swelling of the affected parts usually the  Anorexia.
hindquarters, shoulders and chest or  Grunting and grinding of teeth.
back.  Animal stops chewing cud.
 Dullness.

Control
 Treating with recommended antibiotics.
 Vaccinating using black quarter vaccine known as blanthax.
 Burying the carcass deep or burning it completely.

vi. Mastitis
Is an inflammation of the udder.
Animals attacked: Goats, cows, pigs and human beings.
Cause: Bacteria (Streptococcus spp. or Staphylococcus spp.)

Pre-disposing Factors:
 Incomplete milking.
 Injuries on the udder and teats.
 Weak sphincter muscles of the teats allowing free flow of milk.

Symptoms
 Milk is watery, blood stained or clotted.
 Swollen udder

Control
 Proper milking techniques.
 Treatment by use of antibiotics.
 Culling of animals which are often attacked.

vii. Anthrax
Attacks all domestic animals.
Cause: Bacteria (Bacillus anthracis)

Symptoms
 Sudden death.  High fever.  Grinding of the
teeth.

viii. Pneumonia
It is an inflammation of the lungs.
Animals attacked: Calves, kids, lambs, piglets and poultry.

Cause:
 Bacteria  worms in the lungs.
 dust

Symptoms
 Dullness.  Abnormal lung sounds when breathing.
 Anorexia/loss of appetite.  Coughing if the chest is pressed.
 Staring coat.  Fluctuating body temperature.
 Emaciation.  Nasal discharge.
 Breathing rapidly.

Control
 Keeping young animals in warm pens.
 Proper sanitation.
 Isolation of the affected animals.
 Treating using antibiotics.

Viral Diseases
 Rinderpest.  Fowl pox
 Foot and mouth disease (FMD).  Gumboro
 New Castle  African swine fever

i. Rinderpest
Animal attacked: Cattle and wild game.
Cause: virus.

Symptoms
 Harsh staring coat.  Diarrhoea and dysentery.
 Rise in temperature.  Ulcers in the mouth.
 Eye discharge (Lachrimation)

ii. Foot and Mouth Disease

Animals attacked: Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs.
Cause: Virus .

Symptoms
 Sharp rise in temperature.
 Blisters in the mouth, hooves, udder and teats.
 Loss of appetite.

Control
 Vaccination.
 Quarantine
 nursing wounds with disinfectant.

iii. New Castle

Animals attacked: Poultry.
Cause: Virus.

Symptoms
  Difficulties in breathing.
 Beaks remain wide open and necks are strained.
 Birds become dull.
 The birds stand with eyes closed all the time.
 Anorexia/loss of appetite.
 Nasal discharges which force the birds to shake their heads to clear it.
 Birds walk with a staggering motion.
 Paralysis of wings and legs may occur.
 Birds have their beaks and wings down.
 Birds produce watery greenish diarrhoea.
 Birds lay soft shelled eggs.

Control
 Killing all birds and burning them followed by cleaning and disinfecting the houses
before bringing in new stock.
 Vaccination should be done during the first 6 weeks and then 2-3 months later. \
 Quarantine.

iv. Fowl Pox

Animals affected: Poultry.
Cause: A virus known as avian fox.

Symptoms
Two types of fowl pox with different symptoms.
 Cutaneous type
 Diptheritic type
The cutaneous type affects the skin and has the following signs:
Injuries on the combs and wattles, legs, vent and under the wings.
Loss appetite.

The diptheritic type affects internal membranes and has the following symptoms:
 Injuries in the inside of the throat and mouth membranes resulting in difficult breathing
and swallowing.
 Eyes and nose produces a watery  Dullness.
liquid.  Emaciation.
 Loss of appetite.

Control
 Killing all affected birds followed by proper disposal of their carcasses.
 Vaccinating remaining healthy birds.

v. Gumboro
It is also referred to as poultry AIDS.
Animals attacked: Poultry.
Cause: A virus known as Birma virus.
Symptoms
 The glands above the vent (bursa) become swollen.
 Drop in egg production.
 Birds develop respiratory distress.
 Loss of appetite.
 Low water intake by birds.
 Loss of immunity making the birds more susceptible to opportunistic diseases.

Control
 Vaccination.
 Administering vitamins and especially B12.

vi. African Swine Fever

Animals attacked: All domesticated pigs.
Cause: A virus known as Irido virus.

Symptoms
 Fever.  Coughing.
 Loss of appetite.  Nasal discharge.
 Depression/dullness.  Diarrhoea in serious conditions.
 Emaciation.

Control
 Vaccination.
 Quarantine.
 Killing all affected animals and proper disposal of their carcasses.
 Double fencing to keep wild animals away.
 Nutritional Diseases/Disorders

vii. Milk Fever

It is a non-infectious disease brought about by calcium deficiency in animals which have recently
given birth.
Animals attacked: Cows, goats and pigs that have recently given birth.

Causes:
 Due to low calcium levels in the blood.
 Which leads to an increase in the magnesium and sugar level in the blood.
 Mostly occurs in high producing cows in the first few months of lactation.
 This is because these animals loose more calcium through milk secretion than they are
getting from the diet.

Symptoms
 Dullness.
 Muscular twitching causing the animal to tremble.
 Staggering as the animals move.
 Animal falls down ands becomes unconscious.
  The animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffens.
 Body functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stops.
 Stomach contents are drawn into the mouth which later cause lung fever when breathing
in.
 Loss of appetite.

Treatment
 Intravenous injection of soluble calcium salt
 Keeping the animal in a comfortable position on its sternum.
 Giving fresh water.

Control
 Partial milking for the first 10 days.
 High yielding cows should be given rations containing phosphorus and calcium.
 Giving high doses of Vitamin D.

Vii. Bloat
Animals attacked: Cattle and sheep.
Cause: Accumulation of gases as a result of fermentation in the rumen.

Symptoms
The left side is blown up. Sudden death.

Control
 Relieve by use of trocar and cannula.
 Chasing the animal around if noticed early.
 Drenching by use of stop bloat.
 Feeding ruminants with dry roughages during the wet season before grazing on lush
pastures.

Livestock Production V (Poultry)

The shell
Made up of calcium and phosphorous compounds which make it hard. It gives the egg its shape
and provides protection to the inner contents of the egg.

Shell membrane
This forms the inner lining of the shell and makes about 1% of the egg content. It is formed of
two separate membranes which closely adhere to each other. The air in the air space is used by
the developing embryo during incubation.

Albumen/Egg white
The albumen surrounds the yolk and serves as a food reserve to the developing embryo. It is
mainly protein.

Chalazae
It has two twisted cords which hold the yolk in place at the centre of the egg.

The Yolk
Its main function is to supply for all the embryo requirements since it contains food reserves for
the developing chick. The yolk is rich in vitamins, fats, minerals and proteins. The three parts
are:

The germinal disc:

It allows maximum heat transfer to the developing embryo within the yolk.

The egg pigments:

The pigment contained in the yolk always comes from the food the bird eats and also from its
body.
The vitelline membrane:
The vitelline membrane surrounds the yolk and therefore gives the yolk its shape.

Incubation of eggs
Involves the provision of fertile eggs with the proper condition for embryonic development.

Selection of Eggs for Incubation

 Should be fertile.
 Should be of medium size about 55- 60gms in weight.
 Should have smooth shell.
 Should be oval shaped.
 Should not be cracked.
 Eggs should be clean to ensure that pores are open.
 Should not have abnormalities such as blood spots, meat spots and double yolk. .
 Eggs should not be more than 5 days old.
 Eggs should be fresh that is collected within one week.

