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▸ Health Sci Rep. 2024 Jan 7;7(1):e1788. doi: 10.1002/hsr2.1788

Impact of social media usage on academic performance of

university students: Mediating role of mental health under a
cross‐sectional study in Bangladesh
Rana Al Mosharrafa 1,✉, Taslima Akther 2, Fahimul Kader Siddique 3

▸ Author information ▸ Article notes ▸ Copyright and License information

PMCID: PMC10772351 PMID: 38192733

Abstract

Background and Aim

Social media is undeniably more accessible and more appreciated today. It is

undoubtedly one of the most crucial instruments for student communication. Mental
health status can also meaningfully influence the students at the higher levels of the
educational institutions. This study aims to evaluate the social media usage of
university students and its impact on academic performance and mental health.

Methods

To examine under confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) several scale measurements

were confirmed by justifying the validity and reliability of several necessary indices
and structural equation model. The mediation analysis was also estimated to evaluate
the students' Social media addiction (employed Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale)
under maximum likelihood estimation with 2000 bootstrapping and 95% bias‐
corrected bootstrap confidence intervals.

Results

This study shows that the usage of social media significantly improves academic
performance on psychological well‐being, with a Comparative Fit Index of 0.921 and
an RMSEA of 0.06 indicating a good fit of the CFA model. Finally, we exhibit a strong
statistically significant positive impact of social media usage on academic success, and
as supporting the hypothesis, the study observed a positive mediating role of mental
health between social media addiction and academic performance.

Conclusion

The present research investigations produced unique results, that is, online social
media enhances mental health and mediates the link between social media addiction
and academic performance in Bangladeshi students. This finding also add to the
empirical database on social media usage and have significant theoretical and practical
ramifications.

Keywords: academic performance, Bangladesh, facebook, mental health, social media

1. INTRODUCTION
Social media has become one of the most important platforms for communication in
recent years. On the other side, social networking enables users to easily communicate
data, files, pictures, and videos., as well as post blogs, send messages, and have in‐
person chats regardless of distance. Checking and scrolling through social media have
become common activities among all levels of people over the last decade. It is now
easier to access the internet through the robust development of information
technology. Social media dependence (SMD) is identified as a communicative reliance
or behavioral intention involved in social media, driven by an uncontrolled desire to
use social media, and allocating so much time and effort to social media that weakens
other important life areas. The desire to express oneself on social media lights up the
same part of the brain that activates while taking some addictive element. 1 It is also
found that there is an irrefutable connection between the usage of social media, bad
physical and mental health, and low self‐esteem, which has become more severe due
to the pandemic. 2 Another study from California State University reported that in
Bangladesh there were 45 million (27.2% of the total population) social media users in
January 2021 and the number increased by 9 million (25%) between 2020 and 2021.
Bangladeshi students are using different social media platforms to look for
information, promote and aid communication, share e‐learning, and so forth. There
have been few studies and viewpoints that have recognized four key benefits of using
social media in higher education. These include strengthening connections, boosting
the desire for learning, providing tailored course content, and nurturing teamwork. 3
However, extensive use of social media is causing youths to suffer from different kinds
of physical and mental disorders.

1.1. Literature review

Academic performance is a term used to describe a student's scholastic standings in

the classroom. There is a lot of debate on the medium of measurement tool of
students' scholastic ability. Though letter grade is widely accepted, it is loaded with
different shortcomings. When academic achievement is measured using uniform
assessments, the drawbacks can be minimized. Uniform testing would also eliminate
differences in measuring performances. 4 Grades and marks simply approximate
academic performance and are therefore a vast cry from the real thing. 5 Issues in
measuring academic performance also arise when attempting to forecast future
academic performance based on prior success as demonstrated by current
performance. 6 Furthermore, a lot of studies show that aspects of students' health,
such as nutritional issues, physical activity, financial condition, stress level, and social
support, have an impact on their academic performance and contribute to their overall
grade point average. 7 Many universities in Pakistan and other countries utilize the
Grade Point Average (GPA) system as a measure of student achievement. 8 University
officials, staff members, and students must identify and improve factors that could
lower barriers to reaching and maintaining the necessary GPA. 9 Many things could
prevent students from achieving and maintaining a high GPA that reflects their success
in the classroom during their time at the institution. These elements could include
stress, social interactions, work obligations, child care, and cognitive and learning
aspects. 10 The university staff may focus on these elements when creating ways to
enhance student learning and academic success. Students in higher education are
encouraged to engage in collaborative and research‐based activities through the use of
some social media, including blogs and, to some extent, Wikipedia. This open access
encourages participation, which can lead to chances for productive learning. Social
media enables educators and learners to collaborate, publish learning‐related content
(such as course materials, home assignments, test cases, and so forth), and solicit peer
feedback, which is related to the principle of collaborative development among
learners. The chance to adapt new ideas and modify their thinking through reflection
is one of the benefits that students receive from publishing and presenting their work
to a large audience through blogs, wikis, or podcasts.

