Biogeochemical

cycle

A biogeochemical cycle, or more generally a cycle of matter,[1] is the movement and

transformation of chemical elements and compounds between living organisms, the
atmosphere, and the Earth's crust. Major biogeochemical cycles include the carbon cycle, the
nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. In each cycle, the chemical element or molecule is
transformed and cycled by living organisms and through various geological forms and reservoirs,
including the atmosphere, the soil and the oceans. It can be thought of as the pathway by which a
chemical substance cycles (is turned over or moves through) the biotic compartment and the
abiotic compartments of Earth. The biotic compartment is the biosphere and the abiotic
compartments are the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.

For example, in the carbon cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants through
photosynthesis, which converts it into organic compounds that are used by organisms for energy
and growth. Carbon is then released back into the atmosphere through respiration and
decomposition. Additionally, carbon is stored in fossil fuels and is released into the atmosphere
through human activities such as burning fossil fuels. In the nitrogen cycle, atmospheric nitrogen
gas is converted by plants into usable forms such as ammonia and nitrates through the process
of nitrogen fixation. These compounds can be used by other organisms, and nitrogen is returned
to the atmosphere through denitrification and other processes. In the water cycle, the universal
solvent water evaporates from land and oceans to form clouds in the atmosphere, and then
precipitates back to different parts of the planet. Precipitation can seep into the ground and
become part of groundwater systems used by plants and other organisms, or can runoff the
surface to form lakes and rivers. Subterranean water can then seep into the ocean along with
river discharges, rich with dissolved and particulate organic matter and other nutrients.
There are biogeochemical cycles for many other elements, such as for oxygen, hydrogen,
phosphorus, calcium, iron, sulfur, mercury and selenium. There are also cycles for molecules,
such as water and silica. In addition there are macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle, and
human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In
some cycles there are geological reservoirs where substances can remain or be sequestered for
long periods of time.

Biogeochemical cycles involve the interaction of biological, geological, and chemical processes.
Biological processes include the influence of microorganisms, which are critical drivers of
biogeochemical cycling. Microorganisms have the ability to carry out wide ranges of metabolic
processes essential for the cycling of nutrients and chemicals throughout global ecosystems.
Without microorganisms many of these processes would not occur, with significant impact on
the functioning of land and ocean ecosystems and the planet's biogeochemical cycles as a
whole. Changes to cycles can impact human health. The cycles are interconnected and play
important roles regulating climate, supporting the growth of plants, phytoplankton and other
organisms, and maintaining the health of ecosystems generally. Human activities such as
burning fossil fuels and using large amounts of fertilizer can disrupt cycles, contributing to
climate change, pollution, and other environmental problems.

Overview

Generalized biogeochemical cycle[2]

 Simplified version of the nitrogen cycle

Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic molecules for
chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during the many transfers between trophic levels.
However, the matter that makes up living organisms is conserved and recycled. The six most
common elements associated with organic molecules — carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen,
phosphorus, and sulfur — take a variety of chemical forms and may exist for long periods in the
atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath the Earth's surface. Geologic processes, such as
weathering, erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of the continental plates, all play a role in
this recycling of materials. Because geology and chemistry have major roles in the study of this
process, the recycling of inorganic matter between living organisms and their environment is
called a biogeochemical cycle.[3]

The six aforementioned elements are used by organisms in a variety of ways. Hydrogen and
oxygen are found in water and organic molecules, both of which are essential to life. Carbon is
found in all organic molecules, whereas nitrogen is an important component of nucleic acids and
proteins. Phosphorus is used to make nucleic acids and the phospholipids that comprise
biological membranes. Sulfur is critical to the three-dimensional shape of proteins. The cycling of
these elements is interconnected. For example, the movement of water is critical for leaching
sulfur and phosphorus into rivers which can then flow into oceans. Minerals cycle through the
biosphere between the biotic and abiotic components and from one organism to another.[4]

Ecological systems (ecosystems) have many biogeochemical cycles operating as a part of the
system, for example, the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, etc. All chemical
elements occurring in organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles. In addition to being a part of
living organisms, these chemical elements also cycle through abiotic factors of ecosystems such
as water (hydrosphere), land (lithosphere), and/or the air (atmosphere).[5]