Methods of Incubation
1. Natural incubation
This method involves the use of a broody hen to sit on the eggs.

Signs of Broodiness in Poultry

i) Prolonged moulting
ii) Tendency to sit on the eggs after laying
iii) Number of eggs laid are few
iv) Plucking of feathers from the abdomen/breast region
v) Produces a characteristic sound and becomes aggressive.

Preparation and Management of Natural Incubation

i) Ensure the hen is completely broody.
ii) Prepare the nest in a secluded place of the poultry house.
iii) Give an adequate number of eggs to the broody hen i.e.10-15eggs
iv) Set the eggs in the evening or night but not in the morning so that the chicks will start
emerging on the evening or night of the 21st day.
v) Regularly dust the hen with appropriate pesticides so as to control external parasites such as
fleas, mites etc.
vi) Allow the bird to occasionally move out to scratch and exercise.
vii) Feed the brooding hen daily and provide adequate clean water.

Advantages of Natural Incubation

i) Less skill is required
ii) It is not labour intensive as there is no turning of the eggs and checking of temperatures.
iii) It’s a cheap way of multiplying birds i.e. small scale farmers who cannot afford incubators
can multiply their flocks using this method.
iv) Hatchability is very high compared to artificial incubation therefore reducing the risk margin.
Disadvantages
i) Only few chicks can be hatched at a time by one hen
ii) Egg production is reduced when the birds go broody.
iii) It’s only possible with breeds that go broody.
iv) The farmer cannot plan when to incubate.
v) Diseases and parasites can easily be transmitted to the chicks from the hen if it is infected.

2. Artificial Incubation
Under this method all the conditions necessary for the hatching of the eggs are provided
artificially by equipment called an incubator.

Conditions Necessary for Artificial Incubation

1. Temperature: Temperature should be maintained at 37.5oC – 39.4oC.
2. Fresh Air /Ventilation: There should be adequate fresh air circulating in the incubator.
3. Relative Humidity: It should be about 60%. If it is too low, the embryos may lose moisture
and die. Water is placed in a tray within the incubator to maintain the humidity. The damp cloth
also assists in maintaining the relative humidity. High humidity lowers hatchability and leads to
production of large chicks which look abnormal. It also results into dampness which predisposes
the eggs to infections.
4. Egg Turning: This helps to avoid the germinal disc sticking onto the egg shell leading to the
death of the embryo.

Management of the Incubator

The following should be observed for artificial incubation.
i) The incubator should be cleaned and disinfected or fumigated before putting in the eggs.
ii) Eggs should be turned every 6-8 hours each day.
iii) Any egg found to be infertile on the 5th day should be removed.
iv) Remove any broken eggs.
v) Maintain temperature within the set range
vi) Add water as necessary to maintain the correct humidity.

Advantages of Artificial Incubation

i) It’s possible to plan when to have the chicks.
ii) Many chicks are hatched at once
iii) If management is good, there is no danger of infecting the chicks with diseases and parasites.
iv) The incubator is usually ready when required
v) Egg production is not affected by incubation as the hens do not go broody.

Disadvantages
i) Incubator is expensive to buy hence has high capital investment.
ii) More labour intensive.
iii) More skills required
iv) Have high risks of damaging all the eggs if the requirements such as temperature or relative
humidity are not strictly observed and controlled.
v) Only viable in large scale hatcheries.

Sources of Chicks
For success in the poultry enterprise, the following factors should be put into consideration.
i) Reputation of the supplier
ii) The type of chicks required in relation to size, breed, sex etc
iii) Time factor i.e. how long the chicks will take in transit from the hatchery to the farm.

Brooding and Rearing of Chicks

Brooding is the rearing of chicks from one day old to the time they are taken to the main house.

Natural Brooding
 A hen is allowed to take care of the chicks.
 She provides them with warmth and security.
 She stays with the chicks for 8 weeks and then rejects them.

Advantages
 It is cheap.
 Less labour is needed.
 Suitable for small scale.

Disadvantages of Natural Brooding

 Not possible to produce large numbers of chicks.
 The hen goes off laying during brooding time.
 Only possible when a broody hen is available.

Artificial Brooding
The chicks are raised artificially in a structure known as a brooder until they are 8 weeks old.

Brooder Requirements
 Temperature - should be about 35°C in the 15th week and reduced to 21°C by the 8th
week.
 Litter - wood shavings which are capable of absorbing 60% moisture without showing
wetness should be used.
 Space confinement - Done by use of hardboards which are about 25cm high and form a
circular space. A space of 1m2 for 25 chicks is required
 Feeders and waterers - should be enough for the chicks and evenly distributed in the
brooder.
 Ventilators - windows should be enough to allow proper air circulation but direct
draught should be avoided.

Types of Heaters in the Brooder

 Electric heaters - one ordinary bulb 100 watts can raise 30 chicks.
 One infrared bulb 240 watts can raise 100 chicks.
  Kerosene burners - Hurricane lamps can raise 100 chicks.
 Charcoal burners - these are specially made jikos with heat deflectors.

Brooder Management
Preparation Before Chicks Arrive
 Start 2-3 days before arrival.
 The brooder house should be cleaned to remove old litter and then disinfected.
 New litters 5-1Ocm high should be put in and covered with absorbent materials/news papers.
 Equipment should be cleaned, disinfected and tested to make sure that they are working.
 The brooder is lit about 6 hours before the chicks arrive.
 Feed and water should be placed into shallow containers.
 Brooder space should be confined with a hard board to prevent chicks straying far from the
source of heat.

Management After Arrival of the Chicks

 Chicks are placed in the brooder during the day to familiarize with the brooder.
 If chicks arrive stressed and weak they should be given glucose solution in the waterers.
 In case the heat source is charcoal burners they should be covered with wire mesh.
 Feed chicks with chick mash which is later mixed with growers mash as the chicks grow.
 Clean water should be provided and changed regularly.
 Constant attention should be given to the chicks for the first 2 weeks.
 Any vices should be checked and controlled.
 Any dead chicks should be removed as soon as seen.
 Ventilation should be used to control the temperature and humidity in the brooder.
 Constant disinfection is required at the entrance to avoid diseases.
 Brooder space should be increased as the chicks grow.
 Debeaking should be done at 10 days old.
 Vaccination against diseases such as Gumboro after 2 weeks, New Castle at 3-4 weeks and
fowl typhoid at 7 weeks.
 Dusting to control external parasites.
 Growers' mash should be introduced gradually at 7 weeks old.
 Chicks are removed from the brooder when they are 8 weeks old.
 On average the chick uses about 1.5kg - 2.2kg of chick mash by the time it is 8 weeks old.

Temperature Control in the Brooder

If the brooder temperatures are low the following should be done:
 Brooder space is reduced.
 Heaters are increased.
 Ventilators are closed.

If the brooder temperatures are too high the following should be done:
 Brooder space is increased.
 Heaters should be reduced.
 Ventilators should be opened.
Management of the Growers
 The growers are birds at the age of 9 weeks to the point of lay that is at 18 weeks.
 Growers should be fed on growers' mash.
 By this time the growers should be occupying the main poultry house.
 Sick birds should be isolated and treated.
 A foot bath for constant disinfection should be placed at the entrance.
 Each bird is fed 115 gms per day of growers' mash.
 Greens and soluble grit should also be provided.
 Clean water should be provided all the time (adilibitum).
 Drenching against internal parasites should be done by adding a dewormer into the water.
 Vermins should be controlled.
 Litter should be kept dry by turning.
 Vaccination should be done as required.
 Layer pullets require dimly lit house.