Generally, addiction is defined as unchecked use of or doing something harmful.

Different schools of thought expressed that individuals as rational beings who can
critically judge to manage their lives. Addiction is a desire that controls one's mind and
stops or from using judgment. The Impact of technology involvement has become a
more and more important issue for all levels of conscious citizens. Much research has
been done on it, and it has become a global concern. For example, Xue et al. (2023)
stated in a study that widespread use of the internet had become a cause of mental
disorders. 11 Abuhassna et al. (2020) and Lau (2017) acknowledged that online
platform use for academic concerns rarely improved academic outcomes. 12 , 13
Additionally, there is a negative correlation between social media usage and academic
achievement, where self‐esteem possibly acts as a mediating factor. 14

Moreover, another study also states that social media multitasking negatively predicts
educational performance. 15 According to a survey done by Raisa (2018), 41.4% of
university students are highly inclined to use Facebook. 16 Griffiths & Mamun (2019)
identified that the risk of Facebook affection seems to be a crucial factor among
Bangladeshi students, and depression is one of the main combined factors. 17 There
are cross‐sectional studies in Bangladesh about the association between internet
obsession or problematic internet use and the mental health of school‐going
adolescents. 18 , 19 Extreme and unrestrained social media usage has received
substantial attention in recent years. 20

Using social networks has advantages and disadvantages. It has a profound impact on
how well students perform academically. The impacts of social networking use on
college student's accomplishment in the classroom were examined by researchers.
When the media is used excessively in a way that does not academically advance
learning or its process, they discovered a terrible effect and influence. 21 Other
academics have looked at this issue, but they have come to different conclusions on
whether there is a positive significant connection between students' use of social
networking and their academic achievement. 22 There is growing evidence that social
media can become problematic and have several commonalities with behavioral
afflictions such as gambling, gaming, loneliness, self‐esteem, depression, and so forth.
However, it is also evident that the students get more enthusiastic about their wide
learning environment by which they can achieve their higher academic standings and
maximize their potential.

1.2. Study hypothesis

It's imperative to consider different perspectives while discussing how social media
usage affects students. Since their level of commitment and the amount of time they
spend via web‐based media might meddle with their scholastic viability and different
parts of their lives. It is necessary to comprehend the causes, impacts, and way out of
social media attachment before becoming concerned about it. This study seeks to
ascertain the relationship between social media inclination and mental health status
among Bangladeshi university students, as well as how it will expedite the students'
academic performance. Hence, the following hypotheses will be proposed by this
investigation.

There is a statistically positive impact of Social Media usage on Mental Health.

There is a statistically positive influence of Mental Health on Academic

Performance.

Mental Health mediates positively between Social Media attachment and

Academic Performance.

As, in Bangladesh, little is known about university students' entanglement with social
media and how it affects mental health and academic records, the current study is
trying to probe social media addiction and its effects on the mental health and
academic records of Bangladeshi university students. This survey will enhance the
information on social media among the students of an emerging economy.