The living factors of the planet can be referred to collectively as the biosphere. All the nutrients —
such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur — used in ecosystems by living
organisms are a part of a closed system; therefore, these chemicals are recycled instead of being
lost and replenished constantly such as in an open system.[5]
The major parts of the biosphere are connected by the flow of chemical elements and
compounds in biogeochemical cycles. In many of these cycles, the biota plays an important role.
Matter from the Earth's interior is released by volcanoes. The atmosphere exchanges some
compounds and elements rapidly with the biota and oceans. Exchanges of materials between
rocks, soils, and the oceans are generally slower by comparison.[2]

The flow of energy in an ecosystem is an open system; the Sun constantly gives the planet energy
in the form of light while it is eventually used and lost in the form of heat throughout the trophic
levels of a food web. Carbon is used to make carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, the major
sources of food energy. These compounds are oxidized to release carbon dioxide, which can be
captured by plants to make organic compounds. The chemical reaction is powered by the light
energy of sunshine.

Sunlight is required to combine carbon with hydrogen and oxygen into an energy source, but
ecosystems in the deep sea, where no sunlight can penetrate, obtain energy from sulfur.
Hydrogen sulfide near hydrothermal vents can be utilized by organisms such as the giant tube
worm. In the sulfur cycle, sulfur can be forever recycled as a source of energy. Energy can be
released through the oxidation and reduction of sulfur compounds (e.g., oxidizing elemental
sulfur to sulfite and then to sulfate).
Examples of The oceanic
major whale pump
biogeochemic showing how
al processes whales cycle
nutrients
through the
ocean water
column
 The
implications of
shifts in the
global carbon
cycle due to
human activity
are concerning
scientists.[6]
Although the Earth constantly receives energy from the Sun, its chemical composition is
essentially fixed, as the additional matter is only occasionally added by meteorites. Because this
chemical composition is not replenished like energy, all processes that depend on these
chemicals must be recycled. These cycles include both the living biosphere and the nonliving
lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere.

Biogeochemical cycles can be contrasted with geochemical cycles. The latter deals only with
crustal and subcrustal reservoirs even though some process from both overlap.
Compartments

Atmosphere

Hydrosphere

Beach scene simultaneously showing the atmosphere (air),

hydrosphere (ocean) and lithosphere (ground)
 Some roles of marine organisms in biogeochemical cycling
in the Southern Ocean[7]

The global ocean covers more than 70% of the Earth's surface and is remarkably heterogeneous.
Marine productive areas, and coastal ecosystems comprise a minor fraction of the ocean in
terms of surface area, yet have an enormous impact on global biogeochemical cycles carried out
by microbial communities, which represent 90% of the ocean's biomass.[8] Work in recent years
has largely focused on cycling of carbon and macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and
silicate: other important elements such as sulfur or trace elements have been less studied,
reflecting associated technical and logistical issues.[9] Increasingly, these marine areas, and the
taxa that form their ecosystems, are subject to significant anthropogenic pressure, impacting
marine life and recycling of energy and nutrients.[10][11][12] A key example is that of cultural
eutrophication, where agricultural runoff leads to nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment of coastal
ecosystems, greatly increasing productivity resulting in algal blooms, deoxygenation of the water
column and seabed, and increased greenhouse gas emissions,[13] with direct local and global
impacts on nitrogen and carbon cycles. However, the runoff of organic matter from the mainland
to coastal ecosystems is just one of a series of pressing threats stressing microbial
communities due to global change. Climate change has also resulted in changes in the
cryosphere, as glaciers and permafrost melt, resulting in intensified marine stratification, while
shifts of the redox-state in different biomes are rapidly reshaping microbial assemblages at an
unprecedented rate.[14][15][16][17][9]

Global change is, therefore, affecting key processes including primary productivity, CO2 and N2
fixation, organic matter respiration/remineralization, and the sinking and burial deposition of
fixed CO2.[17] In addition to this, oceans are experiencing an acidification process, with a change
of ~0.1 pH units between the pre-industrial period and today, affecting carbonate/bicarbonate
buffer chemistry. In turn, acidification has been reported to impact planktonic communities,
principally through effects on calcifying taxa.[18] There is also evidence for shifts in the
production of key intermediary volatile products, some of which have marked greenhouse effects
(e.g., N2O and CH4, reviewed by Breitburg in 2018,[15] due to the increase in global temperature,
ocean stratification and deoxygenation, driving as much as 25 to 50% of nitrogen loss from the
ocean to the atmosphere in the so-called oxygen minimum zones[19] or anoxic marine zones,[20]
driven by microbial processes. Other products, that are typically toxic for the marine nekton,
including reduced sulfur species such as H2S, have a negative impact for marine resources like
fisheries and coastal aquaculture. While global change has accelerated, there has been a parallel
increase in awareness of the complexity of marine ecosystems, and especially the fundamental
role of microbes as drivers of ecosystem functioning.[16][9]