Management of the Layers

 Layers' mash should be introduced at 18 weeks and increased gradually.
 The birds start laying at 18-21 weeks.
 The birds should be vaccinated against New Castle and fowl typhoid.
 Enough floor space roosts, feeders and waterers should be provided.
 Each hen should be given 120gms per day of layers' mash.
 Clean water should be provided adlibitum.
 Eggs should be collected twice a day at noon and in the evening.
 Green leaves should be provided to keep the birds busy thus preventing cannibalism and
improve the yellow colour of the yolk.
 Grains should be given in addition to the layers' mash at the rate of 65gms per bird per day.
 Soluble grit or oyster shells should be provided at all times for efficient digestion and strong
shelled eggs.
 Layers should be fed according to their body weight and the rate of egg production for
example a 70kg bag should feed 100 layers for 4-5 days.
 Enough laying nests should be provided at least 1 per 5 layers.
 The laying boxes should be dimly lit to reduce egg eating.
 Debeaking should be done when necessary.
 Broken eggs and dead birds should be disposed off properly.
 The non-layers and cannibals should be culled.

Management of Broilers
 Broilers are table birds kept for meat production.
 They have high growth rates or high feed conversion ratio.
 The objective is to produce a kilogram of quality poultry meat from less than two kg of
broiler feed.
 The broiler chick requires special broiler feed from day old to 4 weeks of age.
 Broiler starters' mash or crumbs should be fed.
 This contains coccidiostat, high level of protein, vitamins and trace elements for early
growth.
 From 4 weeks to 8 weeks they are given broiler follow-on mash or pellets.
 This feed contains high level of metabolisable energy to ensure a good cover of subcutaneous
fat in the finished broiler.
 From 8 weeks until slaughter finisher pellets should be given to increase the size.
 Adequate clean water should be provided at all times (adlibitum).
 High level of hygiene should be maintained to reduce mortality rate.
 Birds should be dusted with appropriate pesticides to control external parasites.
 Deworming should be done routinely.
 Vaccination against common diseases should be done.
 Dead birds should be disposed off properly.
 Broilers should be kept under deep litter system, the house should be well ventilated and well
lit.

Poultry Rearing Systems

 extensive,  semi intensive  intensive systems.

The Extensive Systems

Free Range
 Birds are set free throughout the day to fend for themselves.
 Birds are confined in night shelters for the night.
 There is no supplementation.

Advantages
 Birds eat insects and green leaves therefore less feed is required.
 Cheap method.
 Cannibalism and egg eating are reduced since the birds are not crowded.
 Manure is evenly spread in the runs.
 Low labour requirement.
 Birds get plenty of exercises thus helping to keep in good health.
 No need to provide grit as birds pick it from the soil.

Disadvantages
 More land is required if a farmer wants to rear many birds.
 Birds can be stolen or eaten by predators.
 Eggs get lost in the vegetation or stolen.
 Eggs get dirty.
 Difficult to determine layers from non-layers.
 Birds get easily infected with diseases and parasites of the area.
 Breeding programme is not easy to follow.
 Birds can destroy crops where perimeter fencing is not constructed.
 Low productivity per unit area.

Semi-Intensive
Fold System
Birds are confined in small portable structures called folds.

Advantages
 Manure is evenly spread in the field.
 Less feed is used because birds eat grass.
 Reduces build up of parasites and diseases since the fold is moved often.
 Birds are protected from predators.

Disadvantages
 Few birds are kept per fold.
 It is laborious since the folds are moved from one place to the other.
 Individual egg production record is difficult to keep.
 The fold does not last long because of
 high frequency of handling.
 The return per unit area of land is low.

Intensive System
Deep Litter System
Birds are confined in a house throughout their life.

Advantages
 High stocking rate per unit area of land.
 Low labour requirement.
 Fast accumulation of manure.
 There is control of feeding, egg production and movement of birds.
 Safety of the birds is guaranteed from predators.
 No loss of eggs.
 Useful method when rearing breeding stock.
 Regular cleaning of the house is not necessary since the litter absorbs the droppings.
 Easy collection of eggs.

Disadvantages
 High incidence of cannibalism like egg eating, feather plucking and toe pecking.
 Pests and disease causing organisms accumulate in the litter.
 Individual records of the birds are not possible.
 May be difficult to find litter.
 Eggs become dirty if laid on the floor.
 Feeders and waterers may be contaminated by the litter.
 The system encourages broodiness in hens.
 High infestation of diseases if the management is below standard.
 If there is a disease outbreak, it can spread very quickly throughout the house due to the
communal housing.
 High cost of building deep litter house.

Battery Cage System

Birds are confined in cages which are placed in the poultry house.
The cages are made of wire mesh

Advantages
 Records are easily kept therefore culling is easy.
 Birds do not become broody.
 More eggs are collected due to restricted movement of the hens and complete control of egg
eating.
 Tender meat is obtained from the culls because the muscles have not been toughened much.
 Handling is easier than in the other systems and individual attention to hens is given.
 Stocking rate is very high.
 Vices are greatly reduced.
 Eggs are clean because hens do not step on them.
 The system can easily be mechanised.
 Birds do not contaminate the food and water.
 Sick birds can be detected easily and isolated for treatment.
 Wire floors prevent re-infestation of parasitic worms and coccidiosis.
 No bullying during feeding.
 Low labour requirement.

Disadvantages
 Initial costs for cages, equipment and house are excessively high.
 Requires high level of management.
 Higher maintenance costs where automation is used.
 Birds may get fatigue due to lack of exercises thus lowering productivity.
 In case of disease outbreak, spreading is very fast.
 Birds develop bruises on combs, breasts and toes as they stick their necks out-to feed and
walk in the cages.
 Not useful when rearing breeding stock and the rearing of broilers.
 Cannot be used for brooding young chicks.

Stress and Vices in Chicken

Stress is a condition imposed on the birds making them disturbed and uncomfortable.

Cause of Stress in Poultry

 Sudden changes in routine management.
 Presence of strangers in the poultry house.
 Presence of animals and vermins.
 Too much noise.
 Constant and poor handling.
 Sudden weather changes.
 Disturbance of the pecking order.
 Overcrowding
 Poor hygiene.
 Disease and pest attack.
 Lack of food and water.

Control of Stress
 Poultry house should be kept quiet and constructed away from noise.
 Poultry house should be insulated to maintain constant temperatures.
 Parasites and diseases should be controlled.
 Change in routine management should be gradual.
 Enough feed and water should be provided.

Vices
 Feather pecking.  Cannibalism (toe and  Egg eating.
vent pecking).

Pecking and Cannibalism

Situation where birds peck at each other resulting in death or injury.

Effects:
 Feather and body growth rate IS reduced.
 Loss of birds due to death may result from cannibalism.
 Culling rate is increased (economic loss).
 The appearance of the carcass is spoiled thereby reducing its market value.

Causes of Cannibalism
 Overcrowding in the house.  Idleness of the birds.
 High temperatures in the poultry house  Greediness of the birds.
making the birds uncomfortable.  Disturbances of the pecking order.
 Too bright light.  Prolapses of the rectum which occurs
 External parasite infestation. once in a while.
 Inadequate and incorrect feeding.  Bright light in the lying boxes.

Preventive Measures
 Ample spacing should be provided on the floor, feeders, waterers and laying boxes.
 Overheating should be avoided during brooding.
 The house should be dimly lit for the layers.
 Laying nests should be darkened and above the ground.
 Dusting should be done to control external parasites.
 Provide enough balanced ration.
 Birds should be kept busy.
 New/strange birds should not be allowed in the house.