2. METHODOLOGY

The participants of this study were some specific university students in Bangladesh.
The data for this study was obtained from an online survey and offline survey
administered to university students in Bangladesh between July 1 and September 30,
2022. Hence, a non‐parametric sampling technique, convenience sampling was
executed in respect of accessibility within the timeframe. Overall 417 responses were
collected but omitted response error and response bias, finally, 380 (91.13%) were
collected for further investigation and thus, an effective response rate was achieved.
The data is analyzed using AMOS V24.0 to analyze the measurements and structural
relationships among the construction under investigation. Mental health is being
measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ‐9) used as a mediating variable
(Figure 1) that enables tracing the depression state of an individual, respectively. The
PHQ‐9 questionnaire is a nine‐item depression‐related scale that is capable of
diagnosing depression, measuring the severity of the condition, and assessing the
improvement of certain symptoms over time. The PHQ‐9 is a versatile tool that
typically evaluates a variety of depressive symptoms, such as sadness, loss of interest
in or enjoyment from activities, changes in appetite or weight, sleep problems, fatigue,
feelings of guilt or worthlessness, trouble concentrating, psychomotor agitation or
retardation, and thoughts of suicide or self‐harm. Due to the diversity of the student's
fields of study, classes, and universities, academic performance is assessed by self‐
reporting to the peers in each group. This study executed a covariance‐based
structural equation model (CB‐SEM) approach due to its usefulness and applicability
in executing the relationship between dependent, independent, and mediation analysis
under several constructs. To do this, data screening, reliability, and validity,
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for confronting scale measurement and validating
three variables, CB‐SEM for exhibiting the effect, and mediation analysis for
performing mediation analysis.

Figure 1.

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Empirical framework.

2.1. Variable description

For scale development, this study perceived others in follows, social media hang‐up is
used in terms of the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale, and its improved version, the
Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), is the most popular scale of social
media inclination. 23 , 24 The BSMAS scale had six items, each of which was rated on a
Likert scale from 1 (very seldom) to 5 (very often), with choices. The overall score was
in the range of 6 to 30, and the greater the total score, the more severe the indication
of social media. Secondly, The patient health questionnaire (PHQ‐9) with nine
questions was evaluated as a mental health questionnaire having nine items and asked
that mental health condition was estimated on tracking the state of depression
symptoms over the preceding 2 weeks with responses of; 0 = “not at all,” 1 = “several
days,” 2 = “more than half the days,” and 3 = “nearly every day.” 25 The item scores are
aggregated into a total score between 0 and 27 and maintained into an ordered scale
of measurement that indicates the severity of depressive symptoms: 0–4 = “none,” 5–9
= “mild,” 10–14 = “moderate,” 15–19 = “moderately‐severe,” and 20–27 = “severe.” A
score having 10 or above was considered as having symptoms of Major Depressive
Disorder. 25 Finally, it assessed the academic performance of the students following the
recent study. 26 Academic performance is characterized as a student's ability to
complete academic activities and assess their performance across a variety of
disciplines by using quantifiable metrics like final course grades and grading point
averages. 27 , 28 The Internet become an integral part of their academic life and
Facebook along with other social media are also significant components of their daily
life. 29 Access to the internet helps students get knowledge of the wider scope of
resources, and improve their capabilities and skills for studies, assignments,
presentations, and so forth. 30

2.2. Data

The current study worked on the goal of the nexus of social media dependence and
academic performance under the mediating role of mental health. To deal with this,
several scales for these three pillars were assessed. Firstly, social media attachment
was assessed by employing the BSMAS, 24 Mental health was assessed by the most
popular scale as it serves as a versatile tool for depression screening, diagnosis,
monitoring, and severity measurement. Finally, academic performance was assessed
by recent scholars. 26 Data from this study was collected from online and printed
questionnaires from different disciplines in different universities in Bangladesh. The
data was collected during the COVID‐19 pandemic which started July 1, 2022 and
ended on September 30, 2022. Out of 417 responses, 380 responses were considered
for our investigation and 37 responses were omitted due to response error and
response bias. The demographic profiles and further information were exhibited in the
Appendix. In the demographic profile, out of 360 students, 228 (60%) were male and
234 (61.6%) were aged between 21 and 25 years. In the educational discipline, the
Accounting information system (AIS) holds the highest possession, 150 (39.5%)
whereas management 85 (22.4%), finance and banking 73 (19.2%), and the rest posit
marketing and management information systems respectively.