Lithosphere

Biosphere
Microorganisms drive much of the biogeochemical cycling in the earth system.[21][22]

Reservoirs
The chemicals are sometimes held for long periods of time in one place. This place is called a
reservoir, which, for example, includes such things as coal deposits that are storing carbon for a
long period of time.[23] When chemicals are held for only short periods of time, they are being
held in exchange pools. Examples of exchange pools include plants and animals.[23]

Plants and animals utilize carbon to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which can then be
used to build their internal structures or to obtain energy. Plants and animals temporarily use
carbon in their systems and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium. Generally,
reservoirs are abiotic factors whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a
relatively short time in plants and animals in comparison to coal deposits. The amount of time
that a chemical is held in one place is called its residence time or turnover time (also called the
renewal time or exit age).[23]
Box models

Basic one-box model

Box models are widely used to model biogeochemical systems.[24][25] Box models are simplified
versions of complex systems, reducing them to boxes (or storage reservoirs) for chemical
materials, linked by material fluxes (flows). Simple box models have a small number of boxes
with properties, such as volume, that do not change with time. The boxes are assumed to behave
as if they were mixed homogeneously.[25] These models are often used to derive analytical
formulas describing the dynamics and steady-state abundance of the chemical species involved.

The diagram at the right shows a basic one-box model. The reservoir contains the amount of
material M under consideration, as defined by chemical, physical or biological properties. The
source Q is the flux of material into the reservoir, and the sink S is the flux of material out of the
reservoir. The budget is the check and balance of the sources and sinks affecting material
turnover in a reservoir. The reservoir is in a steady state if Q = S, that is, if the sources balance the
sinks and there is no change over time.[25]

The residence or turnover time is the average time material spends resident in the reservoir. If the
reservoir is in a steady state, this is the same as the time it takes to fill or drain the reservoir.
Thus, if τ is the turnover time, then τ = M/S.[25] The equation describing the rate of change of
content in a reservoir is
When two or more reservoirs are connected, the material can be regarded as cycling between the
reservoirs, and there can be predictable patterns to the cyclic flow.[25] More complex multibox
models are usually solved using numerical techniques.

Simple three box model. Simplified

budget of ocean carbon flows[26]

Measurement units
Global biogeochemical box models usually measure:

reservoir masses in petagrams (Pg)

flow fluxes in petagrams per year

(Pg yr−1)

The diagram on the left shows a simplified budget of ocean carbon flows. It is composed of three
simple interconnected box models, one for the euphotic zone, one for the ocean interior or dark
ocean, and one for ocean sediments. In the euphotic zone, net phytoplankton production is about
50 Pg C each year. About 10 Pg is exported to the ocean interior while the other 40 Pg is respired.
Organic carbon degradation occurs as particles (marine snow) settle through the ocean interior.
Only 2 Pg eventually arrives at the seafloor, while the other 8 Pg is respired in the dark ocean. In
sediments, the time scale available for degradation increases by orders of magnitude with the
result that 90% of the organic carbon delivered is degraded and only 0.2 Pg C yr−1 is eventually
buried and transferred from the biosphere to the geosphere.[26]

More complex model with many interacting boxes. Export and burial rates of
terrestrial organic carbon in the ocean[27]

The diagram on the right shows a more complex model with many interacting boxes. Reservoir
masses here represents carbon stocks, measured in Pg C. Carbon exchange fluxes, measured in
Pg C yr−1, occur between the atmosphere and its two major sinks, the land and the ocean. The
black numbers and arrows indicate the reservoir mass and exchange fluxes estimated for the
year 1750, just before the Industrial Revolution. The red arrows (and associated numbers)
indicate the annual flux changes due to anthropogenic activities, averaged over the 2000–2009
time period. They represent how the carbon cycle has changed since 1750. Red numbers in the
reservoirs represent the cumulative changes in anthropogenic carbon since the start of the
Industrial Period, 1750–2011.[28][29][27]
Fast and slow cycles