Egg Eating
A vice influenced by the following:
 Presence of broken or soft shelled eggs.
 Idleness of the birds.
 Inadequate laying nests.
 Mineral deficiencies.
 Bright light in the laying nests.
 Greediness of the birds.

Preventive Measures
 Eggs should be collected regularly.
 Laying boxes raised above the ground.
 Laying boxes should be darkened.
 Birds should be given balanced ration.
 Debeaking should be done as need be.
 Birds should be kept busy with greens.
 Birds should be kept according to age groups.
 Injured birds should be isolated and treated.

Marketing of Poultry Products

Poultry products include eggs and meat.

Marketing of Eggs
Eggs are delicate and perishable foods and have the highest value when fresh.

The factors considered when sorting out and grading eggs for the market include:
 Size/weight of the egg - large eggs fetch high prices than small ones.
 Shape of the egg - The normal egg shape is oval, with a broad end and a narrow end.
 Cleanliness - Consumers prefer clean eggs.
 Colour of the shell - Brown eggs are popular with the consumers.
 Candling qualities - candling is done to determine freshness of the eggs and presence of any
other egg abnormalities.
 Shell texture - should be smooth and without cracks.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION VI (CATTLE)

Raising of Young· Stock.

The young one of cattle is known as a calf.

Feeding Dairy Calves

Newborn calves should be given colostrums within the first 3-5 days of their life.

Colostrum is important for the following reasons:

 It is highly digestible.  It serves as a laxative.
 It contains antibiotics.  It is highly palatable
 It is highly nutritious.
Natural Method
In this method, calves suckle the mother directly.
Advantages
 The calf takes milk at body temperature.
 The milk is free from contaminants.
 Less problems of scouring.

Disadvantages
 Underfeeding of the calf may result.
 Cows may not let down milk in case the calf dies.
 Difficult to keep accurate production records.

Artificial/Bucket Feeding
The calf is trained to feed from the bucket immediately after birth.

The calf is trained as follows:

 Well measured milk is put in a clean bucket.
 Index finger is inserted into the mouth of the calf.
 The head of the calf is lowered slowly into the bucket until the calf starts to drink the milk.
 The finger is withdrawn slowly as the calf continues to drink from the bucket.
 The procedure is repeated until the calf gets used to the process.

Advantages
 Easy to keep accurate production record/milk yields of the cow.
 Possible to regulate the amount of milk given to the calf
 The cow does not need the presence of the calf in order to let down milk
 Easy to maintain high hygiene standards.

Disadvantages
 Laborious
 Calf may be given cold milk
 Equipment used and the stockman may be dirty leading to scours

Preparation of artificial colostrums

Ingredients used
 A fresh egg whipped in 0.86 litres of warm water
 Litre of warm water
 One teaspoonful of cod liver oil
 One tablespoonful of castor oil
 Note; colostrums is fed to the calves three times a day for the first 4 days of life and
thereafter twice a day.

Weaning of calves
Early weaning
 Calf is fed on whole milk up to the tenth week then it is weaned
 Calf is given milk equal to 10% of its body weight up to the 8th week
 After 8th week, milk is reduced gradually by 1 kg until weaning
 Calf is given early weaning concentrates and soft forage

Late weaning
 Calf is fed on whole milk up to the 3rd week, when milk is replaced gradually with skim
milk.
 At the age of 3weeks the calf is introduced to calf pellets or pencils and green fodder.
 The calf is given plenty of clean water.
 The calf continues to be given additional skim milk up to the age of 14 weeks when
maximum amount of milk is given.
 Skim milk is reduced from 14 weeks to 16 weeks when weaning is done.

Rearing of replacement stock

The replacement stock includes young heifers and bulls which have been selected for breeding to
replace the old stock.

Management Practice the calf

 Parasite control-Spraying against external parasites and deworming against internal
parasites.
 Disease control-Calves are vaccinated routinely against diseases Castration - for male calves
not selected for breeding.

 Identification - Suitable methods are used. It allows proper record keeping.

 Removal of Extra Teats ;

 These teats are known as supernumerary teats which make milking of the animal difficult.
They are clipped off with teat clippers.
 Dehorning/Disbudding - The removal of horn buds using suitable methods.

Calf Housing should be;

 Requirement of a Calf Pen;
 Should be clean and easy to clean.
 Be warm and dry.
 Have adequate space to allow exercise and feeding.
 Should be properly lit and allow sunlight for Vitamin D.
 Have proper drainage to avoid dampness.
 Draught free to prevent chilling.
 Be well ventilated to allow fresh air.

Types of Pens
These can be;
 permanent
 mobile/movable.

Permanent Pens
 Have a solid floor raised above the ground.
 The floor should be slanted for drainage.
 Constructed near the milking parlour.

Mobile/Movable Pens
 Have an open floor to allow grass into the pen.
 Easily moved from one place to another to avoid soiling.
 Kept outdoors in the pastures to allow the calf to nibble on pastures.

Single Housing
 Calves should be housed singly up to the age of 3 weeks, when they are put in group pens.
 This is to avoid them licking each other and swallowing hairs which form indigestible balls.

MILK AND MILKING

Milk is the white lacteal substance secreted by the mammary glands of the female mammals.

Composition of Milk
Protein - Casein and whey.
Fat - Butter fat.
Carbohydrates - Lactose
Minerals - mainly calcium and phosphorus.
Water

Factors Affecting Milk Composition

 Age of the animal.
 Conditions of the animal.
 Stage of lactation and pregnancy.
 Completeness of milking.
 Type of breed.
 Season of the year.
 Type of food eaten.
 Physiological conditions such as diseases.

Milk Secretion and Milk Let-down

Milk is secreted by the mammary glands which is an accessory gland of the reproductive system.
The mammary gland of a cow is known as an udder.
Structure of the Udder
The udder is composed of the following parts:
 Alveolus cells - synthesize and secrete milk.
 Lobule - a group of alveolus cells.
 Lobe - Several lobules grouped together and drained by lactiferous ducts.
 Gland cistern - space where milk collects from the lobes.
 Teat cistern - A space where milk collects before emission.
 Teat -An organ which drains each quarter of the udder.

Milk Secretion
The process of milk secretion is known as lactogenesis.
The digested food is taken to the udder via blood vessels.
In the udder the nutrients are carried into the alveoli cells where metabolic reactions take place to
build up these nutrients into milk.
A hormone prolactine is secreted by pituitary gland which brings about lactogenesis.
The milk secreted is then stored in the upper parts of the udder waiting to be released.
Milk Let-Down
The process of milk let-down occurs naturally when the animal is stimulated.
Milk secreted moves from alveolar region through the ducts to the gland cistern.
Oxytocin, a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland causes the contraction of the udder muscles
forcing the milk down the teats.
Oxytocin hormone lasts 7 -10 minutes in the blood stream hence fast milking is important to
withdraw the milk.
Milk is withdrawn from the teats by gently squeezing them.