2.3. Data validation and reliability

For data validation, there needs some criteria for following traditional validity and
reliability for scale measurement and construct development. Firstly, internal
consistency and measure of reliability are assessed under Cronbach's alpha. 31 The
threshold or acceptance criteria are different for different scholars. As Hair et al.
(2010) mentioned the cut‐off level is 0.70 and a value as low as 0.60 is acceptable for
exploratory research while George and Mallery (2003) mentioned 0.7 – Acceptable,
but ≥0.6–Questionable. 32 , 33 This study observed 0.851–0.906 respectively. Construct
validity (i.e., convergent validity and discriminant validity) is before CFA assessment.
This validity is the ‘extent to which a set of measured items reflects the theoretical
latent construct the items are designed to measure’. 34 In convergent validity,
convergent validity, two major criteria were examined‐composite reliability (CR) and
average variance extracted (AVE). 35 AVE > 0.5 and CR > 0.7 indicate adequate
convergence or internal consistency. 34 Both criteria are fulfilled in this study.

2.4. Confirmatory factor analysis

According to Brown (2015), CFA is a subset of structural equation modeling (SEM)

that focuses on the links between observed measurements or indicators (such as test
items, test results, or behavioral observation ratings) and latent variables or factors. 36
CFA is now among the statistical techniques that are most frequently employed in
practical research. This is because CFA is ideal for dealing with the kinds of queries
that researchers frequently pose.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The perspective taken in the research result focuses on evaluating data quality through
measures of reliability and validity. Internal consistency is assessed using Cronbach's
alpha, with obtained values exceeding acceptable thresholds, indicating high reliability.
Construct validity is confirmed through criteria like Composite Reliability and Average
Variance Extracted, meeting established benchmarks, ensuring the accuracy and
consistency of measurements in the study.

In Table 1, the basic statistics along with several model indices related to the
measurement of scale were shown. Out of 19 variables, the average ranges between
0.55 (PHQ9: Feelings that it would be better for you to harm yourself or die) to 3.45
(BSMA6: I use social media so much that it has harmed my studies) respectively. The
skewness and kurtosis of all variables did not crisscross the threshold level ‐2 to +2,
hence, there is no issue of outliers or extreme values. 32 According to normal data has
kurtosis between −7 and +7 and skewness between −2 and +2. Moreover, as the
sample size is greater than 200, there is no chance of impact on the Skewness and
Kurtosis deviations from normality. 37 Hence, there is no missing value issue and
overall data screening is performed well.

Table 1.

Basic statistics with study variables under three constructs.

Constructs Mean Median SD Skewness Kurtosis Min. Max.

Bergen Social BSMAS1 3.35 3 1.135 0.148 −1.392 2 5

Media
BSMAS2 3.39 3 1.154 0.105 −1.437 2 5
Addiction
Scale BSMAS3 3.42 3 1.107 0.062 −1.337 2 5

(BSMAS) (α = BSMAS4 3.41 3 1.123 0.098 −1.365 2 5

0.906, AVE =
BSMAS5 3.4 3 1.157 0.111 −1.438 2 5
0.623, CR =
0.907) BSMAS6 3.45 3 0.884 0.348 −0.641 2 5

Patient PHQ1 0.99 1 0.721 0.734 0.987 0 3

health PHQ2 0.94 1 0.871 0.781 0.056 0 3
questionnaire
PHQ3 1.18 1 0.924 0.403 −0.661 0 3
(PHQ‐9) (α =
Constructs Mean Median SD Skewness Kurtosis Min. Max.

0.851, AVE = PHQ4 1.01 1 1.045 0.523 −1.064 0 3

0.541, CR = PHQ5 1.1 1 0.918 0.485 −0.587 0 3

0.855) PHQ6 0.87 1 0.884 0.918 0.24 0 3

PHQ7 0.74 1 0.854 0.95 0.119 0 3

PHQ8 0.76 1 0.792 0.908 0.436 0 3

PHQ9 0.55 0 0.772 1.482 1.923 0 3

Academic AP1 2.93 3 1.301 −0.008 −1.069 1 5

performance
AP2 2.96 3 1.382 −0.028 −1.268 1 5
(α = 0.858,
AP3 2.96 3 1.351 0.032 −1.202 1 5
AVE = 0.603,
CR = 0.859) AP4 2.93 3 1.343 0.068 −1.115 1 5

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Note: α, AVE, and CR indicate Cronbach's alpha, average variance extracted, and composite
reliability respectively.