The fast cycle operates through the biosphere, including

exchanges between land, atmosphere, and oceans. The
yellow numbers are natural fluxes of carbon in billions of
tons (gigatons) per year. Red are human contributions
and white are stored carbon.[30]

The slow cycle operates through rocks, including

volcanic and tectonic activity

There are fast and slow biogeochemical cycles. Fast cycle operate in the biosphere and slow
cycles operate in rocks. Fast or biological cycles can complete within years, moving substances
from atmosphere to biosphere, then back to the atmosphere. Slow or geological cycles can take
millions of years to complete, moving substances through the Earth's crust between rocks, soil,
ocean and atmosphere.[31]

As an example, the fast carbon cycle is illustrated in the diagram below on the left. This cycle
involves relatively short-term biogeochemical processes between the environment and living
organisms in the biosphere. It includes movements of carbon between the atmosphere and
terrestrial and marine ecosystems, as well as soils and seafloor sediments. The fast cycle
includes annual cycles involving photosynthesis and decadal cycles involving vegetative growth
and decomposition. The reactions of the fast carbon cycle to human activities will determine
many of the more immediate impacts of climate change.[32][33][34][35]

The slow cycle is illustrated in the diagram above on the right. It involves medium to long-term
geochemical processes belonging to the rock cycle. The exchange between the ocean and
atmosphere can take centuries, and the weathering of rocks can take millions of years. Carbon in
the ocean precipitates to the ocean floor where it can form sedimentary rock and be subducted
into the Earth's mantle. Mountain building processes result in the return of this geologic carbon
to the Earth's surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon is returned to the atmosphere
by degassing and to the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns to the ocean through the
hydrothermal emission of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million tonnes of
carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly
to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is less than one percent of the
carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.[31][32]

Deep cycles
The terrestrial subsurface is the largest reservoir of carbon on earth, containing 14–135 Pg of
carbon[36] and 2–19% of all biomass.[37] Microorganisms drive organic and inorganic compound
transformations in this environment and thereby control biogeochemical cycles. Current
knowledge of the microbial ecology of the subsurface is primarily based on 16S ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) gene sequences. Recent estimates show that <8% of 16S rRNA sequences in public
databases derive from subsurface organisms[38] and only a small fraction of those are
represented by genomes or isolates. Thus, there is remarkably little reliable information about
microbial metabolism in the subsurface. Further, little is known about how organisms in
subsurface ecosystems are metabolically interconnected. Some cultivation-based studies of
syntrophic consortia[39][40][41] and small-scale metagenomic analyses of natural
communities[42][43][44] suggest that organisms are linked via metabolic handoffs: the transfer of
redox reaction products of one organism to another. However, no complex environments have
been dissected completely enough to resolve the metabolic interaction networks that underpin
them. This restricts the ability of biogeochemical models to capture key aspects of the carbon
and other nutrient cycles.[45] New approaches such as genome-resolved metagenomics, an
approach that can yield a comprehensive set of draft and even complete genomes for organisms
without the requirement for laboratory isolation[42][46][47] have the potential to provide this critical
level of understanding of biogeochemical processes.[48]

Some examples
Some of the more well-known biogeochemical cycles are shown below:
Carbon Oxygen Nitrogen
cycle cycle cycle

Nutrient Phosphorus
cycle cycle
 Sulfur cycle Rock cycle Water cycle
Many biogeochemical cycles are currently being studied for the first time. Climate change and
human impacts are drastically changing the speed, intensity, and balance of these relatively
unknown cycles, which include:

the mercury cycle,[49] and

the human-caused cycle of PCBs.[50]
 Chloroplasts Kerogen Coal is a
conduct cycle[51][52] reservoir
photosynthe of carbon
sis in plant
cells and
other
eukaryotic
organisms.
Biogeochemical cycles always involve active equilibrium states: a balance in the cycling of the
element between compartments. However, overall balance may involve compartments
distributed on a global scale.

As biogeochemical cycles describe the movements of substances on the entire globe, the study
of these is inherently multidisciplinary. The carbon cycle may be related to research in ecology
and atmospheric sciences.[53] Biochemical dynamics would also be related to the fields of
geology and pedology.[54]
See also

Carbonate–silicate cycle Environment

portal
Ecological recycling
Ecology
Great Acceleration portal
Earth
Hydrogen cycle sciences
portal
Redox gradient

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