Factors Influencing Milk Let-Down

ii) Sight or smell of food in the feed trough

iii) Rattling sound of the buckets
iv) Sight of the milkman
v) Massaging or washing the udder with warm water
vi) Sight of the calf for cows used to suckling calves
vii) Suckling by the calf

Factors Inhibiting Milk Let-Down

i) Excitement or frightening of the cow.

ii) Hunger
iii) Change of milkman
iv) Change of the milking schedule
v) Effects of the oestrus
vi) Feeling of pain
vii) Strange surroundings

Clean Milk Production

Characteristics of clean and high quality milk
i. Free from disease causing organisms
ii. Has no hair, dirt or dust
iii. Has high keeping quality
iv. Has a good flavour
v. Its chemical composition is within the expected standards

Essentials of clean milk production

 Avoid flavours in milk-Milk should therefore be protected from sunlight and should be stored
in containers which are free from of traces of copper or iron
 Healthy milking herd. Cows should be tested regularly for milk borne diseases such as
tuberculosis and brucellosis.
 Clean milking cows. the whole udder should be washed and dried thoroughly before each
milking.
 Healthy and clean milkman. The milkman should keep his finger nails short and should have
his hair covered. He should preferably wear an overall when milking.
 Clean milking shed. The milking parlour should be kept clean.
 Clean milking utensils. The milking utensils and equipment should be seamless and smooth
to facilitate thorough cleaning.
 Milk filtration cooling and storage. Milk should be filtered and cooled to 50C after milking.

Milking materials and equipment

• Udder clothes/towels. Two towels should be provided for each cow, one for washing and the
other for drying.
Filtering pads. They are used for straining milk.
• Milking jelly. It is smeared on the teats after milking to prevent cracking. It should not be
applied before or during milking.
• Warm water. For washing the udder before milking. It also stimulates the milk let down
process.
• Milking pails/bucket. Should be made of materials that are free of copper and iron traces.
Strip cup. For detecting mastitis.
• Milk cans/churns. Used to hold milk during storage and transportation. Should also be made of
materials that are free of copper or iron on their surfaces.

Milking Procedure
 The animals are brought near the milking parlour 15-20 minutes before milking to get into
the mood of being milked.
 Milking materials such as equipment, feeds, ropes, stools and salve are collected and placed
near the milking parlour.
 The animals are allowed into the milking stall one by one as the milking proceeds .
 Milking proceeds by squeezing the teats with the full hand. If machine milking the teat cups
are placed on the teats.
 For hand milking start with the hindquarters and finish with the forequarters.
 Fast milking should take about 8 minutes then end with stripping the udder.
 The milk is weighed and recorded.
 The animal is then released.

Dry Cow Therapy

This is the infusion of antibiotics into the teat canal of a cow that is preparing for drying off.
It prevents bacterial infection which leads to mastitis.

Milk Products
 Pasteurized milk - milk that is heated and cooled immediately.
 Ultra Heat Treated (UHT) - milk heated to a temperature of 130-135C, packed and then
cooled.
 Butter - Milk butter fat separated by a process known as churning.
 Cream -A layer of is: that collects at the top of the milk when left to stand.
 Cheese - Milk proteins which have been compressed.
 Ghee - Milk fat made from heating cream or butter.
 Skim milk - Milk without butter fat.

Problems facing Dairy Farmers in Marketing Milk

1. Milk is highly perishable and so needs cold storage facilities which most farmers cannot
afford.
2. Transportation problems. Certain milk producing areas are in accessible due to poor road
network. This may delay milk delivery hence milk spoilage.
3. Special containers are required for handling of milk some of which are expensive.
4. Lack of market information on milk price and other existing marketing opportunities.
5. Price fluctuations
6. Delayed payments to farmers

FARM POWER AND MACHINERY

Farm power is any form of energy used in the farm to do work. .

SOURCES OF POWER IN THE FARM

a) Human Power

Advantages
i )Work in areas impossible for animals and tractor
ii )Cheap
iii) Available

Disadvantages
i)Power is limited to very light tasks.
ii) Quality of work produced is low / variable
iii )Slow
iv )Expensive in the long run.
V) Health of workers influences the work done.

b) Animal Power
Donkeys, Oxen, Camel

Uses
-Cultivation, Transportation, Planting etc.

Advantages
i) No skilled workers required.
ii)Cheaper to buy and maintain.
iii) Work output is higher than in human beings.
iv) Can work in areas impossible for tractors/ sloppy areas.
v) Work better on small holdings than tractors.

Disadvantages
i) Need a big portion of land for grazing.
ii)Slower than tractors.
iii) Cannot work on large land.
iv) Animals damage crops when used for weeding.
v) Get sick reducing work output.
Animals are harnessed singly or in pairs using a Yoke.

b) Wind Power
Uses
• Dry grains and fodder.
• Winnowing crop yields.
• Pumping water/ drive wind mills.
• Generate electricity.

Disadvantages
i)Unreliable e.g. direction.
ii) Strength is unreliable.
iii) Sometimes not available.
iv) Not easy to control.
v)Expensive to purchase a wind mill and its accessories.

d) Water Power
Source_ Running water.
Uses
• Ferrying logs in navigation rivers.
• Produce hydro-electric power.
• Operate different types of machines e.g. Maize grinding mills.
• Driving hydraulic pumps for pumping water for irrigation.

Disadvantages
i) Some rivers are small and seasonal.
ii)Expensive to harness the power.
iii) Some farms are not accessible to moving water.
iv)Difficult to use since not easy to control.

e) Biomass
Sources
-Biogas, Wood or charcoal.

F) Wood or charcoal
Sources____ Trees in form of fire wood and charcoal
Uses
• Cooking
• Heating
• Dehydrating some crops
• Curing of tobacco

Disadvantages
i)Exhaustible
iii) Not used directly in some farm operations
iv) Large quantities required
Iv) Bulky hence difficult to transport
v) Pollute the environment

ii) Biogas
Sources
Is a product produced when animal dung is fermented in a digester thereby producing a
flammable gas – methane.

Stages of methane production

Stage I: Animals digest insoluble organic substances by use of microbes to form waste (dung).
Stage II Microbes breakdown soluble substances in dung anaerobic ally in the digester.
Methane gas is produced.
Uses of Biogas
• Cooking
• Lighting
• Produce electricity
• Heating
• Boiling water
• Internal combustion engines

Biogas plant
Advantages of Biogas
I) Economical for farmers with zero grazing units.
ii) The effluent/ slurry provides fertilizer richer in Nitrogen than manure.
iii) Flies cannot breed.
iv) Unpleasant oduors are removed.
v) Minimal environmental pollution.
VI)Reduced deforestation.

Disadvantages of Biogas
i) Initial capital is high i.e. construction of Biogas digester is expensive.
ii) Requires high management skills to produce the gas.
iii) Requires a large number of animals to sustain gas production.
iv) Only possible where animals are under zero grazing units.

Electrical Power
It includes:
 hydro-electrical power (HEP),
 geothermal,
 nuclear
 power stored in batteries.

Uses of Electrical Power

 Runs stationary machines such as milling machines, grinding mills, cooling machines and
water pumps.
 Supplies heat and light for operations of brooders.

Disadvantages
 Cannot be used directly in some farm operations.
 Lack of electricity in the rural areas.
 Power failures can lead to high losses.
 It is costly to install and maintain.

Solar Energy
Energy obtained from the sun.

Uses
 Provides heat and light.
 Used by all the plants in photosynthesis.
 Dehydrating crops such as vegetables, maize grains, beans and hay.
 Boils water which drives turbines to produce power for minor uses.

Disadvantage
 Low concentration of energy on cloudy days.
 Expensive In collecting and concentrating equipment.
 Cannot be used directly in some farm operations.
 Requires skilled labour to install and maintain.

Tractor
The tractor has an internal combustion engine which burns petrol or diesel to produce power.
This power is then passed to the gear box from where it is transmitted in various ways.
The common tractor engine is a four stroke cycle engine.

The four strokes are:

 Induction stroke.
 Compression stroke.
 Power stroke.
 Exhaust stroke.