3.1. Discriminant validity

Discriminant validity is measured by comparing the shared variance (squared

correlation) between every pair of constructs against the average of the AVEs for these
two constructs. 38 To attain a suitable level of discriminant validity is done by
examining the square root of the AVE, which should be higher than the correlations
among the other variables. 35 This study observed similar findings by following the
threshold level. Additionally, another discriminant validity was studied with
Heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) ratio. It estimates the true correlation of any two
constructs if they are perfectly reliable and correctly measured. The HTMT criteria is a
measure of the real correlation between two constructs, assuming that the
measurements were accurate and trustworthy. 39 High HTMT levels suggest that the
discriminant validity may be compromised. Henseler et al. (2015) stated that an HTMT
score greater than 0.90 has a serious condition of scale as it indicates a lack of
discriminant validity and suggested that less than 0.85 is advised when the
conceptions are theoretically more different. 39 This study did not find any serious
issues as stated in Table 2.

Table 2.

Discriminant validity (Fornell & Larkcer discriminant validity and HTMT ratio discriminant
validity).

Fornell & Larkcer discriminant validity HTMT ratio discriminant validity

PHQ BSMAS AP PHQ BSMAS AP

PHQ 0.631 PHQ

BSMAS 0.343*** 0.789 BSMAS 0.355

AP 0.610*** 0.468*** 0.776 AP 0.613 0.467

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Note: *** indicates a strong level of statistical significance.

In the context of recent research on the development of a particular scale, CFA is used
to assess factor loading. This study performed both CFA and structural equation model
with maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) under 2000 bootstrapping and 95% bias‐
corrected bootstrap confidence intervals considered. The factor loading represents the
level of a particular construct with its regression paths. A satisfactory factor loading
value is more than 0.5. 32 For one indicator, it is deemed good when it is equal to or
greater than 0.7. This threshold is followed in Figure 2. Moreover, other measurement
model criteria are already discussed above.
Figure 2.

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Confirmatory factor analysis of three constructs.

3.2. Structural model and hypothesis testing

In the structural model, it's the pivot part of the test of the hypothesis to exhibit
interrelationship among constructs. 34 Figure 3 depicts the factor loadings with the
standardized effect of the constructs. The first hypothesis was to exhibit the role of
social media usage on psychological health and it came positive with a 1% level of
significance (β = 0.343, t‐statistic = 4.288, p< 0.001). Another hypothesis was to exhibit
the effect of mental health on academic performance and it also comes positive (β =
0.510, t‐statistic = 6.892, p < 0.001). The second hypothesis investigated the impact of
social media platforms on academic performance, and it was statistically significant
and had a favorable value, validating our proposition (β = 0.293, t‐statistic = 3.756, p <
0.001). Finally, all three hypotheses were supported and all the results stated above or
below were performed on two‐sided based t‐distribution.

Figure 3.
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Structural equation modeling of mental health, social media attachment, and academic
performance.

Using CFA, the study encountered 19 items under three constructs. The initial
construct is the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), and it has 6 items. The
psychological health assessment is defined in terms of PHQ‐9 having 9 items. Finally,
the outcome variable was assessed on academic performance as it contains 4 items.
Several fit indices were followed in case of justifying the fitness of CFA. There are three
fit categories to satisfy: absolute fit, incremental fit, and parsimonious fit. 40 According
to Hu & Bentler (1995), absolute fit indices determine how well the model fits the data
when covariance is observed. 41 Three statistics were investigated under the absolute
fit index: Chi‐square (2), goodness‐of‐fit (GFI), and root mean square error (RMSEA).
Second, incremental fit indices coincide with two tools: the Comparative Fit Index
(CFI) and the Normed Fit Index (NFI). The final tool parsimonious fit indices can be
restrained by normed chi‐square (χ2/df). The following table summarizes the
goodness of fit indices utilized in this research. All these criteria are illustrated in
Table 3 and fulfill the cut‐off of each point.

Table 3.
Path coefficients with model indices under structural equation model (SEM).

Path coefficients with direction Model fitness of statistics

Paths Coefficients SE t‐ Fit index statistic Recommended

statistic level

BSMAS → 0.343*** 0.080 4.288 Chi‐ 387.738, 149 Nonsignificant

PHQ square d.f.