Induction Stroke
i) Piston moves down the cylinder
ii) Inlet valve open
iii) Exhaust valve is closed
iv) Fresh fuel and air gets into the cylinder.

Compression Stroke
i) Piston moves up the cylinder
ii) Inlet and outlet/ exhaust valves are closed
iii) Fresh fuel mixture is compressed into the combustion chamber.

Power Stroke
A spark is produced at spark plug, igniting the fuel-air mixture.
The increased pressure forces the piston down the cylinder.

Exhaust Stroke –
i) Inlet valve closed
ii) Exhaust valve open
iii) Piston moves up the cylinder
iv) Burned fuel mixture is eliminated through the open exhaust valve

Advantages of four stroke Engines

i) Produce high power and can do heavy farm work.
ii) Efficient fuel/ oil utilization.
iii) Perform a wide range of farm operations.
iv) Efficiently cooled by water thus allowing production of large engine sizes.
v) Exhaust gases are effectively expelled from the cylinder.

Disadvantages
 Are expensive to buy and maintain
 Their use is limited in some areas;
 Tractor can only be used on flat or gently sloping areas
 Require skilled personnel and support services

ii) The two stroke cycle engine

It is found in Mowers, Chain saws, Motor bikes and Water pumps.
The cycles are completed in 2 strokes of the piston.
There are no valves in the engine but three ports; Inlet, Transfer and Exhaust ports located in the
cylinder wall.

Induction and Compression stroke

i) The piston is at the bottom initially.
ii) Upward movement of the piston opens the inlet port.
iii) Air/ Fuel mixture is drawn in.
iv) The piston reaches the top and ignition occurs.
v) Piston is then forced downwards.
vi) Piston compresses the fuel mixture in the crank case.
b) Power and Exhaust stroke
i ) Piston is at the top initially
ii) Ignited gases cause a buildup of pressure in the combustion chamber forcing the piston
downwards.
iii) Piston covers the inlet port and traps fresh fuel mixture in the crank case.
iv) Further movement of the piston downwards uncovers the exhaust port.
v) Fuel mixture is transferred from the crank case into the combustion chamber through the open
transfer port.

Advantages of 2 stroke cycle Engines

i) Cheap to buy and easy to maintain.
ii) Economical in fuel consumption/ consumes less fuel.
iii) Can be used in a wide range of areas e.g hilly areas.
iv) Do small works in the farm uneconomical with 4 stroke cycle engines.

Disadvantages
i) Produce less power hence cannot be used for heavy duties.
ii) Inefficient in burning fuel to produce power.
iii) Air cooled hence limited engine sizes.

Systems of a Tractor
The modern tractor has the following systems:
 The fuel system.
 Electrical system
 Ignition system
 Cooling system
 Power transmission system.

The Fuel System

Supplies fuel to the engine.
Categorized into two types depending on the fuel used.
These are:
The petrol fuel system.
The diesel fuel system

The Petrol Fuel System

Consists of:
 Fuel tank - storage of fuel.
 Fuel filter - removes foreign particles from the fuel.
 Carburettor – atomises fuel into spray, introduces fuel-air mixture into the engines,
Regulates fuel-air into suitable proportions.
 Fuel pump - forces fuel into the carburettor.
 Delivery pipe - connects all the devices.

Maintenance
 Cleaning the carburettor regularly.
 Cleaning the fuel filter in petrol.
 Cleaning the hole in the fuel tank cap.

The Diesel Fuel System

Consists of:
 Fuel tank - storage of fuel.
 Fuel injection pump - pumps diesel through injection nozzles and breaks into fine spray.
 Fuel filters - remove foreign particles from the fuel.
 Delivery pipes - connect the various devices.

Maintenance
 Replacing the fuel filter.
 Bleeding in case air is trapped in the system.
 Cleaning the sediment bowl regularly.

Petrol engine Diesel engine

1. Has a carburetor. 1. Has an injection pump
2. Fuel air is mixed in carburetor before it 2. Fuel _air mixed within the cylinder
gets into the engine. 3. Fuel is ignited by compression of air_ fuel
3. Fuel is ignited by an electric spark. mixture in the cylinder.
4. Produces little smoke because petrol is 4. Produces a lot of smoke since diesel is not
completely burned. completely burned.
5. Engine is light in weight and suited for 5. Diesel Engine is heavy in weight and
light duties. suited for heavy duties.
6. Uses petrol as fuel. 6. Uses diesel as fuel.
7. Uses more fuel per unit distance. 7. Uses less fuel per unit distance.
8. No extra addition of air or fuel during the 8. Air is taken in before induction stroke thus
induction stroke thus air: fuel ratio is the ratio of Air: fuel is not constant.
constant. (15:1). 9. Has a sediment bowl..
9. Has no sediment bowl. 10. operational cost is low because of low
10. Operational cost is high because of high fuel
fuel consumption. Consumption
Electrical System
Consists of the following:
 Battery ; Converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Stores electrical energy produced
by the running
 Ignition circuit - provide the electrical required by the spark plugs.
 Generator circuit - provide the electrical current that starts the engine.
 Lighting circuit - supply the electrical current required for the lighting system.
 Starter motor circuit - starts the engine.

Care and Maintenance of a Tractor Battery

 The level of electrolyte should be kept just above the plate by topping with distilled water.
 Corroded terminals should be scrapped clean and smeared with grease.
 The battery should be tightly fixed in a box to avoid spillage and damage.
 The battery should be fitted correctly on the tractor.
 The battery should be charged regularly and periodically.
 In case of long storage the battery contents should be kept upside down.
 The generator fan belt should always be functional to ensure the battery is always charged.

Ignition System
Consists of:
 Ignition - change the low voltage from the battery to high voltage current required by the
spark plugs.
 Condenser - absorbs the self-induced current in the primary circuit.
 Distributor - distributes the high voltage current to the spark plugs.
 Contact breaker - Interrupts the normal flow of current in the primary circuit.

State the Maintenance practices carried on the Ignition System

 The carbon deposits on the spark plug electrodes should be removed.
 The spark plugs whose electrodes are worn out should be replaced.
 The contact breaker points should be cleaned.
 The breaker points should be adjusted so that they lie between O.30mm and 0.50mm.
 The condenser should be replaced regularly.
 The ignition systems should always be kept dry.
 Ignition wires with poor insulation should be replaced.

Cooling System
The cooling system aims at preventing the engine from overheating which would cause piston
zeisure in the cylinder.
Some tractor engines are cooled by air while others are cooled by water.

State the Characteristics of Air Cooled Engines

 They are simple in construction.
 They have fins and a fan blade which assists the circulation.
 They are light in weight for they have no radiators and water jackets.
Limitations
 They get hot quickly and use heavy lubricating oil.
 The cooling is not adequate under all conditions especially when carrying heavy loads.

Water Cooled Systems

It consists of the radiator, water jackets, water hoses, water pump, thermostat and a fanning
mechanism.
Water is used to absorb heat from the engine block at a reasonable rate.

Care and Maintenance of Water Cooling system

 The water pumps should be lubricated regularly.
 Clean water should be used in the radiator and trash removed from the fins.
 All pipes should be fitted tightly to avoid blockage.
 The radiator should be filled with clean water before starting the day's work.
 Fan belt tension should be checked regularly and if too tight or too loose should be adjusted
accordingly.

Lubrication System
This system is aimed at supplying oil to all parts of the engine where friction is likely to occur.

Importance of Lubrication system

 It helps to increase the efficiency of the machine and reduces the rate of wear and tear of
moving parts.
 It reduces the heat created by the rubbing surfaces and acts as a seal between them.
 It acts as a cleaning agent because it washes off all the dust, dirt, soot and metal chippings
from the oil paths to the sump.

Types of Lubrication Systems;

 Splash feed type  Force feed type  Oil mist type

Care and Maintenance of Lubrication Systems

 Old or contaminated oil should not be used for lubrication.
 Oil should be drained when still hot to avoid sticking on the walls of the sump.
 The oil filters should be replaced when necessary.
 The correct type of oil should be used as per the manufacturers' instructions.

Power Transmission System

The function of this system is to transfer power from the tractor engine to the drive shaft, the
wheel axle, the power take off shaft and the hydraulic system.
The system consists of the clutch, gear box, differential and the final drive.

The power transmitted from the engine is made available for use through the following:
 The propeller shaft - it connects the gear box to the differential.
 The power take off shaft (PTO shaft) -It is located at the rear part of the tractor and rotates
at the same speed as the crankshaft of the engine.
 Hydraulic system - it is operated by the use of a lever near the drivers seat.

Draw bar –
It is a one-point linkage at the rear part of the tractor.
It serves for the attachment of trailed implements that can be used during harrowing,
transportation or rolling.

Tractor Servicing
The aim of tractor servicing is to keep the tractor in good and efficient working conditions.
Tractor servicing is either;
short
long term.

List the Short Term Tractor Servicing

It includes:
 Checking the engine oil daily by use of a dip stick.
 If the oil level is low, it should be added.
 The fuel level should be checked at the start of every day's work and added if necessary.
 Water level in the radiator should be checked and if possible topped up.
 The level of the electrolyte should be checked daily and topped up with distilled water
accordingly.
 Nuts and bolts should be tightened every day.
 Lost nuts and bolts should be replaced before the day's work.
 Grease should be applied by use of grease gun through the nipples.
 Large sediments from the sediments bowl should be removed.
 The tyre pressure should be checked daily before the day's work.
 The fan belt tension should be checked to ensure that it deflects between 1.9cm and 2.5cm
when pushed.
 The brake shaft bearing should be greased.
 The brake fluid level is maintained at the recommended level.

Long Term Services

 The engine oil should be drained completely from the oil sump and replaced with new oil.
 The gear box oil should be checked and refilled as recommended.
 The oil in the differential should be replaced as recommended.
 The linkage and the pulley attachment should be greased.
 The pulley oil level should be checked and added if need be.
 The dirty oil should be removed and replaced with clean one.
Farm Machinery
Tractor Drawn Implements
These are implements which are attached to the tractor during operation.

State the two categories. Tractor Drawn Implements

i. One-point hitch implements ;
Are attached to the tractor at only one point that is, the draw bar.
They include all trailed implements such as the trailers, heavy harrows, planters and rollers.

ii. Three point hitch implements;

Are implements attached to the tractor at three points that is, the top linkage point and two
lower linkage points.
They are operated by the hydraulic system.
They include ploughs, most harrows, subsoiler, planters, mower, ridgers, sprayers and
rotavators.

Trailers
They are one-point hitch implements.
They are used for transportation of goods.
Small ones have two wheels while big ones have four wheels.

Maintenance
 All the moving parts should be lubricated.
 Tyre pressure should be adjusted to the correct pressure.
 Worn out tyres should be replaced.
 Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened, worn-out ones should be replaced.
 The implements should be kept under a shed during long storage.

Ploughs
They are primary tillage implements.
The common type of ploughs include:
Disc ploughs.
Mould board ploughs.

Disc ploughs
It is made up of heavy steel concave discs of 60-70cm diameter.
Parts and Functions of a disc plough
The hitchmast:
Is an attachment for the three point hitch.
Made up of two side links and a top link.
These are parts connected to hydraulic system of a tractor for lifting and pulling.
The beam: Supports all other parts. It also adds weight for better penetration.
Depth wheel:
Used when driving on highway,
it also controls the depth of ploughing.
May not be present in all disc ploughs.
The standard or leg: Connects the discs to the beam.
The hub: Allows the discs to rotate smoothly hence does the cutting of furrow slices.
The scrapers: Remove the trash and mud or soil which cling to the discs,
Disc blades: Cut and invert the furrow slices.
Rear furrow wheel: Controls the depth of digging and stabilises the discs.

Adjustment .
 The cutting angle should be adjusted at 35° - 50° from the I ine of travel.
 Achieved by pivoting the beam or the standard.
 Depth of digging: This is corrected by changing the height of depth wheel or adjusting
hydraulic system and adding weights.

Care and Maintenance of Disc Plough

 Check for loose nuts and bolts and replace them.
 Sharpen the disc blades if blunt.
 Lubricate the rotating parts by use of oil/grease to reduce friction.
 Paint the exposed parts for example the beam/framework.
 Clean the implement at the end of each day's work before storage.
 Store the implements in a shed.
 The unpainted parts should be coated with old engine oil to prevent rust.

Uses of a Disc Plough

Used in areas with the following conditions:
 Virgin land with many obstacles.
 Land with too much trash or tall vegetation.
 Opening up pasture land.

Mouldboard ploughs
This primary tillage implement is suited in areas without obstacles such as stones, tree stumps,
and roots.
It gives a uniform depth of ploughing.
Parts and Functions Mouldboard ploughs
 Share: This makes the horizontal cut and starts the turning of the furrow slices.
 Mouldboard: Continues the turning of the furrow slices and pulverizes the soil.
 Disc coulter: Makes a vertical cut in the soil to separate the furrow slice from the un-
ploughed land.
 Skim coulter: Removes any trash from between the furrow slices.
 Frog: It is the part where the share, mould board and the landside are attached.
 Landside: Stabilizes the plough and absorbs the side forces created when furrow is turned.
 Shin: Leading edge of a mouldboard.
 Knife coulter: Is a vertical knife which cuts trash and earth ahead of the share.

Care and Maintenance

 Lubricate the rolling parts for example wheel bearings and disc coulter bearings.
 Paint scratched parts of the plough.
 Sharpen the share or replace if worn out.
 Check all loose nuts and bolts and replace where necessary.
 Clean the implement after each day's work to remove soil, mud and trash.
 For long storage, keep under a shed and apply lubricants.
Adjustment
Depth:
Controlled by raising or lowering the depth wheel.
Controlled by hydraulic control lever setting.

Pitch: controlled by altering the length of the top link.

Front furrow width: Controlled by cross shaft adjustment lever or by rotating the cross shaft
crank.
Lateral levelling: Controlled by tractor lift rod.

Operational differences between a disc and a mouldboard

Disc Plough Mouldboard Plough
Suitable on field with stones, roots and stumps Cannot be used in areas with stones, stumps
and roots
Does not invert the furrows slices completely Inverts the furrow slices completely
More secondary operations are necessary after Few secondary operations are needed
has been used
Cuts at varying points Operates at uniform depth
Not easily broken by obstacles Can be easily broken by obstacles
Requires less power to operate Require more power to operate

Harrows
They are secondary cultivation implements.
There are different types of harrows.
The common ones are:
disc, Harrows spring tine Harrows spike tooth harrows.

Disc Harrows
It comprises of a set of gangs with concave discs.
Uses
 Mixing the soil particles.
 Levelling the seedbed by breaking large
 lumps of soil.
 Killing weeds.

Disk harrows can be classified according to the arrangement of the gangs such a;
 standem,  double tandem  offset tandem.

Depth Adjustment
 Adding weights on the harrows.
 Use of hydraulic force.
 Use of light or heavy harrows.
 Use of regulating wheels.
Care and Maintenance
 Check for loose nuts and bolts daily.
 Lubricate the shafts and bearings.
 Clean and oil before storage.