PHQ → AP 0.510*** 0.074 6.892 Chi/d.f 2.602 <3

BSMAS → 0.293*** 0.078 3.756 RMSEA 0.06 <0.07

AP

GFI 0.923 >0.9

NFI 0.901 >0.9

CFI 0.921 >0.9

TLI 0.931 >0.9

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Note: *** indicates a strong level of statistical significance.

3.3. Mediation analysis

To explain the mediating role, we exhibit a single mediation analysis to establish a

hypothesized relationship among constructs. 34 We exhibit a single mediating effect
where patient health (PHQ‐9) is a mediating variable as a third hypothesis (Table 4).
Both direct and indirect effects exhibited significant output as it lies within a 95% bas‐
corrected confidence interval after 5000 bootstrapping. Under the proposition of
several scholars, the study observed a positive partial mediation of mental health
between social media usage and academic performance. 34 Hence, the third hypothesis
was supported.
Table 4.

Mediation analysis (test for mediation using a bootstrap analysis With a 95% Confidence
Interval).

Paths Total effect Direct effect Indirect effect p value Decision

BSMAS to AP 0.510** (0.446, 0.293*** (0.205, 0.175** (0.128, 0.015 Partial

via PHQ 0.597) 0.387) 0.216) mediation

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Note: **,*** indicates a strong level of statistical significance.

The study's limitations include potential sampling bias due to convenience sampling,
self‐reported academic performance subjectivity, and the influence of the COVID‐19
pandemic on the data. Specific scales may not fully capture social media dependence
and mental health complexity. Variability among students from different fields of study
also impacts the findings. These limitations underscore the need for cautious
interpretation and the potential for future research to address these challenges.

4. CONCLUSION

As university students engage in a range of social media activities daily, there are
growing worries about social media's possible harmful impacts on students' well‐
being. The influence of an informal attachment on a student hampers his psychosocial
well‐being and sense of belonging. However, restricting the amount of time students
spend on social media and scholastic attainment can improve students' potential and
cognitive abilities as well as their academic achievement. Our research findings have
shown that the usage of online social media has a positive impact on university
students' mental health in Bangladesh and it came with significant signs. Hence, the
first hypothesis was supported and the second one also does. Moreover, the mediating
role of mental health positively impacts social media addiction and academic
performance connection as it also came significant but in positive sign rather than
negative sign. The study also provides crucial warnings about the impacts of excessive
social media use on academic performance and mental health. As the epidemic has not
yet been completely eradicated, social media attachment and issues with student
mental health need to receive more attention. The verdict of our study highlights the
favorable effects of using social platforms on students' educational achievement,
including far‐reaching effects, and suggests that using social media in higher education
is generally advantageous for students. Furthermore, our findings imply that
policymakers and university stakeholders have to draw greater emphasis on the issues
of student mental health and social media affection. Unfortunately, a substantial
number of Bangladeshi university stakeholders do not offer their students mental
health support services at this challenging moment.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Rana Al Mosharrafa: Formal analysis; writing—original draft; writing—review and

editing. Taslima Akther: Supervision; writing—review and editing. Fahimul Kader
Siddique: Conceptualization; writing—review and editing.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare that all authors have read and approved the final version of the
manuscript. They also declare that the corresponding author has full access to all the
data in this study and takes full responsibility for the integrity of the data and the
accuracy of the data analysis.

ETHICS STATEMENT

The study protocol was approved by the Research Ethics Committee, University of Asia
Pacific, Dhaka, Bangladesh (UAP/REC/2021/108). The study was conducted following
the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. We also obtained informed
electronic consent from all the participants.
TRANSPARENCY STATEMENT

The lead author Rana Al Mosharrafa affirms that this manuscript is an honest,
accurate, and transparent account of the study being reported; that no important
aspects of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as
planned (and, if relevant, registered) have been explained.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are thankful to the participants for their cooperation in conducting this study. The
authors received no funding to conduct the study.

Mosharrafa RA, Akther T, Siddique FK. Impact of social media usage on academic
performance of university students: mediating role of mental health under a cross‐
sectional study in Bangladesh. Health Sci Rep. 2024;7:e1788. 10.1002/hsr2.1788

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding
author upon reasonable request.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary
materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding
author upon reasonable request.

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