Spring Tine Harrow

Is made up of flat and curved tines which act as springs.

Uses
 Levels and smoothens the seedbed.
 Breaks the soil clods.
 Mixes trash and soil thus preventing wind erosion.
 Aerates the soil.

Adjustments
 Depth is controlled by the horizontal connecting link and depth wheel.
 For individual tine, use crossbar and loosening the screws.

Care and Maintenance

 Check for loose nuts and bolts and tighten them if necessary.
 Clean after use.
 Oil the lever mechanism.

Spike Tooth Harrows

Consists of a metal framework with rigid metal spikes which break up the soil by vigorously
hitting large lumps of soils as it is pulled through the soil.

Uses
 It smoothens and compacts the soil.
 It breaks big lumps of soil into small particles.
 Can be used for cultivating small crops if well set.

Subsoilers
 Heavy and require high horse power to pull.
 Ploughing depth of 51-90cm.

Functions
 Break up compacted soil.
 Break up the hardpan.

Care and Maintenance

 Clean it after use
 Check the point and if worn out, replace it.
 Oil when not in use.
Ridger
 It is double mould board plough used to make ridges and furrows.
 It is used to prevent water logging and draining through furrows for easy harvesting of root
crops.

Rollers
This is an equipment used to compact the soil gently especially where tiny seeds are to be
planted.

Rotavators: (Rotary cultivators)

 Work on the principles of high speed of revolving flail blades which beat and cut the soil
together with trash.
 It is an equipment for both primary and secondary tillage operations.
 It is driven by the P.T.O. shaft of a tractor.

Uses
 Breaks up large soil particles into small ones.
 Mixes the vegetation and the soil.
 Achieves two operations in one pass.

Adjustments
 Forward speed of the tractor gives a fine tilth of the seedbed done through the gearbox.
 Depth of work done by control of depth wheel.
 Slip clutch may break in case the knives come across obstructions

Mowers
Uses
 Cutting grass for hay or silage making,
 cutting overgrown grass
 clearing the field.

Reciprocating Mower
Parts and Functions
 Swath stick: Keeps the cut crop falling correctly.
 Swath board: To remove the cut crop.
 Shoe: Has a runner to absorb the weight and wear.
 Cutter bar: Is a flat bar which guides the fingers.
 Wear plate: Counteracts downward force and holds the knives.

Adjustments
 To adjust knife register by moving the whole bar away or towards the yoke.
 Knife lead: The outer shoe should be adjusted to be outer than the inner shoe by 4cm.
Maintenance
 Check for loose nuts and bolts and tighten where necessary.
 Keep knife section sharp.
 Lubricate the knife parts.
 Check knife to ledger plate cup for best cutting.
 Keep all the parts tight.

Rotary Mowers
 Cutting edge consists of two blades fitted opposite to each other on horizontal disc.
 The cutting blades swing round at high speed horizontally to the ground hence cutting is
effected.

Adjustment and Maintenance

 Blades should be sharp.
 Guards to be fitted around the blades to protect the operator from flying objects.
 Lubricate the P.T.O. shafts.
 Check the gear-box oil regularly and fill to the right level if necessary.

Planters
They are machines used for sowing seeds.
There are two types:
 Row crop planters.  Seed drills.

Functions of the Planters

 Meter the seed and fertilizers from seed and fertilizer hopper.
 Open the seed furrow.
 Deposit the seed in the furrow through the delivery tubes.
 Cover the seed

Functions of Parts of a Seed Plate

 Filler plate: gives proper seed depth.
 False ring: allows the seed to fall from the seed plate into the boot.
 Knockout pawl: pushes the seeds out of the cell by the roller action.
 Cut-off pawl: prevents more than one seed remaining in a plate cell.
 Cells: shaped holes to hold the seed.

Adjustments
 Adjust the coulters depth for the right crop.
 Fix the right seed plate.
 Place the planter in the level position.
 All the shafts should be free to turn.
Care and Maintenance
 Check all loose nuts, bolts and tighten them.
 Clean and oil the planter after use.
 Grease the drive sprockets regularly.

Seeders
The grain drill sows grains of wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans and alfalfa seeds.

Care and Maintenance

 Keep seed and fertilizer hoppers dry and clean after each day's work.
 Check the drive shaft and lubricate them.
 Paint the parts for example fertilizer
 hopper to be shiny

Combine Harvester
Use
Harvesting cereal crops for example maize, wheat and barley.

It is designed to do the following:

Cutting Winnowing
Threshing. Bagging

Parts of a Combine Harvester

 Cutter bar - cuts the grain head.
 Pick up reel- direct crop into the cutter bar,
 Elevator - channels the cut grain to the threshing drum.
 Winnowing ran - fans trash up onto a straw walker and directs it out of the combine
harvester.
 Delivery tube - delivers the clean .grains into a collecting tank from where it is bagged.

Maintenance of a Combine Harvester

 Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened.
 Remove all foreign materials stuck in the machine at the end of the day's work.

Ridgers
They are used for harvesting tuber crops and for making furrows or ridges.

Maintenance
 Lubricate the moving parts.
 Clean the implement after use.
 Store under a shed.
 Repair or replace worn-out or broken parts.
 Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened.
 Unpainted parts should be oiled during long storage.
 Shares should be sharpened if blunt.

Foragers
They are tractor mounted and operated by power from the P.T.O. shaft .
Used for harvesting forage crops such as Napier grass, sorghum and maize.

Maintenance
 Tighten loose nuts and bolts.
 Lubricate moving parts.
 Store in a shed.
 Clean after the day's work.
 Repair/replace worn out or broken parts.
 Unpainted parts should be oiled to prevent rust.

Maize Shellers
These are stationary implements which are either hand or tractor driven.
They consist of. a rotating disc which shell maize grains from cobs.

Maintenance
 Greasing moving parts.
 Removing any stuck maize cobs.
 Repair or replace worn out or broken parts.
 Store in a shed.

Animal Drawn Implements

Ox Plough
Ox-plough is a simple type of a mouldboard plough which is pulled by a pair of oxen, donkeys
or camels.
Explain the functions of the following parts of an ox-plough
 Main beam - It is the main component onto which all the other parts are attached.
 Mouldboard - It inverts the cut furrow slice upside down.
 Plough share -It cuts the furrow slices.
 Land wheel- It regulates the depth of plough.
 Draft rod - It is on this rod that a chain is connected on which a yoke is linked.

What are the Advantages of an Ox-Plough Over Tractor Drawn Plough ?

 Less skill is required to operate it.
 Useful where tractors cannot be used for example steep slopes.
 Cheap to buy and maintain.

What are the disadvantages of an Ox-Plough Over Tractor Drawn Plough ?

 Much time is wasted in training oxen.
 Tedious and laborious to the driver of the animals and the controller of the implement.
 Animals can be sick or in poor physical state.
 Extra land is required as grazing fields for the oxen.

Adjustments
Depth of plough is controlled by the land wheel and draft rod
Care and Maintenance
 Sharpen or replacing of the worn out share
 Replacement of worn out parts such as hooks and draw bar assembly.
 Oiling the shiny parts e.g mouldboard
 Wash off the soil after use.
 Paint the handles, beam and braces to prevent rusting.

Ox-Drawn Cart

Maintenance
 Moving parts should be oiled
 The yoke should be repaired when worn out or replaced if not repaired
 Tyre pressure should be checked and adjusted accordingly
 Repair other damages on the cart.